Aporias of Security Author(s): Anthony Burke Reviewed work(s): Source: Alternatives: Global, Local, Political, Vol. 27, No.

1 (Jan.-Mar. 2002), pp. 1-27 Published by: Sage Publications, Inc. Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/40645035 . Accessed: 01/11/2011 00:29
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27 Alternatives (2002), 1-27

AporiasofSecurity
Burke* Anthony
whatwe are,butto is Maybethe [task]nowadays notto discover "doublewhat are.Wehaveto ... getridofthepolitical we refuse and individualization totalizabind,"whichis the simultaneous . tionof modernpowerstructures.. . The political, ethical,soto cial, philosophical problemof our daysis not to try liberate fromthe stateand fromthe state'sinstitutions, the individual the of the butto liberate bothfrom stateand from type indius which linkedto thestate. is vidualisation - MichelFoucault, "The Subjectand Power"

Whatdoes it mean to be secure?Should we even need to ask? is We we Surely know. knowthatsecurity one of the mostfundaof and mentalhumanneeds: an irrefutable guarantee safety welland order;of and possibility, economicassurance sociability being, is That security a unifearor hardship. without a lifelivedfreely citizens versalgood availableto all, and a solemnpledge between is and their leaders,to whomtheirpeople's security "the political and first theoverriding ofdomestic international policy goal duty," As pathbetween making. suchit has been able to tracea powerful a to subjectand world,stateand citizen, promisesimultaneously of life and insecurities everyday and to solution theinchoatefears the enormousspatial,cultural, economic,and geopoliticalcomone of moderIn remains ofgovernment. short, security plexities dreams. and moststubborn enduring nity's I However, believe that,more than ever,we do need to ask 5 whatsecuritywe whatitis to be secure.Surely no longerknow after end of the morethantenyears in thatPlatonicsense.Surely of Doctrine and thedestruction the after Clinton the theCold War, in disasters Indochina, humanitarian policy and after TwinTowers, and the East America, after Africa, Timor, MiddleEast,and Central has questioned and ofhumanist critical a growing scholarship body
of St. Scienceand International *SchoolofPolitical Studies, UniversityQueensland, E-mail: Lucia,QLD 4076,Australia. anthony.burke@mailbox.uq.edu.au.

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discursive and sestructure, political security's unity, implications, no longer a wholeness.1 article This curity possesses credible begins from premise the thatsecurity's claimsto universality wholeand nessfounder a destructive on seriesofaporias, whichderive firstly from growing the sensethat no has security longer a stablereferent nor set or of object, namesa common ofneeds,means, ways being, and secondly, from moralrelativism lies at the centerof the that dominant of that to (realist)discourses security pretend universalbut that"our"security rests the insecurity on and ity insist always of suffering an-other. Whilethisarticle that has arguesstrongly security no essential it ontological integrity,also arguesthatifthepowerand sweepof are and its security to be understood challenged, claimsto univermustbe takenseriously. and animatesweepsality Theyunderpin of force,and economiccirculation ing forms power, subjectivity, and cannotbe dismissed of hand. Nor,in the handsof some out humanist writerswhohavesought think to humanand gendersein to curity radicalcounterpoint realist imagesof nationaland in- are suchclaimsalways ternational security pernicious. Theyhave a valuablemoraland political forcethatundermines, perhapsunthelogocentric of the realist discourses wittingly, presuppositions Yeta commonassumption thatsecurity be oncan they question. tologically completedand secureddoes presenta hurdleforthe kindof "ontopolitical" that really we need.2 critique The answer notto seekto closeout theseaporias;they to is call us and theirexistencepresents important an politicalopening. Rather thanseekto resecure to to security, makeit conform a new humanist ideal however laudable we need to challengesecurity as a claimto truth, set its "meaning" to aside. Instead,we should focuson security a pervasive complexsystem political, as and of sowhichreachesfromthe mostprivate cial, and economicpower, and conflicts geopolitics of and spaces of being to the vastflows economiccirculation. is to see security an interlocking It as global of and system knowledges, representations, practices, institutional forms thatimagine, and act upon bodies,spaces,and flows direct, in certain not value but as a ways to see security as an essential Thisis to movefrom essenceto genealogy: gea political technology. thataims,in William to words, "open us up to nealogy Connolly's the play of possibility the present... [to] incitecriticalrein violencesand injuriessurreptitiously imsponsesto unnecessary lifebytheinsistence prevailing that forms natural, are posed upon universal necessary."3 or rational, This articleexploresthe aporiasof security. thenbegins And thework itsgenealogy a genealogy security's of of and conceptual

Burke 3 Anthony

rootsthataimsto uncover, itscrucialpointsofformaat discursive drama of tion,the order of knowledge lyingbeneath security's violence,and metaphor in the hope that struggle, technology, thisorderof knowledge can in turnbe challenged,altered,and It serethought. is to ask: Is theresomething beyondor "outside" its and be? Whatmight possibilities dangers curity? Two Kinds of Aporia In bothitsrealist and humanist takestheform and security guises, of a metaphysical discourse:an overarching politicalgoal promise that and practice thatguarantees existence itself, makesthepossiBill of the bility theworldpossible.US President Clinton prefaced that"protecting se1997 NationalSecurity the Strategy saying by and of curity our nation our people, our territory our wayof Dr. life is my foremost mission constitutional and duty." Mahathir has is of Mohamad, Malaysia, arguedthat"national security insepeconomic success and social hararable frompoliticalstability, In Australian Labor leader Paul Keatingarmony." 1995,former that"a primeminister's his is duty, first duty, to the security gued of his country," while his successorKim Beazley declared the and and central valuesas "security opportunity" elevated separty's a seamless continto an overarching thatlinked, curity goal along of and families withthe uum, the personal security individuals of the nationitself.4 Indonesia,security a fundaIn was security mentalsocietaldiscourse duringtheentiretenureof the Soharto on in NewOrder, and ithas taken onlygreater urgency theturmoil In Indonesia'sdoctrinal thataccompanied retreat his from power. continuum betweennationaland regional "resilience," security of of linkstheunity and prosperity the nationto ideal systems reorder.5 and international gional R. theorist N. Berkiarguesthat Indeed,theEuropeanpolitical is the ultimate overriding and humanvalue,thebasic consecurity is value for dition lifeand freedom: for "Security the paramount individuals . . notjust an exter. self-conscious, rational, thinking nal (and therefore optional) conditionof lifeand freedombut anotherwordforlifeand freedom."6 More critically, the simply the critical scholar MichaelDillonrecognizes samedrive: "Security as condition [es] thought a self-evident impress itself upon political forthevery existence life bothindividual social."7 B. J. of and R. define thatmodernaccountsof security Walkerlikewise argues as "theconditions underwhich havebeen constructed subjects we subjectto subjection. Theytellus whowe mustbe."8

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to Even a positionadmirably antithetical thatof Berkiand in otherrealists, setout by AnnTickner her 1992book Gender as J. in International of Relations, acceptsthat"theachievement security has always of been central thenormative to concerns international relations scholars." Her workseeksto realizea "truly comprehensivesecurity" adds the removal "genderrelations domithat of of nationand subordination" "theelimination physical, to of structuraland ecologicalviolence."9 R. earlier Similarly B. J. Walker's (1988) OneWorld, ManyWorlds arguedfor"a clearersenseofwhat itmeansto havesecurity all people rather for thanthenational sethatnow renderseveryone insecure."10 Whatcurity increasingly evertheimportant differences between the Tickner, 1988Walker, and thestillhegemonic claimsof realism, thereremained coma monassumption security universal. that is should not be quicklyeffaced. However,these differences Whilethecommonmetaphysical a assumption presents problem, thecritiques and Tickner, Walker, othershavebeen developedby of enormouspoliticalvalue and have implicitly contestedboth their ownand realist thatsecurity universal. was This assumptions occurred two in in arguments humansecurity for there ways. Firstly, was a radicalshift the natureof the subjectto be protected in from highly the abstract of the nation-state the imto imaginary of mediate,corporealdistress the human,a humanthat,in that activates call fordifference simultaneously a that underdistress, minesthe illusory of a bodypoliticthatwouldsubsumeall unity differences beneath common a of the imagination home.Secondly, forceof such critiques claimto be a founding shattered realism's and comprehensive accountofsecurity, its methscattering objects, aimsintoan often and antithetiods,and normative contradictory cal dispersal. Whatwas revealedherewas not a universality a but field conflict, muchsocialas conceptual. of as Thiscreates someseriousproblems a moreradicaland inclusive for languageof secuhowever itsdesirefor This was recognized rity, justice. important laterbyWalker, arguedin 1997that"demands broaderacwho for countsof security inducingepistemological Inrisk overload."11 as a concept, no longer deed,SimonDalbyarguesthat security, may be viable: "Thatthe politicalstructures modernity, of patriarchy and capitalism thesources[rather are thanthevulnerable objects] ofinsecurity is so different to call intoquestion ... as whether the termitself can be stretched accommodatesuch reinterpretato tions.Inescapably, putsinto questionthe utility the termin it of discourse after Cold War."12 the political Thushumanist of uncover aporiawithin an the critiques security An ofsecurity. aporiais an event that a metaphysiconcept prevents cal discourse from its unity nota contradiction fulfilling promised

Burke 5 Anthony

and smoothed intothedialectic, that be brought can over, resolved at but of intotheunity theconcept, an untotalizable problem the out its heartoftheconcept, emptying itsfulldisrupting trajectory, of ness,openingout its closure.Derridawrites aporia being an an a expe"impasse," paththatcannotbe traveled; "interminable to to if "must remain one wants think, make rience"that, however, come or to let come anyeventofdecisionor responsibility."13 like Derrida seestheaporiaas something a stranger Asan event, land: yettheaporeticstranger of the crossing threshold a foreign exthe but crossa giventhreshold" "affects very "does not simply or ... of the threshold to the pointof annihilating renperience beall indeterminate thedistinctive ofa prioridentity, signs dering home withthe veryborderthatdelineateda legitimate ginning Thus it is important and assuredlineage,namesand language."14 the to open up and focuson aporias:they bring possibility, hope of of and downthe hegemony assumptions powerful politibreaking and economic and to cal concepts, think createnewsocial,ethical, structures politicaland of outsidetheiroppressive relationships newpaths. us to think order in short, they help epistemological but of the mark merely failure concepts a newpotential not Aporias This and imaginetheim-possible. is wherethecritito experience can ofgenealogy come intoplay. cal and life-affirming potential is of discourses security concernwithhumanist Myparticular leavein place (and possibly critical their whatever value,they that, of feature the elite strategy a theyopstrengthen) keystructural of truth fixthecontours thereal.In and itsclaimto embody pose: or of threat security/insecurity the particular, ontology security/ disthe whichforms basic conditionof the real formainstream in coursesof international powerfully place, and policy remains conditionof humanexas broaderfunction a defining security's invisible unexamand life perienceand modernpolitical remains thatis able to critical ined. This is to abjurea powerful approach our questionthe verycategoriesin whichour thinking, expericonfined. and actionsremain ence, This articleremainsfocused on the aporias that lie at the thanpushinginto the spaces thatlie berather heartof security, clearer.15 of The contours thisprojectare already becoming yond. accountof secuWhatis stillrequiredis a properly genealogical accountof callsa "constitutive whatWalker to ability provide rity's the political":as Walkersays,"claimsabout common security, do morethanfudgethe or collective security, worldsecurity little into the heartof modernpolitics:we can written contradictions else, afterwe have givenup onlybecome humansor anything to or our humanity, anyotherattachments, the greatergood of citizenship."16

AporiasSecurity of

rewrite we Thus, beforewe can effectively security, have to understand security written - howithas shaped how has us properly and limited very our the for our possibility, possibilities our selves, and social,and ecorelationships, our available imagesofpolitical, nomicorder.This,as Walker is hints, also to explore intriguingly theaporeticdistance thatmodernity establishes between our "huand boundedand defined thestate. In manity" a secureidentity by needs to be placed alongsidea rangeof otherecoshort, security and scientific develnomic,political, technological, philosophic, as constitutive events our modernity, of opments one ofthecentral and it remains one ofitsessential underpinnings. its derives enormous cultural its Security powerfrom place at - at thecenter a thought thecenter modern of of political thought after establishing founding first the of that, myths modern political has further to think juridicalbasisand function the society, sought of the state,its enablingrelationto a broaderculturaland economicmodernity, to theimagination "progressive" and of forms of modern and economic as Foucault political subjectivity. Just sought, to trace the emergenceof throughthe idea of governmentality, and forms statepower, of simultaneously totalizing individualizing I wouldarguethat a key at security occupies enabling position their The remainder thisarticle of elucidates "constijunction. security's tutive account thepolitical" of a of through reading Hobbes,Locke, theutilitarian and Bentham, Hegel,usingFouphilosopher Jeremy cault'swritings governmental on reasonas a loose template. It is in thisconstitutive accountofthepolitical that findthe we secondaporiaofsecurity, which opened up as an impasse is within itsbasic conceptualstructure. thisis a moralimpassethat Sadly, also possessesa malignfunctionality. aporia occursbecause This their to universality, realist structures secuof despite presumption havealways thatthesecurity theself(theindividual, of rity argued thenation, the "way life")mustbe purchased theexpense or of at of another. Thiswasstarkly out bytheEuropeanpolitical laid theorist N. Berki, R. in whowrote hisSecurity Society, and after "Seeking for for security oneselfand beinga cause of insecurity othersare notjust closely are with chanceof no related; they thesame thing, either or existential . . . whenthechipsare down, logical separation and to a certain are down... it is mylife,my degree,they always versus restof thehumanrace."17 the freedom, security my Ur-theorist realism of Hans Morgenthau, surprisingly enough, somequalmsaboutsuchan imageofsecurity, as he even expressed did so muchto entrench nationalsecurity theapex of modern at of Withtheadvent thenuclearage, he argued,no policy making. statecould purchaseits security the expense of another;now at

Burke 7 Anthony

secure.18 must seekto makeall nationsequally However, diplomacy and of was thisinsight loston a generation latertheorists policy of the wouldinevitably for makers, whomsecurity imply sacrifice in theother. ConsiderGeorgeKennan'sargument, 1948,thatthe of UnitedStateswould have to "to devisea pattern relationships our of us will which permit to retain position [economic]disparity . detriment our nationalsecurity.. . We should to without positive cease to talkaboutvague and fortheFar East unrealobjectives and of the such as humanrights, raising the living standards, dmostsenior and influential One mocratisation."19 of Australia's underof Vietnamera, RichardWoolcott, policymakers the postof thisviewwhenhe arguedin 1995 lined the continuing power for notions"of self-determination East Timor that"sentimental national to werea threat Australia's and Bougainville (a security seon thatfortwodecades had been premised close relations curity Sohartoregime).20 withthe murderous and military cooperation the an This highlights urgentneed to interrogate imagesof self and and otherthatanimate(in)secureidentities, to expose thevireliedon to police them. that olence and repression is so often do I am seriousin arguingthatthe aporiasof security create and its room to move,to disrupt claim to universality important dialecthat to imagine newpossibilities escape itsrepressive truth, a Yet ticofselfand other. herewe also encounter disturbing irony. and its between A structure.generalized society opposition aporetic of fearto construct othershas workedas an effective technology of whileillusions and ethnicidentity; of and police forms national for as worked a smokescreen havesimultaneously universal security of the that a realpolitik purchases security the selfat the expense lies in thevery In of theother. short, slipperiness security's power to its of its of its significations, ironicstructure meaning, ability different name very have an almostuniversal arrangeappeal yet for of ments orderand possibility different groupsofpeople. This It to and is why is pointless try stabilize it ontology. is betsecurity's and discursive tactical to track ter powerthoughitsdesecurity's accountof thepolitical one thatis sias a constitutive velopment and fissured itsaporias. structured, enabled, by multaneously and "Government" Security Foucaulttracedthe emergence In his "Governmentality" lecture, two Western ofsecurity within through linkeddethought political and thesixteenth seventeenth centuries, first, during velopments:
derives its whose from power partly Securityformsa politicaltechnology

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of theadministrative governmental and of apparatuses theterritorial monarchies, mercantilism, of and "scistatistics, theCameralists' ence ofpolice";and second, what calledan "anti-Machiavellian of he literature" sought formulate "artofgovernment" that to an against that narrower focus theprince, sovereignty preservation. on his and Foucaulthighlighted keyfeatures Machiavelli's two of study. The first was thatits centralproblematic, link betweenthe the his and was one,"and prince, subjects, territory, a "purely synthetic thuseternally vulnerableto both externalenemies and fragile, from from who haveno a priori reasonto accept within, "subjects hisrule."Second,thisimpliedthattheobjective theexerciseof of and the powerwas "to reinforce, strengthen protect principality, butwiththislastunderstood to mean the objective not ensemble of itssubjects and territory, rather Prince'srelation but the with whathe owns."21 The artof government of impliedboth the "government" individuals and social institutions the designation newtechand of of wouldemerge within problem the niquesand objects powerthat of "governing stateas a whole." Betweenthese realmswas the the forms governof posed an essential continuity: morediscrete werestill"internal thestateor society," the taskof the to and ing artof government to establish was themwithin continuum a that worked"in both an upwardsand a downwards direction." The downward to behaviour and the line,which"transmits individual ofthefamily sameprinciples thegood government the as running ofthestate," at thistimebeginning be calledpolice.The upwas to wardline meantthe applicationof principles self-government of and familial to the conductof the state'saffairs; we government can also locateitin theemergence whatFoucaultelsewhere of discussedas reason state, forms knowledge whichsoughtspecific of of whoseobjectwasthestateitself, rather thantheuncertain relation betweenthe princeand his realm.Reason state of implieda ratioof government could ensurethatthe state"must that hold nality out foran indefinite of historical time- and in a disputed length area."22 geographical An analogous development the extensionof the idea of was and itsintroduction a generalpolitical into "economy" practice theinvention "political of as we nowunderstand This it. economy," involved seriesofshifts, from a first as for economy a principle the ofthefamily one forthegeneral to of government organization soand thenofsovereignty a ruleoverterritory thegovfrom to ciety, ernment a "complex menand things" wouldincorporate of of that intoa setof economicrelations. Thus an important new territory ofpolitics object emerged: population.23

Burke 9 Anthony

thatpopulationhad itsownmeasurStatistics discovered now of that it able "regularities," with camenewobjects medicine, labor, and wealth, and thatpopulationhad analogouseconomiceffects The was and its customs, activities. family thus through movements, and internal population, as a fundamental to recast "an element as in instrument itsgovernment." can see here the convergence We with the phenomenon Foucault has elsewheredescribed,the of linkeddevelopment the human sciencesand the social techof disciplinethatenabled a more detailedand flexible nologies or moreimportant was of "Discipline never production subjectivity: to whenit becomeimportant morevalorized thanat the moment a population."24 manage of out he Political economy, said,"arises oftheperception new between relations and networks continuous multiple of population, of and territory wealth"and out of the development new techI that, wouldargue,becomebythe twentiniquesof intervention the a eth century fieldencompassing whole taskof government: commueconomics, health, welfare, defense, immigration, linking is and law.Sovereignty thenrearticscience,education, nications, to in of ulatedin theterms Rousseau'sattempt, TheSocialContract, allowsroomboth of which divine"a generalprinciple government and of for juridical a through principle sovereignty fortheelements can whichan art of government be definedand characterised." disciof is Whatforms a triangle rationalities linking sovereignty, - a poweris governmentality which together pline,and government, and fulensemble"formed theinstitutions, analyses by procedures, allowthe exerciseof that and tactics the reflections, calculations has of which as itstarform power, albeitcomplex this very specific form knowledge of as politicaleconget population, itsprincipal of meansapparatuses security."25 technical and omy, as itsessential here not Colin Gordon argues thatFoucault treatssecurity as objectof politicalpowerbut "as a specific merely a self-evident alikefrom those distinct and practice, of method principle political modesof and and oflaw,sovereignty discipline, capable ofvarious diand practices within withtheseotherprinciples combination for He versegovernmental configurations." goes on to arguethat, increasthe from eighteenth on, Foucault, century "tends security, of to component moderngovernmeningly becomethedominant or not we talrationality: livetoday so muchin a Rechtsstaatdiscipliof as nary society in a society security."26 in as Hobbes and Locke established security a keysignifier the of myth the emergenceof the modernstateform(the commonindiswealth)fromthe stateof nature,and thusmakessecurity These and of pensableto modernpractices liberalism sovereignty.

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of relation governmentality feedintothattriangular wouldin turn of thestateas a regime of thataimedforthegeneralgovernment of If the problematization prosperity.Foucaultemphasized intense the of the within emergence an "artof government," sovereignty exthis countered problem of work Hobbesand Lockehad already a actlyin the termsposed by Rousseau (of reconciling juridical of model of sovereignty the newrationalities "government") with of fusion both.In parand in so doingachieveda morepowerful limits thecitizenas a form for laid out the discursive ticular, they ofsubjectivity bound it to thestateas an essential and figure. moretheatrical, both WhileHobbes's accountis considerably its thinkers found modern politicalsocietyon the same myth: the from stateofnaturethrough exchangeoffreethe emergence when dom forsecurity. Hobbes's accountis particularly revealing of he arguesthatin thecondition warthatis thestateofnature is becausethefruit thereof unthere no placefor is Industry; no of no and consequently Culture theEarth; Navigacertain; that be tion useofthecommodities may imported sea;no nor by no of no ... ... Building no Knowledge no account Time; Arts; is of and no feare, Letters; Society; which worst all,continuali of Andthelife man, anddanger violent of death; solitary, poor, and brutish, short.27 nasty, of a the Thispassageis highly important, providing linkfrom myth and objectives of the stateof natureto the fundamental promise for a thestate, whichare not onlyto provide meansof protection Here we to individuals to enablea newkindofsociety flourish. but of and fulcrum our can see security's function the threshold at enablesnot thebirth theArtificial of Man,Leviathan, modernity: of the of forms governmental merely development moreefficient in reasonbut new industrial and cultural possibilities whichthe civilizationofthemodernitself idea ofa greatand progressive ofthebodypolitic theprobwas can becomereal.In this metaphor no vullem of Machiavelli's princeresolved: longera "synthetic," and subjectbut theirabsolute nerable link betweensovereign of fusionand identity, a chilling in of prophecy Hegel's merging thesubject with unity theOne. the of and this Already imageoftheOne reposedon therejection rein of theother:first theidea of thestateof natureitself, pression as an essential rulereasonand inrealmofconflict wherepassions betweenreasonand is perpetual;second,in the division security cannotbe the in Foolesand Mad-men" "Children, unreason, which and thusnotwhole authors their of ownor thesovereign's actions,

Burke 11 Anthony

in between criminal society, and third, thedivision strictly subjects; to the established thelaw, which conforms reasonand embodies by to in willof the people; and finally, the division(so important a between colonialand postcolonial savageand civilized. modernity) in Labour Here Locke made a far-reaching formulation, which as the formed ontological basisof property theproductive (which in on use of land) pivoted an imageofwasteand impoverishment to "theIndian's"failure exploittheearth.This in turnfedintoa was chainof reasoning whicha claimto property onlysecured by wasin a man's land's exploitation labor,thatitsorigin by through out state nain hisownperson"(which brought ofthe is of "property of ture the"Labour hisbody")and thatthepreservation of through the "chiefend" of "men'sunitinginto Comwas itself Property Thus and monwealths," was thustheprimeobjectof security.28 we as the can see, in embryo, idea of subjectivity realizationupon whatLocke also achieved whichHegel wouldbase a philosophy; in Fromhere condition subjectivity work. for wasa newontological - and modernity an inexorable historical as proeconomy political gression becamethinkable. and the Future Bentham: Security could be said to stradBentham's of CivilCode Principles the Jeremy of a wherethecentrality within context dle thishistorical moment, in raisond'tatwas giving wayto a formof liberalism whichthe and the between reasonofstate, artofgovernment, politlinkages While ical economy weremoreproblematic, no less necessary. yet a formulated relation had already police science (or Cameralism) and between powerthathad as itsobjectotalizing individualizing FoucaultseesAdamSmith'sTheWealth tivea generalprosperity, of nothe out as Nations thenmarking thepointat which Cameralists' tion of an equivalencebetweenstate and economywas placed that becomesa knowledge is "lateral Political understress. economy constitute but to" the artof governing, cannotitself government, reasonwithin newly a is and its "effect to resituate governmental configuration."29 politico-epistemic open and unstable complicated, from reasonof statein a hand"marked shift Smith's "invisible in intervention conon to thatitsought place limits governmental trast an earlieremphasison its expansion,and conceivedthe to as economy an autonomousrealmwithitsownlawsthatworked, writes for Foucault, then, ostensibly, thepublicgood. Laissez-faire, but "notto impedethe courseof things, to enwas an injunction to modes of regulation, surethe courseof naturaland necessary

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make regulations which permit natural regulation to operate."30 In twentieth-century foreign economic policy, we can then see the combination of two modes: a kind of soft mercantilism wherein governments use aid programs and diplomacy to promote trade and contracts for the corporations domiciled within their state, and a form of "regulation of natural regulation" that takes as its focus infrastructure, labor and foreign-investment law, cost structures, and trade regimes that have a more general effect on business activity and profits. Nor should we forget that Western governments, most notably that of the United States, have used diplomatic pressure, military intervention, and sponsored coups in order to improve the business climate in many states. Bentham's Civil Code appeared in the space Smith carved out, entrenching security as a fundamental societal objective within the openness and uncertainty of this new political configuration. Bentham began Principlesof theCivil Code by asserting that the principal object of the legislator ought to be the "happiness of the body politic." This happiness consists of four objects subsistence, abunand security- of which security was the most imdance, equality, portant. Security guaranteed all the others, contained them, and designated acts and persons dangerous to them: "Actions hurtful to security, when prohibited by the laws, receive the character of crimes." Eithersecurity crime: or within this brief, claustrophobic formula lay the basis of a whole system of order. Furthermore, Bentham made the crucial and far-reaching argument that, as a guarantee of all the objects of government, the subis security the only one which necessarilyembraces future: sistence, abundance, equality, may be regarded for a moment only;but security implies extension in point of time,withrespect to all the benefitsto which it is applied. Securityis thereforethe principal object.31 In a prophetic convergence of Enlightenment thought with economic liberalism, government now took on a temporal dimension: the future was now a thinkable space in political discourse, and a general progressive movement could be imagined as an essential condition of human society. Bentham argued that security protects Man's expectation the future: through expectation of we are enabled to forma general plan of conduct. . . . Expectation is a chain which unites our present and our future existence, and passes beyond ourselves to the generationswhich follow us. The sensibility the individual is prolonged throughall of the links of this chain.32

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Aboveall,as expectation future an economic the linkwas principle, of as and ing the construction subjectivity interest desirewiththe in increase prosperity modern that economics callsgrowth: general Theactive desire adding ourhappiness, under safeof to the will, ofsecurity, newefforts newacafter guard incessantly produce Wants enjoyments, universal insociety, and those quisitions. agents after raised first ofcorn, bydegrees the ears will the erect having of and full.33 granaries abundance, always increasing always This in turneffected new modes of government thatlinked with with discipline individualizing totalizing population, power a powerthat, without could produceindividucoercion, seemingly als as subjectsof theirown desirewhileintegrating theminto a much broader system regulation.Elsewhere,Benthamconof trasted "thedoleful motive punishment" the"gentle of with motive ofreward," apparatus lawwith the of "thegentleliberty choice"; of he whenanimated hope."34 labor, said,is "so easyand so light by This "uncoerced," economicform liberalindividualism of generatedwhatFoucaulthas called "thesubject interest" introof and duced a contradiction governmental into reason:whileit made individuals moreaccessibleto power, also distanced it themfrom it, a rhetoric which, Benthamsaid, security guarin as also forming antees "political of of liberty" against"theinjustice the members thegovernment." introduced, Foucault, "dissonance This said a of rationalities" between juridicalform government the of implied by and and of sovereignty the morediffuse accidentalreconciliation in individual and societalinterests liberalism. wereto be Subjects subservient theexerciseof sovereign to but werealso power, they assumedto be freeand autonomous economicactors.Liberalism as an artofgovernment whenitcould formulate began,he argued, the"incompatibility between non-totalisable the which multiplicity characterises ofinterest, thetotalizing and ofthejusubjects unity ridicalsovereign."35 This generated politicalproblem: discover form gova to a of ernment - recognizing that thatno sovereignty fully can comprehend the totality the economyor regulateeveryact thatmay of have an economiceffect must seek do so. It was at the apstill to of thisproblem thatFoucaultsitedthejunctionof secupearance and population a mixof rationalities might that rity, discipline, morefully thisuncertain he argued, grasp politicalspace. Thus, of is not "liberty registered onlyas a right individuals legitimately to oppose . . . thesovereign, also nowas an indispensable but elementofgovernmental itself."36 engendered drive This a rationality

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AporiasSecurity of

forflexibility, and as declared,"Econmobility, vigilance: Bentham in enemies," and, hence,security "requires the omyhas . . . many in and sustained, poweralways aclegislator, vigilance continually crowdof advertion,to defendit againsthis constantly reviving saries."37 short, new,open space of liberalism In the had engenof dered a prophetic paranoia: the themeof a new productivity reachesinto the heartof the politicalpowerthatsimultaneously citizenand multiplies ownspatialreach.It seemsno accident its and at of that bothBentham Smith wrote theheight theEuropean of within whichthediscursive imagination thetwenimperialisms, tiethcentury global trade,geopolitics, war,and technological progress wasborn. The Strategic Imagination In describing productivity, Foucaultemphasizedthe simultathis and of neous individualization totalization governmental power addressed and to biopower discipline desireaddressed individuals, in To to populations, a perpetualfeedbackand combination.38 we as these,however, mustadd geopolitics the formof powerthat combinedtheserationalities thevastlustsof modernimperiwith had alism.39 themid-twentieth By century, geopolitics becomethe of security excellence a spatializing of rationality practice par and thatsoughtthe controlof territories populations(as power a botheconomicresources and strategic possessions)within perthe and contested arena,through interdepenpetually dangerous and dentproduction domestic transnational of political space.Notthe fascist of the 1930s,we could thus withstanding imperialisms as of characterize geopolitics a liberalphilosophy globalintervenissues economic of which links tion, increasingly global management acrossthewholeof government. withdomestic policyformations a The domestic international and becomefusedspacesthrough seriesofinterlinked ofdomestic foreign and economic polprocesses: transnational business trade, and and theraising armies of with icy, that secureand rigidimagesoffearand otherness simultaneously domestic identities. global influence As becomesconceivable, ify theinterrelation political of and nationalism, the other economy, of becomecentral security a vector to as and rationality power. The technology intoactionhere,whichhas been security puts from relation a stateand citizen to central itsextension to between a principle theactionsof thebodypoliticin theinternational for This arena,I havechosento call the strategic imagination. imaginationis primarily butnotexclusively becoming so, powerfully spatial,

Burke 15 Anthony

linkedwithtemporal discourses racialsuperiority, of politicalenand The strategic lightenment, culturaland economicprogress. is intoa preexisting imagination notso muchan entry space as the ofa newone bya detailedpolitical that production technology seeks to makeitmeaningful itorders as and partitions intothevehicle, it and and cultural effect, arena of an industrial, political, economy. themapping and traversing thisspace bytransport, of its Through itsdefensebyactsand means appropriation through sovereignty, ofwar, and itscultivation exploitation industry, and by agriculture, and commerce, strategic the thusseeksto engender imagination and usefularrangements bodies,comof economically politically and In stamunities, socialinstitutions. thissense,itsspace is never ticand unchanging, itself a history: but has in technology changes introduce and permeability, changesin itsextent changesin political doctrinechange itsmeaningand in turnaffect onlythe not economic and socialpossibilities individuals their of inbut psychic teriors. Thus itsrepresentation is crucial:is thisspace threatening or familiar alien,masculine feminine, or or or recalsafe, productive citrant? Whatare itsflows and boundaries? And,aboveall,whatis ourcapacity actionwithin geopolitical psychic for its and contours? as Hegel: Security Realization The work Hegel,closein timeto Bentham's, of refined suchliberalismbydeveloping philosophy self-consciously a that understood the future an entry theradically temporal as into new spaceofthemodern. work His in Enintervened, a political sense,at thepointwhere rationalism theliberal and of colightenment problem government incide. Hegel liftedliberal ideas of freedomand rightinto a universalism powerfully that illuminates ontologithe philosophical cal structure modernnationalisms, forms subjectivity of the of they and role for (and negative) oftheother their engender, theessential In he modelfordiscourses thought. particular, developeda formal thatwould attempt reconcileliberalpoliticaleconomy to witha In we strong imageof the nation-state. thistransition, can see the double-bind" theinterplay totalizing individualizof and "political - takeon a powerful form one linking future-dinew a ingpower rected modeofself-belief conduct and with nationalist and grander in civilizational narratives a mutually reinforcing exchange. In thePhenomenology the ofSpirit, modern appearsas a constant breakwiththe past,whichcreatesexciting new possibilities and horizons. it also engendersuncertainty loss: havingsunYet and dered its foundations and "the immediacy faith"and having of

16

AporiasSecu of rity

that of and the gone "beyond satisfaction security thecertainty conthe with essential sciousness thenhad, ofitsreconciliation being," task life."Philosophy's thenwas to rehad "lostitsessential spirit cover "through agencythatlost sense of solid and essential its thatHegel soughtto limitthisprobHabermassuggests being."40 as the "to the lemthrough idea ofprogress, closeoff future a source of constructions history."41 ofdisruption theaid ofteleological with to liberalism conservatism, with As ifto reconcile Hegel sought whilecontrolof the liberate restless energies modernsubjectivity of and a progress lingthem, retaining vision stability orderinwhich and "rational" but not takestheform, ofan irruption, a measured the refracted through liberalprobdesign.It was again security, the that lematic Smith of and Bentham, wouldprovide framework and It forthisdifficult calibration. would be in the harnessing wouldcoincide: and that of uncertainty security spirit management spirit security manageschangeand peers into the cloudyfuture; of the and strengthen resolve the its strives illuminate promise to to present moveon. in visible earlier of Hegel heredevelopeda thematic certitude Cartesian to thathas becomecentral modernstatecraft. Descartes than less thought posits a worldthatis stablepriorto itscognition it to as one thatbegins disordered: obtaintruth wasfirst necessary to postulateabsolutedoubt and uncertainty beyondthe boundthento move, and cognition, ariesof the subject'sownexistence As truths.42 Costas to via the correctmethod, stableand universal works as "securitization a discursive Constantinou practice argues, This our and certitude."43 enters safety, security, bysynchronising of as the foundation both a dangerous modernity contemporary minds)feel by empiricism whichpolicymakers(stablecognitive and with verifiable accesa can thatpolicy be made to correspond of and to be thefoundation a continual sibleexternal proreality of owncondition possibility. as the jectionofuncertainty discourse's of whoseimagination thefuture In themidst a modernity of parathe and unpredictability, a space of darkness doxically opens up and as a formal procedural Cartesian modelhashad a potent appeal in McNamara's(now visible Robert Thiswasparticularly solution. and itis a desirestill to theVietnam War, disavowed) powapproach We and erfulin dominant approachesto strategy policymaking. in W.Bush'sassertion, thewakeofthe haveonly consider to George of attacks NewYorkand Washington September 2001,that on 11, not our "this willdefine times, be defined them."44 by country for was as Just subjectivity a keyachievement Hobbes, Locke, the for intoa principle citizenship, secure and Bentham formed a man and economic - itprovided central, overarching bodypolitic,

Burke 17 Anthony

for He the principle Hegel's thought. replayed levelsofsubjectivity in them intoa temporal movement work, present their introducing thatwouldconstitute itself subjectivity and mergeitwiththe restin lesslaboroftheage. In particular, thePhilosophy this of Right culmination subjectivity made hostageto itsimmersion the of in was The greateridentity represented the nation-state. potentially by in division immanent liberalism between state and civil dangerous - washerecontrolled a system for that, society by allowing thediffusion nodesand mechanisms powerconceived the "artof of of by to seizesubjectivityitsvery at center, government," sought through in itseffacement the greater of of identity the One. Membership thestatewas not optional rather fullethicaldevelopment the of the individual on itsabsolutepsychological immersion depended in the "universal life"of the state.45 thisway, In Hegel intensified thelogocentric closureof thesystem in visible Hobbes and Locke. He clarified intensified necessity theotherforsecurity, and the of forprosperity, forprogress general, and in it incorporating intoa restricted in which other always the was subsumed wholly economy a of within return the higherunity the same. In thisway, to secueconomicprosperity, a centralorganizing and racismpowerrity, coalesce. fully This racismis starkly clear in the Lectures the on Philosophy of in which Hegel sought to show the progressof spirit History, world this forward movethrough history. Unsurprisingly, practical mentofspirit which of wasat themostadvancedstages (in Europe worldhistory America and "theland of thefuture") turned the on of to muchas it did other, opposition - and negation - a backward in Hobbes, Locke, and Bentham.46 of the "wantof Hegel spoke and in submissiveness," "inferiorityall respects" spirit," "crouching ofthe "native Americans." African, declared, The he exhibits natural the manin hiscompletely and untamed wild state. must asideall thought reverence morality We of and lay all that call feeling ifwewouldrightly we him; comprehend there nothing is harmonious humanitybe found.47 with to In thefaceof this, shouldwe be surprised PierreClastres that was drivento say that the "spirituality ethnocideis the ethic of of humanism."48 This "progressive" ethnocentrism turnprovided apologia in an forimperialism. was natHegel arguedthatimperialism an entirely uralresolution "theinnerdialectic civilsociety of of drives [which] it ... to pushbeyonditsownlimits and seek markets in other ... landswhichare deficient thegoods it has overproduced."49 in At

18

Aporias ofSecu rity

and betweenthe artof government politithispointthe relation a made theleap from and security came intoitsown, cal economy of the nation-state and management for principle theproduction an within the directed policiesofstates to one thatsimultaneously themodThe nter-national gap system. historic had been bridged; sense,nowbecamepossible. ern,in an important and Gender Security has It wouldbe fairto conclude,then,thata securemodernity itand characterized constituted various selfbeen fundamentally by these in or modesofimperialism. Whether "realist" "liberal" forms, ontodrewtheir and modesof imperialism geopolitics underlying accountof the political from constitutive the logicalframeworks here. Genderis a crucialelementof this"geopolitical" analyzed its liberalism, imagesof selfand other, spatial security's affecting of and economicorganization bodiesand work, and,in particular, Mostsignifiof theeconomy actionthatdominates making. policy it has also been a repressedorganizing principleforthe cantly, of modernarchitectonic security. In heressay Politic," in/andtheBody Representation "Corporeal as MoiraGatenschallengesHobbes's accountof the Leviathan a thatit is an implicitly of thepolitical neutral body, arguing image a man"who byestablishing commasculineideal- the "artificial but from necessary difficult the himself "frees monwealth dealings in She argues, a similar to that with bothwomenand nature." way has I to in which havesought arguehere,thatthisbodypolitic difbut the same" because this "anything accommodating ficulty difto a is imageofsameness securedthrough refusal acknowledge is difference producedas otherness as ference such;rather, through the kinds of theexclusion "different ofbeingsfrom pact. . . slaves, classes."50 the the children, working women, conquered, foreigners, who havehistorically bearson boththesubjects This problem directedstateactions(mostoftenmen) and the kindsof actions and deemed legitimate effective (those thathave tendedto conA and drive certitude sameness). crucial for form a "masculine" to that and the"private" has the between "public" hereis that division and thathelps organize been centralto so muchliberalthought modesof and between individualizing totalizing the theinterplay thatsecurity intoaction. puts power in here.In a similar to that relevance way Hegel is ofparticular and the savagehad to be excluded whichthe mad, the criminal, in from bodypoliticin earlieraccounts, thePhilosophyRight the of

Burke 19 Anthony

evena "European"state)to (within Hegel denied fullsubjectivity Thisreproduces gendered a division of one-half thepopulation. fully whichwould in turnbe crucialfor betweenpublic and private, of modernpractices security: in and substantial in thestate, learning, life Manhashisactual and with labor struggle theexternal so forth, well inactual as as that out himself that isonly ofhisdiremption so it world with and .. his to he fights way self-subsistent with unity himself. . Woman, in and has on theother hand, hersubstantive destiny thefamily, frame mind.51 of tobe imbued family isherethical with piety schemaof realizaa dialectical for Thus he preserves, subjectivity, of and on tionthat reposes thenegation supersession theother, still in the the moments publiclife, state, liberal and whoseculminating be and struggle, always essenwill of labor,production, ontology bothformale bodies and male modesof "male" preserved tially adthe whileacknowledging partial suchas Gatens, being.Writers vancesofwomenintopubliclife,stillargue thatthe bodypolitic remainsdominatedby masculinelanguagesand modes of exisin thisbody, is limited what she tence:"Ifwoman. . . speaksfrom she can say.If she livesbythisreasonand thisethic,she stilllives from bodyofanother."52 the conto havedirectrelevance the international These insights has arguedthatthereis a perniof states. Christine duct Sylvester international while of cious "normativitysex"structuring relations, an imageof "hegeis Tickner by arguesthatstatecraft dominated its to that monicmasculinity" is "sustained through opposition varsuch as homosexuand ious subordinated devaluedmasculinities In to devaluedfeminities." . its ality . . and through relation various of the international masculinity policy, characteristics hegemonic of whosesuccessas interonto thebehaviour states "areprojected and in of actors measured terms their is national powercapabilities and for capacity self-help autonomy."53 of of is achieves a wholeseries exclusions Whatthis (and norms masculine and feminine. between action)based on thedichotomy that a Thisgenerates chainofanalogousoppositions alignmaleness and and with with truth, themind, woman reason, objective activity, and and truth, thebody realms values subjective passion, passivity, and as constructed perpetually backward, disruptive. threatening, By then aligningthesewithtwo othercrucial dichotomies beand and tween savageand civilized, thecommonwealth thestateof life movenature thischainofoppositions gives to theprogressive of to mentof being central a post-Enlightenment politics security.

20

Aporias Security of

and In the liberalchain thatlinkssubjectivity, economy, geofor a a work theself, principle on genderis simultaneously politics, in and of theparticipation individuals society, one fortheconduct of the statein managingsubjectpopulationsand constructing has masculinity also been crucialto space.Hegemonic geopolitical based the universalizing liberal mode of economic subjectivity of and aroundthesubjugation, control, exploitation nature with of theimplicit exclusion otherpossiblemodesof economiclife.54 accountof whosephilosophical A pivotal hereis Descartes, figure mindand bodyhas underpinned method thedivision and between liberal order:itsobsession with of characteristics themodern many and equilibrium), certitude and epistemological (stability political in and of thevision nature economics, thecontrol implicit modern Genevive of and production international Lloydemphaspace. sizes how the separationof mind and bodywas essentialto his of that visionofa "unitary purethought" securedthefoundations it fromthe rest modern science,yet simultaneously separated of life.Lloydalso drawsout the linksbetweenCartesianmethod Malewith of and Hegel'sassociation maleattainments universality. from attribute achieved breaking nessbecomesa technical away by and thusanalogousto modern thenatureassociated with woman, based and economicprogress theories technological, of political, of on themanipulation control nature.55 and and aboutthestructure opThisopensup significant questions disavow Derhowever muchthey eration security a concept: of as it, idealsexistin a relation us ridareminds thatall suchmetaphysical or termthey claimto supersede of dependenceto a subordinated to abis no different. Whilebetraying pretensions expel. Security in to soluteself-presence, security everexists relation "insecuonly thatinto it thusoperatesaccording the Hegelianeconomy rity": movement poses that into thisdichotomy a "dialectical" corporates whichbecomesan the second termas the anathemaof the first, whichone aspiresin a movement ideal state, goal, toward or away of thenbecomesa powerful from second.Security the signifier an and cultural ideal political, order, economic, opposed to "others" breaksdown or Yet as inferior threatening. itspromise designated is because "security" bound intoa depenwhenwe considerthat, it dentrelation with"insecurity,"can neverescape it: it mustconin of tinueto produceimages "insecurity" orderto retain meaning. that activatesthe exinto a political technology Deployed has and this the changebetween "individual" the "total," economy it a twopotent effects. thelevelof theindividual, forms powerAt in fulmechanism subjectivity whichimagesof fearand insecuof all or level either personal, a societal, geopolitical - often at (at rity

Burke 21 Anthony

individuals populations. and As once) can be used to manipulate MichaelDillonsuggests, "Don'taskwhata people is ... askhowan orderof fearforms people."56 a Such imagesportray stateas the and of patriarchal protective, provoking feelings allegiance, safety, and submission: the activating exchangebetweenpublicand pritendto feminize citizenry the whilereserving masfull vate,they in culineparticipation thedefense thestateformen.The arguof mentthatwomenare unsuitableforcombathas servedboth to the legitimate exclusionof womenfrom public lifeand to make men'sparticipation warthevehicleofa more"total" in enactment ofsubjectivity. MoiraGatens believes thatthisderives from conthe dition(datingfrom Greeksor even "theoriginal the covenant between God and Abraham") fulladmission thepolitical for to body forfeit. Abraham, For it beingthatone can makethe appropriate wasthe"corporeal sacrifice" hisforeskin; modernmenithas of for too often been lifein battle.57 Atthelevelofthetotal, also as deinsecurity works a metaphor boththe inherent natureof theinternational and scribing system an ideal mode of stateaction.Thus we have the realistassertion thattheinternational is anarchic thattheoband system essentially of states shouldbe to order usingforceas a fundamental it, jective such a Cartesian does a statemechanism; onlywithin metaphysic likeE. H. Carr's, is "a recognised ment that bearer military strength of political takeon meaning.58 fact, thisdiscourse In in a values," an Enlightenment and a hegemonicmasculinity, progressivism, ethnocentrism coalesceto generate modernpoliticothe founding economicthematic order one thatimagines of certain economic modes(indigenous agriculture-based) forms identification or and of and and also and (substate local) as backward, often unstable threatThusfeminized demonized, and are madesubject the to ening. they ofbotha male economy action(too often effects of miliordering and and masculine (the tary repressive) to theultimate metasubject and tropical state).As Ticknernotes,"nonwhites industrializing countries often are emotional and unstable, depictedas irrational, characteristics are often that attributed women."59 to in becomes to of Order, this sense, analogous thetaming woman and nature.Fromthe eighteenth- nineteenth-century and movements colonization theCold Warbattles of to overtheThirdWorld and the turn-of-the-millennium to manageand accelerate efforts suchintegrated of globalization, images raceand genderhavebeen central theconstruction an architectonic to of modeofsecurity and order one that, the of through operations thestrategic imaginareachsimultaneously thedepths thesubject into of and tion, might themintothevastspacesand flows geopolitics. this of In integrate

22

Aporias Security of

been: a stifling disvision, security appearsas whatit has too often machine. How could it everbe escaped? ciplinary RefusingSecurity It is perhaps but easyto becomedespondent, as countless struggles for freedom, have proved,a justice, and social transformation sense of seriousness can be temperedwiththe knowledgethat toolsare already available and wherethey not,the efare many fort createa productive critical to is welladvanced. new sensibility There is also a crucialpoliticalopeningwithin liberalprobthe in lematic thatpoweris mosteffecitself, thesensethatit assumes tive whenitis absorbedas truth, consented and desired which to createsan important forrefusal. Colin Gordonargues, As space Foucaultthought thatthevery of was possibility governing conditionalon it beingcredibleto the governed wellas the governas This throws onto thequestionof howsecurity works ing.60 weight as a technology subjectivity. to takeup Foucault's of It is challenge, framed a reversal theliberalprogressive of as movement being of we haveseen in Hegel,notto discover whoor what are so much we as to refuse we are.61 as security what rulessubjectivitybotha as Just and individualizing blackmail it and promise, is at these totalizing levelsthatwe can intervene. can critique machinic the frameWe of works possibility economic represented law, by policy, regulation, and diplomacy, whilechallenging waytheseinstitutions the deploy intotheir consensual web. languageto drawindividual subjects Thissuggests, leastprovisionally, at a dual strategy. first The asserts spaceforagency, in challenging the both available possibilities forbeing and theirlargersocioeconomicimplications. Roland Bleiker formulates idea ofagency an thatshifts from lone the away the (male) hero overthrowing social orderin a decisiveact of rebellionto one thatunderstands of boththethickness socialpower and its "fissures," and "thinness." must,he We "fragmentation," "observe howan individual be able to escape thediscursays, may siveorderand influence shifting its boundaries.... Bydoing so, discursive terrains dissent ofa suddenappearwhere of of all forces domination seemedinvincible."62 previously tactics thatcan work many at Pushing beyond security requires levels that individuals recognize larger to the social,culempower and economicimplications theeveryday of forms desire, of tural, to challenge and rewrite and discipline encounter, subjection, they and thatin turn contribute collective to efforts transform to them, the largerstructures being,exchange,and powerthatsustain of As this (and havebeen sustained theseforms. Derridasuggests, by)

Burke 23 Anthony

and thattransgress call into is to open up aporeticpossibilities and of theboundaries theself, society, the international question and police. seeksto imagine thatsecurity of based on a critique The secondseeksnewethicalprinciples has that of forms identity security heretotherigidand repressive such as Rosalyn foreoffered. Thus writers Diprose,WilliamCona to and MoiraGatenshavesought imagine newethicalrelanolly, not thatthinks difference on thebasisofthesamebuton tionship allowspaceforthe the thebasisofa dialoguewith otherthat might withthe for and unfamiliar, a "debateand engagement unknown a thatinvolves other'slaw and the other'sethics" an encounter Thus whilethe thantheother.63 of transformation the selfrather it also be be must acknowledged, must sweepand powerofsecurity social levels of individualidentity, refused:at the simultaneous kind itwouldentailanother and macroeconomic order, possibility, of ofworkon "ourselves" a politicalrefusal the One, the imagito nationof an otherthatneverreturns the same. It wouldbe to and whatitsshimmering askifthereis a worldafter possisecurity, be. bilities might Notes
in "Self-determination see 1. On theClinton Talbott, Doctrine, Strobe no. an Interdependent World," 2000): 152-164; Foreign Policy, 118 (spring in War: see William on Vietnam, James Gibson,ThePerfect Technowar VietThe nam(Boston:Atlantic Press,1986); Paul Hendrikson, Living Monthly 'Violenceand andthe Dead (NewYork: Burke, 1996),and Anthony Knopf, Postmodern Reason on The Shoals of Vietnam," Culture, 1999: www. May iath.virginia.edU/pmc/current.issue/9.3burke. on is and literature security referenced Muchof thevaluablecritical include this article.Furtherimportant discussedthroughout writings and Der Derian,"TheValueof Security: Hobbes,Marx,Nietzsche, James Political Subin and MichaelDillon,eds., The Baudrillard," DavidCampbell UP, (Manchester 1993); David Campbell,Writing Security: jectofViolence and R. B. J. Walker, "Security, Sovereignty, the Challengeof WorldPolitics,"working paper 87, Canberra:ANU Peace ResearchCentre,1990; without Enemies Smith and St.JohnKettle, Threats ed., Pluto, (Sydney: Gary ed., TheNewAustralian 1992); GraemeCheesemanand St.JohnKettle, Militarism Pluto,1990); GraemeCheesemanand RobertBruce, (Sydney:
and thePolitics Identity United States (Manchester UP, 1992); Policy of Foreign

Australian and Security eds., Discourses Dangerand Dread Frontiers: Defence of

Allen8cUnwin,1996); KeithKrause Thinking theColdWar(Sydney: after Studies U and MichaelC. Williams, eds., Critical Security (Minneapolis: of and of Minnesota 1997); MichaelC. Williams, P, "Identity thePolitics SecuRelations no. 2 (1998): 204-225; Ron4, fournalofInternational rity," European

Columbia 1995);Jef nieLipshutz, OnSecurity York: UP, ed., (New Huysmans, Do What YouMean?FromConceptto ThickSignifier," European "Security! Relations no. 2 (1998): 231-232. 4, fournal International of

24

AporiasofSecurity

of 2. Fora discussion thetermontopolitical, William Connolly, see E. TheEthosofPluralization of MinnesotaPress, (Minneapolis:University that needs 1995),pp. 1-5. Connolly suggests "ontopolitical interpretation" to critically revisit founding the claimsof modern (and often disavowed) "aboutthenecessities possibilities humanbeing"to quesand of politics tionhowmany "common of presumptions our time. . . contain dangerous demands and expectations within them." 3. Ibid.,p. 34. 4. Clintonand Mahathir cited in Brig.Gen. Mike Smith, are Austion and Studies Centre, (Canberra: ANU,1997);Keating Strategic Defence is quoted in the Sydney Dec. 16, 1995;Australian Labor Herald, Morning 1998national Party, platform. 5. FortheIndonesian of and see concepts "resilience" "security," the Indonesian1995 DefenceWhitePaper ThePolicy theState and of Defence known Wawasan as Nusantara geopolitical concept (archipelagic principle) "thestrengtheningnational of which theintegration is resilience, requires ofall forms resilience of in economic, sociocultural, existing thepolitical, and This resilience aimed at guaranteeing is nasecurity defencefields. tionalstability, which thestability all thesefields"; also in see incorporates Centre Strategic International for and Studies, 1992). tics (London:Dent,1986),p. 20.
Dewi Fortuna Anwar,Indonesiaand theSecurity Southeast Asia (Jakarta: of 6. R. N. Berki, Security Society: and on and PoliReflections Law, Order, 7. Michael Dillon, Politicsoj Security: towardsa PoliticalPhilosophy oj Security theRepublicofIndonesia,p. 12, which argues that the primary of tralia NationalSecurity theTwenty-First ys into DirecCentury: Rethinking Strategic

Continental Thought (London:Routledge, 1996),p. 13. 8. R. B. J.Walker, "The Subjectof Security," MichaelC. Williams in and KeithKrause, Studies of eds., Critical Security (Minneapolis: University Minnesota Press, 1997),p. 71. onAchieving Global ColumbiaUP, 1992),pp. 22-23. (New Security York:
10. R. B. J. Walker, One World, Many Worlds: Struggles a fust World for

9. J. Ann Tickner,Gender International in Relations: Feminist Perspectives

Peace(Boulder:Lynne Rienner, 1988),pp. 1-9. 11.Walker, note8, p. 66. an 12. Simon Dalby, Contesting EssentialConcept: Reading the Dilemmasin Contemporary Discourse,"in Keith Krause and Security MichaelC. Williams, Studies eds., Critical Security (Minneapolis: University ofMinnesota Press, 1997),p. 20. 13.JacquesDerrida, Stanford 1993),p. 16. UP, (Stanford: Aporias 14. Ibid.,pp. 12-35. 15. See Anthony outsideSecurity," Alternatives no. Burke, 25, "Poetry 3 (2000): 307-321,and, idem,In FearofSecurity PlutoAustralia, (Sydney: work this in direction been carried byCostasConhas out 2001). Valuable who not stantinou, urgesus to see security as "a rescuefrom dangerbuta freedom from care of danger... a continuous, the spiritual, seafaring "the set agon,"and MichaelDillon,who critically interrogates limits by to ... howsecurity, security our modern political imagination byshowing itself thoselimits, us the Costas exceeding challenges to out-live modern": M. Constantinou, "Poetics Security," of Alternatives no. 3 (2000): 292; 25, Dillon,note7, p. 10. 16. Walker, note8, p. 71. 17. Berki, note6, pp. 32-33.

Burke 25 Anthony

18.HansJ. Politics Nations (NewYork: 1973), Morgenthau, among Knopf, pp. 553-555. 19. Kennan,cited in Noam Chomsky, the Turning Tide:TheUS and LatinAmerica BlackRose,1987),p. 48. (NewYork: 20. RichardWoolcott, "The Perilsof Freedom,"Weekend Australian, Apr.22-23,1995,p. 24. 21. MichelFoucault, trans. "Governmentality," Pasquale Pasquino,in Graham ColinGordon, PeterMiller, and Foucault Burchell, eds., The EffectStudies Governmentality in Wheatsheaf, (London:Harvester 1991),p. 90. 22. MichelFoucault, D. Politics, ed., Culture, Lawrence KritzPhilosophy, man (London:Routledge, 1988),pp. 76-77. note21, p. 92. 23. Foucault, 24. Ibid.,pp. 98-102. 25. Ibid.,pp. 101-102. 26. Colin Gordon,"Governmental An in Rationality: Introduction," note21, p. 20. Burchell, Gordon, Miller, 27. ThomasHobbes,Leviathan (London:Penguin, 1985),p. 186. 28. JohnLocke, TwoTreatises Government UK: Camof (Cambridge, UP, 1967),pp. 305-309. bridge note26, pp. 11-16. 29. Gordon, 30. Ibid.,p. 17. 31.Jeremy "The Principles CivilLife," JohnBowring, of in Bentham, vol. ed., TheWorksJeremy Bentham, 1 (London:Simpkin, Marshall, 1837), of added. p. 302; emphasis 32. Ibid.,p. 308. 33. Ibid.,p. 304; emphasis added. 34. Ibid.,p. 312. 35. Gordon, note26, pp. 21-23; Bentham, note31, p. 302. 36. Gordon, note26, p. 20. 37. Bentham, note31, p. 307. 38. Foucaultoutlinedbiopowerin "The Rightof Death and Power overLife,"thefinalchapterof TheHistory Sexuality, 1. He characvol. of terizes emergence, its from seventeenth the as from the century, a shift to to sovereign's right killtreasonous persons "thecalculated management oflife" focused aroundtwopoles: discipline thebodyas machine, and and the bodyof the species all the opaque processesof public healthand With camea mutation power, it in echoed in Bentham: population. The growing assumedbytheactionof thenorm,at importance theexpenseof thejuridicalsystem thelaw... a power of whose taskis to takechargeof liferequirescontinuous corrective and mechanisms. is no longer a matterof bringing It regulatory deathintoplayin thefieldofsovereignty, ofdistributing but the in living thedomainofvalueand utility. MichelFoucault,TheHistory Sexuality, 1 (NewYork: vol. of Peregrine, 1987),p. 144. 39. For excellent on of writing theproduction space bygeopolitical see Critical reason, GearoidO'Tuathail, Geopolitics (Minneapolis: University ofMinnesota Press, 1996),and GearoidO'Tuathailand SimonDalby, eds., Rethinking Geopolitics (London:Routledere, 1998). 40.G. W.F.Hegel, Clarendon, 1977),p. 4. Phenomenology (Oxford: of Spirit
41. JrgenHabermas, ThePhilosophical Discourse Modernity (London: of 1987), p. 12. Polity,

26

Aporias Security of 42. Elizabeth Anscombe, ed., Descartes:PhilosophicalWritings (Mel-

bourne:Nelson,1966),p. 153. 43. CostasM. Constantinou, "Poetics Security," of Alternatives no. 3 25, (2000): 288.

45. Ibid.,p. 156. 4b. Lr.w. t. Hegel, l nernilosopnyHistory York: rrometneus, (fslew oj 1990),pp. 91-99,80-87. 47. Ibid. 48. Pierre "On trans. Art Clastres, Ethnocide," Pefanis, and Text, Julian no. 28 (May1988): 53. 49. Hegel,pp. 151-152. don: Routledge, 1996),p. 25.
50. Moira Gatens, Imaginary and Corporeality Bodies:Ethics, Power, (Lon51. G. W. F. Hegel, Elements thePhilosophy Right(Cambridge, UK: of of

44. Burke, note 1; George W. Bush, Address JointSessionofCongress to and the American People, Sept. 20, 2001.

UP, Cambridge 1991 [1821]), p. 114. note50, p. 25. 52. Gatens, 53. lickner, note9, p. b. 54.J.AnnTickner citesSandraHarding'sargument thatan African worldview whichtheeconomicbehaviour individuals embedded "in of is in a socialorder, a communal is seen orientation as 'deviant' neoclassiby cal economictheory; it is one thatrepresents different of ecoa yet type nomicbehaviour to note9, p. 73. Tickner, specific othercultures":

Philosophy (London:Routledge, 1993),p. 44. 56. Dillon,note7, p. 16. how 57. Gatens, note50, p. 23. It is easyto demonstrate suchformationsare also ruptured multiple ironies.The role of womenin the by them armedservices stillhighly is ambiguous(some statesstillbarring from nowincluding combatroles,others them),thegeneralpresenceof in Likewomen economies themilitary. gender destabilizing long-standing of dochad close experience combat(as nurses, wise,womenhaveoften can also and the experienceof combatand injury tors,and civilians), themto a traumatic destabilize men'sexperience masculinity, of exposing and terrifviner consciousness frailtv embodiment. of and &Row, 1978),p. 109. in note9, p. 9. One terrible 59. Tickner, exampleofthiseconomy actionwas the Indonesianinvasionof East Timorin 1975. Indonesia deofa of fended actions which its included series brutal counterinsurgency as the fensives through late 1970sand early1980sthatkilledas many two resistance movethe hundredthousandpeople- by portraying Fretilin of state.In 1974,Australian mentas threat thesecurity theIndonesian to in echoed bySohartothenext PrimeMinister GoughWhitlam, rhetoric state East year, arguedthatan independent Timorwouldbe "an unviable and potentialthreatto the stability the area": NancyViviani,"Ausof 30 and Australian Outlook (Aug.1976): 97. tralians theTimorissue," 60. Gordon, note26, p. 48. Reader 61. MichelFoucault, citedin Paul Rabinow, ed., TheFoucault Pantheon, (NewYork: 1984). UK: UP, (Cambridge, Cambridge 2000),pp. 187-188;see also TobyMiller,
and GlobalPolitics 62. Roland Bleiker,PopularDissent,Human Agency, Years'Crisis:1919-1939 (New York: Harper 58. E. H. Carr, The Twenty

55. GeneviveLloyd, TheMan ofReason: "Male"and "Female" Western in

Burke 27 Anthony and thePostmodern The Well-Tempered Citizenship, Culture, Subject(BaltiSelf:

more:JohnsHopkinsUP, 1993); and Anthony Burke,In FearofSecurity PlutoAustralia, 2001). (Sydney: Bodies Women: 63. Gatens, note50,p. 27; Rosalyn Ethics, of Diprose,The E. and 1994); William Embodiment, Sexual (London: Routledge, Difference of The University Minnesota (Minneapolis: Connolly, Ethos Pluralisation of and on Press, 1995). Forfurther poliresponsibility, world writings ethics, Ethicsand Difwithout Burke,"Strangers tics,see Anthony Strangeness: Australia and the IndonesianNew Order,"Communal/ between ference and International Relations, Post-Modernism: Ethics, Jim George,"Realist Millennium no. 2 24, Thematic," beyondthe Egoism-Anarchy Thinking
Politics(MinEthicsand World Michael Shapiro, Moral Spaces: Rethinking Studies no. 2 (Oct. 2000); cultural and Plural:Journal Transnational Cross 8, of

ticein Bosnia(Minneapolis:MinnesotaUP, 1998); David Campbelland

and Violence, (1995); David Campbell, NationalDeconstruction: Identity, Jus-

UP, neapolis:Minnesota 1999).