JNSIBDP

History from Alexander II to Stalin

INDP history of Russia to USSR

Ashita.N 2/15/2012

THE REIGN OF ALEXANDER III Reactionary ministers: The bomb that destroyed Alexander II also destroyed the careers of his more liberal ministers. Loris-Melikov was replaced as minister of the interior by Nikolai Ignatiev, who later gave way to Dmitri Tolstoy! Alexander III:s policy was Autocracy,Orthodoxy and Russification. It has been said of him that he set out to undo all that his father had done. The greatest influence of his political policies came from his former tutor (who also came to serve his eldest son, Nicholas, as a tutor) and trusted adviser, Konstantin Pobedonostsev. Pobedonostsev s sympathies lay with Autocracy against democracy, with Orthodoxy against all other sects, and with Russians against all other nationalities of the Empire. Alexander III, wrote Hugh Seton-Watson, was a true Russian. He knew his people. He would not sacrifice the truly Russian principle of autocracy. One of the victims was Lenin s elder brother. He was hanged in 1886 for plotting to kill the Tsar. The universities, the press and the law courts were strictly supervised. Konstantin Pobedonostsev - appointed to Procurator of the Holy Synod (the lay supervisor of the Orthodox Church) used his authority to crush free thought and to browbeat minority religions, especially Jews, who were herded into ghettos. Restrictions against the zemstvos to restore the position of the nobility: The new ministers tried to restore the Russian nobility to the position of strength and influence that it had held before the emancipation. In July 1889 the office of justice of the peace was abolished in local government and a new office, that of Land Commandant (Zemsky Nachalnik) was created. Land Commandants were imposed on the peasantry: they had to belong the nobility (this was the essential qualification for this office). The Land Commandant also sat in the zemstvo which now became more dominated by the landowners. He had senior administrative and judicial power in the locality, over-riding the authority of the zemstvos. To restrict the power of the partly elective zemstvo became a prime target for the reactionaries. Laws of 1890 and 1892 restricted the popular vote to the zemstvos. Not only did the proportion of peasant votes become reduced but they could not vote for zemstvo deputies anymore. They were presented with a list of candidates from whom they could choose. The local governments often found their proposals obstructed and undermines by the objections of a government who fundamentally opposed the principle of elected assemblies. Restrictions against higher education: The minister of education I. V. Delyanov proposed legislation against the dangerous advance in education. In 1884 came a limitation of the administrative autonomy and in 1887 the tuition fees wereraised. This was useful methods against anybody from the lower classes - they could not afford the new fees. Raising tuition fees was also a useful method in primary and secondary education Only the parish elementary schools under the influence of the local clergy were allowed any real expansion. 1897 the illiteracy rate was a staggering 79 per cent! (This is a bit of a paradox since Russia at the same time produced such talents as Pavlov, Checkov, Tolstoy, Gorky, and Tchaikovsky ) Russification: The policy of Russification was to attempt to suppress the local characteristics to all the Tsar s subjects. In the census of 1897 the Russian Empire had a total population of a little bit more than 125 million people. The Russians was a minority of 45% of this total population. The Ukrainians were about half the size - 22.4 million people. They were followed by the Poles (7.9 million), White Russians (5.8 million), Jews (5.2 million), Tartars (3.4 million), Germans (1.8 million), Armenians 1.2 million), and Georgians (0.8 million) + other smaller groups (about 25 million people). Against the Tartars and Georgians the Orthodox Church played a leading role. The Georgian Church and Islamic groups put up fierce resistance and the problems of separatism was still very much alive in 1917. Even in areas who previously been loyal to the Tsar, efforts of Russification started. This included

areas as Finland, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania and Armenia. The effect was the opposite - cries for independence and resistance. In Finland these measures came late. It was Nicholas II that deprived the Finnish Diet of nearly all their legislative power 1899. Under the Russian governor-general Nikolai Bobrikov all opposition was ruthlessly suppressed (Nicholas II had granted him dictatorial power in 1903). 1904 Bobrikov was assassinated. This could have led to repression, but the RussoJapanese war was not successful and in 1905 the revolution broke out. Temporarily the Finns got the old constitution back (through the November Manifesto). The worst blows fell upon the Empire s long-suffering Jewish population. Alexander III:s regime combined the official religious anti-Semitism of the Orthodox Church with crude popular hostility. The official propaganda reasons were that the Jews participated in the Polish rebellion and with the assassination of Alexander II (Hessia Helfmann - one of the assassins was Jewish). Pobedonostsev pronounced that a third of the Jews in Russia must die, a third emigrate and a third assimilate. The government permitted and even encouraged pogroms. Robbery, violence and murder became common. Between 1881 and 1905 over 215 incidents took place. On top of this the government took legal measurements; No new Jewish settlers were allowed in rural areas, Jews were forbidden to trade on Christian holy days which, as they already closed on Jewish holy days, made it hard for them to compete with non-Jewish rivals. Strict quotas for Jews were set in schools and universities. In 1886 in Kiev and in 1891 in Moscow all illegal Jews were expelled. Legal settlers were also harassed. Several Jews emigrated under these conditions. Other became members of the Zionist movement (militant nationalists) or revolutionaries. In 1897 the Jewish socialist Bund was formed. This organization came to play an important role in the development of revolutionary socialism in Russia . In the long run, the policy of russification obviously became more dangerous than the nationalism that it set out to combat! Economic development: The reigns of Alexander II and Alexander III formed a period of overall industrial development. During the 1870s the Russian economy benefited from the increase in railroad building and from the policy of low tariffs. The development of Russia s railroad was huge in quantitative terms and it showed new economic logic; The Russians linked major areas of industrial production to important markets and they linked their areas of agricultural production with the ports of the Black Sea. In 1883 the Batum-Baku railroad linked the Caspian with the Black Sea which increased the oil production greatly (two of the financiers of the oil production in Baku were the Swedish Nobel brothers!). In 1891 the construction of the Trans-Siberian railroad started (finished - except a short part - in 1904). Tariffs began to rise in the late 1870s. This protective policy culminated in 1891 with the great protective tariffs . It especially had a beneficial effect on the domestic coal and pig-iron production. In 1892 Sergei Witte became minister of finance. Protective tariffs, foreign capital and placing the Russian currency on the Gold Standard was Witte s measures which proved to be successful. The result though resulted in large parts of Russian industry being owned abroad (especially in Paris). The economic historian W.O. Henderson wrote Of the Russian economy was still backward in some respects, it was also true that vigorous state action, foreign capital and foreign machinery had given Russia a powerful impetus on the road to industrialization . Lenin was less impressed. He wrote 1899 If we compare the present rapidity of development with that which could be achieved with the modern level of technique and culture, the present rate of development of capitalism in Russia really must be considered slow . Foreign policy of Tsar Alexander III. France again - the French entente : In 1887 Alexander III refused to renew the Three Emperor s Alliance (in 1881 The League of the Three Emperors changed name). This threatened Bismarck s diplomatic policies. He managed to receive a bilateral, completely secret agreement with Russia, known as the Reinsurance Treaty 1887. The refusal of the new German Kaiser Wilhelm II to renew the treaty in 1890 renewed Russia s international isolation. An agreement to curtail the

activities of Russian nihilists in France was followed by the more important step of opening the French money market to Russian borrowing. Slowly, between 1891 and 1894, the military understanding all important to France began to take shape. Meetings between the respective chiefs of staff resulted in an agreement on joint military action. The Tsar finally consented to regard this as the basis of an official Franco-Russian alliance (January 1894). Russia undertook to attack Germany if that country attacked France, or aided Italy in an attack on France. France was similarly committed if Germany attacked Russia, or aided Austria-Hungary in such an attack. Alexander III dies: In 1893 Alexander III fell unexpectedly ill when influenza led to kidney trouble. On 1 November 1894, Alexander died. His son Nicholas was only 26 years old (he was born 1868). Nicholas had lived an easy life as a young army officer, in the company of a ballet dancer. A week after Alexander died Nicholas married Princess Alix of Hesse-Darmstadt, his own choice and originally opposed by his family because she was German. When Nicholas heard his father was dead he said What am I to do? I am not prepared to be Tsar. I know nothing of the business of ruling . Tsar Nicholas II (1868-1918) was born on 18 May 1868. Nicholas succeeded his father's throne, Alexander III, when the later died from liver disease on 20 October 1894. Nicholas was then 26. That same year Nicholas married Princess Alexandra of Hesse-Darmstadt. Alexandra was a firm believer in the autocratic principle. Nicholas required little persuasion: as a nationalist he decried those who favoured western style democracy. Alexandra was unpopular with the Russian elite, more so as evidence emerged of her increasing influence over her husband. Her reliance upon Grigory Rasputin in determining Russian policy angered many, ultimately leading to Rasputin's assassination. Defeat in the war with Japan of 1904-5 seriously damaged Russian prestige and the monarchy. Japan had launched a surprise attack on the Russian fleet based at Port Arthur; throughout the war the Russian navy was found wanting, although the army fared better in repulsing Japanese troops in Manchuria. At the same time as Russia faced war with Japan, there was increasing industrial unrest at home. Workers who faced long hours and poor conditions increasingly formed protests. In 1904 110,000 workers in St Petersburg striked for four days in protest at the declining value of wages in real terms. Georgi Gapon, of the Assembly of Russian Workers, appealed to Nicholas for help in reducing working hours and improving pay and conditions. A consequent march on the Winter Palace was greeted by armed Cossacks: over 100 protestors were killed and many more wounded. "Bloody Sunday" sparked the 1905 Revolution, whereby strikes spread around the country and mutiny throughout the army and navy. Leon Trotsky was one of the founders of the St Petersburg Soviet in October, with 50 more being established over the next month in the rest of the country. In response to such wide-scale protest, and under the advice of close advisers, the Tsar published the "October Manifesto", which granted freedom of conscience, speech, meeting and association, and the end of imprisonment without trial. In addition, no new law would become effective without the approval of the Duma, a consultative body. Although the Duma had been viewed as a toothless advisory body, at its first meeting in May 1906 it made demands for the release of political prisoners, for trade union rights and land reform. In rejecting these demands Nicholas promptly dissolved the Duma. Later that year Nicholas replaced the moderate chief minister Sergi Witte with the more conservative Peter Stolypin. Stolypin attempted to balance the demands of both liberal and conservative factions in the country. He was

assassinated in 1911 by a member of the Socialist Revolutionary Party at the Kiev Opera House. With Germany's decision to enter into the Triple Alliance system with Austria-Hungary and Italy whereby each of the three nations agreed to come to the other's aid in the event of attack by either France or Russia - Russia naturally saw Germany as its main potential enemy; this despite Nicholas's position as the cousin of German Kaiser Wilhelm II. Consequently Russia entered into an alliance with Britain and France, the 'Triple Entente'. When war was declared by Germany with France in August 1914, Russia came into the war on France's side. Russian industrial unrest had continued into the first half of 1914. Up to half of the entire workforce are estimated to have striked that year. The war temporarily brought an effective end to industrial unrest however, although it later returned. The war also brought Nicholas political benefits; the establishment united behind him in the conduct of the war. Dissatisfied with the army's conduct of the war, Nicholas took personal command in September 1915. The Russian army were fighting on the Eastern Front and its ongoing lack of success was causing dissension at home. Unfortunately, now operating under Nicholas II's supreme command, its continued failure reflected directly upon the Tsar himself rather than the army command. Nicholas's popularity dwindled. By late 1916 royalists within the Duma warned the Tsar that revolution was imminent; even so, Nicholas refused to sanction further constitutional reform. During the "February Revolution" in 1917, which he misinterpreted as a minor uprising, his routine suppression orders to the Petrograd garrison sparked its mutiny on 27 February. Nicholas II was persuaded to abdicate on 2 March 1917 under the recommendation of the Russian Army High Command. In search of exile elsewhere, Lloyd George offered a haven in Britain, only for the offer to be withdrawn under the direction of King George V, who did not wish to be associated with his autocratic cousin at this point: a controversial decision. Moved to the Siberian city of Ekaterinburg by the Bolsheviks, Nicholas and his family were executed on the night of 16/17 July 1918. RUSSIA 1894-1918 RUSSIA 1894-1905 Nicholas II: Nicholas II was an absolute ruler - an autocrat. Appointed by God - he made it clear that "any earlier legislation could simply be overruled by an oral instruction from him". There were no legal or constitutional restraints... He had been influenced by the death of his grandfather (Alexander II) and his fathers Minister of Religious Affairs - the Procurator of the Holy Synod; Konstantin Pobedonostev. He sternly beleived in absolute autocracy, religious orthodoxy and antisemitism. Instruments for his autocratic rule were; - Secret Police - "Okhrana" and millions of informers - Pogroms - All trade unions and political parties were forbidden - No elected parliament - all appointments and dismissals were made by the Tsar - No constitution - Censorship - Aristocracy with priviliges given by the Tsar - Orthodox Church with priviliges given by the Tsar - The Officers were recruited from the Aristocracy - who depended on the priviliges given by the Tsar - Largest standing army in the world

Morris claims that Nicholas II was "politically incompetent" - but he was a nice father. Nicholas was married to Alice of Hesse-Darmstadt (German Princess). She took the Russian name Alexandra. Both of them were conservative, beleived in autocracy and deeply religious. Most historians claim that Nicholas II was much under his wifes influence. Morris states that unfortunately "she shared her husbands political incompetence"... Nicholas II s view of the Russian autocratic system: When the local council (the provincial zemstvo) of Tver 1895 asked for an extension of the representative institutions (maybe a national Duma) Nicholas II responded; "let all know that I, devoting all my strength to the welfare of the people, will uphold the principle of autocracy as firmly and as unflinchingly as my late unforgettable father". Economy Agriculture economy: Russias economy was based on agriculture. The absolute majority of the population worked within the "agriculture sector"... About 97 million people (out of 127 million people) 1997 were peasants. Peasant problems: - less than 1/3 could read and write - the average life expectancy was under 40 years of age - low prices on bread (= low income) - the equipment was usually very old - often made of wood - the farming methods were inefficient and gave low yield - frequent harvest failures (1891, 1892, 1898, 1901...) - the population increase in the later part of the 19th century decreased the land available to the peasants (the aristocracy still had huge land masses). Between 1877-1897 we saw a 25% increase in the rural population and in between 1897-1917 we saw another 25% increase. This lead to subdivision of land (average peasant holding 1877 = 35 acres - in 1905 = 28 acres and it continued to decrease up to 1917) - redemption payments (from the emancipation of the serfs 1861). The local peasant council of elders (the Mir) decided about the land and the payments since they were responsible to the State for the redemption payments... - the peasants were not allowed to leave the commune without the approval of the Mir (internal passports) - The Land Commendants (always an aristocrat) decided about local laws, taxation, etc... and he punished those who did not accept his decissions - no (or very little) investments were made Government initiatives: - Exploit "Virgin Land" (in the east - Siberia. 750 000 peasants migrated to Siberia 1896-1900) - Land Bank (1886) - Former State land was sold. Low interests on loans) Survival of agrarian problems: - The Mir (village council who 1861 took over the responsibilities of the redemption payments) - Starvation exports - Lack of direct financial investments in agriculture (very primitive farming methods - low yield) Sergei Witte (Minister of Finance 1892-1903)

Protectionism and taxes: Witte strengthen the protective tariffs of Russia to guard infant Russian industries against the competition of stronger European economies. Higher taxes was also imposed (mostly on the peasants) so the government would receive enough capital for industrial development... Foreign investments: Witte encouraged foreign investment and loans in Russian industries. Between 1893 and 1896 foreigners invested 40 million roubles more than the Russians themselves (144.9 compared to 103.7 million roubles). At this time the total amount of capital lying in Russian banks amounted to only 200 million roubles. The foreign financing speeded the growth of Russian mining, industry, railroads, credit and commerce. Gold Standard: In 1897 the rouble was elevated to the Gold Standard which made it freely convertible with foreign currencies. This gave Russia greater foreign confidence but now the Russian wheat was freely exported which made Russian famines more likely. The agricultural export of necessary goods is called the "starvation export"... WITTES REFORMS WERE TO SOME EXTENT SUCCESSFUL!!! Industrialization international comparison Russia was a modest industrial power before WWI. In 1912 5.6% of the world's pig iron and only 3.66% of its steel was produced in Russia. In 1910 30% of Russias total national production was industrial. In Great Britain it was 75%, in Germany 70% and in Austria-Hungary 47%. Industrialization in Russian terms In Russian terms the industrialization was more impressive. The industrial output was valued to 1502 million roubles 1890. 22 yeras later it was valued to 5738 million rubles (1912). Major industrial regions The Russian industrial production was mostely concentrated to four different regions; 1. St Petersburg and the shores of the Baltic 2. Moscow and the provinces of Nizhni Novgorod and Vladimir 3. Poland 4. The Donbas and Krivoi regions Different industries In 1910 the most common industrial output came from the textile industries (about 40%). Other growing industries were the coal (25430 thousand tons in 1910), petroleum (11283 thousand tons in 1910), iron (5742 thousand tons in 1910) and steel (3314 thousand tons in 1910) industries. Russian economy foreign investments As mentioned before b etween 1893 and 1896 foreigners invested 40 million roubles more than the Russians themselves (144.9 compared to 103.7 million roubles). In 1890 214.7 million roubles had been invested by foreigners. 1895 = 280.1 million roubles, 1900 = 911 million roubles and before 1914 = 2000 million roubles! Most of this (50%) went into the mining and metallurgical industries in the south. The next biggest foreign investments were oil production and banking.

France stood behind 33% of the total foreign investments in 1914. Then came Great Britain (23%), Germany (20%), Belgium (14%) and the US (5%). Germany was the country that received most of the Russian export (mostly agrarian products) with Great Britain as the next largest receiver... Transportation The roads of Russia were very poorly developed. Most of them were so called dirt roads (hardpacked earth) that turned into mud when heavy rain set in (which it often did during spring and autumn...). During winter it was possible to travel in some areas by sleds. The best way to travel before the middle of the 19th century was by boat on some of the big rivers and lakes. In the later part of the 19th century came a new way of travelling - the railroad. The railroad development started slowly. Between 1861-1890 Russia built 5800 km of tracks. By 1905 it had increased enormously. Now Russia had 59,616 km of tracks. The most famous railroad was the Trans-Siberian railroad which linked St Petersburg with Vladivostok. It was built between the years 1891-1904. Still it was quite moderate when one compare the amount of km with the size of Russia. USA which was less than half the size of Russia had 411,000 km in 1913 compared with Russias 62,200 km. Since the merchant marine was small most of the Russian goods were transported on foreign ships. Urbanization development of a Russian Urban Working Class The agrarian problems and the emancipation of the serfs in 1861 was supposed to release workers for the slowly growing industry. Different restrictions and poor industrial development slwoed this process down. When the first industrialization started in the 1890's we also saw a greater urbanization. In 1900 over 2.5 million workers were employed in factories and workshops. If we count all the families and dependants about 10-13 million Russians relied on the industrial wages. Half of the industrial workers worked in factories that employed more than 1000 men. Urban Working Class living conditions The living conditions for the workers were usually very poor. The cities were not built for this population increase. Between 1867 and 1897 Moscow increased its population 197%, Warzaw 253%, Baku 702% and Lodz 872%. Many had to live in cheap wooden lodging houses or large tenement buildings. They ate cheap black bread, cabbage soup and buckweat porridge - and drank vodka! In the industrial centres workers often lived in barracks next to the factory. Long dark corridors led to dormitories for up to 30 workers, or minute rooms sleeping several families. The space between each family was often a sheet so there was basically no privacy. Illness, smells, arguments, etc... were shared by everybody. Sometimes the beds were occupied by diferent shifts - one worker slept in it during the day another one during the night. Cockroaches, flees, and other bugs were the only ones that truly enjoyed this environment... Father Gapon describes the situation in St Petersburg: "They receive miserable wages, and generally live in an overcrowded state, very commonly in special lodging houses. A woman takes several rooms in her own name, subletting each one; and it is common to see ten or more persons living in one rome and four sleeping in a bed."... Urban Working Class working conditions The working conditions were not better than the living conditions. Father Gapon was a priest that organized a trade union to help some of the workers. He described the conditions in the factories: "They receive miserable wages...The normal working day is eleven and a half hours of work, exclusive of meal times. But...manufacturers have received permission to work overtime, so that the

average day is longer than nominally allowed by law - fifteen or sixteen hours. ... Why do they agree to work overtime? They have to do so because they are paid by the piece and the rate is very low." To the working hours should be added noice, dust and many accidents. The noice came from very large machines that usually ran 24 hours a day. Most machines were belt driven and it was not uncommon that somebody got to close to one of these belts. The result could be a lost hand, arm, leg or death. More sneeky was the problem with dust. Many young workers ruined their lungs within just a few years breathing in the dust of the machines... The living and working conditions led to demonstrations and strikes. 68 strikes were recorded in 1895, 125 in 1900 and over 14,000 during 1905... Legislation for the Russian Working Class Some laws were made against the worst problems; In 1892 it became forbidden to employ children under 12 years of age The same year saw a ban of female labor in the mines (1892) In 1896 an eleven-an-a-half-hour working day was legally instituted. This law was widely ignored by the employers (see Father Gapons story above) In 1903 factory inspectors were introduced. POLITICAL OPPOSITION 1894-1917 LIBERAL OPPOSITION - Background; Russia had a very small middle class but they were still politically active. The first sign of liberalism came in with the returning officers from the Napoleonic War around 1815. They had served in the occupation army in France and they brough several ideas back to Russia. They organized some clubs to discuss the possibility of changing Russia. The "Union of Salvation" was founded in 1816. We see the development to the "Union of Welfare" (1818) and the split between the "Northern Society" and "Southern Society" (1821). Even if these groups were small they were the first organized political opposition of Russia. In 1825 they stood behind the Decembrist Revolt - a liberal inspired revolt that failed. By the end of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th century they formed several different groups which after the 1905 revolt will become two main parties; the Octobrists and the Kadets. AIMS: The liberals wanted - free elections and a national parliament - that the Tsar would become a constitutional monarch (like the monarchs of England) - Civil Rights like freedom of speech, worship and conscience SUPPORT: Some members of the aristocracy supported the liberal movement but most of the supporters came from the small Russian Middle Class - teachers, doctors, lawyers and some industrialists TACTICS: The aims should be reached by political work as meetings, speeches, discussions, articles in newspapers, books who would all call for a change OCTOBRISTS: A group of more conservative liberals. They accepted the terms of the October Manifesto and formed the "Union of 17 October". The party was led by the industrialist Alexander Guchkov and drew support from centrist-liberal gentry, businessmen, and some bureaucrats. The Octobrists were firmly committed to a system of moderate constitutional monarchy. At the same time they emphasized the need for a strong parliament and a government that would be responsible to it. They were generally allied with the governments of Sergei Witte in 1905-1906 and Pyotr Stolypin in 1906-1911, but they criticized the government for taking extralegal measures and a slow pace of reforms, especially after the revolution ended in 1907 and they no longer saw the need for the extraordinary measures that they reluctantly supported in 1905-1907. The Octobrists' program included private farming and further land reform, which were in tune with Stolypin's program. They also supported the government in its unwillingness to grant political

autonomy to ethnic minorities within the empire, although they generally opposed legal restrictions based on ethnicity and religion. SOCIALIST REVOLUTIONARIES - Background; It started with the more intellectual "Populism" in the 1860's. From the intellectuals came the "To the People" movement (Narodniki) in the 1870's. They failed in their work and therefore they founded a political movement called "Land and Liberty" (1876). This group was split up in 1879; "People's Will" and "Black Partition". The first one used terror as a political weapon and was involved in the assassination of Alexander II 1881. These two organizations would lead to the founding of the "Socialist Revolutionary Party" in 1901 (with a small "terrorist branch"...). AIMS: The SR wanted to get rid of the Tsar and his government. They saw Russia as a huge agrarian country who should adapt the political power to this fact. All the land should be given to the peasants so they could farm it collectively in communes. To be able to do this it should be necessary to form thousands of small peasant communes. SUPPORT: They often spread their propaganda among the urban workers but this was mainly the peasants party... SR gained the young peoples interest because they were a "party of action"... TACTICS: They spread propaganda which promoted the idea of a revolution. A special branch within the party used violence ("terrorism") to bring about the collapse of the government. They were responsible for the deaths of many important government officials (like Bogolepov - Minister of Education in 1901, Sipyagin - Minister of Interior in 1902, Plehve - Minister of Interior in 1904, the Governor of Moscow in 1905, etc...) Marxists - Background; The Russian Social Democrats had their roots in Marx and they were influenced by the German Social Democrat Party. In 1883 Georgi Plekhanov formed the "Emancipation of Labour". At this time Marxism was an accepted ideology by the Russian censors - they had the idea that it would weaken the threats of revolutionary populism. The Capital by Karl Marx (1867) was available in a Russian translation already 1872. In 1898 in Minsk came the founding of the "Russian Social Democratic Labour Party". All the founders were arrested since all political work was forbidden. This meant that most work took place in exile. During the Second Congress of the Russian Social Democratic Labour Party 1903 (London/Brussels) a dispute about membership led to a split between "Mensheviks" and "Bolsheviks". AIMS: The Social Democrats wanted to overthrow the Tsar and create a Socialistic Republic SUPPORT: Social Democracy was an urban phenomena. Most of the supporters were workers in the cities and larger towns. We can also find some radical students in this movement. TACTICS: We see a little difference in tactisc between the Mensheviks and the Bolsheviks. Both of them saw a revolution coming but had several different opinions about this revolution... MENSHEVIKS: The party should have a core of professional revolutionaries but membership should also be open to sympathizers, revolutionary workers and others. This mass party would grow and eventually take over power through a revolution. The Party should work together with several other groups like trade unions to improve wages and working conditions. Together with these groups a new country would be built up... BOLSHEVIKS: The party should have a core of professional revolutionaries (a small, secret, tightly disciplined group) who should seize power when the time was right. The Party would then set up a system of strong centralized control and start to educate the masses (Dictatorship of the Proletariat). Symphathizers and other revolutionary groups would not be able to gain membership in this party. Membership would be based on devotion and acceptance of the Boleshevik view. The Bolsheviks were very afraid of police spies that tried to infiltrate all political groups at this time... TRUDOVIKI: The Trudoviks (Trudoviki, also referred to as Toilers, full name "The Labour Group") were a moderate Labour party in early 20th Century Russia. They were a small workers party, especially when compared to the vast number of extreme revolutionary and anarchist

groups. This agrarian socialist party was one of hundreds of small workers circles that sprang up around Russia in the aftermath of the 1905 Revolution. While the 1905 revolution did not remove the Tsar, it certainly curtailed his power but not to the extent of the democratic, liberal society for which the Russian masses longed for. As a result, the party survived but remained small. The Trudoviks are best known for winning seats in the State Duma, a national assembly created by Tsar Nicholas II in the atermath of the 1905 Revolution (mainly in the 1st and 2nd assemblies, in 1906 and 1907). Others National groups, conservatives, etc... RUSSO-JAPANESE WAR 1904-1905 CAUSES: The Russo Japanese War, (February 10, 1904 September 5, 1905) was a conflict that grew out of the rival imperialist ambitions of the Russian Empire and the Japanese Empire over Manchuria and Korea. The major theatres of operations were Southern Manchuria, specifically the area around the Liaodong Peninsula and Mukden, and the seas around Korea, Japan, and the Yellow Sea. CAUSES: One of the basic reasons for the clash between "two sets of imperialist ambitions" was the declining and collapsing Chinese Empire. Suddenly there was a power vacuum that both Japan and Russia wanted to fill... - Russia had expanded towards the east during the 19th century. During the reign of Nicholas I (1825-1854) and Alexander II (1854-1881) we see the Russian influence over Dagestan and the Caucasus become permanent as well as the control over the Uzbeks and the Kazakhs. The establishment of influence in the Far East was typified by the foundation of the town aptly named Vladivostok ( Lord of the East ) in 1861. In the end of the century the construction of the TransSiberian Railroad started (tied European Russia together with Vladivostok). It was completed 1904. Russia now wanted to continue their expansion in the east. The Chinese districts of Manchuria and Korea were their next targets. - Russia needed a warm water port for their navy (military reasons) as well as the merchant marine (economical reasons). The new Russian town of Vladivostok could only be used during the summer. Port Arthur (Lshunkou) at the Liaodong Peninsula was such a port but it formally belonged to China. - Russia had started several economic ventures in the far east, like the "Russian Timber Company of the Far East". Sergei Witte (Minister of Economy) and other very influential persons had invested in these ventures... - Japan had been forced to open for Western trade and influence in the middle of the 1800 s. By the end of the 19th century Japan had transformed into a modernized industrial state with advanced technology mixing its old customs with new Western ideas. Japan wanted to be recognized as an equal to the Western powers who colonized parts of the China. Beginning in the 1870s, Japan had moved into the previous Chinese sphere of influence over Korea (Korea was a relatively independent part of the Chinese Empire). In the Treaty of Ganghwa (1876) Japan forced Korea to engage in foreign trade. This started a period of Japanese domination which ended in 1910 when the Japan-Korea Annexation Treaty was signed. Then Korea became part of Japan. - After the Sino-Japanese War 1894-1895 a Peace Treaty was signed (Treaty of Shimonoseki / Treaty of Maguan 1895) which granted Japan Formosa (Taiwan) and the bay of Liaodong together with all fortifications, arsenals and public property. It also forced China to open several cities to Japan as well as granting Korea complete independence and autonomy. China should thereafter

treat Japan as the most-favored-nation . This treaty was challenged by Russia , France and Germany just three days after signing (the Triple Intervention). They forced Japan to withdraw its claim on the Liaodong peninsula. Port Arthur (Lshunkou) was too important for them especially Russia . - In 1897 a Russian fleet appeared off Port Arthur. They put some pressure on China who signed permission for Russia to lease the area (early 1898 - for 25 years). Russia now started fortifications and other constructions on the peninsula as well as a railroad to Harbin from Port Arthur. These constructions contributed to the Boxer Rebellion. The Russian reaction to that was mobilization and an occupation of Manchuria The success against the Boxer rebels also built up a false confidence among the Russian troops - that they would be able to defeat any "oriental foe". - The new independent Korea signed a pact of protection with Russia and China at the beginning of the 20th century. This was an attempt to hinder further Japanese influence in Korea. - Great Britain was worried of the Russian advances in the east. Therefore she signed a pact with Japan, the Anglo-Japanese Alliance, in 1902. The alliance meant that both countries would respect neutrality in case they became involved in war and promise of support in case they became involved in war with more than one state. Britain thought this would restrict naval competition by keeping the Russian Pacific seaports of Vladivostok and Port Arthur from their full use. The further benefit of the alliance to Britain was the establishment of an ally in East Asia who could help contain Russia in general and protect British commercial interests in China. It helped Britain 's navy by providing coaling stations and repair facilities. For Japan , it was a necessary step in achieving further recognition as a Power (if not a Great Power) and gave her the confidence to challenge Russia 's occupation of Manchuria and designs on Korea. - For two years (1901-1903) Japan tried to reach an understanding with Russia about spheres of influence in Manchuria and Korea. They failed due to Russian "apathy". - In 1903 Russia failed to remove a temporary garrison from Manchuria (they were there formally as a protection for the construction and work on the Chinese Eastern Railroad). The delay made it look like Russia was trying to take more control over this region (both Manchuria and Korea)... - Domestic tension within Russia (strikes, political unrest, etc...) made a "foreign distraction" welcome. The Minister of Interior Plehve said "to stem the tide of revolution, we need a successful little war"... - In January (13th) 1904 Japan proposed a formula of Manchuria being outside her sphere of influence if Russia accepted Japanese sphere of influence in Korea. This proposal was met with silence. When Japan hadn't received an answer in February (6th) the Ambassador, Kurino, called on the Russian Foreign Minister to take his leave. Japan now severed their diplomatic relation with Russia. Two days later the war started... - Kaiser Wilhelm II sent a personal encouragement to his cousin Tsar Nicholas II about his "crusade against the Yellow Peril". COURSE: Japan issued a declaration of war on February 8, 1904. However, three hours before Japan's declaration of war was received by the Russian Government, Japan attacked the Russian Far East Fleet at Port Arthur. Tsar Nicholas II was stunned by news of the attack. He could not believe that Japan could initiate a warlike act without a formal declaration of war, and had been assured by his ministers that the Japanese would not fight. Russia declared war on Japan eight days later. Campaign of 1905: Harsh winter and final battles: With the fall of Port Arthur, the Japanese 3rd army was now able to continue northward and reinforce positions south of Russian-held Mukden. With the onset of the severe Manchurian winter, there had been no major land engagements since the Battle of Shaho the previous year. Both sides camped opposite each other along 60 to 70 miles

(110 km) of front lines, south of Mukden. The Russian Second Army under General Oskar Grippenberg, between January 25 29, attacked the Japanese left flank near the town of Sandepu (Battle of Sandepu), almost breaking through. This caught the Japanese by surprise. However, without support from other Russian units the attack was stalled, Grippenberg was ordered to halt by Kuropatkin and the battle was inconclusive. The Japanese knew that they needed to destroy the Russian army in Manchuria before Russian reinforcements arrived via the Trans-Siberian railroad. RESULTS: The domestic problems in Russia had become a major concern for the Tsar and his government. Under these circumstances he chooses to negotiate for peace. The US President Theodore Roosevelt offered to mediate (which gave him the Nobel Peace Prize in 1906). The Treaty of Portsmouth was signed September 5 th 1905 ( Portsmouth, New Hampshire, USA). - Russia recognized Korea as Japan s sphere of influence - Japan took over the 25-year lease of Port Arthur + Hinterland - Japan also took over the lease of the Railroad in southern Manchuria (and its access to several strategic resources) - The southern half of the Sakhalin Island was ceded to Japan - Both Russia and Japan agreed to evacuate Manchuria - Russia did not have to pay any war indemnity The loss was very embarrassing for Russia (and Europe) who had been convinced about their superiority. Russia lost a lot of prestige The loss of the war contributed to the 1905 Revolution in Russia The lost war in the Far Eastmade Russia change the focus on her Foreign Policy. She now concentrated more on the development in Europe. Especially in the weak part in the SouthEast the declining Ottoman Empire = the Eastern Question ! Japan became a power to count on and started her domination of China as well as other areas in the Far East. She would find a new competitor in the Pacific USA CASUALTIES: Several different figures exist; Samuel Dumas: Japan: 86,100 dead Russia: 43,300 dead Japanese Bureau of Military Statistics Japan: 80.378 dead Gaedke: Russia 71,453 dead Small & Singer: Japan: 85,000 dead Russia: 45,000 dead Gilbert: Japan: 58,000 dead Russia: 120,000 dead Eckhardt: Total: 130,000 dead Urlanis: Total: 139,000 dead

So why did Russia lose the war?

y y

y y y y

Incompetence of officers and administrators! Contrasted by the bravery and sacrifice of the common soldiers Japan was closer to the war. Russia had to transport men from Europe. They used the Trans-Siberian Railroad which took a while. The Trans-Siberian Railroad was single-track and about 150 km was missing in the region of Lake Baikal. Around 35,000 men per month was a maximum. Japanese army and navy were better equipped and more efficient Japan had more men than Russia already at the beginning of the war and could get reinforcements faster. The loss of the naval initiative made Japan control her reinforcements as well as the landing along the coast, etc The Japanese soldiers and officers fought with semi religious fanaticism Nationalism!

RUSSIA 1905 Bloody Sunday (January 22nd) 150,000 people demonstrated in front of the Winter Palace. They were lead by an orthodox priest Father Gapon. The people of the demonstration wanted to present a loyal petition of "redress of grievances". The Imperial troops opened fire. According to the authorities of the time the official numbers of dead were 96 and wounded 331. The different newspapers and other eyewitnesses mentioned over 1000 killed. This triggered the revolt of 1905 (Revolution of 1905) POPULAR REACTION Strikes The events of Bloody Sunday led to an unprecedented amount of strikes. In February over 400,000 workers were striking and by the end of the year over 2.7 million workers were on strike. Especially important were the railroad workers who joined the strike movement in October. Russia nearly collapsed... Peasant revolts Started in Kursk in February. In April most of the prime agricultural regions in European Russia experienced peasant revolts. Sporadic mutinies There were some sporadic outbreak of munities in some army units and in the Navy; especially at the Naval base of Kronstadt (outside St Petersburg) and Sevastopol (at the Crimean peninsula). The most famous mutiny has been filmed by Sergei Eisenstein - "Potemkin". Most of the army remained loyal. Non-Russian troops were often used against Russians and vice-versa... Soviet A Council of Workers Deputies was created in St petersburg. This was a "direct action by politically conscious workers who wanted to co-ordinate their strike actions." The Council consisted of 400-500 elected members representing 96 different factories and 5 different trade unions. Leo Trotsky was one of the elected delegates... TSARS' REACTION

Military dictatorship? Nicholas II faced peasant rebellions, strikes, military disobediance and the obvious fact that the government had lost control. His first choice was to crush the revolts and set up a harsh military dictatorship. Generals, leading politicians and members of his own family talked him out of this solution. Concessions? Instead the Tsar choose consessions with a few different manifestos for the "people", the "peasants" and the militaries... October Manifesto The Manifesto addressed the unrest in Russia and pledged to grant civil liberties to the people: including personal immunity, freedom of religion, freedom of speech, freedom of assembly, and freedom of association; a broad participation in the Duma; introduction of universal male suffrage (over 25 years of age, electing through four electoral colleges); and a decree that no law should come into force without the consent of the state Duma. November Manifesto Concessions to the rural population. All redemption payments were cancelled if the peasants in return promised to "preserve peace and order, and not violate the laws and rights of others". The concession was finalized 1907. December Manifesto Concessions to the soldiers. An Imeprial Manifest about: - Better pay - Fair treatment Problems: Tsar Nicholas II was very reluctant to the above concessions. Some big problems were not dealt with: - the Land question. The peasants still desperately needed land - the Autocracy. The political system had not changed. The Tsar remained in splendid complete power! RUSSIA 1906 New Constitution the Fundamental Laws, was enacted on April 23, 1906, on the eve of the opening of the first State Duma.Its Chapter I declared and defined the autocracy of the Russian Emperor, including Emperor's supremacy over the Law, the Church, and Duma. Council of Ministers A cabinet of Ministers who were appointed, directed and dismissed by the Tsar alone. Upper House (Council of State) Its chairman was appointed by Tsar. Initially half of its members were appointed by the Tsar and half by elections from various categories of society, separately (clergy, Russian Academy of Science, universities, guberniya-level zemstvo, Dvoryan Assembly, merchants, industrialists). After 1910, only the Tsar appointed the members. During this period it is sometimes formally compared to the upper house of the parliament Lower House (State Duma) Just before the creation of the Duma in May 1906, the Tsar issued the Fundamental Laws that

contradicted the October Manifesto in several important ways. It stated in part that Tsar's ministers could not be appointed by, and were not responsible to, the Duma, thus denying responsible government at the executive level. Furthermore, the Tsar had the power to dismiss the Duma and announce new elections whenever he wished. The State Duma was encircled by a series of restrictions. They had no control over military expenditure or the Tsar's household finances (In April 1906 the Tsar took a "personal loan" of 2250 million gold francs from France...). Article 87... The Tsar had the power to govern by decree whenever the assembly was not in session (and the Tsar could dissolve the assembly). This article could also be used by the Premier (with the approval of the Tsar). Pjotr Stolypin used it many times... RUSSIA 1906-1914 Peter Arkadyevich STOLYPIN (1862-1911) Landreforms / Agrarian reforms: These reforms were based on recommendations from "the Needs of Agriculture Industry Special Conference" held in Russia between 1901-1903. Sergei Witte had been the promoter of these conferences... AIM: The main aim was to transform the archaic backward agriculture economy to a modern capitalistic agriculture/industrial economy. Some of the problems were: - Collective ownership - Scattered land allotments based on family size - A stifling control by the family elder Stolypin also wanted to eliminate the old commune system known as the "mir" and he wanted to stop the relative radicalism that was common among the peasants. If he could get the peasants to develope a more modern capitalstic oriented form of farming at their private land holdings they would probably become more conservative (like the peasants in Western Europe). REFORMS: The reforms began November 9th 1906 when Stolypin introduced "the unconditional right of individual landownership". Some of the reforms were: - Development of large-scale individual farming - Introduction of agricultural cooperation - Development of agricultural education - Dissemination of new methods of land improvement - Affordable lines of credit for peasants ("Peasants' Bank") - Creation of an Agrarian Party The reforms were implemented by the state through different campaigns between 1906 through 1914. They were the groundwork for a free capitalist enterprise system in Russian agriculture for the common people... SIBERIA: Between 1890 and 1914 over 10 million people migrated freely from Russian "proper" to areas east of the Urals. This migration had been encouraged by the Trans-Siberian Railroad Committee. The Stolypin agrarian reforms included a subsidized resettlement benefit for peasants who moved to Siberia. Approximately 2.8 of the 10 million settlements in Siberia occurred between 1908-1913 under this new subsidy. COOPERATION: The following new types of cooperation-assistance were developed as part of the Stolypin agrarian reforms: - financial-credit cooperation - production cooperation

- consumer cooperation Many elements of Stolypin's cooperation-assistance programs were in fact incorporated into the early agarian programs of the Soviet Union, however without due credit to the "tsarist" minister. STOLYPINS REFORMS WERE TO SOME EXTENT SUCCESSFUL!!! DUMAS 1906-1917 1st Duma 1906 (April-July): The first elections for a National Assembly - the State Duma, took place in March 1906. They were boycotted by the socialists (except the Trudoviki), the Socialist Revolutionaries and the Bolsheviks. The first Duma therefore had a more liberal and non-Russian nationalistic profile; 179 Kadets, 121 non-Russian National Groups (mostly peasants), 94 Trudoviks, 17 Octobrists and 15 from the extreme right. Tension between the Duma and the Ministers (the Duma demanded further liberalization and they became more and more a platform for "agitators") made the Tsar dissolve the Assembly after only ten weeks (July 1906). The new Premier, Peter Stolypin, was experienced an assassination attempt which made him establish field trials for terrorists which often led to a sentence of death. Over a thousand people were executed over the following eight months. The hangman's noose earned the nickname "Stolypin's necktie"... 2nd Duma 1907 (March-June): The leading party of the first Duma and a some other politicians (120 Kadet and 80 Trudovik and Social Democrat deputies) retreated to Finland after the Duma was dissolved. There they issued the Viborg (Vyborg) Manifesto. In the manifesto, they called for the citizens to stand up for their rights, for popular representation, and for an Imperial Parliament. The Manifesto included ideas as: - Refuse to pay taxes - Refuse to join the army - Support civil disobedience (passive resistance) The 169 delegates from the first Duma who signed the Manifesto were charged with high treason! In December 1907 they went to court and several of them received prison sentences. They were not allowed to participate in any political activities and could not sit in any future Duma. A new Duma (Second Duma) was called for in March 1907. Now all parties participated! Stolypin used Article 87 (with the Tsar's approval) many times to be able to create new laws. He used it to have political opponents arrested under the new "anti-terror laws". Another policy to make it harder for unwanted groups to vote was Stolypins change of time for the vote. The main group of Stolypins attention had been the liberals. He paid less attention on the left which led to a successful election for these groups. The Trudoviki received 101 chairs, the Social Democrat Party 65, and the Socialist Revolutionaries 34. The Kadets lost nearly half their seats compared with the first election. They went from 179 to 93 seats. The Octobrist party nearly doubled their seats; from 17 to 32 and the extreme right. We saw a polirization of politics. The Duma received a liberalleftist majority. This kind of Assembly was of no use for Stolypin. After Purishchvitz (leader of the Right) 16 hour speech (May 30th 1907) which ended in harsh critizism of the existing Duma. Stolypin decided to ask the Tsar to once more dissolve the Duma. This was done two weeks later June 16th, 1907. The formal reason for dissolving the second Duma was according to Stolypin "a plot in the Duma to discredit the tsar, a plot in the Duma to discredit the constitution and that members of the Duma were not representative of the people"... Stolypn also announced that there would be a change in the Electoral Laws... RUSSIA IN WORLD WAR ONE Declaration of War: The declaration of war was popular.

Nationalism: the immediate voting of war credits by the Duma, the plundering of the German Embassy by patriotic students, St Petersburg became Petrograd and the general acceptance of the ban on sale of vodka... Several important bodies were formed spontaniously; Union of Zemstva (provided medical facilities) and the Congress of Representatives of Industry and Trade (co-ordinated production). Autocratic rule: Would the Tsar accept the bodies described above and give any political power to them? NO - they got to help with the war effort but the autocratic rule remained! In 1915 ZEMGOR an All-Russian Union of Zemstva and Cities were formed. Together with the Duma they formed the beginning of an alternative government according to historian David Christian. 1915 - Tsar Nicholas II becomes Commander-in-Chief: The war minister, Sukhomlinov, was expecting to command the army, but instead the Tsar s uncle, Grand Duke Nikolai, who became Commander-in-Chief. He took as his Chief of Staff Yanushkevich, at forty-four the army s youngest general. He was a disaster! He imposed harsh regimes in areas occupied by the Russian army, dissolved the sympathy with which local populations regarded Russia s fight against the Teutonic threat . His murderous treatment of the Jews seemed likely to cause intolerable embarrassments abroad. So in September 1915 Nicholas transferred the Grand Duke and Yanushkevich to the Caucasian front. Nicholas II himself assumed supreme command of the Russian Army fighting on the Eastern Front. This linked him to the country's military failures and during 1917 there was a strong decline support for his government. At the same time he had to leave Petrograd which meant room for political opportunists. One of these opportunists was Gregori Rasputin... Liberal Opposition in the Duma: The Kadets, Octobrists and Progressists - the "Progressive Bloc" in the State Duma demanded a new government in August 1915. As an answer to their demands they were dismissed (in September 1915). During the period of September 1915 up to January 1916 several disputes about the conduct of the Ministers occur in the Duma. The tension between liberal politicians in the Duma and the government grows even more over the year. The liberals gets a much more uncompromising attitude towards the government and it's failres. In November 1916 P.N. Miliukov questions the government and he asks them if their policies represented "stupidity or treason" and he adds "we have lost faith in the ability of this government to achieve victory"... Rasputin: Grigori Yefimovich Rasputin was born a peasant in the small village of Pokrovskoye, along the Tura River in the Tobolsk guberniya (now Tyumen Oblast) in Siberia in 1869. Rasputin married Praskovia Fyodorovna Dubrovina in 1889, and they had three children, named Dmitri, Varvara, and Maria. Rasputin also had another child with another woman. In 1901, he left his home in Pokrovskoye as a strannik (or pilgrim) and, during the time of his journeying, travelled to Greece and Jerusalem. In 1903, Rasputin arrived in Saint Petersburg, where he gradually gained a reputation as a starets (or holy man) with healing and prophetical powers. When the young Tsarevich, while vacationing with his family, got a bruise after falling off of a horse, he suffered internal bleeding for days. The Tsaritsa, looking everywhere for help, asked her best friend, Anna Vyrubova, to secure the help of the charismatic peasant healer Rasputin in 1905. Rasputin managed to help the Tsarevich. After that, every time the boy had an injury which caused him internal or external bleeding, the Tsaritsa called on Rasputin, and the Tsarevich subsequently got better. This made it appear that Rasputin was effectively healing him. Rasputin soon became a controversial figure, becoming involved in a paradigm of sharp political struggle involving monarchist, anti-monarchist, revolutionary and other political forces and

interests. He was accused by many eminent persons of various misdeeds, ranging from an unrestricted sexual life (including raping a nun) to undue political domination over the royal family. Rasputin was deeply opposed to war, both from a moral point of view and as something which was likely to lead to political catastrophe. During the years of World War One, Rasputin's increasing drunkenness, sexual promiscuity and willingness to accept bribes (in return for helping petitioners who flocked to his apartment), as well as his efforts to have his critics dismissed from their posts, made him appear increasingly cynical. While Tsar Nicholas II was away at the front, Rasputin's influence over Tsaritsa Alexandra increased immensely. He soon became her confidant and personal adviser, and also convinced her to fill some governmental offices with his own handpicked candidates. To further the advance of his power, Rasputin cohabitated with upper-class women in exchange for granting political favours. Because of World War I and the ossifying effects of feudalism and a meddling government bureaucracy, Russia's economy was declining at a very rapid rate. Many at the time laid the blame with Alexandra and with Rasputin, because of his influence over her. To save the monarchy, several members of the aristocracy attempted to murder the holy man. On the night of December 16-17, 1916, they tried to kill Rasputin. The plan was simple. Yet on that fateful night, the conspirators found that Rasputin would be very difficult to kill. The accepted version of Rasputin's death states that he was poisoned, then shot, and finally drowned in the River Nevka by five disaffected aristocrats, led by Prince Felix Yusupov. Over the years historians have questioned Yusupov's version of events but failed to come up with credible alternative theories. One of the more reasant theories point out the British Secret Service (a character called Oswald Rayner - said to be a friend of Yusupov's from Oxford University did it)... No matter what, Rasputins close ties to the Royal family did hurt them and the Russian peoples trust in their autocratic leader. Food Shortage: Shortages occurred mainly in large cities, more so in Petrograd than Moscow. The peasants who moved to Moscow normally kept some contact with their native village, which often was near by. Those who moved to Petrograd were in a different situation. The capital city was much farther away from the populous central agricultural region and this made it more difficult to maintain contact. Shortages, inflated prices and general discontent were common occurrences. The gross production of cereals during the period 1914-1917 was such that there should have been no serious shortages throughout Russia - but it was the disorganization of transport that broke the country up into several isolated areas. The link between the food surplus areas of the south and southeast and the food deficit areas of the centre, north and northwest was broken because of the war and evacuation of civilians from conflict zones. Problems within the military: The Russian army totalled 5.3 million men after the initial mobilization. By the end of the war over 15.3 Russians had been in the military service. Compared with the other armies they were worse armed, worse treated and worse led. It was not unusual in 1915 that the Russian artillery would be limited to fire two or three shells a day, and that the Russian infantry had only two rifles for every three soldiers. Such factors made casualty levels very high: By 1917 over 1,300,000 men had been killed in battle, 4,200,000 wounded and 2,417,000 had been captured by the enemy. Military Campaigns 1914-1916: 1914 - August/September: August 17th the Russian Army moved into East Prussia. General Alexander Samsonov advanced slowly into the south-west corner. The intention of this attack was to link up with the other major Russian army coming from the north-east (under General Paul von Rennenkampf). Battle of Tannenberg and Battle of the Masurian Lakes: August 20th 1914 the Russian General von Rennenkampf defeated a German force at Gumbinnen. Paul von Hindenburg and Erich von

Ludendorff realized the threat and decided to move few divisions from the Western front to the Eastern front (around 100 000 men this ruined the Schlieffen Plan). They made contact with the Russian troops August 22nd 1914 . The two Russian armies were separated by 80 km. This made it possible for Hindenburg and Ludendorff to tackle them individually. Samsonovs troops were surrounded and defeated outside Tannenberg ( Battle of Tannenberg August 26th-29th 1914 ) and Rennenkampf s Army was defeated two weeks later at the Battle of the Masurian Lakes . Out of 150 000 Russian soldiers only around 10 000 managed to escape. General Samsonov committed suicide! Results: GERMAN VICTORY but with a high price - the Schlieffen Plan failed! 1914 September - 1915 August: Russian troops invaded Galicia. Lvov (Lemburg) was captured by Russian troops in September 1914. This revealed the fact that the Austrian-Hungarian army was poorly organized. The Russian army fought well but they also had some problems which would make a difference in the long run; poor and split leadership, not enough equipment and they were underfed! The Austrian-Hungarian armies were forced to retreat to the Carpathian Mountains. Then German re-enforcements under General Ludendorff arrived. The German soldiers were in general better equipped, well supplied, better trained and they were often transported by trains between the different battle zones which made them arrive fairly rested. During the German Austrian-Hungarian campaign in the Carpathian Mountains (May 1915) and the German campaign through Poland (Warsaw captured August 1915) the Russian forces were forced to retreat. By the end of 1915 the Russian lines had withdrawn some 450 km. Results: RUSSIAN INITIAL VICTORY against Austria-Hungary. GERMAN VICTORY through two campaigns in 1915; Campaign in the Carpathian Mountains and the Campaign through Poland. 1916: Early in 1916 France called upon Russia to help relieve the pressure on Verdun by launching an offensive against the Germans on the Eastern Front, hoping Germany would transfer more units to the East to cope with the Russian attack. The Russians responded by initiating the disastrous Lake Naroch Offensive in the Vilno area, during which the Germans suffered just 1/5 as many casualties as the Russians. Results: GERMAN VICTORY In the summer of 1916, the British Somme Offensive designed to the same end had resulted in a quagmire, and the western Allies called upon the Russians again to help relieve German pressure on their front. In response, General Aleksei Brusilov presented his plan to Stavka, the Russian high command, proposing a massive offensive by his Southwestern Front against the AustroHungarian forces in Galicia. The main purpose of Brusilov's operation was to take some of the pressure off French and British armies in France and the Italian Army along the Isonzo Front, and if possible, to knock Austria-Hungary out of the War. 1916 June/September - the Brusilov Campaign: Three of General Brusilovs four armies reached an immediate success within less than a week Russia had broken through the lines and taken over 70 000 prisoners. He used a new tactic - "Shock troops" were sent through the weak parts of the Austro-Hungarian lines and then the main army used the roads cleared by these troops. This is a forerunner to the Blitzkrieg Germany used in WWII. It was only in the northern sector of the Russian front where the army under General Evert stood still (General Alexei Evert, commander of the Russian Western Army Group, favored a defensive strategy and was opposed to Brusilov's offensive). Encouraged by the positive Russian results Romania decided to join the war on the Entente side. By early August the offensive came to a halt. The Romanian forces were now in trouble and the defensive tactics of General Evert had resulted in an unsuccessful half-hearted offensive in the north. Russia lacked resources; both reserve soldiers and supplies. At headquarters different

groups of militaries tried to change the original plan which led to confusion and weakened the offensive and then Austria-Hungary received more German support. Against the will of General Brusilov troops were moved from the northern sector (General Evert) to reinforce the campaign in Galicia. This together with the Romanian army problems (General Brusilov had to send some of his army to help the Romanian army that were being overrun by German and Austro-Hungarian troops) were the main factors behind the halt of the offensive. Results: RUSSIAN VICTORIES. The Western front as well as the Italian front was relieved. Russian troops gained territory in Galicia. The Austrian-Hungarian poor performance had a very negative effect on its fighting forces. Russia had been very close to defeat Austria-Hungary it was only with German assistance the Dual Monarchy stayed in the war. By the end of 1916 German troops started an offensive which resulted in Russian retreat. More problems: The year 1916 was a good year for military production; the rifle production doubled, the heavy artillery production quadrupled but the losses of important industries made the locomotive production go down to half the amount of 1913. This together with the militaries constant interference in transports made the communication and distribution system to the urban areas hard (Morris talks about a "semi-breakdown"). Conscription caused a shortage of both men and animals in the rural areas. Due to the need of machinery for the war effort we also see a severe decline in the necessary modernization of agriculture. Fuel shortages was another serious problem. With the loss of the Polish coalfields and the need of coal for military use most urban homes lacked necessary fuel. Food prices went up drastically, inflation increased, and so did the wages - but much less than the prices of food and the inflation together. In early 1917 most Russians, especially in the urban areas, lacked everything! LENIN Vladimir Ilyich Ulyanov was born the 22nd of April 1870 in Simbirsk. His father was a superintendent of public schools for the province of Simbirsk - he was also a member of the lesser nobility in Tsarist Russia. His eldest brother Alexander was executed in 1887 for an assassination attempt on Tsar Alexander III. This event made Vladimir Ulyanov engaged in revolutionary underground movements. Later the same year he was expelled from Kazan University for being part of a student demonstration. In 1891 Vladimir Ulyanov graduated with top marks as an external law student from St. Petersburg University. He worked as a lawyer in Kazan for two years. He then moved to St. Petersburg where he now became a Marxist activist. In 1895 he visited and made important contacts exiled Russian Marxists in Switzerland. Later the same year he was arrested and sent to exile in Siberia. In Siberia he finished his first major publication The Development of Capitalism in Russia (1899). This included critique of the contemporary populist Narodniki movement. He also got married in Siberia (to Nadezhda Konstantinova Krupskaya). After his release in 1900 he emigrated (fled) to central Europe. He became active in the underground of radical migrs and exiles; founded and published a Social Democratic newspaper Iskra (the Spark). He also takes the name Lenin. In the newspaper articles and the book What is to be Done? (1902) Lenin outlines his revolutionary ideas. Borrowing in large measure from the German Social Democrat Kautsky, he developed the concept of an lite party (a tight knit, disciplined and dedicated group of professional revolutionaries), which would have to assume the leadership of the proletariat in the struggle for socialism and Communism. Hugh Seton-Watson calls this his greatest contribution to political theory. In this he rejected the arguments of those who would have socialists limit themselves to legal economic activities and of those who continued to place their faith in the peasantry. These views led to a split within the RSDRP - Russian Social Democratic Workers Party in 1903. Lenin assumed the leadership of the

more radical fraction - the Bolsheviks (Men of the Majority) against the more moderate fraction Mensheviks (Men of the Minority - who actually were the majority at the Congress of 1903!). After a brief presence in Russia during the 1905 Russian Revolution, he returned to central Europe, where he collected funds, organized the separation of Bolsheviks and Mensheviks, and continued his writings - the most important of which during this period was Materialism and Empirocriticism (1909). At the outbreak of World War I, Lenin was imprisoned by the Austrian police, but was soon sent to exile in Switzerland. In Imperialism, the Highest Stage of Capitalism (1916), he blamed Imperialism for World War I. In contrast to Marx, he argued that socialist revolution would occur first in the least, rather than most, developed capitalist society. Having almost giving up hope of such a revolution occurring in Russia, he was surprised by the outbreak of the Russian Revolution in February 1917. Lenin was soon approached by the German government. The wondered if he and his radical followers would like to return to Russia under German safe conduct? They hoped that Lenin would further radicalize the revolution already under way in Russia, paralyze the government, and destroy military resistance. In mid-April Lenin arrived at the Finland Station in Petrograd. Lenin released several demands in his April Theses (published in Pravda); - end the war, transfer land to the peasants and transfer the power to the Soviets. These demands went unheeded. Accused of being behind the coup attempt in July 1917 Lenin had to hide in Finland. There he wrote State and Revolution (1917) in which he developed his notion of the proletarian dictatorship and justified the use of terror. The breakdown of the Russian war effort, the Bolshevik effort to stop the Kornilov revolt, the Bolshevik takeover of the Petrograd Soviet (and the Moscow Soviet), and the rapid deterioration of the economy worked in his favor. At the 25-26 October (7-8 November according to the Gregorian Calendar) Lenin, Trotsky, Zinoviev and the Bolsheviks carried out the October Revolution. Lenin became the Chairman of the Council of People s Commissars, effectively the Premier of the new Soviet government. He immediately put into practice his idea of a small, lite leadership by creating the Politburo. This enabled him to impose upon a reluctant Bolshevik leadership the acceptance of the humiliating Peace of Brest-Litovsk. Thereafter, the Russian Civil War ensued, which he successfully directed from Petrograd while his aides like Trotsky, Zinoviev, and Stalin organized the Red Army at the grass roots. His able leadership, and the terror executed by the loyal Cheka bands enabled him to stay in power after the devastating Civil War, and the disastrous Russo-Polish War. Despite his many writings, Lenin was a pragmatist more than an ideologue, and calmed a lot of discontent through the New Economic Policy, which soon restored production to pre-war levels. In 1922, Lenin suffered two strokes. Paralyzed in speech and movement throughout most of 1923, he was unable to stop the rise of Stalin who succeeded him. Lenin died the 21 st of January 1924. Politburo = at first the highest policy-making committee of the Communist Party - after the revolution the highest executive organ of the Communist Party and the state Cheka = a secret police which was instituted by Lenin already in December 1917 and run by a Pole Dzerzhinsky. Its purpose was to protect and establish the Communist Revolution through terror War between Russia and Poland 1919-1921. Poland demanded a restoration of the Polish borders of 1772. At the Peace of Riga (18 March 1921), Poland gained a new eastern border around 120 miles (200 km) to the east of the Curzon Line FEBRUARY REVOLUTION

Ideology; Note that before 1914 we had the cautious, unprovocative, legalistic, parliamentary approach represented by the German Social Democratic Party as the standard model of workingclass politics. War and revolution in Russia according to Lenin s interpretation of Marx s writing gave way for a new model - the extreme left, a minority group of the Marxist movement, could carry through a successful radical revolution and seize power! The February revolution came as a surprise to nearly everyone, to those on the spot as well as those abroad. Socialist - Bolsheviks, Mensheviks, Socialist Revolutionaries (SR) - all of them wanted a revolution and to put to an end the three-hundred-year-old Romanov dynasty, but they didn t expect it to come so soon. Even Lenin (in Switzerland) was pessimistic. He stated that a revolution in Russia would probably not take place in his lifetime! It all began in a shop in the Putilov engineering works in Petrograd on 18 February 1917 when some men came out on strike for higher pay and the re-employment of some sacked workers. The strike spread until on 22 February the management locked the factory gates - a fatal mistake. This transformed all Putilov workers into strikers. The next day, the 23 February, was International Women s Day. Women had much to complain about, the imperfect rationing system which often led to fruitless queuing, all this in a bitter Petrograd winter, low wages and harsh working conditions. The element which was new to the situation this time was the changing mood of the soldiers. On 25 February an order to end the disorder came from the Tsar. The day after troops fired on crowds in the centre of Petrograd. This could have been the end, but the same evening a company of the reserve battalion of the Pavlovsky guards mutinied. Some guards followed the next morning, shot one of their officers, and poured out on to the streets where other military units joined them. On 27 February about a third of the Petrograd garrison was disaffected and they were all armed as they had broken into various arsenals. The Tsar s reaction was too slow and too late. He sent troops to pacify the capital, but when they made contact with the suburban garrisons they too went over to the side of revolution. By nightfall it was all over. It was almost bloodless, only 1315 persons sealed the victory of the revolution with their blood. What was the opinion of the political parties? The Octobrists (conservatives) and the Kadets (liberals) were in favor of keeping the monarchy as a symbol of authority in a sea of chaos. The Kadets wanted a parliamentary democracy; social democrats and socialist revolutionaries (SRs), on the other hand, wished to see a republic. Russia, in reality, became a de facto republic on 3 March 1917 when Grand Duke Mikhail refused the throne (Nicholas II had abdicated the day before and handed the throne to his brother Mikhail). With the symbol of authority gone, power developed not to one institution but to two. A Temporary Committee of the State Duma had been called into existence on 27 February and it represented some continuity. The other institution was a mass organization - the Petrograd Soviet of Worker s and Soldier s Deputies. It had also emerged on 27 February. It took its name from the body which had been so popular in 1905! It consisted of deputies elected directly by workers in their factories and soldiers in their garrisons and its authority encompassed the whole city. The Temporary Committee and the soviet met in the same building, The Tauride Palace. Without knowing it, they were underlining the reality of dual power. Officially the soviet did not wish to participate in government since the February revolution had been a bourgeois one - the soviet would however defend the revolution against the forces of reaction. Both the soviet and the first Provisional Government, which took office on 2 March, agreed that the immediate goal was the convention of a Constituent Assembly which would adopt a constitution and nominate a government. MORE ABOUT THE FEBRUARY REVOLUTION IN RUSSIA 1917 FIRST WORLD WAR: The First World War was one of the principal reasons for revolution in Russia. The Tsarist regime could not adjust itself rapidly to the demands of a war of attrition. Its

losses, in terms of human life, were fearful. Still the revolution came (as mentioned before) as a surprise to almost everybody. GRAIN PRODUCTION: War broke out at the beginning of the harvest of 1914. The harvest yielded 3509 million puds of cereals - this was a little bit less than the 1909-1913 average. Grain reserves in Russia at the outbreak of war totaled about 500 million puds.* During the two first years of the war the gross production of grain was slightly above the 1909-1913 average. However in 1916 the production fell to 3319 million puds and continued to fall in 1917 to 3185 puds. The shortfall of the harvests was though almost entirely met by less export of grain (only 100 million puds of grain were exported during the war instead of an average of 700 million puds before). ARMY NEED: The war created a great new consumer, in the form of a huge army. Army rations normally included meat, butter and sugar. The peasant could seldom afford such items. Thus the impact of army demand was akin to an increase in urban demand. Such was the demand of the army for cereals such as buckwheat and millet that the civilian population was confronted with shortages, notwithstanding the fact that little was exported. The army also required huge quantities of cereals, mainly oats, for its horses. During the two first years of the war the army covered its cereal requirements comfortably but in 1916 and 1917 it was seriously in deficit. The army bread ration was cut from 2.7 lb. To 2.3 lb. Per day in December 1916 and to 1.8 lb. Per day in March 1917. COMMUNICATIONS: The gross production of cereals during the period 1914-1917 was such that there should have been no serious shortages throughout Russia - but it was the disorganization of transport that broke the country up into several isolated areas. The link between the food surplus areas of the south and southeast and the food deficit areas of the centre, north and northwest was broken because of the war and evacuation of civilians from conflict zones. FOOD SHORTAGE: Shortages occurred mainly in large cities, more so in Petrograd than Moscow. The peasants who moved to Moscow normally kept some contact with their native village, which often was near by. Those who moved to Petrograd were in a different situation. The capital city was much farther away from the populous central agricultural region and this made it more difficult to maintain contact. Shortages, inflated prices and general discontent were common occurrences. Communications, or the lack of them, played an important role in creating the circumstances which produced the February revolution in Petrograd! * One pud = 36 lb = 16.3 kg February Revolution: By the end of February 1917, most of the workers in Petrograd and Moscow were striking and rioting for higher food rations. Many of the soldiers refused to suppress the insurgents; military insubordination and mutiny spread. Nicholas II ineffectually sought to put down the workers by force and also dissolved (March 11, N.S./Feb. 26, O.S.) the Duma. The Duma refused to obey, and the Petrograd insurgents took over the capital. Nicholas was forced to abdicate March 2 at Pskov after the Duma had appointed a provisional government composed mainly of moderates; it was headed by Prince Lvov and included Milyukov and Kerensky. Although most Russians welcomed the end of autocracy, that was the only point on which they agreed. The provisional government had little popular support, and its authority was limited by the Petrograd workers' and soldiers' Soviet, which controlled the troops, communications, and transport. The soviet furthered the military breakdown by establishing soldiers' committees throughout the army and making officership elective. Despite its strength, the soviet at first did not openly seize power; the Socialist Revolutionaries and Mensheviks who initially dominated it believed that at this stage of the revolution the bourgeois provisional government should rule. The government's program called for a general amnesty,

broad civil liberties, and a constituent assembly to be elected by universal suffrage. This failed to address two burning issues continuation of the war and redistribution of land. The government announced that the question of land distribution could only be handled by the future constituent assembly. In March the soviet demanded peace. Milyukov, the foreign minister, was forced to resign in May after demonstrations against his insistence on continuing the war. The cabinet was reorganized and several other socialists, in addition to Kerensky, were added. Kerensky took over as minister of war, and Viktor Chernov, a Socialist Revolutionary, became minister of agriculture. In April, 1917, Lenin and other revolutionaries returned to Russia after having been permitted by the German government to cross Germany. The Germans hoped that the Bolsheviks would undermine the Russian war effort. Lenin galvanized the small and theretofore cautious Bolshevik party into action. The courses he advocated were simplified into the powerful slogans "end the war," "all land to the peasants," and "all power to the soviets." The failure of the all-out military offensive in July increased discontent with the provisional government, and disorders and violence in Petrograd led to popular demands for the soviet to seize power. The Bolsheviks assumed direction of this movement, but the soviet still held back. The government then took strong measures against the Bolshevik press and leaders. Nevertheless, the position of the provisional government was precarious. Prince Lvov resigned in July because of his opposition to Chernov's cautious attempts at land reform. He was replaced by Kerensky, who formed a coalition cabinet with a socialist majority. Army discipline deteriorated after the failure of the July offensive. The provisional government and the Menshevik and Socialist Revolutionary leaders in the soviet lost support from the impatient soldiers and workers, who turned to the Bolsheviks. Although the Bolsheviks were a minority in the first all-Russian congress of soviets (June), they continued to gain influence. Conservative and even some moderate elements, who wished to limit the power of the soviets, rallied around General Kornilov, who attempted (August) to seize Petrograd by force. At Kerensky's request, the Bolsheviks and other socialists came to the defense of the provisional government and the attempt was put down. From mid-September on the Bolsheviks had a majority in the Petrograd soviet, and Lenin urged the soviet to seize power. Lenin returns to Russia - April Theses (Pravda): After the February Revolution Lenin and several other Russian socialists in exile sought to return to Russia as soon as possible. The Swiss communist Fritz Platten managed to negotiate with the German Government for a safe passage through Germany for Lenin and his company (this is often referred to as the "sealed train" - even though it was not sealed). Germany had agreed to this since they had the hope that Lenin and his company would create such a disorder in Russia that the countries war effort would weaken and she would capitulate. Not only did the German government help the revolutionaries home they also financed their work through secret funds... The April Theses were a series of directives by Bolshevik leader Vladimir Lenin issued upon his return to Petrograd (Saint Petersburg), Russia from his exile in Switzerland. The Theses were mostly aimed at fellow Bolsheviks in Russia and returning to Russia from exile. He called for soviets (workers' councils) to take power (as seen in the slogan "all power to the soviets"), denounced liberals and social democrats in the Provisional Government, demanded all land to be nationalized and then given to the peasants (by the local "Soviets of Agricultural Laborers' and Peasants' Deputies"), called for peace and told the Bolsheviks to not cooperate with the

government, and called for a new communist policies. The April Theses influenced the July Days and October Revolution in the next months and are identified with Leninism. Here we can clearly see the Bolshevik slogans: "All power to the soviets"" "End the war!" "Distribute all the land to the peasants!" "No co-operation with the Provisional Government!" As mention above - Lenins theses were mostly for the Bolshevik Party in April. The Party was small, weak and split in the question about their relation towards the Provisional Government. Some members like Kamenev and Stalin recommended cooperation while other members were against it. Lenin had been living in exile for many years and he therefore first of all needed to establish his own leadership. After he released the April Theses and started to agitate the party united under its main principles. Lenin was now the undisputed leader of the party! October Revolution: On the night of October 24, the Bolsheviks staged an coup d'etat, engineered by Trotsky; aided by the workers' Red Guard and the sailors of Kronstadt, they captured the government buildings and the Winter Palace in Petrograd. The Second All-Russian Congress of Soviets met and approved the coup after the Mensheviks and Socialist Revolutionaries walked out of the meeting. A cabinet, the Council of People's Commissars, was set up with Lenin as Chairman, Trotsky as Foreign Commissar, Rykov as Interior Commissar, and Stalin as Commissar of Nationalities. The Second All-Russian Congress of Soviets immediately called for cessation of hostilities, gave private and church lands to village soviets, and abolished private property. Moscow was taken by force, and local groups of Bolshevik workers and soldiers gained control of most of the other cities of Russia. The remaining members of the provisional government were arrested (Kerensky had fled the country). Old marriage and divorce laws were discarded, the church was attacked, workers' control was introduced into the factories, the banks were nationalized, and a supreme economic council was formed to run the economy. The Cheka (political police), directed by Dzerzhinsky, was set up to liquidate the opposition.The long-promised constituent assembly met in January, 1918, but its composition being predominantly nonBolshevik. it was soon disbanded by Lenin and Bolshevik troops. This completed the Bolshevik take-over by force. BOLSHEVIK STRATEGY BEFORE THE OCTOBER REVOLUTION 1917
y

The Bolsheviks played an important role during the Kornilov revolt. The non-Bolshevik socialists rallied to the support of the Provisional Government, while the Bolsheviks used the crisis to extract their arrested leaders (after the July Days ) and they obtained the approval by the Soviet s Committee Against Counter-revolution to put up an armed worker s militia to defend the revolution. In this way the already existing armed Bolshevik supporters - the Red Guard who helped to defend Petrograd against Kornilov, received the Soviet s recognition. About this time (August 1917) the Red Guards contained about 10,000 troops. The Bolsheviks popularity was already increasing before the July Days . This incident brought them into temporary disrepute, but it didn t effect the general trend of increasing popularity. Their ideas were expressed by one of the editors of Pravda - Molotov

y y y y

(Skryabin). He advocated resistance to the Provisional Government, termination of the war and immediate distribution of the landowners estates to the peasants! The Bolsheviks were the only party with this program and the workers and soldiers were getting tired of the war The Bolsheviks won a majority in the Petrograd and Moscow Soviets. The Bolsheviks could now act in the name of the Soviet (to top it all - Trotsky was elected chairman of the Petrograd Soviet in early October). The early Bolshevik slogan All power to the Soviets was paying off. The Bolsheviks were very successful in their propaganda against the Provisional Government. Pravda - the official paper of the Bolsheviks (+ several other propaganda papers - Morris writes that the party produced 41 different newspapers in August 1917) made this possible because of a steady flow of funds through various channels and under different labels from Germany (Zeman, Z.A.B. Germany and the Revolution in Russia 19151918 , London 1958; pp. 94-5). In the Bolshevik papers Lenin openly accused Kerensky for planning to surrender Petrograd to the advancing Germans. In order to protect the revolution the Petrograd Soviet (Trotsky and the Bolsheviks) had organized forces under a Military Revolutionary Committee . These forces were used during the coup. Since they were officially under the control of the Petrograd Soviet it was hard to accuse the Bolsheviks of seizing power The Bolsheviks promoted and supported regional nationalism in the local Soviets and the army, especially in the Ukraine. The Bolsheviks showed a compromising attitude towards other parties and if necessary they were willing to adopt elements of their program. The Bolsheviks became very skilled at applying the right degree of force at the right time To the Bolshevik strategy should be added the war situation , the shortage of fuel and food, the unemployment etc. which all led to the Bolshevik take-over (the October Revolution)

OCTOBER REVOLUTION 1917 During the night of 24-25 October Trotsky s Red Guard detachments occupied without bloodshed the central telephone exchange, railroad stations, the central post office, and other key installations. The coup was not a spontaneous action - it was the deliberate actions of a tightly-knit group of revolutionary leaders (Morris) The Second All-Russia Congress of Soviets was scheduled for the next day - the 25th of October. Lenin and the leading Bolsheviks did not want to wait since they were not sure about the support of the Congress. On 26 October Trotsky went to the Congress to announce the capture of the Winter Palace. The Bolsheviks were outnumbered in the Congress but could count on the support of the left wing of the Socialist Revolutionaries, a combination which gave them a small majority. With a majority assured, the Bolsheviks could obtain a favorable vote and thus legitimacy for their new government and its policies. Lenin obtained the Congress approval for his first two decrees, which were designed to capture mass support (especially from the peasantry, who so far did not favor the Bolsheviks) by promising what the masses wanted, land and peace. Decree on Peace: The Decree on Peace called for an immediate truce and a just peace, and could be interpreted as an appeal to foreign peoples over the heads of governments. Decree on Land: The Decree on Land sanctioned what was already happening, the take-over by peasants of private land, but specified that the distribution should be arranged by village soviets.

Decree on the Press: One Decree that was not as popular was the abolition of press freedom - the Decree on thePress . Lenin and the Bolsheviks had made great use of the press in their climb to power, but they had no intention of leaving this weapon available to the anti-Bolshevik groups. Declaration of the rights of the Peoples of Russia: On the 15th of November a Declaration of the rights of the Peoples of Russia was accepted. It contained (among other things) the right of the peoples of Russia to free determination, up to secession and formation of an independent state . Signed by Stalin and Lenin Election to the Constituent Assembly: One problem coming up was the election to the Constituent Assembly. The third coalition Provisional Government (September 25th - 1917) under Kerensky had worked as a Pre-parliament for the long-awaited and long-postponed elections to the Constituent Assembly planned to take place November 25. Trotsky advised Lenin to not change this date (and election). The result was what Lenin had feared, a majority for the Socialist Revolutionaries! Before the Assembly met in January 1918, the Socialist Revolutionaries spent their time devising the political program which they would place before the members. The Bolsheviks spent their energy to agitation work, seeking to discredit the Assembly. CHEKA: In December 1917 Lenin set up the All-Russian Extraordinary Commission for Fighting Counter-Revolution and Sabotage (whose abbreviation was CHEKA). This was the Bolshevik Secret Police . The CHEKA established its permanent headquarters in the offices of an erstwhile insurance company in Lubyanka Street, Moscow. NOTE: Lenin s active role! Why didn t Kerensky get any support in October 1917? Mostly because few soldiers were really willing to fight for his government and those who were willing were led by officers who themselves were not. Several officers had seen what they considered to be Kerensky s betrayal of Kornilov in August/September so they refused to lift a finger to help him. (Eventually Kerensky got away and he later made an academic career in the USA, where he died in 1970). Constituent Assembly: The Constituent Assembly met January 5th 1918. It was dispersed by Lenin and the Bolsheviks the next day! A new constitution, confirming the supremacy of the Soviet, formalized the end of the Constituent Assembly. Lenin s uncompromising firmness had won the day, but it had also made civil war inevitable. In order to protect the new constitution Trotsky s Red Guard now became the Soviet Red Army (January 1918). RUSSIAN GOVERNMENT 1917-1918 COUNCIL OF PEOPLE'S COMMISARS - SOVNARKOM (October 1917) Premier: Lenin + Bolsheviks (later a few Socialist Revolutionaries) Why and how did they come into power: The October Revolution! CONSTITUENT ASSEMBLY (January 5th-6th 1918) 380 Socialist Revolutionaries 168 Bolsheviks 40 Left Socialist Revolutionaries 16 Mensheviks 17 Kadets + Others Why and how did they come into power: Through the election to the Constituent Assembly in November 1918. Lenin was against this election but Trotsky convinced Lenin that they should be carried out. The Bolshevik Party had always criticized the old Provisional Government for not carrying these elections out...

"DICTATORSHIP OF THE PROLETARIAT" (January 6th 1918) Lenin + Bolsheviks Why and how did they come into power: The election was a disappointment for the Bolsheviks so Lenin declared the result being "counterrevolutionary" and he made the Constituent Assembly dissolve it. A Decree was ratified by the AllRussian Central Executive Committee late on January 6th this was the Decree on the Dissolution of the Constituent Assembly. This is the date and time when the Bolsheviks seized power!!! RUSSIAN ECONOMY 1917-1929 STATE CAPITALISM (October 1917 - June/July 1918)
y y

y y

The Bolsheviks wanted to control the industry and trade (but they did not want to nationalize all of it right away ) In agriculture the land was redistributed according to the principles of Decree on Land (this was just an acknowledgment of what had happened - the peasants had already seized land in many districts ) Nationalization was carried out in a few areas; the banks, the war industry and grain trade was put under total state control Lenin and the Bolsheviks annulled all the loans to the previous regimes. This measure would upset some of the Western Europe states who had invested a lot in the Russian industrialization. Agricultural problems: The peasants saw the land as their possession. This together with the distribution of land to very tiny plots (the population was big ) became a future problem. It was impossible under these circumstances to make agriculture efficient.

WAR COMMUNISM (June/July 1917 - March 1921)

y y y y y y y y

Civil War - the economy had to be adjusted to the war Extensive nationalization (all the industries - Decree of Nationalization ) Industrial sector was pushed far back during this period - devastating results Temporary abolition of money (extreme inflation - economic chaos) Equalization of earnings and direction of labor Grain requisition (sometimes by military force - caused a reaction: the peasants stopped producing a surplus which led to hunger and starvation) Peasant unrest all over the country (uprise ) Kronstadt uprise. The sailors together with some soldiers from the Red Army called for a new revolution with freedom of speech, of assembly and private trade

NEP (NEW ECONOMIC POLICY) (March 1921 - 1928)

y y y y y y y y

Ended the requisition of grain Introduced an agricultural tax (first paid in goods later after 1923 in money) Agriculture surplus could be sold for private gain Some smaller and local industries became private - allowed to make profit Some private trade was allowed Currency - the rouble was reconstituted and backed up Heavy industries, transports, foreign trade and banking was stilled controlled by the state After some years NEP ran into problems such as growing prices relative to income and unemployment. NEP also contradicted the communist ideology

COLLECTIVIZATION AND THE FIRST FYP (Five Year Plan) (1929 - )

y y

Started the planned economy - ideological correct Collectivization of Agriculture - after a mild start that saw no improvement Stalin decided to use force (during summer of 1929) to collectivize and to liquidate the Kulak class. The winter of 1929/1930 was the worst period The wealthier peasants tried to sabotage the collectivization by burning their homes and crops and killed their animals. These measures led to starvation and to deportations of Kulaks to labor camps and many executions Industrialization and the first FYP - Five Year Plan. An extensive and detailed plan for every industry and area was produced. General goal - to triple production!

STATE CAPITALISM 1917-1918 The state aimed at controlling industry and trade rather than implementing outright nationalization. Caution the industry was allowed to continue functioning more or less along the old lines provided management was under soviet supervision. Why? The Bolsheviks disagreed among themselves about which form the new soviet economy was to take and some workers had their own ideas many of those did not follow the formal Bolshevik ideas (several workers were not Bolsheviks!) Through the Land Decree (November 8th 1917) the Bolsheviks acknowledged what had already happened in many areas the peasants got to take position of the land. Since the Bolsheviks had promised to redistribute the land to the peasants they now faced a new problem. The peasants had just taken position of the land and they now counted on it being their possession! Because of the huge population those plots became tiny and therefore inefficient. The struggle to construct a productive and prosperous agriculture in Soviet without offending the peasants became a continuing and insoluble problem. In December 1917 it was obvious for Lenin and the Bolsheviks that they needed to progress faster. Lenin formed the Supreme Economic Council (Vesenkha). The Council was established to supervise the economy and to operate nationalized enterprises. This was a first step towards a state controlled economy. During the period April-June the banks, mineral resources, industrial resources were nationalized. The banks, the war industries and full state control over grain trade belonged to these first areas of nationalization. Lenin also annulled all state loans by the earlier regimes the annullation of all the foreign loans caused some strained foreign relations in the future. WAR COMMUNISM 1918-1921 War Communism begins with the outbreak of the civil war. It s characterized by extensive nationalization, the temporary abolition of money as a measure of value, equalization of earnings and the direction of labor. This was a period of war, economic chaos, hunger + starvation and enormous hardship. In December 1917 it was obvious for Lenin and the Bolsheviks that they needed to progress faster. Lenin formed the Supreme Economic Council (Vesenkha). The Council was established to supervise the economy and to operate nationalized enterprises. This was a first step towards a state controlled economy. During the period April-June the banks, mineral resources, industrial resources were nationalized. To be able to feed the towns during the civil war a large-scale requisitioning of grain on the countryside was necessary. In June different local administrations - the Committees of Poor Peasants were formed. They were going to control the richer peasants - the kulaks . They

continued the confiscation of supplies, sometimes by military (CHEKA) force. The food was then distributed by two centralized bodies - the Commissariat of Agriculture or the Commissariat of Food . The confiscation was a fatal mistake since the richer peasants were the most productive peasants; when their surpluses were thus confiscated they reduced their growing areas so as to produce less War Communism is reckoned to have begun at this time - mid-1918 with the Decree of Nationalization , making all large-scale enterprises liable to nationalization without compensation. In the following three years there was wholesale nationalization, grain requisitioning, extreme inflation and the virtual disappearance of a money economy, a chaotic decline of industry, rationing, hunger, and disease, a decline of urban population, a gradual subordination of the unions to the government, and a Civil War which demanded the dispatch of all available human and material assets to the fronts. Morris writes about War Communism: Strict centralized control of all forms of economic production and distribution, the virtual outlawing of all private trade, and the near destruction of the money economy by the printing of vast quantities of banknotes. In March 1921, shortly before the Tenth Bolshevik Party Congress opened in Petrograd, the sailors of the Kronstadt naval base outside Petrograd, joined by some of the Red Army, refused to obey their officers and called for a new revolution that gave genuine freedoms - of speech, of assembly, of private trade. Trotsky decided firm action was needed - it took ten days before the rebels gave up. This outburst, together with the peasants active refusal to take part in the grain requisitioning, convinced Lenin of the need for change. NEW ECONOMIC POLICY (NEP) 1921-1927 Lenin s new policy of March 1921 was primarily aimed at the peasants in an effort to regain their support and give them an incentive to produce more. Therefore - The requisitioning of surplus grain was ended and instead an agricultural tax introduced, to be paid in kind until 1923 and thereafter in cash. The amount to be paid was a fixed proportion of the surplus, hence the more that was produced, the greater the peasants share of his own surplus. In addition, this surplus could be privately traded and the peasant could by machinery, hire labor The New Economic Policy (NEP) was not restricted to agriculture. - Industry and trade were restored in part to private enterprise, although the types of works and businesses in private hands tended to be small and local. The State retained control of what Lenin called the commanding heights - heavy industry, the transport system, foreign trade and banking. The third thing that needed to be restored was the - Currency. Lenin reconstituted the rouble and backed it up with gold, silver and foreign currency. By returning to a private trade system the immediate problems were solved but at some time a fundamental reorganization would be needed. Soviet saw a considerable recovery in living standards and production levels. By 1926 in most production areas the economy had regained the 1913 output level. The NEP environment with its combination of market and planning had worked quite well, the peasants and the entrepreneurs had gained from it, but most other sectors of the economy were under fairly strict state control, so that the town worker could still be ordered where to go, and how much he could be paid and so forth, while the entrepreneurs and his country colleagues were free to produce as they liked. This paradox was unsatisfactory, not only on economic but also ideological grounds.

RUSSIA 1917-1924 This period includes the Russian Civil War and the complete rule of Lenin: The Civil War between the Bolsheviks (Reds) and the anti-Bolsheviks (Whites) ravaged Russia until 1920. The Whites represented all shades of anti-Communist groups, including members of the constituent assembly. Several of their leaders favored setting up a military dictatorship, but few were outspoken tsarists. Armed opposition to the Soviet regime centered at first in the south, where the volunteers under Kornilov (succeeded by Denikin) joined forces with the Don Cossacks. The Ukraine was the scene of fighting after the Germans evacuated it following the general armistice of Nov. 11, 1918; it was seized by the Bolsheviks (early 1919), by Denikin's forces (Aug.-Dec., 1919), again by the Bolsheviks (Dec., 1919), and finally by the Poles (May, 1920), with whom war had broken out over the Russo-Polish frontier question. Denikin in the meantime had turned over his command to General P. N. Wrangel, who after the conclusion of the Russo-Polish armistice was driven by the Bolsheviks into the Crimea and was obliged to evacuate his forces to Constantinople (Nov., 1920). The civil war in the east was equally fatal to the Whites. A government was organized at Samara by a group of Socialist Revolutionaries who had been members of the constituent assembly. It received the support of the Czech Legion, which controlled the Trans-Siberian RR, but it merged (Sept., 1918) with a more conservative government set up at Omsk, in Siberia, and a few weeks later fell under the dictatorship of Admiral Kolchak. Although at first successful, Kolchak's forces were eventually driven to the Russian Far East; by January, 1920, all Siberia except Vladivostok and some other Far Eastern territory was in Bolshevik hands. The civil war was complicated by Allied intervention. In N Russia , British, French, and American forces occupied (March, 1918) Murmansk and later Archangelsk with the stated purpose of protecting Allied stores against possible seizure by the Germans; they were evacuated only in Nov., 1919. In the Russian Far East the Allies occupied Vladivostok , which the Japanese held until 1922. The Bolshevik military victory was due partly to the lack of cooperation among the various White commanders and partly to the remarkable reorganization of the Red forces after Trotsky became Commissar of War. It was won, however, only at the price of immense sacrifice; Russia by 1920 was ruined and devastated. Atrocities were committed throughout the civil war by both sides. RUSSIAN CIVIL WAR 1918-1920 The Bolshevik Government built up two armed forces that would destroy the remnants of aristocratic and bourgeois power, the CHEKA and the Red Army: CHEKA:The All-Russian Extra-ordinary Commission for Combating Counter-Revolution, Speculation, and Sabotage. The Cheka was established on December 7th 1917 by a decision of the Sovnarkom. It was subordinated to the Sovnarkom and its functions were, "to liquidate counter-revolution and sabotage, to hand over counter-revolutionaries and saboteurs to the revolutionary tribunals, and to apply such measures of repression as 'confiscation, deprivation of ration cards, publication of lists of enemies of the people etc.' The man in charge was Felix Dzerzhinsky. But several contemporary sources indicates the active role of Lenin in enforcing the policy of terror During 1918 6300 people were executed by the CHEKA according to their own official numbers. The actual figures were probably much higher. The most famous victims were the Tsar family (executed in Ekaterinburg in July 1918). RED ARMY: The new Bolshevik regime did not trust the old army so they formed a new one in January 1918:

y y y y y y

It was open to all class-conscious workers of 18 years of age or more The bourgeoisie was banned 50 000 former Tsarist officers were retained to train the new force Each unit received a political commissar who was responsible for indoctrination and he should ensure that the army remained under Bolshevik control The supreme commander of the military forces was Leon Trotsky In August 1919 the Red Army had 300 000 soldiers in January 1920 the Red Army had over 5 million men

To reinstate discipline a few regulations were made in February/March 1918:

y y y

The powers of the regimental councils were curtailed The practice of electing officers was abolished The death penalty for deserters was reintroduced

The new government made several other new decrees. In February 1918:
y y

Church was separated from the State Religious teaching in schools were banned

In April-June 1918:
y y y y y

Banks were nationalized Mineral resources were nationalized Industrial concerns were nationalized Foreign trade was nationalized Inheritance of property was made illegal

In July (10th) 1918 RSFSR the Russian Soviet Federated Socialist Republic received a new CONSTITUTION
y y y y

RSFSR was a classless society RSFSR had freedom of worship All private ownership of property was forbidden Universal suffrage (except for: former members or agents of the Tsarist government, those who had profited from the labor of others, those with unearned income, priests, lunatics and criminals ) The economic principle was he who does not work neither shall he eat

RUSSIAN CONSTITUTION 1918 Some of the first decrees brought problems: The Treaty of Brest-Litovsk in 1918: Following Lenin s offer of peace ( Decree on Peace ) in Nov. 1917, an armistice with Germany was signed in December 1917. Russia s request for a peace with no annexations of land and no financial indemnities was accepted if the Western allies agreed to the same principle within ten days. Trotsky called upon all the participants in the war to begin

immediate peace negotiations but no reply came from the Western Allies The new Bolshevik government tried to delay any decisions because Lenin was convinced that their coup would trigger a European Revolution any day... The German delegation meanwhile put forward the demands of its government. They demanded extensive annexations. The Ukrainian government (Ukraine became independent in January 1918) signed a separate treaty with Germany and Austria-Hungary in February 1918. Trotsky then left Brest-Litovsk and declared the war ended with no peace being signed. The Germans responded by a fresh declaration of war and started a new offensive. They advanced far and were only 100 miles from Petrograd when Lenin ordered a resumption of negotiations. On 3 March Trotsky signed the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk. Trotsky (who acted as the chief negotiator), had continued to try to delay the final terms as long as possible, in the hope that either revolution in Germany and Austria-Hungary would topple the Emperor or that the Allies would come to Russia s aid. Both hopes proved illusory. The peace treaty that followed was finally ratified by the Congress of Soviets in March 1918. According to the treaty Russia surrendered the Western part of the country. - Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania and Poland were given up to Germany and Austria. - Areas in Southern Caucasus were given up to Turkey. - Finland, Georgia and the Ukraine were to have their independence recognized. - 6000 million marks were to be paid as reparations. - Russia lost 26% of the population - Russia lost 32% of the arable land - Russia lost 33% of all manufacturing industries - Russia lost 75% of the coal and iron resources Russia was stripped of huge agricultural and industrial resources The peace treaty created splits in the government. The Central Committee of the Bolshevik Party accepted it by 7 to 4. Lenin s explanation was that Russia could take no more war, but the treaty was only a temporary measure, since the inevitable and promised revolution in Germany (and in the world) would soon come and in its aftermath all comrades would renounce their gains ill-gotten by war. Russia just needed to gain time Basil Dmytryshyn claims Most of the lost territory was not under Bolshevik control Daniel Schub claims that the Bolsheviks still received German funds and they could not risk the exposure of that fact ECONOMY: In some cases Lenin s strategy was to adapt his policies to existing conditions. This was especially true within the economy. Russia needed to regain as much economical stability as possible. It was under these circumstances that Lenin had released the Decree on Land which seemed to encourage certain private ownership of land (since Lenin did not mention nationalization and/or collectivization of land). For this he received a lot of criticism within the party (Bukharin, Radek, Smirnov leftist Bolsheviks ). In the industries another problem had occurred- the Decree on Workers' Control had been an attempt to assert government authority over the factories which had been seized by workers. Unfortunately the workers committees often expressed the willingness to become their own masters so in October 1917 several factories were run by its own committee. The old managers and technical specialists were often dismissed. Production numbers therefore took a deep dive Lenin advocated control over each factory by a single director rather than an elected committee and he therefore reinstated former managers and technicians (often with high salaries). This was just a temporary solution! The big socialist reform was the establishment of the Supreme Economic Council (Vesenkha). The Council was established to supervise the economy and to operate nationalized enterprises. This was a first step towards a state controlled economy.

This first period of Bolshevik economy is called STATE CAPITALISM due to the temporary freedom within agriculture and the reinstatement of the old managers and specialists in the industries - it lasted to the summer of 1918. The bid for power - absolute authority made Civil War highly likely. Modern research strongly suggests that Lenin truly wanted a destructive civil war. Lenin was convinced that his forces could win and that in winning they would wipe out all their opponents, military and political. So who were the WHITE FORCES? (They were called the Whites because of thewhite uniforms worn by tsarist officers. This meant that the Whites were always associated with the Tsar and the old system of government ). Morris suggests three main parts: - Those attached to other revolutionary groups, hostile to or rejected by the Bolsheviks... - Former officers of the Imperial army, usually resentful of the "betrayal" at Brest-Litovsk - Nationalist groups seeking independence for their particular minority Another suggestion is: - Tsarists, nobilities - Middle-class constitutional democrats - Mensheviks - Socialist Revolutionaries - Foreign Powers - Groups of nationalists, peasants etc... (Greens: Independent groups of nationalists, peasants or bandits who roamed Russia at this time. They fought anyone and raided villages and towns. The most famous was the Ukrainian nationalist, Nestor Makno, who shared his booty with local peasants) What were the AIMS of the Reds and Whites? Bolsheviks: - They had only one aim: to stay in power so that they could build the new Socialist society... Whites: - The groups that made up the Whites had different aims: some wanted the Tsar back, some a military Dictator; others wanted constitutional government or revolutionary change. The only aim they had in common was to defeat the Bolsheviks; they agreed on little else... - Senior Russian Army Officers hated the humiliating terms of Brest-Litovsk. They also wanted to regain control over the Army... - Landowners wanted their land back - Socialist Revolutionaries and Mensheviks had been denied power... - The Foreign Powers were critical against Russia leaving the war (for several different reasons) - The Foreign powers were also afraid of the new doctrine - Communism - National minorities wanted their independence... Differences in "LEADERSHIP and UNITY": Bolsheviks: - They had a superb leader in Trotsky. He built up the Red Army from nothing, introducing conscription for men over eighteen years of age. He brought in nearly 50,000 experienced former Tsarist officers and appointed political Commissars - fanatical Bolsheviks - to each unit of men to make sure the officers and soldiers carried out the orders. - Trotsky was personally very courage s. He had a special train which took him and his army of handpicked soldiers to the places where the fighting was hardest.

Whites: - They lacked good leaders. Some of the commanders were cruel, treated their men with disrespect and set a bad example, drinking and taking drugs... - The White Generals did not trust each other and would not co-ordinate their attacks. This allowed the Bolsheviks to pick off the White Armies one by one - The Whites had problems inside their Armies, too. There was often fighting and squabbling, because the groups had different aims and beliefs. It was particularly hard for the revolutionaries to cooperate with supporters of the Tsar. GEOGRAPHICAL differences: Bolsheviks: - They held the central area of western Russia, which contained most of the large industrial centers able to produce munitions and war supplies. - They had control of the railroad lines which connected Petrograd and Moscow to the rest of the country. This meant that they could send soldiers and munitions quickly to any place in the battle area. Whites: - They were scattered around this central area, often with hundreds of miles separating the different armies. - Communications were difficult - that is, if the generals wanted to communicate. The Bolsheviks adjusted the economy during the Civil War: WAR COMMUNISM (June/July 1917 - March 1921): - VESENKHA: "Supreme Economic Council" - formed in December 1917 - Civil War - the economy had to be adjusted to the war - Extensive nationalization (all the industries - Decree of Nationalization ) - Industrial sector was pushed far back during this period - devastating results - Equalization of earnings and direction of labor - JUNE: Different local rural administrations were formed, the "Committees of Poor Peasants" - who were going to control the rich peasants = "kulaks" - Food was distributed by two centralized bodies: "Commissariat of Agriculture" and "Commissariat of Food" - Large scale grain requisition (sometimes by military force and/or help from the Cheka - caused a reaction: the peasants stopped producing a surplus which led to hunger and starvation) - Peasant unrest all over the country (uprise ) - Chaotic decline of industry, rationing, hunger, disease, decline of the urban population, gradual subordination of the unions to the government - Temporary abolition of money (extreme inflation - economic chaos) - Kronstadt uprise. The sailors together with some soldiers from the Red Army called for a new revolution with freedom of speech, of assembly and private trade In some cases Lenin s strategy was to adapt his policies to existing conditions. This was especially true within the economy. Russia needed to regain as much economical stability as possible. It was under these circumstances that Lenin had released the Decree on Land which seemed to encourage certain private ownership of land (since Lenin did not mention nationalization and/or collectivization of land). For this he received a lot of criticism within the party (Bukharin, Radek, Smirnov leftist Bolsheviks ). In the industries another problem had

occurred. The workers committees often expressed the willingness to become their own masters so in October 1917 several factories were run by its own committee. The old managers and technical specialists had often been dismissed. Production numbers took a deep dive Lenin advocated control over each factory by a single director rather than an elected committee and he therefore reinstated former managers and technicians (often with high salaries). This was just a temporary solution! The big socialist reform was the establishment of the Supreme Economic Council (Vesenkha) . The Council was established to supervise the economy and to operate nationalized enterprises. This was a first step towards a state controlled economy. This first period of Bolshevik economy is called STATE CAPITALISM due to the temporary freedom within agriculture and the reinstatement of the old managers and specialists in the industries - it lasted to the summer of 1918. During the period April-June the banks, mineral resources, industrial resources were nationalized. To be able to feed the towns during the civil war a large-scale requisitioning of grain on the countryside was necessary. In June different local administrations - the Committees of Poor Peasants were formed. They were going to control the richer peasants - the kulaks . They continued the confiscation of supplies, sometimes by military (CHEKA) force. The food was then distributed by two centralized bodies - the Commissariat of Agriculture or the Commissariat of Food . The confiscation was a fatal mistake since the richer peasants were the most productive peasants; when their surpluses were thus confiscated they reduced their growing areas so as to produce less War Communism is reckoned to have begun at this time - mid-1918 with the Decree of Nationalization , making all large-scale enterprises liable to nationalization without compensation. In the following three years there was wholesale nationalization, grain requisitioning, extreme inflation and the virtual disappearance of a money economy, a chaotic decline of industry, rationing, hunger, and disease, a decline of urban population, a gradual subordination of the unions to the government, and a Civil War which demanded the dispatch of all available human and material assets to the fronts. Morris writes about War Communism: Strict centralized control of all forms of economic production and distribution, the virtual outlawing of all private trade, and the near destruction of the money economy by the printing of vast quantities of banknotes. So was the Bolshevik economical policy "War Communism" successful? Well, they won the Civil War... Several foreign powers intervened on the behalf of the White side - Why? - LENIN: "The allies wanted to suppress communism" - The allies wanted Russia to restart the war in the east, or at least prevent Germany (Central Powers) from making free use of Russian, Polish, Ukrainian raw materials (and the allied stored supplies in Russia) AFTER WWI: - France wanted to have some of the invested money back. Between 1887 and 1917 France invested 16 billion francs in companies/enterprises now nationalized (without any compensation) by the new government

- Great Britain and the US had lesser investments to defend - Japan saw an opportunity of territorial gains in Asia (and they were therefore checked by US troops that was more concerned with hindering Japanese annexations than combating Bolshevism further west...) AFTER MID-1919: - When the Third Communist International (COMINTERN) declared that the main aim was to "overthrow capitalism, establish the dictatorship of the proletariat in an International Soviet republic" the Russian Civil War became predominantly ideological. The international intervention was strictly limited: - The US sent only about 6000 men to Siberia (mostly to check the Japanese troops) - Many of the men that were sent over were affected by war-weariness - they were not motivated - The undemocratic regime of some of the White generals made it hard (or impossible) for some of the foreign troops to cooperate (esp. with Admiral Kolchak on the Eastern front... the US troops refused to cooperate and the French troops did it with very big difficulties) - More important for the White armies were the substantial sums of money and the large quantities of military supplies. Unfortunately some of that was checked by corruption and ineffiency which meant that little of the aid actually reached the front - The intervention seemed to have the opposite effect of what it meant to have. The Bolsheviks were skilled in their propaganda when they portrayed their war effort as a defense of Russia against foreign imperialism... - The only big exception to the limited success of the international efforts was the Czechoslovak Legion. It had been formed in 1917 by Czechs and Slovaks resident in Russia together with POW. Their aim was not anti-Bolshevik, it was to fight for independence in their own country against the weak Austrian-Hungarian Empire. On their way to the Western front they clashed into local Soviet officials who tried to disarm them (in Cheliabinsk). This incident led to this well-organized and well-equipped unit to cooperate with the White forces. It was successful, especially in the beginning of the Civil War, and their success encouraged the White forces. Representatives of the Socialist Revolutionaries combined with the Czech Legion formed one centre of White Administration at the Eastern front (Omsk). Russia faced many other problems.It lost enormous resources when Ukraine, Transcaucasia and Finland declared their independence in 1917. The losses continued when Germany gave up WWI - then Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania and Poland also claimed independence. The Polish claim was extra difficult since there was a disagreement of the eastern borders; should the historic borders from before the partition of the old Polish kingdom in 1772 be the new border or should it be fixed by the main areas of the Polish-speaking population (called the Curzon Line). The dispute about this border would lead to war between Poland and the new Bolshevik State of Russiain 1920... The civil war can be divided into three phases: (1) February to November 1918 (2) November 1918 to December 1919 (3) January to November 1920. During the first phase, the eastern front was the most significant. The fronts in the north and southeast did not register much activity. Admiral Kolchak overthrew the Directorate which had been established in Ufa and proclaimed himself supreme ruler of Russia in November 1918.

The second phase saw action on the northwestern, eastern, south-eastern, southwestern, and southern fronts. Bitter fighting was the keynote everywhere. The high point of White progress was achieved in October 1919 when Denikin s cavalry reached Orel, 200 miles southwest of Moscow. Yedenich reached the suburbs of Petrograd in late October 1919. The Reds scored notable victories to force Denikin back to the Don in October 1919 and Kolchak was forced to retreat to Irkutsk in December. Phase three is dominated by the Polish invasion in May 1920 and Wrangel s drive north from the Crimea in June. The Reds met defeat near Warsaw and conceded territory to the Poles at the Treaty of Riga in March 1921. By the end of the year Soviet Russia had been cleared of all large antiBolshevik forces. Why did the Red Army win the civil war? The Bolsheviks had some advantages - the railroad within their area made it possible for the troops to move quickly from one front to another, the area included industrial centers who could easily change the production to arms and equipment, they had a skillful Commissar of War - Trotsky - who brought in 50 000 former officers of the Tsarist army, and the Red Army was quite homogeneous - the army was united in the aims, the ideology and by compulsion In contrast, the various enemies were divided in their intentions. Some of them were based on minority nationalities, many of whom, such as the Lithuanians, Moldavians and Ukrainians, declared their independence. In other areas, leaders of the anti-Bolsheviks, or Whites , formed armies with the aim of establishing a power base and advancing from it to the Bolshevik stronghold. The White forces contained different fractions such as - other revolutionary groups that were hostile to or rejected by the Bolsheviks, former officers of the Imperial Army (especially resentful to the betrayal at Brest-Litovsk) and nationalist groups. In addition, Russia s former allies sent troops to Russia with several aims in view - first of all to continue the Eastern front against Germany. The allies also needed the supplies that were stored in Russia, they wanted to prevent Germany and Austria from making free use of the Russian, Polish and Ukrainian raw materials and finally they wanted to help defeat Bolshevism (especially after the Third Communist International COMINTERN in March 1919 had been founded with the expressed intention of spreading communism around the world and organizing the overthrow of the Western governments). The fourth and final anti-Bolshevik force was the Czech Legion, 30 000 men originally captured by the Russians in the war against Austria-Hungary, and now in central Russia. The deep divisions between the groups and the incapability to coordinate their military campaigns defeated the antiBolshevik troops after three years in 1921. MINDMAP OVER THE RESULTS OF THE RUSSIAN CIVIL WAR

RUSSIA 1924-1928 POWER STRUGGLE IN RUSSIA 1922-1928 POWER STRUGGLE AFTER LENIN May 1922 Lenin had his first stroke! This restricted him to participate in politics. The question that now came up was Who was going to take over after Lenin? The most important members of the POLITBURO were Trotsky, Zinoviev,Kamenev and Bukharin - but Stalin would eventually take over. Why? Stalin s advantages:
y y

Hold key posts in party and government (had control over the Party appointments and organization) Takes initiative on Lenin s death

Trotsky s disadvantages:
y y

Trotsky s strange lack of self confidence allowed Stalin to act Trotsky lacked a power base in the Party Stalin, Kamenev and Zinoviev forms a Triumvirate against Trotsky ( Zinoviev and Kamenev had the same ideas as Trotsky, but they deeply disliked him)

Issues on which Trotsky attempts to fight:

y y y

Bureaucratization NEP Modernization of the USSR

Major clash: Trotsky s idea of a permanent revolution against Stalin s idea of revolution in one country Stalin s advantage or the roots of Stalin s power : Background:
y y y y

Stalin had worked closely and loyally with Lenin Stalin had been a major worker for the Bolsheviks Lenin regarded him as the wonderful Georgian (but this changed in 1922 ) In 1922 Lenin criticized Stalin (esp. after Stalin was rude to Krupskaya (told her to stay out of State business and called her a whore Lenin s testament)

Key posts taken by Stalin during Lenin s time:

y

y y y

People's Commissar for Nationalities (1917) In this post Stalin was in charge of the officials in the many regions and republics that made up the USSR (the official title of the Soviet state after 1922). Liaison Officer between Politburo and Orgburo (1919) This post placed him in a unique position to monitor both the Party's policy and the Party's personnel. Head of the Workers' and Peasants' Inspectorate (1919) This position entitled him to oversee the work of all government departments. General Secretary of the Communist Party (1922) In this position, he recorded and conveyed Party policy. This enabled him to build up personal files on all the members of the Party. Nothing of note happened that Stalin did not know about.

Stalin became the indispensable link in the chain of command in the Communist Party and the Soviet government. Above all, what these posts gave him was the power of patronage. He used this authority to place his own supporters in key positions. Since they then owed their place to him, Stalin could count on their support in the voting in the various committees which made up the organization of the party and the government. Key benefits to Stalin from developments during Lenin s last years:
y y y

The Lenin enrolment (the Party increased the number of members: 340.000 in 1922 to 600.000 in 1925. Stalin was as Party Secretary in charge of this enrolment The attack upon factionalism (at the Party Congress 1921) The Lenin legacy

Key moments in January 1924:

y

Lenin s sickness and death prevented his Political Testament from being published (which saved Stalin from being dismissed as General Secretary

Stalin s behavior during the funeral. He tricked Trotsky to be away and he acted like Lenin s successor (read the funeral speech)

Criticism against Trotsky:

y y y

y y

He was arrogant He focused to much on the administration of the Party/Army Trotsky became a Bolshevik during Summer 1917. He was a Menshevik after the split 1903. Pretty soon he established an independent intellectual group which worked together up to Summer 1917 He had been a brilliant leader of the Red Army so they feared him He was a Jew

FIRST PHASE OF THE POWER STRUGGLE (1922-1925) 1922 Stalin, Kamenev and Zinoviev sets up a Triumvirate In 1922 Lenin criticized Stalin (esp. after Stalin was rude to Krupskaya (told her to stay out of State business and called her a whore Lenin s testament). Just a few days later Lenin had his second stroke. The triumvirate between Stalin, Kamenev and Zinoviev was set up. They opened up the old Party Records to the Central Committee and took out old letters where Lenin expressed disagreements with Trotsky (and his group of intellectuals these letters came from the period before Summer 1917). After this they started a whispering campaign against Trotsky;
y y y

They revealed the earlier disagreements between Lenin and Trotsky Trotsky was a non-Bolshevik before Summer 1917 Trotsky was portrayed as someone who was ruthlessly ambitious

At the 12th Party Congress (April 1923) Trotsky had looked like Lenin s successor, but he became more and more isolated. At the same Congress Stalin was re-elected General Secretary. The Party Congress also;

y y

Elected a new enlarged Central Committee. Of the 40 members only 3 strongly supported Trotsky A special Control Commission was set up. It was supposed to examine the Party members and dismiss the ones that were not politically correct. Stalin became the Supervisor of this Commission and he now began to replace Trotsky s supporters with supporters of the triumvirate

Lenin s funeral: When Lenin died Trotsky was on his way to the Black Sea to recover from his previous illness. Stalin deliberately gave Trotsky the wrong date about the funeral so Trotsky thought he could not make it back in time. After talking to Stalin it was decided that Trotsky should continue his recovery by the Black Sea . During the funeral Stalin acted like Lenin s successor. His speech can be seen as the start of a LENIN CULT . The triumvirate also raised doubts about Trotsky s absence. Before the 13th Party Congress (May 1924) Krupskaya revealed Lenin s Political Testament to the Central Committee and senior delegates. She and several of her supporters thought this would be enough to stop Stalin s career It was Zinoviev and Kamenev that saved Stalin s political career by arguing;
y y

Stalin has changed the policies he was criticized for The Party needs to stick together

The Central Committee decided to not publish Lenin s Testament (it actually remained a Party secret until 1956!) and Stalin remained the General Secretary. Krupskaya protested!!!, but Trotsky said nothing The Congress voted for the condemnation of Trotsky (this had been suggested at the previous conference when Trotsky was ill). Trotsky accepted the verdict of the Party. The triumvirate also acted in COMINTERN (the Third International/Communist International set up in Moscow 1919 ). In June 1924 Trotsky was not re-elected as a full member, his was replaced by Stalin. Trotsky was also threatened with expulsion if he engaged in any further political controversies. The defeat of Trotsky and the Left Opposition ended the first stage of the Power Struggle after Lenin The later stage of the first phase in the Power Struggle 1924-1926 was relatively quiet In summer 1924 a campaign against Trotskyism was started. During the Autumn 1924 Stalin presented his idea SOCIALISM IN ONE COUNTRY ;
y y y

The new State needs peace and political/economical stability so it can construct socialism on its own It rejected the idea of a Permanent Revolution Trotsky s idea since 1906 Bukharin now supported Stalin and he supported the idea of SMYCHKA the political and economical alliance between industrial workers and peasants (within NEP)

In November 1924 Trotsky finally acted;

y

He published his speeches and writings of 1917 + a new part Lessons of October . This new part showed how he had opposed the Mensheviks since 1904 It also showed how

close his and Lenin s ideas were. It further showed how Zinoviev and Kamenev had opposed Lenin, especially about the October revolution in 1917, but there was not any criticism against Stalin The triumvirate counter-attack;
y y y

They repeated the disagreements between Lenin and Trotsky They attacked Trotsky s idea about the Permanent Revolution They more or less forced Trotsky to step down from his position as Commissar of War. In May 1925 Trotsky was given a new economic post; he was put on the Supreme Council of National Economy - VESENKHA They warned Trotsky Another controversy and he would be expelled from the Politburo and the Central Committee

Trotsky acted again;

y

He wrote (from his new position) about the threat of US Capitalism. He instead argued for more Socialist Planning to strengthen NEP and he argued for COMINTERN to adopt a more revolutionary line. This was a controversial statement many peasants feared that Trotsky s proposals would increase the Centralization, stop the growing prosperity (especially among the Kulaks ) and lead Soviet into more wars. Stalin s (and Bukharin s) idea of a continuation of NEP (without Trotsky s changes) and Socialism in One Country offered a more attractive future.

During 1925 a split between the members of the former triumvirate appears. Zinoviev and Kamenev now aligned themselves with the earlier Left Opposition and now criticized the idea of Socialism in One Country as anti-Leninist. Stalin and the Centre now received support from the Right; Bukharin, Rykov and Tomsky. Kamenev had the support of the Party in Moscow and Zinoviev had the support of the Party in Leningrad (Petrograd had been renamed in 1924). During the Summer of 1925 Zinoviev s supporters started criticizing the growing dominance of the Right and together with Zinoviev and Kamenev they called for the Struggle for Equality and the revival of Lenin s Internationalism. This group is often referred to as the LENINGRAD OPPOSITION. In October 1925 the opposition went a bit further. At a Central Committee meeting (which prepared for the 14 th Party Congress) Zinoviev and Kamenev joined forces with Lenin s widow Krupskaya. They now demanded a free debate on all issues at the next Party Congress. Stalin was able to defeat this demand, with the support of the Right. The Left was warned to not make any public criticism of the official policies At the 14th Party Congress (December 1925) it was obvious that Stalin had managed to ensure support. When the questions about Stalin s abuse of power and criticism against the Trotsky campaign came up the Congress voted for Stalin s (and the Right s) view with 559 votes against 65 The new Central Committee and the new Politburo received a Stalinist-Bukharinist majority. Now the Committee could act against the criticizers;
y y

Kamenev was demoted in the Central Committee In early 1926 Zinoviev was forced to hand over the leadership of the Leningrad Party to Kirov. Zinoviev s supporters were removed from their positions.

SECOND PHASE OF THE POWER STRUGGLE (1926-1928) The next stage in the Power Struggle started with the formation of a new Opposition Group the UNITED OPPOSITION. This group included Trotsky, Zinoviev, Kamenev and a few other Party Members. In June 1926 Stalin launched a new attack on Trotsky. Trotsky answered by writing to the Politburo and ask for a Reformation of the Party before the country would be ruled by a new Autocratic Ruler The struggle would continue the next 18 months. In July 1926 the UNITED OPPOSITION formally founded the group. They demanded;
y y y y

Greater Party Democracy More Industrial Planning Collectivisation of the Agriculture Permanent International Revolution

The UNITED OPPOSITION prepared for the Party Congress but were not successful:
y y y y y y y y y

They tried to get the Party to publish their Policy Program, but the Central Committee refused Then they published their Program themselves, but they got less people than they hoped for to sign it; about 6000 instead of calculated 20000/30000 During the 10th anniversary of the October revolution they tried to address the crowds, but Stalin s supporters and the Police stopped them Because of their actions now the UNITED OPPOSITION were accused of factionalism Stalin and his supporters expelled Trotsky, Zinoviev and Kamenev from the Politburo Zinoviev was removed from his position as the President of COMINTERN On Stalin s demand Trotsky and Zinoviev were also expelled from the Communist Party, Kamenev was expelled from the Central Committee Hundreds of UNITED OPPOSITION supporters were also expelled from the Party Members of the UNITED OPPOSITION were dismissed from their jobs and sent to very isolated parts of the Soviet Union

Stalin, encouraged by their lack of support, banned their meetings and dismissed Oppositionists. He also postponed the 15th Party Congress (so Trotsky and Zinoviev couldn t view their ideas in public ). When this was done Stalin gave his OK for the Party Congress (December). Members of the UNITED OPPOSITION tried to get the Congress to annul the expulsions, but this demand was rejected. This made Zinoviev and Kamenev surrender to Stalin (they declared that they been wrong and anti-Leninist in front of the whole Congress!). It caused a new split between Trotsky and Zinoviev + Kamenev. This was the end of the UNITED OPPOSITION! Zinoviev and Kamenev were sentenced to serve at least six months of probation from the Party. After the Congress 1500 Oppositionists were expelled (and some were deported) over 2500 signed recantations! Trotsky now viewed the idea of forming a new Party. This made Krupskaya and other leaders of the UNITED OPPOSITION to make peace with Stalin who now used newspapers and the whole Propaganda Machinery against the remains of the UNITED OPPOSITION. One of Trotsky s

supporters had the full text of Lenin s Political Testament published in New York Times! Stalin and the Politburo got very upset. Trotsky was forcibly deported to Alma Ata in Turkestan (January 1928). The State Publishers were not allowed to publish his works and his books were removed from the libraries and the bookstores. Trotsky and the former leftist leaders were now completely defeated! Now Stalin turned against the Rightists THIRD PHASE OF THE POWER STRUGGLE AFTER LENIN (1928-1929) In 1928 the USSR faced a serious RURAL CRISIS despite three good harvests;
y y

Bread shortages High food prices

This gave food riots and forced grain collections from the State. The Right resented these grain collections and the general idea of more State Control over the Industrial development. In April 1928 began the Central Committee to openly criticize Kulaks . They called these capitalistic peasants enemies of the State . The Party Officials who wouldn t deal with the Kulaks (or were to lenient) were removed. Stalin had moved towards the old left. This caused a split among Trotsky s supporters. Some of them now accepted and supported Stalin. To further emphasize his more leftist profile Stalin reinstated Kamenev, Zinoviev and about 3000 other former Oppositionists in the Party (June 1928). During the Summer of 1928 the split between Stalin and the Right became more evident. Both groups now tried to get support from the defeated Leftist Oppositionists
y

Bukharin approached Trotsky (through Kamenev). He forwarded the idea of Stalin is a new Genghis Khan and he will strangle us and make Soviet Union into a Police State where he will take total power. Stalin did not approach the leftist Opposition directly. He just gave some hints about a possible alliance.

Stalin and his Police now became more and more violent against the peasants. This made Trotsky consider an alliance with Bukharin. The wanted alliance failed due to the reluctance of the supporters to co-operate with the old enemies and several leftists believed in Stalin s move towards the left. So Stalin could defeat the Right without any official support from the left. To prevent future opposition
y y

Trotsky was expelled from Russia (February 1929) Bukharin, Rykov and Tomsky were charged with factionalism. Bukharin was removed as an editor of Pravda, as a political secretary of COMINTERN and from the Politburo. Tomsky was dismissed from the Central Council of Trade Unions.

On The Death Of Lenin A Speech Delivered at the All-Union Congress of Soviets Comrades, we Communists are people of a special mould. We are made of a special stuff. We are those who form the army of the great proletarian strategist, the army of Comrade Lenin. There is

nothing higher than the honor of belonging to this army. There is nothing higher than the title of member of the Party whose founder and leader was Comrade Lenin. It is not given to everyone to be a member of such a party. It is the sons of the working class, the sons of want and struggle, the sons of incredible privation and heroic effort who before all should be members of such a party. That is why the Party of the Leninists, the Party of the Communists, is also called the Party of the working class. DEPARTING FROM US, COMRADE LENIN ENJOINED US TO HOLD HIGH AND GUARD THE PURITY OF THE GREAT TITLE OF MEMBER OF THE PARTY, WE VOW TO YOU, COMRADE LENIN, WE SHALL FULFIL YOU R B EHEST WITH HONOUR! For twenty-five years Comrade Lenin tended our Party and made it into the strongest and most highly steeled worker party in the world. The blows of tsarism and its henchmen, the fury of the bourgeoisie and the landlords, the armed attacks of Kolchak and Denikin, the armed intervention of Britain and France, the lies and slanders of the hundred-mouthed bourgeois press all these scorpions constantly chastised our Party for a quarter of a century. But our Party stood firm as a rock, repelling the countless blows of its enemies and leading the working class forward, to victory. In fierce battles our Party forged the unity and solidarity of its ranks. And by unity and solidarity it achieved victory over the enemies of the working class. DEPARTING FROM US, COMRADE LENIN ENJOINED US TO GUARD THE UNITY OF OUR PARTY AS THE APPLE OF OUR EYE, WE VOW TO YOU, COMRADE LENIN, THAT THIS BEHEST, TOO, WE SHALL FULFIL WITH HONOUR! Burdensome and intolerable has been the lot of the working class. Painful and grievous have been the sufferings of the laboring people. Slaves and slaveholders, serfs and serf-owners, peasants and landlords, workers and capitalists, oppressed and oppressors so the world has been built from time immemorial, and so it remains to this day in the vast majority of countries. Scores and indeed hundreds of times in the course of the centuries the laboring people have striven to throw off the oppressors from their backs and to become the masters of their own destiny. But each time, defeated and disgraced, they have been forced to retreat, harboring in their breasts resentment and humiliation, anger and despair, and lifting up their eyes to an inscrutable heaven where they hoped to find deliverance. The chains of slavery remained intact, or the old chains were replaced by new ones, equally burdensome and degrading. Ours is the only country where the oppressed and downtrodden laboring masses have succeeded in throwing off the rule of the landlords and capitalists and replacing it by the rule of the workers and peasants. You know, comrades, and the whole world now admits it, that this gigantic struggle was led by Comrade Lenin and his Party. The greatness of Lenin lies above all in this, that by creating the Republic of Soviets he gave a practical demonstration to the oppressed masses of the whole world that hope of deliverance is not lost, that the rule of the landlords and capitalists is short-lived, that the kingdom of labor can be created by the efforts of the laboring people themselves, and that the kingdom of labor must be created not in heaven, but on earth. He thus fired the hearts of the workers and peasants of the whole world with the hope of liberation. That explains why Lenin s name has become the name most beloved of the laboring and exploited masses. DEPARTING FROM US, COMRADE LENIN ENJOINED US TO GUARD AND STRENGTHEN THE DICTATORSHIP OF THE PROLETARIAT. WE VOW TO YOU, COMRADE LENIN, THAT WE SHALL SPARE NO EFFORT TO FULFIL THIS BEHEST, TOO, WITH HONOUR! The dictatorship of the proletariat was established in our .country on the basis of an alliance between the workers and peasants. This is the first and fundamental basis of the Republic of Soviets . The workers and peasants could not have vanquished the capitalists and landlords without such an alliance. The workers could not have defeated the capitalists without the support of the peasants. The peasants could not have defeated the landlords without the leadership of the workers. This is borne out by the whole history of the civil war in our country. But the struggle to consolidate the Republic of Soviets is by no means at an end it has only taken on a new form.

Before, the alliance of the workers and peasants took the form of a military alliance, because it was directed against Kolchak and Denikin. Now, the alliance of the workers and peasants must assume the form of economic co-operation between town and country, between workers and peasants, because it is directed against the merchant and the kulak, and its aim is the mutual supply by peasants and workers of all they require. You know that nobody worked for this more persistently than Comrade Lenin. DEPARTING FROM US, COMRADE LENIN ENJOINED US TO STRENGTHEN WITH ALL OUR MIGHT THE ALLIANCE OF THE WORKERS AND PEASANTS. WE VOW TO YOU, COMRADE LENIN, THAT THIS BEHEST, TOO, WE SHALL FULFIL WITH HONOUR! The second basis of the Republic of Soviets is the union the working people of the different nationalities of our country. Russians and Ukrainians, Bashkirs and Byelorussians Georgians and Azerbaijanians, Armenians and Daghestanians, Tatars and Kirghiz , Uzbeks and Turkmenians are all equally interested in strengthening the dictatorship of the proletariat. Not only does the dictatorship of the proletariat deliver these peoples from fetters and oppression, but these peoples on their part deliver our Republic of Soviets from the intrigues and assaults of the enemies of the working class by their supreme devotion to the Republic of Soviets and their readiness to make sacrifices for it. That is why Comrade Lenin untiringly urged upon us the necessity of the voluntary union of the peoples of our country, the necessity of their fraternal co-operation within the framework of the Union of Republics. DEPARTING FROM US, COMRADE LENIN ENJOINED US TO STRENGTHEN AND EXTEND THE UNION OF REPUBLICS. WE VOW TO YOU, COMRADE LENIN, THAT THIS BEHEST, TOO, WE SHALL FULFIL WITH HONOUR! The third basis of the dictatorship of the proletariat is our Red Army and our Red Navy. More than once did Lenin impress upon us that the respite we had won from the capitalist states might prove a short one. More than once did Lenin point out to us that the strengthening of the Red Army and the improvement of its condition is one of the most important tasks of our Party. The events connected with Curzon s ultimatum and the crisis in Germany once more confirmed that, as always, Lenin was right. Let us vow then, comrades, that we shall spare no effort to strengthen our Red Army and our Red Navy. Like a huge rock, our country stands out amid an ocean of bourgeois states. Wave after wave dashes against it, threatening to submerge it and wash it away. But the rock stands unshakable. Wherein lies its strength? Not only in the fact that our country rests on an alliance of the workers and peasants, that it embodies a union of free nationalities, that it is protected by the mighty arm of the Red Army and the Red Navy. The strength, the firmness, the solidity of our country is due to the profound sympathy and unfailing support it finds in the hearts of the workers and peasants of the whole world. The workers and peasants of the whole world want to preserve the Republic of Soviets as an arrow shot by the sure hand of Comrade Lenin into the camp of the enemy, as the pillar of their hopes of deliverance from oppression and exploitation, as a reliable beacon pointing the path to their emancipation. They want to preserve it, and they will not allow the landlords and capitalists to destroy it. Therein lies our strength. Therein lies the strength of the working people of all countries. And therein lies the weakness of the bourgeoisie all over the world. Lenin never regarded the Republic of Soviets as an end in itself. He always looked on it as an essential link for strengthening the revolutionary movement in the countries of the West and the East, an essential link for facilitating the victory of the working people of the whole world over capitalism. Lenin knew that this was the only right conception, both from the international standpoint and from the standpoint of preserving the Republic of Soviets itself. Lenin knew that this alone could fire the hearts of the working people of the whole world with determination to fight the decisive battles for their emancipation. That is why, on the very morrow of the establishment of the dictatorship of the proletariat, he, the greatest of the geniuses who have led the proletariat, laid the foundation of the workers International. That is why he never tired of extending and strengthening

the union of: the working people of the whole world the Communist International. You have seen during the past few days the pilgrimage of scores and hundreds of thousands of working people to Comrade Lenin s bier. Before long you will see the pilgrimage of representatives of millions of working people to Comrade Lenin s tomb. You need not doubt that the representatives of millions will be followed by representatives of scores and hundreds of millions from all parts of the earth, who will come to testify that Lenin was the leader not only of the Russian proletariat, not only of the European workers, not only of the colonial East, but of all the working people of the globe. DEPARTING FROM US, COMRADE LENIN ENJOINED US TO REMAIN FAITHFUL TO THE PRINCIPLES OF THE COMMUNIST INTERNATIONAL. WE VOW TO YOU, COMRADE LENIN, THAT WE SHALL NOT SPARE OUR LIVES TO STRENGTHEN AND EXTEND THE UNION OF THE WORKING PEOPLE OF THE WHOLE WORLD THE COMMUNIST INTERNATIONAL! STALIN AND COLLECTIVIZATION 1928-1939 Key dates 1928 Widespread famine in the USSR Collectivization began Start of the first FYP (Five-Year Plan) 1932-3 1933 Start of the second FYP 1938 Start of the third FYP 1941-5 The Great Patriotic War Problems with Agriculture and problems with NEP: y The peasants used old traditional methods strip farming with wooden ploughs were common y No machinery the peasants often used old wood equipment y The farmers just worked for their subsistence not for anybody else y The farms were to small for efficient farming after the revolution land was handed out to the individual peasants. This land was often to small and divided into many different plots. Some of this land had later been subdivided y The peasants were very reluctant to deliver grain to the low fixed prices the State offered y Prices of manufactured goods had become high y Entrepreneurs and rich peasants ( kulaks ) gained from the new system, but most peasants and many workers in the urban areas were under strict state control y A new group of traders, the Nepmen , made huge profits from buying food and goods cheaply and selling them more dearly y This economy was a capitalistic economy, based on capitalistic methods. This caused a lot of criticism from the leftist Bolsheviks (caused a split within the Party) NEP was ideologically incorrect!
y y y

To be able to carry through a major modern industrialization efficient farming and accurate food supplies were absolute necessary Industrialization demanded capital money!!! Russia needed to import foreign machinery and some foreign expertise. The traditional export article was grain Efficient mechanized farming would release peasants who would be available as workers to the fast growing industries

So in the late 1920s Stalin decided to impose on the USSR a crash program of reform of the

Soviet economy. Stalin called this big economic reform the second revolution . It is also frequently defined as a revolution from above . Here is a summary of Stalin s Economic Aim Motives and Means in 1928: AIM
y

A Second Revolution to modernize Russia

MOTIVES y To confirm his authority as a leader by getting rid of the rightist opposition (Bukharin, Rykov and Tomsky) y To be able to meet the RURAL CRISIS (Grain shortage, bread shortages and high food prices which led to food riots and forced grain collections) all problems with NEP y To get rid of the rural Class Enemy - the KULAKS (de-Kulakization) y Modernize Soviet agriculture y To enable the Soviet Union to catch up with the economies of the Western World MEANS y Collectivization (with forced grain procurements) y Industrialization ( Heavy industrialization concentration on Heavy Industries Exploitation of New Industrial Resources - Improvement of Communications)

GOSPLAN Gosudarstvennyj planovyi komitet soveta ministrov USSR The USSR Economic State Planning Commission that had been established at the Party Congress 1921 became a good instrument for the Collectivization and Industrialoization COLLECTIVIZATION AIM To end all private Land ownership MEANS The anti-kulak campaign (de-Kulakization) RESULTS y Disruption on the land y Peasant protests and uprises y Catastrophic fall in food production y Reprisals against the peasants y Hunger and famine over 5 million people died of starvation

1928 Stalin presents the idea of Collectivization. He claims that it was voluntary a free and eager choice of poor peasants (- 1.7% in December 1928) He also identified a Class Enemy the KULAK (The held back the workers revolution by monopolizing the best land and they employed cheap peasant labor to farm it ). In a speech December 1929 Stalin said: We have passed from a policy of confining the exploiting tendencies of the Kulaks to a policy of liquidation of the Kulaks as a class (DEKULAKIZATION) In 1929/1930 groups of Party Activists and Party Officials (over 25000) backed by the OGPU (before 1924 the CHEKA) and sometimes the Army were sent out to the countryside to

organize, with force if necessary, the peasants into collective farms. The peasants had to sign a register where they expressed a demand to be collectivised! After this animals, equipment and buildings were taken from the more wealthy peasants (the Kulaks ) and this would form the basis for the new collective farm. There were two basic types of collective farms; KOLKHOZ and SOVKHOZ y KOLKHOZ : Land and equipment was collectively owned by the peasants within the collective. They lived and worked at the farm rent-free as long as they delivered a big proportion of the produce to the State. The surplus was divided among the members and each family was allowed to have a small plot for own produce and some animals Each Kolkhoz (normally about 70 households) was headed by a Farm Manager. He had to make sure that the State demands were met and that the farm was organized in an appropriate way. The Kolkhozes did not have any heavy machinery of their own Special MTS (Machine Tractor Stations) were established to supply the collective farms with machinery and to supply seed. These favours had to be paid in grain Between 1929-1932 over 25000 MTS were built. The Kolkhoz was the most common collective farm. y SOVKHOZ : This was a State farm where everything was State property. These collective farms were much larger and much more mechanized. The peasants got paid a regular wage on these farms REACTION: To avoid having their land and buildings seized, their animals and equipment confiscated more wealthy peasants burned their own houses, farms and crops and they killed their animals. In some areas riots and armed rebellions broke out (especially in Ukraine, Kazakhstan and North Caucasus). In March 1930 the Party Officials announced that 58% of the peasant holdings had been collectivised. This number was most likely wrong historians have estimated the actual number to be around 20% (from 1.7% in December 1928). A minor halt of the collectivisation came in March 1930. The Party Officials were afraid that the harsh way the collectivisation had been carried out so far would destroy the harvest of 1930. After the harvest was secured the collectivisation continued. By 1936 over 90% of the peasant holdings had been collectivised!!! Catastrophic fall in food production:

1934 (Horses = 16.5 millions) (Cattle = 33.5 millions) Pigs = ?) (Sheep and goats = 36.5

millions) 1935 Grain production exceeded the pre-collectivisation figures 1940 Grain production at the 1914 level The livestock numbers did not exceed the pre-collectivisation levels until 1953! Reprisals against the peasants: By the end of 1929 and the beginning of 1930 16 million tons of grain had been collected (in some areas over 30% of the entire crop was taken). In February 1930 a Decree gave local committees the power to apply necessary measures against the Kulaks. Several of the Kulaks were accused of being counter-revolutionaries and exploiters . For them existed two punishments; execution or deportation? Hunger and famine: y Government failed to deal with the famine which led to the loss of millions of life (starvation especially in Ukraine, Kazakhstan and Northern Caucasus over 5 million people died of starvation) y Loss of expertise the more prosperous farmers ( Kulaks ) were usually also the more skilled farmers y Inexperienced collective farm Managers made the situation much worse STALIN S FIVE-YEAR PLANS 1928 In December 1927, the 15th party Congress ordered Gosplan (the State Planning Commission - founded in 1921 to set up a single economic plan for the whole country) to draw up a five-year plan for development of the whole economy. All sectors within the Soviet economy were approaching a drastic change. The NEP economy was over. Stalin, the new leader of the party approved:
y

The Collectivization of Agriculture . The Congress ordered this transformation of agriculture and the destruction of the wealthy peasant class, the kulaks . However, 1928 proved that a mild approach was inadequate. The quantities of grain reaching the towns was lower than ever (partly because of the low prices, fixed by the government). By the summer of 1929 Stalin had decided on a policy of compulsion, both in the destruction of the kulaks and in the creation of the collectives. We have passed , he said in December, from a policy of confining the exploiting tendencies of the kulaks to a policy of liquidation of the kulaks as a class. The winter of 1929-1930 was the worst period of forced collectivization. By March 1930 over half the peasant farms had been brought into collectives, from a mere 4% in October 1929. 25 000 Party officials, sometimes aided by police and army, did most of the work themselves, simply ordering the kulaks to comply. When they refused, the poorer farmers were encouraged to seize the land, animals and equipment. To avoid this, the kulaks frequently burnt their own homes and crops and killed their animals. It has been estimated that about half the animal population of the Russian countryside died in this way between 1929 and 1933. The loss of human life was also enormous. Figures of this were not published, but it has been estimated that about 7 million people were either killed or deported to labor camps or new factories. Industrialization and the five-year Plans. The rapid industrialization of Russia was always regarded as a major priority. Only when it had machines and materials could Russia be strong enough to defend itself against the continuing threat from the rest of the world, and act as the springboard for world revolution. Gosplan s officials produced extensive and detailed plans for every industry and area. Overall, the aim was

to triple production in the heavy industry sector - coal, iron, steel, oil - and double it in other sectors. To help all areas of industry electrical output was to be increased six-fold. Plans for agriculture and social development such as the expansion of hospitals and education were also included in Gosplan s strategy. The scheme was launched in October 1928. The campaign for industrialization was conducted as a war upon backwardness. Gosplan , the high command, sent out its orders for levels of production to specific areas and they in turn translated them into detailed requirements for each plant. Plan requirements and achievements were published in the factories for all to see, and, as in wartime, constant propaganda urged the workers to ever higher efforts. There were medals, literally, for the highest producers and penalties for those who failed to achieve. Such constant supervision and threat put pressure on many managers to falsify figures and take short-cuts in production. Nevertheless, the battle had to be won and, especially in comparison with the achievements of Western Europe at the same time, it apparently was.

So who was it that gained???

Peasant objections to collective farming From the book Red Bread by Maurice Hindus (1931) The author lived in this village in 1929 before the Collectivization

STALIN AND INDUSTRIALIZATION 1928-1939 Key dates 1928 Widespread famine in the USSR Collectivization began Start of the first FYP (Five-Year Plan) 1932-3 1933 Start of the second FYP 1938 Start of the third FYP 1941-5 The Great Patriotic War

Why did the Soviet Union need to industrialize? There were three main reasons for developing industry quickly;
y

To provide the machinery especially tractors, needed to mechanize farming and produce

y y

more food To catch up with the Western world and make Russia less dependent on the West for industrial goods To have a strong industry capable of producing armaments so that Russia could defend itself from attack

To be able to carry through the necessary changes Stalin and the Central Committee gave GOSPLAN (the Central Planning Committee) the task to organize a fully planned and centralized economic policy. The GOSPLAN determined what, how, when and where something should be produced. They also determined prices and wages. The result was the FYP (Five Year Plans); First Five Year Plan - 1928-1933 Second Five Year Plan - 1933-1937 Third Five Year Plan - 1937-1942 (interrupted by WWII) The first FYP concentrated on the production of energy and of construction materials; coal, oil, electricity, iron, steel, cement, and machine production. This production should lay the foundations for future industrial growth. The target within each sector was often to double or triple the production Coal, Oil, Iron, and Pig iron doubled their output 1927 Target 1932 COAL 35.4 (75) 64.3 million tons OIL 11.7 (22) 21.4 million tons IRON ORE 5.7 (19) 12.1 million tons PIG IRON 3.3 (10) 6.2 million tons STEEL 4.0 (10.4) 5.9 million tons

The machinery output increased four times!!! Electrical output went up 250%. 1500 new industrial plants were constructed and over 100 new towns were built. Some of these were show pieces ; MAGNITOGORSK URALS Iron and Steel production KUZNETSK SIBERIA Iron and Steel production Several other big projects also occurred like the construction of the DNIEPROSTROI DAM (biggest in Europe ) The Second FYP concentrated on heavy industry; Coal, Oil, Iron, Pig Iron and Steel. The targets were now a bit more realistic, but still they were often too high. Beside the above concentration on heavy industry some emphasis was also put into new industries such as metallurgy; lead, zinc, nickel and tin as well as chemicals. The improvement of communication was another target;
y y y

The railroads were largely double-tracked Canals were built (like the Moscow-Volga and Volga-Don Canals ) The Moscow Metro

...but before the end of the second FYP the international situation demanded some of the resources to be put into the armament industries (3.4% of the total expenditure in 1933 and 16.1% in 1936!). 1933 Target 1937 COAL 64.3 (152.5) 128 million tons OIL 21.4 (46.8) 28.5 million tons IRON ORE 12.1 (?) (?) million tons PIG IRON 6.2 (16) 14.5 million tons

STEEL 5.9 (17) 17.5 million tons

The Third FYP came in 1937 and was intended to last to 1942, but it was interrupted by the German attack on Russia 1941. Due to the international situation more and more of the resources were concentrated on the armament industries; tanks, airplanes, weapons By 1940 the government invested about 32.6% of the total expenditure in the rearmament. Did the three Five Year Plans reach the main aim to make the USSR catch up with the western capitalist economies? YES! - the production of industrial goods was 2.6 times greater than in 1928 - the production of iron, oil and electricity grew even faster - the urban work force grew; in the end of the 1930s it was 32% of the total work force (compared with 47% peasantry) - the gross national product of the USSR increased by nearly 12% between 1928-1937 (compared with USA: 1.3%, Great Britain: 2.5% and Germany: 2.6%) - no unemployment (1.7 million in 1929)! - Many women found work 4 out of 5 new workers were women during the period 1932-1937 but the human cost had been high!!! - all human rights were gone - people were moved to areas where no equipment existed, were there was not any (or very poor) housing and poor wages - during the two first FYPs food shortages and rationing - the unrealistic quotas often meant neglect of safety precautions so there were many accidents and deaths (over 100 000 workers died when the canals were built) HOW WAS THE INDUSTRIALIZATION ORGANIZED? On the very top was the state planning commission GOSPLAN (founded in 1921). INDIVIDUAL PLANS/TARGETS were set for each industry. SINGLEMANAGERS were reintroduced by Stalin to run state enterprises and factories. They were responsible for the targets they had to fulfil. If they did well they were rewarded with large houses, cars, etc if they didn t they were threatened with prison, labour camps and in some cases death! Foreign SPECIALISTS and EXPERTS were brought in. They were going to help develop the industry. Several American and British engineers came to the USSR these years. They help construct the Dniepr Dam and the Ford motor company helped the Soviet car industry to build 140 000 cars in 1932. PROBLEMS: The Central planning was though not very efficient when one factory depended on another for parts sometimes they were forced to wait weeks and there was no other producer. In the factories untrained workers had to produce goods fairly quickly to fulfil the

targets. This led to many mistakes. Machines were wrecked and the product sometimes became so poor that it was unusable. These mistakes were not accepted wreckers and saboteurs were found and punished HOW DID STALIN GET THE WORKERS TO WORK SO HARD? The USSR hardly had any consumer goods. They had low wages, food shortage, poor work and living conditions. Still the workers worked very hard. WHY?
y y y

Communistic enthusiasm existed, especially among the young pioneers who wanted to build a better Soviet society Propaganda ! Show pieces, films, posters, newspapers and radio was all under total government control and the government used it! Awards and Honour ! The Stakhanovite movement (Stakhanov was a Donbass miner who moved 102 tons of coal during one work shift compared with the normal amount of 7 tons). The Stakhanovites got better housing, free holidays and cash prizes Better wages especially for skilled workers. They could get up to 4 times the wages of an unskilled worker

But also;
y

y y

The workers had to always carry their labour books with them. In this book their job was recorded as well as unfavourable comments about them. A bad record could lead to less food rations or imprisonment. This was one way of controlling the work force the uninterrupted week was introduced in 1929 (shift work all week so the machines never stopped) the old Tsarist system of Internal passports were reintroduced (in December 1932) which made it impossible for the workers to move around trying to find a place that paid well Absenteeism and late arrival was punished! First the worker had to pay fine, later he risked the loss of rations. If it was repeated he could loose his job and/or his housing. After 1931 such offences were criminalized band punished by imprisonment or deportation to labour camps. In 1929 OGPU had established many forced labour camps in several remote regions. The Chief Administration of Camps the GULAG ran these camps. The number of prisoners grew from 30 000 in 1928 to about 3 million in 1939. Many of the prisoners were deported ex-kulaks or workers In the later 1930s victims of the Purges became more numerous Industrial planning was affected by the Purges thousands of managers and experts were imprisoned or executed

A photograph of Alexei Stakhanov

A board showing production plans and targets (Competition board)

MAGNITOGORSK

STALINS' PURGES Control and elimination of opposition:

y y y y y y y y

Authoritarian control through terror Secret Police (CHEKA 1917, OGPU 1922, NKVD 1934) Labour Camps (from 1918... at 1930 GULAG) Propaganda and censorship State control of education State control of arts and sciences Cult of the leader Only one political party

The Purges - Great Purges (1934) 1936-38: What is it? Millions of Russians; in the Communist Party, the Army, the arts and sciences... were arrested and either sent to labour camps or shot... The Purges were unique;
y y y

Because of their magnitude and the fact that they involved all social groups Because there was no evidence that the victims were a danger Because punishment was both erratic and arbitrary ranging from death to prison. Sometimes the latter was followed by reinstatement (like the airplane designer

TUPOLEV) Because of the "show trials" held - at which fantastic confessions were made

Legality was ignored even the rule that Party members on the Central Committee could be removed only by 2/3 vote by the Central Committee (in fact some members were shot even without a trial). Lenin tried to preserve legality. He rejected torture to extract information. In 1920 Lenin ordered that prisons should not be punitive. Stalin specifically authorized "physical pressure..." Many Russians remained convinced that Stalin did not know what was happening. In Russian the Great Purge is called "Yezhovschina" - Yezhov's thing after Nikolai Yezhov, Chief of the Secret Police NKVD 1936-1938. STALIN'S ELIMINATION OF OPPOSITION 1924-1927 The removal of opposition when Stalin came into power. This opposition were usually expelled from the party or they lost their position. 1928-1932 First Five Year Plan (FYP). Trial against "bourgeois" engineers, technicians and administrators accused of sabotaging the plan! Sometimes secret trials, sometimes show trials and sometimes no trials at all... The accused generally confessed, even to crimes they had not been accused of. They were then either imprisoned or shot. So why did they confess?
y y

Sometimes the confession was extracted by torture Sometimes the confession was extracted by threats to the prisoners' family or by promises of leniency...

1932 The Ryutin Affair. The rightist party member Ryutin wrote a document calling for;
y y y

The end of the forced collectivization Rehabilitation of defeated Oppositionists (including Trotsky) Dismiss Stalin!

Several prominent communists signed this document... The trial against Ryutin was in September 1932. Stalin wanted Ryutin executed - the Politburo refused to go that far. He was instead expelled from the Central Committee together with Kamenev, Zinoviev and 17 "others" 1932-1933 FAMINE... 1932-1934 During this period nearly one million members were expelled from the Party. They were often referred to as Ryutinites... 1934 By 1934 things started to improve. Many wanted to slow down the drive towards industrialization and they wanted to improve the relations with the peasants. Sergei Kirov, the Leningrad Party leader, was a spokesman for this group at the 17th Party Congress. At this Congress;

y y

The Congress abolished the post of General Secretary - instead four secretaries were elected (Stalin, Kirov , Kaganovitch, Zhdanov ) Kirov received more votes than Stalin when votes to the Central Committee was counted (nearly all 1225 delegates voted for Kirov, but over 300 did not vote for Stalin at all... )

Later 1934 (December 1st) Kirov was assassinated (shot in the back outside his office). A "mysterious person" named Leonid Nikolayev was the assassinator. Several theories about who was behind Lionid Nikolayev exist; y Stalin y The extreme left y NKVD y "Just" Nikolayev No matter who was behind it - Stalin used it! The same evening the Presidium of the Soviet Union issued a decree that gave NKVD extra-ordinary powers;
y y y y y y

The indictment was to be handed to the accused one day before the trial Limited investigation of crimes to 10 days Rapid execution without appeal So thousands of people were arrested within the coming weeks Several hundreds were trailed Over one hundred Party members were executed

They were accused of a plot to overthrow Stalin and the Communist Party. Most of the accused belonged to the old "Leftist Opposition", the "Leningrad Opposition", and the "United Opposition". Zinoviev and Kamenev were arrested in January 1935. Together with 17 others they were sentenced to 5-10 years of prison. Several NKVD members from Leningrad were also trailed and imprisoned... Due to the improving economic situation and the work on a new Constitution the purges were slowed down in the middle of 1935. A year later - Summer of 1936 they started again. This is the start of the "Great Purge"... FIRST SHOW TRIAL - 1936: New accusations against Zinoviev, Kamenev and 14 other leading Communists came up. They were now accused of organizing a counter-revolutionary conspiracy and plotting to kill Stalin and other Politburo members. This was the "FIRST SHOW TRIAL" - it was open to the press and broadcasted on the radio... In this trial they were also accused of planning to murder Lenin (these plans were made at a hotel that had been demolished years before the date when the plans were made... and one of the accused, Smirnov, was in jail when the plot was done). 14 of them admitted their guilt - all 16 were found guilty and shot! SECOND SHOW TRIAL - 1937: In January 1937 the "SECOND SHOW TRIAL" was held. 17 leading members of the Communist Party were accused of plotting with Trotsky in league with Nazi Germany and Japan . They planned (according to the State Prosecutor) to carry out assassinations, terrorist activities, sabotage of industries and spying. Several confessions were made and 13 of them were executed. After this trial the Central Committee met and decided to step up the Purges (this decision was taken by Stalin, Molotov (Foreign Minister), Yezhov (Head of the NKVD) and Andrei Vyshinsky

(State Prosecutor). THIRD SHOW TRIAL - 1938: In March 1938 the "THIRD SHOW TRIAL" was held. Accused were Bukharin, Rhykov and 19 other Party members. They were accused of being members of a "Trotskyist-Rightist" bloc, responsible for industrial sabotage, weakening the Red Army, spying, attempts to restore capitalism, etc.... Most of them confessed (but Bukharin refused!). Bukharin, Rhykov and 16 others were found guilty and shot! The Purge was now reaching its peak ("The Great Terror" or "Yezhovshchina"). First the purges mostly hit the Party members but after mid-1937 they included other groups as; administrators, specialists (like engineers, railroad workers etc....) and the Red Army! In May 1937 was Marshal Tukhachevsky (Chief of General Staff and one of the Deputy Commissars for Defence) and Gamarnik (Head of the Red Army's Political Commissars and also one of the Deputy Commissars for Defense) arrested! Marshal Tukhachevsky was executed in June 1937 (Gamarnik committed suicide). By the end of 1938; 3 out of 5 Red Army Marshals had been executed 14 out of 16 Red Army Commanders had been executed 8 out of 8 Admirals had been executed 60 out of 67 Red Army Corps Commanders had been executed 136 out of 199 Red Army Divisional Commanders had been executed 221 out of 397 Red Army Brigade Commanders hadbeen executed and all together 35 000 officers were executed or imprisoned. This was about 50% of the entire Officer Corps... Also 11 out of 11 Deputy Commissars for Defense were executed and 75 out of the 80 members of the Supreme Military Council... March 1939 - at the 18th Party Congress Stalin announced that "mass cleansings" were no longer needed and he also admitted that some "mistakes" had been made. Later 1939 Yezhov, the Head of NKVD, was accused of being a British Agent. He was executed. This ended the mass arrests and several thousand Gulag prisoners were released. Even more people were rehabilitated in their jobs and the Party... Though, some cleansing continued. Now under the new Head of NKVD - Laurenti Beria! THEORIES ABOUT THE GREAT PURGES 1. Totalitarian theories - This theory focus on the role of Stalin and his position as dictator of the Soviet Union. Some say Stalin launched the purges as a "rational" response to the circumstances of the 1930's, others that he suffered from some form of mental illness that led to irrational and extreme action. 2. Revisionist theories - More recent some historians claim that genuine opposition that posed a threat to Stalin's position existed! Getty - There was a "Trotskyist-Zinovievist" plot! Rittersporn - NKVD and local party bosses were out of control and used the purges for personal gains... STALIN - SOVIET FOREIGN POLICIES FOREIGN POLICY AFTER THE CIVIL WAR:

The Civil War left lots of resentment on both sides. The Soviet Union could look for little help, trade or friendship from the Western powers. Their participation in the Civil War had left each suspicious and convinced that the war between communism and the West was not over. The Soviet Union needed trade with the West to help build up industrial expertise. A few smaller trade treaties were signed (with Great Britain and Germany 1921) but the big breakthrough came in Italy 1922. For the very first time since WWI both Soviet Union and Germany got to participate as delegates in an International Conference. Both of these states had been alienated from the rest of Europe. The French government demanded that the Soviet government should repay the debts of the Tsarist Russia to France. The Soviets refused and demanded that the Western powers should pay reparations for their involvement in the Civil War. The Conference seemed to fail. During an intermission Germany and Soviet, the two outcasts started to negotiate and draw up an agreement of friendship and trade - the Treaty of Rapallo (6 April 1922). They agreed to cancel all territorial claims against each other and to cooperate economically. A supplementary commercial of 1925 and a treaty of friendship and neutrality (the treaty of Berlin) of 1926 further consolidated the alliance. By secret agreements German factories producing military goods were built inside Russia, thus enabling the Germans to get round the military terms of Versailles and the Russians to see Western military technology. By earlier arrangements, several German companies worked in Russia, especially in mining. Until the early 1930s Russo-German friendship of considerable mutual advantage, but it also provided the Western powers with severe embarrassment. The Russo-German agreements eventually opened for trade with other Western Powers. In 1924 the earlier isolation was broken and Great Britain, Italy and France negotiated and concluded several trade agreements with the Soviet Union. In 1927 problems arose. Italy supported Romania s territorial claims to Bessarabia, the Russian advisers were thrown out of China by Chiang Kai-shek. In May, Britain ended diplomatic relations following a series of episodes, some genuine, others false, of Soviet propaganda and spying in Britain. In the space of a few months the elaborate negotiations of the Lenin era were shattered and once again the Soviet union was isolated and threatened. After a short period of isolation Russia again became accepted - after they announced a policy of complete disarmament and in 1928 signed the Kellogg Pact. By 1929 Russia had established friendly relations with most of it s neighbors through the Litvinov Protocol. 1928-1939: During this period Stalin was increasingly preoccupied by the threat from Germany and Japan;
y y

y y

Between 1931-1933 - Japan took over the Chinese region of Manchuria. It became a Japanese puppet state named Manchukuo. Stalin saw it as a threat to Siberia. Hitler became the German Chancellor, January 1933. In Mein Kampf he had claimed that Ukraine was going to be used for grain acquisition, Caucasus for oil and the Urals for minerals. Hitler was openly an anti-communist. In 1936 he established the AntiComintern with Japan. It s main goal was to combat Communism. At first Stalin though was fairly positive about Hitler and the Nazi take-over. It could prevent an Anglo-French rapprochement with Germany and hold back French ambitions in Europe. Hitler also promised to continue previous arrangements with Russia. In 1933 he ratified a 10 year extension of the Neutrality Pact (negotiated in 1931). When Germany and Poland agreed to settle their differences and make a non-aggression pact Stalin became concerned . Because of these problems the Soviet Unions started a campaign Soviet return to

Europe . The Soviet return to Europe ;

y y y y y y

The Secret military co-operation with Germany ended (although Stalin in an attempt to appease Hitler continued to support him and Germany with raw materials). In May 1934 Russia signed a Russo-Polish non-aggression pact In June 1934 the relations with Romania was resumed, with the Soviet Union recognizing the loss of Bessarabia. In September 1934 the USSR joined the League of nations (which at this time Germany and Japan just left ). In May 1935 Russia and France signed a mutual defence treaty. They would support each other if either were attacked by another power. Later in May Russia also signed a mutual defence treaty with Czechoslovakia. Russia would come to Czechoslovakia s aid only if France fulfilled their 1924 non-aggression treaty with Czechoslovakia. In July/August during the 7 th Comintern Congress (in Moscow) the revolutionary action taken against the Bourgeois Governments was halted. Now Stalin encouraged co-operation instead within Popular Fronts against right-wing Fascism. France and Spain were the only countries to form Popular Fronts. In October 1935 Italy started the invasion of Abyssinia. Russia demanded oil, coal and steel sanctions against Italy in vain The relation between Russia and Germany reached another low 1936-1937, following the German denunciation of the 1925 Locarno agreement in March 1936 and the establishment of the Anti-Comintern Pact in November 1936. In July 1936 the Spanish Civil War started. Hitler and Mussolini aided Franco and the Nationalists. The USSR urged (through the foreign Minister Litvinov) the League of Nations to intervene on the behalf of the Spanish Republican Government. Instead of intervening Great Britain and France stood behind a non-intervention agreement that most European countries followed but not Germany, Italy and in the end the USSR (that sent a modest amount (up to 1938) of equipment and help to the Republican Government, which was paid for by the Spanish Gold Reserve ). In July 1936 the Straits Convention was signed in Montreaux. This conference restored Turkish sovereignty over the Straits, but allowed Black Sea powers to send their warships through in time of peace, while warships of other countries were banned. This treaty replaced the Treaty of Lausanne (1923) which demilitarised the Straits, which would be guaranteed by Britain, France, and Italy and permitted the transit of all merchant and warships while Turkey was at peace. The USSR had supported the Turkey demands at Montreaux and they had now been to some extent successful Due to the resent events Russia decided to introduce conscription. Two years before this, in 1934, Stalin had already changed the FYP (Five Year Plan) which now more focused an arms build-up. In December Russia helped the Nationalists and the Communists in China to reach a truce the Xian Compromise. This ended the First Chinese Civil War. Now the two sides formed an alliance to fight the Japanese.

Relations with Japan and China in the 1930 s;

y

Stalin wanted to avoid trouble with Japan. In 1935 he sold Russias share of the East

y y

China Railroad to the Japanese (now Russia had completed the last part of the transSiberian railroad through Russian territory all the way to Vladivostok). To deal with the Japanese threat Russia helped bring the Xian Compromise to its conclusion. Lots of Soviet equipment and some advisers were sent to China. In 1937 China and Russia signed a non-aggression pact. Soviet aid to Chiang Kai Shek (Jiang Jieshi) between 1937-1939 included $250 million in loans, 1500 military advisers and 2000 volunteer pilots. Several border clashes between Russia and Japan in 1938 led to a full-scale battle on the East Siberia-Manchukuo border (called the Battle of Lake Hasan by Russia). After almost two weeks of fighting (including planes, tanks, heavy artillery) the Japanese were driven back and and armistice was signed. In May 1939 new fights between Russia and Japan occurred. Now the Japanese troops were driven back from the Nomonhan district of Outer Mongolia. A truce was signed. In April 1941 Russia and Japan signed a Neutrality Treaty for five years (but it could be denounced after four years). It was not until the 8 th of August 1945 (two days after the Hiroshima bomb) that Russia denounced this Treaty and attacked the Japanese in China. This was the start of the Nine-Day War which was successful.

Relations with Germany by the end of the 1930 s:

y

Stalin changed his stern policy against Germany after the deteriorated relations with Japan and the appeasement policy of Britain and France plus their refusal to conclude an alliance with Russia. The USSR was not invited to the Munich Conference of September 1938. At this conference the British Prime Minister Chamberlain and the French Prime Minister Daladier agreed to let Germany annex the Sudetenland (and later most of Czechoslovakia). Thereby France dishonoured their 1924 Treaty with the Czechs. Stalin saw it as an attempt of the Western Powers to divert Hitler s focus towards the East. Russia had publicly announced its willingness to support the Czechs but they had gained no support. After Germany seized the rest of Czechoslovakia in March 1939 the USSR (Litvinov) proposed a conference between the British, French, Polish, Soviet and Turkish representatives to consider future military action. The British government rejected the proposal as premature and no conference followed. Later in March Hitler denounced the 1934 German-Polish Non-Aggression Pact. This was according to Stalin another sign of Germany s intentions in the East. Litvinov outlined a French, British and Russian alliance with military commitments against Fascist Powers. Britain once again refused to agree on Litvinov s suggestion. However, in April 1939, both France and Britain guaranteed Poland, signing a Pact of Mutual Assistance with Poland. This was a bit of relief for Stalin. Now he could remain neutral and see the western powers destroy each other. In May 1939 Molotov became the new foreign Minister of Russia. He set out to try to find a peaceful settlement of issues between Germany and Russia. The result was the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact signed in August 1939. This pact included a trade agreement, a non-aggression pact and a secret clause which established spheres of influence in Eastern Europe, with Poland being divided between Germany and the USSR. Just a few weeks later the Second World War started with a German attack against Poland

RUSSIA DURING WORLD WAR II When the German attack came to a stop at winter 1941-1942, Stalin and Russia s war efforts came to make a difference; y The unified Soviet Command structure was much more efficient than the German system. The centralized political authority had an experience in mobilizing and directing the military and industrial forces y The third 5-year plan (1937) paid of. This plan dictated the establishment of many new industrial concentrations in the region of the Ural Mountains and in Siberia. When the war against Germany started factories from the western regions were moved east. 1360 factories were moved east in 1942 and 2250 new units were established between 1942-1944. By the end of 1943 the Trans-Ural region produced 2.5 the rate of the complete Soviet Industry in 1940. This year the Soviet military production also exceeded the German (30.000 tanks and 40.000 air crafts) y Stalin rehabilitated the Orthodox Church which blessed the work of our government . They condemned traitors and excommunicated them (expelled the from the Church). In 1943 the Church got to elect a new Patriarch. By 1945 24.000 churches were reopen and 74 bishops were back in office... y Stalin re-introduced privileges of higher military ranks. The military also got much more influence in the Party. 1941 - 15% of the members in the party were militaries 1945 - over 50% of the members in the party were militaries! y The aid from the allies helped... (Lend-Lease agreements with the US) To this can be added; y Bad weather y Hard resistance y The enormous distances The strong Russian war effort made Hitler changed his tactic; In September 1941 the German troops stood outside Leningrad. Now a 900 day long siege started (September 1941 - January 1944). In October 1941 Hitler had reached 80 km from Moscow before the winter tied the German troops (they were not prepared for winter war...) - Hitler decided to restrict the 1942 offensive to the Southern Front; to the industrial area of the Don Basin and towards the oilfields of Baku (Caucasus). The plan was to eventually create a link to the Axis forces in North Africa (through the Middle East). Battle of Stalingrad: The battle of Stalingrad lasted between September 1942 and February 1943. Hitler had divided his forces into two units. One went directly towards the Caucasian oilfields and the other one went towards Stalingrad. In September 1942 the German troops reached Stalingrad... An army of 300.000 German men sieged the city. The fighting was very intense. The Soviet troops fought to hold every street, every building - even individual rooms. While the fighting went on in the city the Germans were encircled by Marshall Zhukov in November. When Von Paulus, the Commander of the German 6th Army realized that the position was hopeless he asked for permission to give up. Hitler refused; Surrender is forbidden. The army will hold their positions to the last man and the last round of ammunition . Von Paulus continued two more months. When he finally surrendered in February over 200.000 of the German men were dead. Over 90.000 men were taken prisoner. The Russian victory in Stalingrad showed that Germany could be beaten. Soviet Union lost more men at the battle of Stalingrad than the US lost during the whole war, but it was a turning point!

Hitler s answer was to start another offensive. At Kursk about 1 million men (440.000 German men and 500.000 Soviet men) and 8000 tanks (3000 German and 5000 Soviet) met. Germany used their latest tanks, newest guns and most experienced men. Through several spies Stalin knew the German plans in detail. Russia had therefore established a defence line with over 20.000 canons (with about 1000 Stalin organs ) to met the attack. At 03.30 in the morning of 5th of July 1943 the German troops attacked. After 6 days of fierce fighting over 50.000 German soldiers were dead and half of the tanks were destroyed. Two days later Hitler gave the order to cancel the offensive - Allied troops had landed at Sicily (10th of July). This was the last German offensive on the eastern front. Hitler had lost another army with some of his best modern equipment and most experienced men. From now on the Russian army was on the offensive. In 1944 the Red Army started a major offensive. By early 1945 they were in Poland, Hungary, Romania, and Yugoslavia. All the territory taken by the Germans was retaken by 1945. In May 1945 the Red Army reached Berlin - the Second World War was over! Among some non-Russians there had been sympathy for the Germans. In Lithuania there had been a rebellion, the Ukrainian anti-Soviet partisans had killed the Red Army General Vatutin and an anti-Soviet army had been formed under General Vlasov. Stalin was swift and brutal in his response. From Lithuania 280.000 people were deported between 1946-1949. The allies handed the Vlasovite army back to Soviet after the war. General Vlasov was hanged on a meat hook at the Red Square. Groups like the Volga Germans and the Crimean Tartars were also deported to the east under terrible conditions. Many died during the trip and several more in the work camps which was the final destination. Over 20 million Soviet citizens had died during the war. The Soviet Union lost more people than all other allies put together. Cities were ruined, the land destroyed and most of the farm animals were killed. Some numbers: 70.000 villages had been destroyed, 98.000 kolkhozes, 1876 sovkhozes, 17 million cattle, 7 million horses, 65.000 km railroad etc... RUSSIA 1945-1953 Domestic development:
y y y y y y y

y y

Stalin Cult Very few public appearances by Stalin - it was hard to interpret Stalin s thoughts since he hardly wrote anything (3 items 1947, 2 in 1949). Stalin broke up institutions with power... like; GKO = State Defense Committee Church Military leaders were downgraded (Marshall Zhukov was sent to the Odessa military district and he lost his position in the part Central Committee) Politburo, Secretariat and the Orgburo elected new members in 1946. Stalin controlled them well by just let smaller groups meet and discuss different issue, never the full bodies... Some demobilization. Returning Russian POW was sent to Siberia! Why? Stalin feared that they might turn against him and that they might contaminate the people with their experience... Every POW was regarded as having let the country down! New purges. About 100.000 members per year were expelled up to 1953. The claustrophobic atmosphere of the late 1930 s returned... The Leningrad Affair . This was the framing and execution of leading Leningrad and Soviet officials (like Rodionov; Prime Minister and Voznesensky; leading economist) in 1949. The reason for these executions is still unclear. One group that was badly criticized was the Jews. Jewish theaters and journals were

y y y

closed down and Jewish intellectuals were arrested. Molotov s wife was Jewish and she had been forced in exile. Molotov didn t dare to discuss this with Stalin... The Doctor s Plot . The news about this plot was published in Pravda in January 1953. The medical specialists, mostly Jewish, were accused of cooperating with US Jewish organizations. They planned according to Pravda to wipe out the top Soviet leadership. The campaign was dropped when Stalin had a stroke and died in the beginning of March 1953 Women. Stalin s attitude to women was that they should bear children. Since there was a lack of men the law about paternity suit changed. A man was not hold legally responsible for any offspring s born out of wedlock! Women who had taken over men s work during the war must now step down when they returned. Party members were introduced to a campaign to raise their ideological level New members grew slower and they were picked from a new group - engineers, technicians, skilled industrial workers... All Russian discoveries were glorified while all foreign discoveries were nothing more than pseudoscience

Economic Policy:
y

y y

The wartime losses had been enormous; 70,000 villages, 98,000 kolkhozes, 1,876 sovkhozes, 17 million head of cattle and 7 million horses had been driven away. All railroad bridges into Europe and 65,000 km of railroad tracks had been destroyed. The 4th Five Year Plan (1946-1950) concentrated on restoring the infrastructure and heavy industry. Due to forced labor and POW and the capital equipment seized as reparations from Germany the plan was largely fulfilled by 1950. The industrial production was now back to pre-war levels. In reality though there was no master plan , merely a mass of lower-level plans that the centre tried to coordinate (Gosplan = State Planning Commission of the USSR Council of Ministers; responsible for drafting economic plans and checking on their implementation - founded already in February 1921) Agriculture did not succeed as well. In 1946 was a big drought and lots of mechanical equipment was missing. This led to an increased move in to the cities. Even though we saw an increase of collective farms the output in 1953 was not back to the levels of the 1930 s... One of the main reasons for this was the farmers effort to cultivate their private plots . The Authorities under Nikita Khrushchev tried to increase the taxes on the small plots which led to a reduction of the private plots by the farmers themselves. This occurred at the same time as it was a food shortage. The private plots were responsible for about half the total output of agriculture at this time...

Culture:
y y y

Anti-foreign (anti-western...) The Journal Leningrad was closed down because it showed some foreign sympathies Authors and poets that didn t fit into the Stalinist mold was scorned (Mikhail Zoshchenko was called the scum of the literary word and the poet Anna Akhmatova was called a whore...) Cinema and Theaters went through the same treatment - anything western was criticized

Philosophy was also harshly criticized

Cold War:
y

Origins of the Cold War are very complex but one crucial reason was the fact that USSR felt herself inferior to the US. Stalin was reluctant to accept any US offers. He always thought it was some kind of trap. This also meant isolation and better control over Russia for Stalin... Soviet tried to give the impression that Russia was strong and that the US was not half as strong as she appeared to be... therefore the USSR often refused to even negotiate. If they did than the negotiators had no power and they were instructed to hold on to what the USSR had and try to gain further advantages possible...