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1st class The terminology used here will follow the guides given in [33]:

It is known as embedded information or hidden information, the information which is secretly sent. The audio track, image, video, text, or in essence, the data among which the information is to be embedded, receives the name of carrier or cover. Depending on the specic kind of cover, one can also say cover audio, cover image, etc. The object resulting of the insertion of the information to embed into the carrier is called stego-object. As before, the terms stego-audio, stegoimage, etc. can also be used. The key (which may have been) used in the process is known as stegokey, although when the context does not give place to doubts, just key can be used. ---Steganography(stego) is hide secrets ----A steganographic method consists of an embedding algorithm
and an extraction algorithm. ---The embedding algorithm describes how to hide a message into the cover object. ----The extraction algorithm illustrates how to extract the message from the stego object. ----To reduce distortion on a cover object based on a tree structure is called tree based parity check (TBPC)

-------- The toggle criteria of a node in the TBPC method can be relaxed by the strategy of majority vote. ---------Our strategy inherits the efciency of the TBPC method and produces a stego object with least distortion under the tree based parity check model. -------The embedding efciency is dened to be the number of hidden message bits per embedding modication. -------Higher embedding efciency implies better undetectability for steganographic methods. -------The lower embedding efciency is dened to be the ratio of the number of hidden message bits to the maximum embedding modications. --------The lower embedding efciency is related to undetectability in the worst case. It implies steganographic security in the worst case. Thus, the lower embedding efciency is also an important security factor for a steganographic system.

2nd class ---------Before embedding and extraction, a location nding method determines a sequence of locations that point to elements in the cover object. -----------The embedding algorithm modies the elements in these locations to hide the message ------------ the extraction algorithm can recover the message by inspecting the same sequence of locations. ---------The TBPC (tree based parity check )method is a least signicant bit (LSB) steganographic method.

------Only the LSBs of the elements pointed by the determined locations are used for embedding and extraction. -----The TBPC method constructs a complete N-ary tree, called the master tree, to represent the LSBs of the cover object. -----Then it lls the nodes of the master tree with the LSBs of the cover object level by level, from top to bottom and left to right. Every node of the tree corresponds to an LSB in the cover object. Denote the number of leaves of the master tree by L. ------The TBPC embedding algorithm derives an L-bit binary string, called the master string, by performing parity check on the master tree from the root to the leaves (e.g. see Figure 1.).
------The embedding algorithm hides the message by modifying the bit values of some nodes in the master tree. -----Assume that the length of the message is also L. Performing the bitwise exclusive-or operation between the message and the master string, we obtain a toggle string (e.g. see Figure 1).

----------Then the embedding algorithm constructs a new complete N-ary tree, called the toggle tree in the bottom-up order and lls the leaves with the bit values of the toggle string and the other nodes with 0.

---------Then level by level, from the bottom to the root, each non-leaf node together with its child nodes are ipped if all its child nodes have bits 1 (e.g. see Figure 2). -------The embedding algorithm obtains the stego tree by performing exclusive-or between the master tree and the toggle tree (e.g. see Figure 3).

------The TBPC extraction algorithm is simple. We can extract the message by performing parity check on each root-leaf path of the stego tree from left to right.

N-ary Trees
In the preceding section we considered trees in which the nodes can have arbitrary degrees. In particular, the general case allows each of the nodes of a tree to have a different degree. In this section we consider a variation in which all of the nodes of the tree are required to have exactly the same degree. Unfortunately, simply adding to Definition the additional requirement that all of the nodes of the tree have the same degree does not work. It is not possible to construct a tree which has a finite number of nodes all of which have the same degree N in any case except the trivial case of N=0. In order to make it work, we need to introduce the notion of an empty tree as follows: Definition (N-ary Tree) An N-ary tree T is a finite set of nodes with the following properties:
1. 2.

Either the set is empty, ; or The set consists of a root, R, and exactly N distinct N-ary trees. subsets, ,

That is, the remaining nodes are partitioned into , ..., , each of which is an N-ary tree such that .

According to Definition , an N-ary tree is either the empty tree, , or it is a nonempty set of nodes which consists of a root and exactly N subtrees. Clearly, the empty set contains neither a root, nor any subtrees. Therefore, the degree of each node of an N-ary tree is either zero or N. There is subtle, yet extremely important consequence of Definition that often goes

unrecognized. The empty tree, , is a tree. That is, it is an object of the same type as a non-empty tree. Therefore, from the perspective of object-oriented program design, an empty tree must be an instance of some object class. It is inappropriate to use the null reference to represent an empty tree, since the null reference refers to nothing at all! The empty trees are called external nodes because they have no subtrees and therefore appear at the extremities of the tree. Conversely, the non-empty trees are called internal nodes . Figure shows the following tertiary (N=3) trees:

In the figure, square boxes denote the empty trees and circles denote non-empty nodes. Except for the empty trees, the tertiary trees shown in the figure contain the same sets of nodes as the corresponding trees shown in Figure .

Figure: Examples of N-ary trees.

3rd class
MAJORITY VOTE STRATEGY

Two critical issues for a steganographic method are: (1) reducing distortion on cover objects, and (2) better efciency for embedding and extraction. We give a majority vote strategy on building the toggle tree. It uses the least number of 1s under the tree based parity check model. Since the number of 1s in the toggle tree is the number of modications on the master tree (i.e., the cover object), the majority vote strategy can produce a stego tree with least distortion on the master tree.

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