ABSTRACT

Heat Exchanger is a device in which the exchange of energy takes place between two fluids at different temperature. A heat exchanger utilizes a fact that, where ever there is a temperature difference, flow of energy occurs. The flowing fluid provide the necessary temperature differences and thus force the energy to flow between them. The energy flowing in a heat exchanger may be either sensible energy or latent heat of flowing fluids. They are available in all kinds of shapes, forms and tarrifs. Commercially, the heat exchanger are commonly known as boilers, condensers, air-heaters, feed-heaters, cooling towers , economizer in power industry, as radiators in automobile industry, equipments in chemical industry and many others. Hence, it is one of the application of heat transfer which draws the maximum attention of a process engineer.

 CONTENTS
Principle of Heat Exchanger Classification of Heat Exchanger

Design Aspects of Heat Exchanger

Improvements In Technique My Ideas

Conclusion

References

1. Principles of Heat
Exchanger
In heat exchanger, the exchange of energy takes place between two fluids. Initially, let us assume that the energy being exchanged is the sensible energy. Now, the various term in concerned with heat exchanger can be defined as, The fluid which gives its energy to the other fluid is known as Hot Fluid . Due to loss of the internal energy, the temperature of the hot fluid decreases. On the hand, the fluid which receives energy is known as Cold Fluid. The internal energy as well as temperature of the cold fluid increases. Neglecting he energy losses from the heat exchanger to the atmosphere, we can say that Rate at which energy given by hot fluid = Rate at which energy is gained by cold fluid i.e. Rate of change of I.E. of hot fluid = Rate of change of I.E. of cold fluid i.e. (mCpT)hot (mCpT)cold = fluid

Tci - Inlet temp. of cold fluid Tce Outlet temp. of cold Then, (T)h = Thi The And, Hence, (mCp)h (Thi-The) = (mCp)c(TceTci). This is known as energy balance equation. The heat transfer in heat exchanger is same as heat given by hot body or heat received by cold fluid. Thus, q = (mCpT)hot or cold. (T)c = Tce Tci.

2. Classification of
Heat Exchanger
Heat Exchanger
Recuperativ e Regenerativ -e Mixed

where m is mass flow rate (kg/sec) Let, Thi Inlet temp. of hot fluid The Outlet temp. of hot fluid

The heat exchangers are mainly divided into three groups according to their working features.

(A) Recuperative -:

The fluids performing the heat exchange in the exchanger can have parallel or cross or counter flow. With both types of flow a single or multi-pass arrangement ids possible. These are suitable for heating, heating, evaporating or condensing application. Although, it is easier for construction, economical, but has less heat transfer coefficient.

3. Design Aspects of Heat Exchanger

When the Heat Exchanger is to be designed for a particular application, the following consideration are almost always taken into account. (1)Thermal analysis and transfer requirements -: (2)Mechanical design -: heat

(B) Regenerative -: In this type of heat exchanger, hot and cold fluids are made to flow alternatively through the same space. This cycle repeats giving periodic heat exchange. Hence, the heat exchanger is also known as periodic heat exchanger or Regenerator. It us used in pre-heater for steam power plant, blast furnace etc. But presence of complex temperature distribution and variation of temperature difference in a time and space, precise calculation of such exchanger is very difficult and practically insoluble problems. (C) Mixed -: It is more complex phenomenon of heat transfer where the heat transfer takes place with mass transfer. The heat is mostly carried out by the air. Up till now mechanical solutions of this type of heat exchanger are not developed and its design is done more or less by trial and error method. The common example of this type are cooling towers and evaporating condenser.

(preliminary)

(3)Design for manufacture -: (4)Pressure drop characteristics -: (5)Physical size and cost -:

(1)Thermal analysis and heat transfer requirements -:

It is primarily concerned with determination of the heat transfer surface area required to transfer heat as specified rate for the given flow rates and temperatures of the fluids. The temperature of the both fluids may change while flowing through exchanger. Therefore, Log mean temperature difference should be taken in calculating the surface area required for exchanging the required amount of heat. m = (1-2) / In(1/2) In practice the performance of all the heat exchanger is expressed in terms of counter flow heat exchanger. The LMDT is calculated by using a factor known

as correction factor. Now, m of LMTD of any type of heat exchanger, m = F(m) counter flow. Most of the time the water is used as coolent, so there is need to calculate the optimum temperature of the water. Colburn eqn.

Cast-Iron Stainless steel

25-30 16-20 for the

The material selectced exchanger must satisfy following requirements-:

(2)Mechanical design -:
Heat exchanger operating under relatively low pressure and temperature (15 bar and 150 c) do not require any detailed consideration regarding thermal stresses developed. Shell-: They are fabricated from steel pipe up to 30cm diameter. Steel or low alloy steel can be used which otherwise satisfy ASME Boiler and Pressure vessel code. The 10mm thickness which is satisfactory for shell side operating pressure up to 20bar.Shells are fabricated by rolling steel plate above 60cm. Material-: The application of stainless steel tubing for steam surface condenser are approximately 30 yrs old. Stainless steel 304 is used in cooling water environment with chloride concentration and 316 is used for sea water environment. MATERIAL Copper Aluminium Brass Mild-steel THRMAL RS/ CONDICTIVITY KG 380 225 110 40-50

Physical properties (available forms, finishing, tensile strength, ductility, weight), Mechanical properties (joining, fabricating and forming method, ease for joining and welding), climatic and chemical environment, service life and reliability.

Type of exchanger-: The use of proper type of condenser for particular application is the most important thing in the design of heat exchanger. Here, are some types of heat exchanger classifying according to their application-: Heat exchangers used in refrigeration industry, nuclear heat generation, industrial furnaces, cooling towers, air conditioners etc. Fouling character-: In direct type heat exchanger, the pipe surface gets coated with deposited impurities and scales which is formed due to chemical reaction in between pipe material and the fluid. This coating has very low thermal conductivity and hence results in a high thermal resistance. The deviation which affects thermal conductivity is taken known as Fouling factor. UA = 1 / ( 1 / h1A1 + F + 1 / h2A2), F = (Fi/A1) + (Fo/A2).

TYPE OF FLUID Sea water Treated water Industrial air

F (m2 K/W) 0.0000877 0.000175 0.00353

There are some types of fouling processes such as Precipitation or crystallization fouling, sedimentation or particulate, chemical reaction or polymerization, corrosion, biological and freeze fouling.

influence the calculation of heat transfer must be chosen with care. The tube diameters used vary from 6 mm to 50 mm O.D. And 25 mm tube size are preferred in those cases where mechanical cleaning is adopted. The triangular pitch gives a smaller bundle but cannot be mechanically cleaned. Baffle cut ranges from 20% to almost 50% of diameter of shell. The practical range of baffle spacing is 0.2 to 1 shell diameter. Optimum ratio of baffle cuts and spacing cannot be specified because of many uncertainties and insufficient data. Mechanical arrangement-: *Flow arrangements-: 1. spiral flow-:The unit can be mounted either horizontally or vertically. Horizontal mounting is preferred for slurry and sludge services where the unit is mounted vertically when one of the fluid is vapour. 2. Crossflow-: This type has conical covers on either end to facilitate to movement of one fluid in axial direction. This type is particularly useful when there is large difference in the volume of the two media to be handled. *Number of passes-: Normally one or two passes are adopted for the passage of cooling water in condenser. Only in the case of shortage of space for accommodating the condenser unit, a single pass unit which is smaller in physical size can be used.

(3)Pressure calculation-:

drop

The pressure drop through the shell side is proportional to the number of times fluid crosses the bundle between baffles. If the no. of baffles are N, then no. of crossing will be (N+1). The pressure drop is given by, p = fG2 Ds(N+1) / (2gDe). The relation between no. of baffles(N),Tube length(L) and Baffle space is given by, N + 1 = L / B. Use of fan or blower-: For a good flow passage of fluid through cross-sectional area, the restriction on the velocities that can be employed without causing excessive pressure drop or other problems such as erosion, noise and vibration must be considered. The maximum velocity in the case of liquid that is usually kept below 7.5 m/s and in the case of gases below 30 m/s.

(4)Design manufacturer-:

for

Dimensions-: Tube size, thickness, length and pitches all

(5)Physical size and cost-:

Service condition-: In actual operation, the tubes cannot be maintained in commercially clean condition for which standard rates of heat transfer coefficient have been determined for use in any calculation. The exchanger may be made in such way which gives minimum maintaining (i.e. cleaning) cost. The designing made be in such way which gives easier assembly or re-assembly. There are two methods of cleaning 1st is with chemicals and 2nd is with mechanical equipments. Permit size-: The avaibility of space is the major factor concerned during the design of heat exchanger. Which is mostly due to economic factor and some compact instruments like refridgertor and air-conditioners. Safety codes and standard lines-: There are some standard codes or some graphs, charts from which the designer will be safer, easier and economical.

transfer coefficient. So one should try the parallel combination on that stream with large pressure drop. And another method for the heat recovery such providing fins, twisted tape etc.

(2)Use of Non-Ferrous materialWater is highly corrosive to steel, particularly when the tube wall temperature is high and dissolved air is present. Therefore many industries use non ferrous tubes exclusively for heat transfer services involving water as coolant. The common non-ferrous materials are made of admiralty, red brass and copper. Sometimes Muntaz metal and aluminium bronze are used when water contains dissolved corrosive elements. Castings are relatively passive to water and large corrosion allowance (3mm) above structural requirements can be provided inexpensively by making the castings heavier.

4. Improvements in Techniques-:
(1)Increasing Heat Recovery-:
Shell and tube type exchangers are need to be connected in series or parallel so that the from the hot fluid more heat is recovered. The possible combination are : Seriesseries, Parallel-parallel and Seriesparallel. Since the pressure drop decreases with decrease of flow rate at a faster rate than the heat

(3)Area improvements-: *Tube bundles-:

Surface density is increased by providing the multipass shell and tube heat exchanger with large no of tubes of smallest diameters. Thickness of the heat resistant, almost stagnant fluid film, decrease due to increased Reynolds no. of flow on the outside and inside of flow. As heat transfer increases , the power requirement for pumping the two streams also increases. Turbulence promoters are also used sometimes.

*Secondary surface-: It can be provided by using fins one side or both side of the heat transferring surfaces. As the fluid having low heat transfer coefficient (ho) is allowed through extended surface Ao, the ratio Ai/Ao is correspondingly reduced and the overall heat transfer coefficient increases.

isolation changes. In order to cope with these fluctuations, the solar plant input may be backed up by fossil fuels, or the solar changes may be mitigated by a buffering storage system. The choice depends on demands, system and site conditions. In thermal solar power plants, thermal storage and/or fossil backup act as:

(4)Coefficient improvement-:
Thrust of the flowing fluid inside a curved channel results in normal reaction of wall on the fluid. A fluid particle flowing inside a curved channel moves away or towards the centre of curvature of the channel depending upon the intensity of the reaction on it. In heat exchanger using curved channels , secondary flow causes lateral mixing which continuously removes the hotter fluid from the boundary layer and replaces it by colder fluid in the central region(or vice-versa) resulting in high heat transfer coefficient at the wall. In this flow are also increased pressure drop and inhanced stability of flow.

An output management tool to prolong operation after sunset, to shift energy sales from low revenue offpeak hours to high revenue peak demand hours, and to contribute to guaranteed output An internal plant buffer, smoothing out insolation charges for steadying cycle operation, and for operational requirements such as blanketing steam production, component pre-heating and freeze protection.

(5)Matrices for regenerator-:

Ceramics heat transfer matrices have an advantage that their specific heat is much higher than that of steel. Like with any other power plant, solar power plant output must satisfy the demands of the utility market. During peak demand periods, kilowatt-hour prices are high and financial incentives are high for guaranteed supply. Solar plant input is limited by diurnal, seasonal and weather-related

Photovoltaic plants in general need no internal buffer, and output management can be achieved with battery or other electrochemical storage, pumped hydroelectric storage, or with diesel-generator backup.

Figure 1.11 Stored solar energy provides a firm capacity of 31MW

until midnight at which time fossil fuel backup us used.

5. My Ideas-:

system. Auxiliary energy may either be supplied either as heat before the power conversion system, or as electricity after it. If the photovoltaic route is chosen, extra electricity may be stored, usually in storage batteries, thereby extending the operating time of the system. For auxiliary power, an external electricity source is the only choice for photovoltaic systems.

6. Conclusion-:
Figure 1.3 Diagram of a basic solar energy conversion systems. The AUX. box represents some auxiliary source of thermal or electrical energy. If the demand (load) to be met is electricity (an electrical load) rather than heat, there are two common methods of converting solar energy into electricity. One method is by collecting solar energy as heat and converting it into electricity using a typical power plant or engine; the other method is by using photovoltaic cells to convert solar energy directly into electricity. Both methods are shown schematically in Figure 1.3. In general, if solar energy conversion systems are connected to a large electrical transmission grid, no storage or auxiliary energy supply is needed. If the solar energy conversion system is to be the only source of electricity, storage and auxiliary energy supply are usually both incorporated. If the thermal route is chosen, storage of heat rather than electricity may be used to extend the operating time of the Photovoltaic is a high-technology approach to converting sunlight directly into electrical energy. The electricity is direct current and can be used that way, converted to alternating current or stored for later use. Conceptually, in its simplest form a photovoltaic device is a solarpowered battery whose only consumable is the light that fuels it. There are no moving parts; operation is environmentally benign; and if the device is correctly encapsulated against the environment, there is nothing to wear out Because sunlight is universally available, photovoltaic devices have many additional benefits that make them usable and acceptable to all inhabitants of our planet. Photovoltaic systems are modular, and so their electrical power output can be engineered for virtually any application, from low-powered consumer useswristwatches, calculators and small battery chargers-to energysignificant requirements such as generating power at electric utility central stations (see figure 1). Moreover, incremental power additions are easily accommodated

in photovoltaic systems, unlike more conventional approaches such as fossil or nuclear fuel, which require multimegawatt plants to be economically feasible. To understand the many facets of photovoltaic power, one must understand the fundamentals of how the devices work. Although photovoltaic cells come in a variety of forms, the most common structure is a semiconductor material into which a large-area diode, or p-n junction, has been formed. The fabrication processes tend to be traditional semiconductor approachesdiffusion, ion implantation and so on. Electrical current is taken from the device through a grid contact structure on the front that allows the sunlight to enter the solar cell, a contact on the back that completes the circuit, and an antireflection coating that minimizes the amount of sunlight reflecting from the device. Figure 2 is a schematic depiction of a rudimentary solar cell that shows the important features. The fabrication of the p-n junction is key to successful operation of the photovoltaic device (as well as other important semiconductor devices). We will assume that the semiconductor material is singlecrystal silicon. Although photovoltaic technologists today use many other varieties of semiconductors, crystalline-silicon concepts represent a reasonable compromise for this discussion because they are well known and understood by physics students. Silicon is representative of the diamond crystal structure. Each atom is covalently bonded to each

of its four nearest neighbors; that is, each silicon atom shares its four valence electronic with the four neighboring atoms, forming four covalent bonds. Silicon has atomic number 14, and the configuration of its 14 electrons is 1s22s22p63s23p2. The core electrons, 1s2, 2s2 and 2p6, are very tightly bound to the nucleus and, at real-world temperatures, do not contribute to the electrical conductivity. At absolute zero, as N silicon atoms are brought together to form the solid, two distinct energy bands are formedthe lower, "valence" band and the upper, "conduction" band. The valence band has 4N availability energy states and 4N valence electrons and is therefore filled. Conversely, the conduction band is completely empty at absolute zero. Thus the semiconductor is a perfect insulator at absolute zero. As the temperature of the solid is raised above absolute zero, energy is transferred to the valence electrons, making it statistically probable that a certain number of the electrons will be raised in energy to such an extent that they are free to conduct electrical charge in the conduction band. These electrons are called intrinsic carriers. The amount of energy necessary to bridge the valence and conduction bands is referred to as the forbidden gap or energy gap Erg, which is 1.12 eV at room temperature for silicon. Even at room temperature, however, the amount of conductivity is still quite small. At 300 K there are 1.6 x 1010

Fig.2

7. CONCLUSION
Solar Energy is a major source of power. Its potential is 178 Billion MW which is about 20,000 times the worlds demand. But so far it could not be developed on a large scale. Suns energy can be utilized as thermal and photovoltaic. Solar energy is more abundantly available throughout the world, compared to other nonconventional energy sources. Results to-date shows that the solar energy is quite competitive with other sources of energy, if the solar tower plant size is about 400-450 MW, with 7 to 8 hours thermal storage. The use of solar energy for the production of electricity will definitely reduce the power crisis in developed countries like India.

intrinsic carriers per cubic centimeter; thus the material is still a very good insulator compared with a metal, which has approximately 1022 carriers per cubic centimeter. To modify the conductivity to more useful values, one must introduce small controlled amounts of impurities into the host materials. By substituting, or "doping," the silicon, which is in column IV of the periodic table, with either column-III materials (boron, aluminum, gallium or indium) or column-V materials (phosphorous, arsenic or antimony), one can increase and control precisely the number of conduction band electrons or valence band holes (deficiencies of electrons). By varying the density of the doping impurities, one can design the silicon to range from a poor conductor of electricity to a nearmetallic conductor. Silicon that has been doped with column-III elements is called a p-type semiconductor; that doped with column-V elements is called an ntype semiconductor.