Chapter 4 Fuels and Combustion

CHAPTER 4 FUELS AND COMBUSTION
Fuel is any material that stores energy and that can later be extracted to perform mechanical work in a controlled manner.
TYPES OF FUELS
Chemical fuels are substances that release energy by reacting with substances around them, most notably by the process of oxidation Biofuel derived from biomass (can be solid, liquid, or gas) Fossil fuels are hydrocarbons, primarily coal and petroleum. Nuclear fuel is any material that is consumed to derive nuclear energy by either fission or fusion.
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WHERE DO FOSSIL FUELS COME FROM?
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HOW DO FOSSIL FUELS CREATE MOTION?
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Nearly 80% of worlds commercial energy comes from fossil fuels!
Coal
Natural Gas
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Oil

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FOSSIL FUELS
Formation: Due to the anaerobic decomposition of remains of organisms by exposure to heat and pressure in the Earth's crust over millions of years. Fossil fuels originate from the earth as a result of the slow decomposition and chemical conversion of organic material. They come in three basic forms: solid (coal), liquid (oil), and natural gas. Contains: High percentages of Carbon and include coal, petroleum, and natural gas. They range from volatile materials with low carbon : hydrogen ratios like methane, to liquid petroleum to nonvolatile materials composed of almost pure carbon, like anthracite coal.
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Importance: Because they can be burned producing significant amounts of energy per unit weight. Reserves: With the present utility levels, these fuels are estimated to last for: Coal: 148 years; Oil: 43 years; Natural gas: 61 years Limits and Alternatives: The principle of supply and demand suggests that as hydrocarbon supplies diminish, prices will rise. Therefore, higher prices will lead to increased alternative, renewable energy supplies. Alternative sources of energy include nuclear, hydroelectric, solar, wind and geothermal.
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Environmental Effects: Combustion of fossil fuels generates sulfuric, carbonic, and nitric acids, which fall to Earth as acid rain, impacting both natural areas and the built environment. Burning of fossil fuels release lots of radioactive materials (like uranium and thorium), particulate matter, volatile organic compounds into the atmosphere. Burning of coal generates large amounts of ash and fly ash.
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MERITS OF COAL
Cheap: Cheaper per unit energy than oil or natural gas. Availability: Coal is the worlds most abundant fossil fuel. It will continue to be an important global resource. Efficiency: Larger power plants are more efficient. 38% of the chemical energy is converted to energy. Safety: Safest fossil fuel to transport, store and handle.
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TYPES OF COAL
According to geological order of formation, coal is classified on the basis of percentage of Carbon presence and listed them in ascending order of grade/rank. (1) Peat, (2) Lignite, (3) Sub-bituminous, (4) Bituminous, (5) Subanthracite, (6) Anthracite, with increasing percentage of Carbon presence. After anthracite, graphite is formed.
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Peat
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Peat is a heterogeneous material consisting of recently decomposed plant matter and inorganic minerals. This material is on its way to becoming coal but its plant debris source is still easily recognizable. Peat is not an ASTM rank of coal. It is, however, considered the first geological step in coals formation. It contains up to 90 percent moisture. Although not attractive as a utility fuel, it is abundant in many parts of the world.
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Lignite
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Lignite is the lowest grade/rank of coal. Lignite derives its name from the Latin lignum, which means wood. It is the peat that has been compressed, dewatered and lithified into a rock. It is brown and laminar in structure, and often contains recognizable plant structures. It originates mostly from resin-rich plants and is therefore high in both inherent moisture, as high as 30 percent, and volatile matter. Its heating value ranges between 14,650 to 19,300 kJ/kg. Because of the high moisture content and low heating value, lignite it is not economical to transport over long distances and it is usually burned by utilities at the mine site.

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Bituminous
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Bituminous coal: It derives its name from bitumen, an asphaltic residue obtained in the distillation of some fuels. The largest group, bituminous coal is a broad class of coals containing 46 to 86 mass percent of fixed carbon and 20 to 40 percent of volatile. Bituminous coals range in heating value from 25,600 to 32,600 kJ/kg. Bituminous coals usually burn easily, especially in pulverized form. The bituminous rank is subdivided into five groups based on VM presence. The lower the volatility, the higher the heating value.
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Subbituminous coal: This is a class of coal with generally lower heating values than bituminous coal, between 19,300 to 26,750 kJ/kg. It is relatively high in inherent moisture content, as much as 15 to 30 percent, but often low in sulfur content. It is brownish black or black and mostly homogeneous in structure. Subbituminous coals are usually burned in pulverized form.
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Anthracite
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Anthracite: This is the highest grade/rank of coal. It contains nearly 86 to 98 mass percent of fixed carbon on a dry, mineral matter-free basis and a low content of volatile matter, less than 2 to 14 mass percent chiefly methane, CHn. Anthracite is a shiny black, dense, hard, brittle coal that borders on graphite at the upper end of fixed carbon. It burns slowly and has a heating value just below that of the highest for bituminous coal . Its use in steam generators is largely confined to burning on stokers, and rarely in pulverized form.
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COAL ANALYSIS
There are two types of coal analysis: Proximate and Ultimate, both done on a mass percent basis. Both of these methods may be based on: As Received (AR): includes Total Moisture (TM) and useful for combustion calculations. Air Dried (AD): includes Inherent Moisture (IM) only. Dry Basis (DB): excludes all Moisture. Dry Ash Free (DAF): excludes all Moisture & Ash
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PROXIMATE ANALYSIS
It determines the mass percentages of fixed carbon (FC), volatile matter (VM), moisture (M), and ash (A). Sulfur (S) is obtained m a separate determination. FC + VM + M +A = 100 % by mass This provides meaningful information readily for coals suitability in steam generators.
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Moisture: Loss in weight of a 1 g sample of coal when subjected to 105 0C for a period of 1 hour. Volatile Matter: Loss in weight (other than water vapor) when the sample is heated in the absence of oxygen in a standard test up to 950 0C for about 7 min. It consists of CH4, HC, H2, and CO and other incombustible gases (like CO2 and N2) that result from distillation and decomposition. Thus the VM is an index of the gaseous fuels present. Ash: Noncombustible residue after complete combustion of dried coal in a standard test at 720 0C . It is the inorganic salts contained in coal. Fixed Carbon: The difference between 100% and the sum of M, VM, and A. However, this difference does not represent all the carbon that was in the coal, and possibly it may include Sulphur, Nitrogen, Oxygen, etc.

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EFFECTS OF VARIOUS CONSTITUENTS ON COAL QUALITY

Volatile Matter: Proportionately increases flame length, and helps in easier ignition of coal Sets minimum limit on the furnace height and volume Tendency to produce smoke, and Influences secondary air requirement and distribution aspects Heating value (CV) Ash: Ash is an impurity that will not burn. Reduces handling and burning capacity and increases handling costs Affects combustion efficiency and boiler efficiency Causes clinkering and slagging Oxygen: Aids ignition and enhance combustibility.

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Moisture: Moisture in coal must be transported, handled and stored. Since it replaces combustible matter, it decreases the heat content per kg of coal Increases heat loss, due to evaporation and superheating of vapour Enables self-pulverization during combustion Helps, to a limit, in binding fines Aids radiation heat transfer Sulphur: Affects clinkering and slagging tendencies Corrodes chimney and other equipment such as air heaters and economisers Limits exit flue gas temperature

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ULTIMATE ANALYSIS
A more scientific test than proximate analysis. Ultimate analysis gives the mass percentages of the chemical elements that constitute the coal. These include carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen, and sulfur. Ash is determined as a whole, sometimes in a separate analysis. C + H + O + N + S + M + A = 100 % by mass The dry and ash free analysis on combustible basis is obtained on dividing C, H, O, N, and S by the fraction {1- (M+A)/100}.
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COAL / COKE / CAKING COAL

Coke: Bituminous coal from which the volatile constituents have been driven off by heat, so that the fixed carbon and the ash are fused together. Coal without VM. Coke Coal: Carbonized or partially burnt coal. Applications of Coke: Iron is made in a blasting furnace using coke as fuel. Since smoke-producing constituents are driven off during the coking of coal, coke forms a desirable fuel for stoves and furnaces in which conditions are not suitable for the complete burning of bituminous coal itself.
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Coking Coal: Coal that produces useful residual coke when heated in the absence of air. Non-Coking Coal: Coal which may form a solid-residue but may not be suitable for manufacture of coke. Caking Coal: Coal that softens and agglomerates on heating and after volatile matter has been driven off at high temperatures; produces a solid coherent residue. All caking coals are not good coking coals. Non-Caking Coal (Free-Burning Coal): Coal that doesnt cake or leaves a powdery residue when heated in the absence of air. A noncaking coal is always a non-coking coal. A non-coking coal may not be non-caking coal. (Reason: a non-coking coal can also produce coke which is never suitable for steel industry).
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PHYSICAL AND MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF COAL

Specific Gravity: Depends on the rank of the coal and degree of mineral impurity. Particle Size Distribution: Depends partly on the rank of the coal, which determines its brittleness, and on the handling, crushing and milling it has undergone. It is necessary to know these data before coal is mined, so that suitable crushing machinery can be designed to optimise the particle size for transport and use. Float-Sink Test: Determines the optimum particle size of coal for washing with a liquid (of known density), which is required to remove the maximum ash content with the minimum work. Abrasion Test: Describes coals propensity and ability to wear away machinery and undergo autonomous grinding.

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Caking Index: A laboratory method of indicating the degree of caking, coking or binding together of a coal when a sample is heated in a prescribed manner. Free Swelling Index: Heating a small sample of coal in a standard crucible to around 800 0C for a specified time, or until all volatiles are driven off, a small coke button remains in the crucible. The cross sectional profile of this coke button compared to a set of standardised profiles determines the Free Swelling Index. It is been devised to determine the extent of caking of a coal. A free-burning coal has a high value of swelling index, which indicates that it somewhat expands in volume during combustion.

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Grindability Index: It is a measure of coals resistance to crushing. It is inversely proportional to the power required to grind the coal to a specified particle size for burning. If the selected coal has a grindability index of 50, it would require twice the grinding power of a standard coal (whose index is considered as 100!) to produce specified particle size. Coal type, moisture and ash affect grindability . Weatherability: It is a measure of how well coal can be stockpiled for long periods of time without crumbling to pieces. Excessive crumbling or weatherability of the coal may drive away the smaller particles by either wind or rain. Sulphur Content: Sulphur in coal gets oxidized during combustion and generates heating value. However, SO2 emission is a environmental concern.

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Heating Value: It is the amount of heat released during the combustion of a specified amount of a chosen fuel. The energy value is a characteristic for each substance. Heating value is commonly determined by use of a bomb calorimeter. HHV/GHV/GCV/HCV: The energy realized when all the products of combustion including the vapors, (if any produced) are brought back to the original pre-combustion temperature. LHV/NHV/LCV: HHV minus heat of vapourization of the water vapor. It is useful in comparing fuels where condensation of the combustion products is impractical.
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Ash Softening Temperature: Temperature at which the ash softens and becomes plastic, Ash Fusion Temperature: Temperature at which the ash melts/fuses and become a hard glassy slag known as clinker. Most furnaces are designed to remove ash as a powdery residue. Removal of clinkers generating ash in furnaces is not convenient because it requires cleaning. If the furnace temperature is higher than the AST, all the ash will melt and would come out of the furnace as a molten slag. To discharge ash in solid form, a high AST is required.
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AFT are determined by viewing a moulded specimen of the coal ash through an observation window in a high-temperature furnace. The ash, in the form of a cone, pyramid or cube, is heated steadily past 1000 0C to as high as preferably 1,600 0C and recorded the following temperatures. Deformation temperature: Corners of the mould become rounded. Softening (sphere) temperature: Top of the mould takes on a spherical shape. Hemisphere temperature: Entire mould takes on a hemisphere shape. Flow (fluid) temperature: Molten ash collapses to a flattened button on the furnace floor.

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TYPES OF ASH
Fly Ash: Fine incombustible powder carried away by the exhaust gases from CC. Fly ash is a result of mineral matter present in the coal and a small amount of carbon that remains from the incomplete combustion. Bottom Ash: Coarse, granular, incombustible byproduct that is collected from the bottom of furnaces. Boiler Slag: Coarser than conventional fly ash and is formed in cyclone boilers, which produce a molten ash that is cooled with water.
Fly Ash
Bottom Ash
Boiler Slag

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Fuel Oil: Dead marine animals and vegetable matter accumulated for millions of years ultimately got transformed into oil, mainly in sedimentary rocks, by pressure and heat. Crude oil contains hundreds of different types of hydrocarbons (mostly Paraffins, Aromatics, Napthenes) all mixed together, which need to be separated to make them useful.
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The FCC process vapourizes and breaks the long-chain molecules of the high-boiling hydrocarbon liquids into much shorter molecules, at high temperature and moderate pressure, with a fluidized powdered catalyst. Each different chain length has a different property that makes it useful in a different way. Desired Physical Properties: Specific Gravity Viscosity Fire Point Flash Point Pour Point, and Heating Value
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Natural and Petroleum Gas: Used for heating, cooking, and as motor fuel.
Small alkanes (1 to 4 carbon atoms) Commonly known by the names methane, ethane, propane, butane Boiling range = less than 40 0C Often liquified under pressure to create LPG
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COAL-OIL & COAL-WATER MIXTURE

COM: Mixture of fine coal with liquid fuel Merits of COM:
Cheaper than oil Handled like oil in pipes and by pumps Better combustion efficiency than pure oil alone Better utilization of storage space than coal Better utilizes the low rank coal Heavier than water, hence fire extinguishment is easer.
COW: With the help of a suitable stabilizer, fine coal is suspended in water to form a slurry.
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INDUSTRIAL WASTES AND BYPRODUCTS

Refinery gas : Mixture of various gases generated during distillation of crude oil. Coke-oven gas: Carbonization of coal to form coke. H2: 50%, CH4: 33%, Other gases: 17% (by volume). Regenerator gas: Catalytic cracking process produces nearly 10 % CO and high inert gases, which is mostly used at the site itself for various needs. Blast furnace gas: Produced in blast furnace, when iron ore is reduced with coke to metallic iron. N2: 60%, CO2: 18-20%, Remaining: CO + O2. It has a fairly low heating value.
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SYNTHETIC FUELS
Synthetic fuel / synfuel is a liquid/gaseous fuel obtained from coal, natural gas, or biomass using either direct or indirect methods.
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COAL GASIFICATION
Coal gas / Town gas: It is a mixture of CO, H2, CO2 and H2O (vapour) from obtained from coal. Coal gas, which is a combustible gas, was traditionally used as a source of energy for municipal lighting. Alternatively, the coal gas can be converted into transportation fuels such as gasoline and diesel through additional treatment. Producer gas, also called suction gas, is made from coke, anthracite or other carbonaceous material. Air is passed over the red-hot carbonaceous fuel and CO is produced. The reaction is exothermic and proceeds as follows: 2C + O2 + N2 2CO + N2

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Water gas is a synthetic gas, containing CO and H2. The gas is made by passing steam over a red-hot hydrocarbon fuel such as coke. H2O + C H2 + CO (H = +131 kJ/mol) The reaction is endothermic so the fuel must be continually reheated to keep the reaction going. It is a useful product but requires careful handling because of the risk of CO poisoning.
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COMBUSTION REACTIONS
Combustion is the conversion of a substance called a fuel into chemical compounds known as products of combustion by combination with an oxidizer. Fuel + Oxidizer Products of combustion + Energy The combustible elements in any fuel are mostly C, H2 an S.
Combustible Carbon Hydrogen Sulfur CO Methane Ethane Propane Butane
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Molecular Weight 12 2 32 28 16 30 44 58
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Reaction C + O2 CO2 2 H2 + O2 2 H2O S + O2 SO2 CO + 0.5 O2 CO2 CH4 + 2 O2 CO2 + 2 H2O C2H6 + 3.5 O2 2 CO2 + 3 H2O C3H8 + 5 O2 3 CO2 + 4 H2O C4H10 + 6.5 O2 4 CO2 + 5 H2O
Heat Release (MJ/kg) 32.8 141.9 9.3 10.2 55.5 51.9 50.35 49.5

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Fuel Paraffins Gasoline Kerosene Diesel Coal (Anthracite) Coal (Lignite) Coal (Peat)
Higher Heating Value (MJ/Kg) 46 47.3 46 46.2 27 15 6
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Incomplete Combustion occurs only when enough oxygen is unavailable for the fuel to react completely and produce CO2 and H2O. Criteria for Complete Combustion: Supply of enough air. Secure enough turbulence for the air to access the fuel. Maintenance of high furnace temperature to ignite the fuelair mixture. Provide sufficient furnace volume to allow time for the combustion to be completed.
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STOICHIOMETRIC AIR
Stoichiometry is a branch of chemistry that deals with the relative quantities of reactants and products in chemical reactions. Oxygen requirement for various elements:
C 12 kg 1 kg C kg 2 H2 4 kg 1 kg H kg S 32 kg 1 kg S kg
O2 32 kg 2.67 kg 2.67 C kg O2 32 kg 8 kg 8H kg O2 32 kg 1 kg S kg
CO2 44 kg 3.67 kg 3.67C kg 2 H2O 36 kg 9 kg 9H kg SO2 64 kg 2 kg 2S kg

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Oxygen required for complete combustion of 1 kg fuel is WO2 = 2.67C + 8H +S O where O is the oxygen available in the fuel. Theoretical air required for complete combustion is WT = (2.67C + 8H +S O)/0.232 WT = 11.5 C + 34.5 (H O/8) + 4.3 S To ensure complete combustion, it becomes necessary to supply surplus or excess air. % Excess Air = (WA WT)*100/WT Dilution Coefficient (d) = WA / WT
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COMBUSTION REACTIONS ON MOLAR BASIS

CxHy + (x + y/4) O2 + (x + y/4)*3.76 O2 x CO2 + (y/2) H2O + (x + y/4)*3.76 N2 CH4 + 2 O2 + 2*(3.76) N2 CO2 + 2 H2O + 7.52 N2 With 50% excess air, the above combustion equation becomes CH4 + 2*(1.5) O2 + 2*(1.5)*(3.76) N2 CO2 + 2 H2O + O2 + 11.28 N2 With less than the needed excess air, there may be a small amount of CO present in the products. For example, with only 15% excess air, CH4 + 2*(1.15) O2 + 2*(1.15)*(3.76) N2 0.95 CO2 + 0.05 CO + 2 H2O + 0.325 O2 + 8.65 N2

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ACTUAL AIR-FUEL RATIO

Actual amount of air supplied per kg of fuel can be ascertained from the measured volumetric composition of combustion products. Methods Available: Orsat analyser Haldane apparatus Infra-red gas analyser, and Gas chromatograph
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ORSAT ANALYSER
It is an equipment to analyse a gas sample (flue gas) for its O2, CO and CO2 content. It is very simple, portable and most frequently used. It essentially consists of a calibrated water-jacketed gas burette connected by glass capillary tubing to three absorption pipettes containing chemical solutions that absorb the gasses it is required to measure.
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The base of the gas burette is connected to a levelling bottle to enable readings to be taken at constant pressure and to transfer the gas to and from the absorption media. By opening the stop valve and lowering the levelling bottle, the gas is allowed in the measuring burette. The gas is then passed into the caustic potash pipette, to find the carbon dioxide presence. Next, the gas is sent to pyrogallol pipette to find the oxygen presence, and then finally to cuprous chloride pipette to get CO amount. CO2 + CO + O2 + N2 = 100 % (by volume)
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DRY FLUE GAS ANALYSIS

Mass of dry flue gases (Mdfg) = 44CO2 + 28CO + 32O2 + 28N2 where CO2, CO, O2, and N2 are the volumetric percentages in dry flue gases (dfg) as measured. Therefore, % CO2 by mass = 44CO2*100/(44CO2 + 28CO + 32O2 + 28N2) % O2 by mass = 32O2*100/(44CO2 + 28CO + 32O2 + 28N2) % N2 by mass = 28N2*100/(44CO2 + 28CO + 32O2 + 28N2) % CO by mass = 28CO*100/(44CO2 + 28CO + 32O2 + 28N2) This is gravimetric composition of the dry flue gas.
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Mass of C per kg of dfg = 12(CO2 + CO)/(44CO2 + 28CO + 32O2 + 28N2) If Cab is the mass fraction of carbon C, which has been oxidized to either CO2 or CO, then C Cab is the mass fraction of unburnt carbon in the refuse. For 1 kg fuel burnt, there should be Cab kg of carbon in the dfg. Mass of dfg produced per kg fuel = Cab(44CO2 + 28CO + 32O2 + 28N2)/12(CO2 + CO) Mass of N2 in dfg per kg fuel = 28N2Cab/12(CO2 + CO) If N is the mass fraction of nitrogen in fuel, the nitrogen coming with air (MN2) = {28N2Cab/12(CO2 + CO)} N Actual amount of air supplied per kg fuel is (WA) = MN2/0.768 If N in the fuel is negligible, WA = 3.04N2Cab/(CO2 + CO)

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HEATING VALUE OF A FUEL

Combustible Carbon (Coke) Carbon Carbon Monoxide Hydrogen Sulfur Product of Formula, Molecular Heat of Reaction Heat of Reaction Combustion and weight and State (kJ/kg mol) (kJ/kg) State C, 12, s C, 12, s CO, 28, g H2, 2, g S, 32, s CO2 (g) CO2 (g) CO2 (g) H2O (l) SO2 (g) 407,000 397,000 283,000 286,000 291,000 33,917 33,083 10,107 143,000 9094
Thus, the total heat released by complete combustion of 1 kg coal is, HHV = 33.917 C +143 (H O/8) + 9.094 S (MJ/kg) Dulong and Petit suggested the following formula: HHV = 33.83 C +144.45 (H O/8) + 9.38 S (MJ/kg) LHV = HHV 2.395mw (MJ/kg)

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CONTROL OF EXCESS AIR

Proper Control on correct amount of excess air maintains optimum combustion efficiency. Amount of CO2 and O2 in combustion gases are indicatives of excess air being used. The desirable CO2 level depends on the fuel and optimum excess air for the furnace. Desirable O2 values depends very less on the type of fuel. This makes O2 measurement as the preferred method of combustion control.

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If the measured O2 content is more than the desired, the air supply is to be reduced and vice versa. Excess air is then adjusted by controlling air supply to show the optimum value for CO2 or O2.
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Skrotzki and Vopat formula: % Excess air = {(O2 0.5CO)/(0.264N2 (O2 0.5CO)}*100 where O2, CO, and N2 are the volumetric percentages in dry flue gases. An approximate formula: % Excess air = 100*{[CO2)0/(CO2 + CO)] 1} = 100*{[O2 0.5CO]/[21 O2]} where (CO2)o = % CO2 in the stoichiometric dry products, and CO2, CO and O2 = % in the actual products.
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DRAUGHT (OR DRAFT) SYSTEM

Functions: To supply sufficient quantity of air to the furnace for the complete combustion of fuel. To remove the flue gases from the furnace for their exit to the atmosphere through chimney (stack).
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Methods of producing draught: Natural and Mechanical Natural Draught: The natural draught is produced by a chimney or stack. Its amount is dependent upon the average temperature difference between the flue gases within the chimney and the outside air and also on the height of the chimney above the level of the furnace grate. Weather conditions, boiler operating conditions and the height of the chimney have a considerable effect on the amount of natural draught.
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For a chimney of height, H (meter), the draught (N/m2) produced is given by
Let us assume that the volume of the flue gases is equal to the volume of air supplied for combustion, both volumes being measured at same temperature. Thus, the volume of 1 kg of flue gases at NTP is
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Volume of m kg of air per kg fuel at temperature Ta is
Mass of flue gas will be m+1 and its temperature is Tg. Density of flue gas,
Draught produced,
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If the draught is measured in terms of water column,
where h is in mm and H is in m.
For given H and Ta, the natural draught depends on the average gas temperature Tg. Higher is the Tg, greater the draught produced. Greater the Tg means, loss to the plant efficiency, hence a tradeoff need to be drawn.
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Functions of Stacks: To assist the fans in overcoming the pressure losses or share the burden of generating the necessary draught. To help disperse the gas effluent into atm at a sufficient height so as to minimize the pollution problems in the near vicinity.
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Stacks introduce pressure losses of their own. Therefore, the actual draught produced is less than the theoretical value arrived earlier.
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Due to the wind effect, the flue gases bend in the direction of wind instead of moving vertically up. If the exit velocity of flue gases at stack exit results in plume rise by H, the effective stack height, He = H + H Higher the exit velocity of flue gases at stack exit, greater will be the plume rise and better will be the dilution of flue gases. Several analytical methods are available for estimating the H. Correlations: Carson and Moses, Briggs

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Condition for Maximum Discharge through the Chimney:
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Mechanical Draught: This type of draught is needed when the natural draught produced by a chimney is not sufficient or where a certain draught must be maintained irrespective of weather conditions. In a large steam boiler, where economisers and air preheaters are used, the exit temperature of the flue gases is sufficiently reduced and in such cases the height of the chimney to produce a certain amount of draught may be excessive in height and cost. Under such conditions, mechanical draught is necessary.
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F.D. vs I.D. Lower maintenance costs. Consume less power Their load is reduced by the absence of additional gas equivalent of the fuel used. So, capital and operating costs are lower.
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Chapter 4 Fuels and Combustion

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Chapter 4 Fuels and Combustion

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CHAPTER 4 FUELS AND COMBUSTION

P O W E R P L A N T E N G I N E E R I N G BITS Pilani, Hyderabad Campus