Increasing Strength of Steel

Submitted by Ujjwal kumar (071030108019)

B. Tech in Production Engineering

Under the guidance of

Prof. Susanto Banerjee Mechanical Engg. Deptt.

Haldia Institute of Technology, HALDIA

Department of Production Engineering Haldia Institute of Technology

CERTIFICATE
I hereby declare that the work which is being presented in this project entitled, INCREASING STRENGTH OF STEEL submitted in the PRODUCTION ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT OF HALDIA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY , HALDIA, is an authentic record of work carried by me under the guidance of Prof. S. BANERJEE , Professor , MECHANICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT , HIT, Haldia . The matter presented in this project has not been submitted in part or full to any other university or institute.

Dated :

(UJJWAL KUMAR)

This is to certify that above declaration made by the student concerned is correct to the best of my knowledge & belief.

PROF. S. BENERJEE Professor , MED Haldia Institute of Technology , Haldia West Bengal University of Technology

Countersigned by

Dr. Bikash Bapari Professor & Head , PED HIT , HALDIA

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AKNOWLEDGEMENT
I wish to take the opportunity to express my deep and profound sense of gratitude to Prof. Susanto Banerjee from HALDIA INSTITUTE of TECHNOLOGY, DEPARTMENT of MECHANICAL ENGINEERING for providing his valuable time and shall remain grateful to him for his unselfishly inculcated in me , the spirit of hard work and helped me in each and every aspect of this project and gave me a moral support and encouragement during this entire period. Without his commitment, technical guidance and encouragement the project would never have been completed. Last but not least I solemnly acknowledge Dr. Bikash Bepari, HOD, DEPARTMENT of PRODUCTION ENGINEERING who helped me to complete the project successfully.

Ujjwal Kumar Bachelor of Technology, 7th Semester Department of Production Engineering Haldia Institute of Technology, Haldia

ABSTRACT
Steel, an alloy that define the composition of IRON with different alloying metals as Mn, V, Cr etc. comprises a major constituent of society needs. Widely used in different purposes, different properties requirement generates according to the use. Physical and chemical properties of steel changes with change in its composition. Steel is widely used in bridges, automobile sectors, furnitures, utensils.etc. An attempt is made here of increasing the strength of steel by studying the different properties arising in the material by different alloying element combinations and studying the microstructure of steel. With different test performed to know the different physical properties of the material. Micro alloy element vanadium has different effects on the strength and toughness of wheel steel at different normalization temperatures. At lower reheat temperature, vanadium increases the lowtemperature impact toughness notably. On the contrary, when reheated at higher temperature, V-bearing steel obtains a remarkably-improved strength. Therefore, for wheel steel, there exists a suitable temperature, at which vanadium addition improves strength and toughness at the same time, and accordingly an excellent combination property is reached. Microstructure and properties have been studied for high-strength steel weld metals with variations in carbon, manganese, and nickel. A combination of high nickel and manganese was positive for strength but very negative for impact toughness, while manganese reductions lead to large impact toughness increases combination of micro structural constituents resulted in poor toughness, relatively high yield strength, and the highest tensile strength.

Contents
1. Steel Alloys and its classification 2. Material properties 2.1 iron carbon diagram 2.2 heat treatment processes 2.2.1 Effect of tempering 2.2.2 Quenching and tempering

3. Effect of Different alloying materials on of steel 4. Effect of elements in Alloy steels 5. Failure analysis 6. Analysis of materials 7. Different methods of testing 8.1 Mechanical Testing of Metal 9. Materials Failure Analysis: 9. Materials Failure Analysis: 9.1 Typical Root Cause Failure Mechanisms 9.2 Common Causes of Failure 9.3 Casting failure 10. Fatigue of steel structures 11. S-N curve 12. Creep and Stress Analysis 13. Corrosion Failures

1. Steel Alloys
Steel alloys can be divided into five main groups. These are: Carbon Steels High Strength Low Alloy Steels (HSLA) Quenched and Tempered Steels Heat Treatable Low Alloy Steels Chromium-Molybdenum Steels Carbon Steels The American Iron and Steel Institute define carbon steel as follows: Steel is considered to be carbon steel when no minimum content is specified or required for chromium, cobalt, columbium [niobium], molybdenum, nickel, titanium, tungsten, vanadium or zirconium, or any other element to be added to obtain a desired alloying effect; when the specified minimum for copper does not exceed 0.40 per cent; or when the maximum content specified for any of the following elements does not exceed the percentages noted: manganese 1.65, silicon 0.60, copper 0.60. American Iron and Steel Institute. Carbon Steels are normally classified into the following categories: Low-carbon steel Low carbon steels do not contain more than 0.3 weight percent C. The majority of Carbon Steel is made into flat-rolled products, either sheets or strips, usually cold-rolled and annealed. The weight percentage for these steels is very low, less than 0.10 weight percent C, with up to 0.4 weight percent Mn. This allows them to have a high formability. When making rolled steel structural plates and sections, the carbon weight percentage may be increased to 0.3, also increasing the manganese weight percent to 1.5. Medium-carbon steels Medium Carbon steels are similar to low-carbon steels bar that the carbon weight percent ranges from 0.3 to 0.6 and the manganese weight percent ranges from 0.60 to 1.65. Increasing the carbon weight percent content to approximately 0.5 and increasing the manganese alters the carbon steel to allow it to be used in the quenched and tempered condition. High-carbon steels High Carbon steels contain weight percent from 0.60 to 1.00 with manganese weight percent content ranging from 0.30 to 0.90. High-strength low-alloy (HSLA) steels HSLA steels or micro-alloyed steels are designed to provide better mechanical properties than normal carbon steels. They are manufactured to meet specific mechanical properties rather than a specific chemical composition. The chemical composition may vary for different thickness and to meet requirements. The HSLA steels generally have low carbon contents (0.50 - 0.25) weight percent C. This ensures the steel will be easily formable and weldable, and they have manganese contents up to 2.0 weight percent. Small quantities of chromium, nickel, molybdenum, copper, nitrogen, vanadium, niobium, titanium, and zirconium may be used in different combinations and quantities to vary or change properties.

2.Material properties 2.1 Iron-Carbon Diagram

Iron, is found in the Earth's crust only in the form of an ore, i.e., combined with other elements such as oxygen or sulfur. Typical iron-containing minerals include Fe2O3the form of iron oxide found as the mineral hematite, and FeS2pyrite (fool's gold). Iron is extracted from ore by removing oxygen and combining the ore with carbon. Other materials are often added to the iron/carbon mixture to produce steel with desired properties. Nickel and Manganese in steel add to its tensile strength and make austenite more chemically stable, Chromium increases hardness and melting temperature, and Vanadium also increases hardness while reducing the effects of metal fatigue. To prevent corrosion, at least 11% chromium is added to steel so that a hard oxide forms on the metal surface; this is known as stainless steel. Tungsten interferes with the formation of Cementite, allowing Martensite to form with slower quench rates, resulting in high speed steel. On the other hand, Sulfur, Nitrogen, and Phosphorus make steel more brittle, so these commonly found elements must be removed from the ore during processing. The density of steel varies based on the alloying constituents, but usually ranges between 7.75 and 8.05 g/cm3 ( 0.2800.291 lb/in3). Even in the narrow range of concentrations which make up steel, mixtures of carbon and iron can form a number of different structures, with very different properties. Understanding such properties is essential to making quality steel. At room temperature, the most stable form of iron is the bodycentered cubic (BCC) structure -ferrite. It is a fairly soft metallic material that can dissolve only a small concentration of carbon, no more than 0.021 wt% at 723 C (1,333 F), and only 0.005% at 0 C (32 F). If the steel contains more than 0.021% carbon then it transforms into a face-centered cubic (FCC) structure, called austenite or -iron. It is also soft and metallic but can dissolve considerably more carbon, as much as 2.1% carbon at 1,148 C (2,098 F), which reflects the upper carbon content of steel. When steels with less than 0.8% carbon, known as a hypoeutectoid steel, are cooled from an austenitic phase the mixture attempts to revert to the ferrite phase, resulting in an excess of carbon. Cementite is a hard and brittle intermetallic compound with the chemical formula of Fe3C. At the eutectoid, 0.8% carbon, the cooled structure takes the form of pearlite, named after its resemblance to mother of pearl. For steels that have more than 0.8% carbon the cooled structure takes the form of pearlite and cementite. Perhaps the most important polymorphic form is martensite, a metastable phase which is significantly stronger than other steel phases. When the steel is in an austenitic phase and then quenched it forms into martensite, because the atoms "freeze" in place when the cell structure changes from FCC to BCC. Depending on the carbon content the martensitic phase takes different forms. Below approximately 0.2% carbon it takes an ferrite BCC crystal form, but higher carbon contents take a body-centered tetragonal (BCT) structure. There is no thermal activation energy for the transformation from austenite to martensite. Martensite has a lower density than austenite does, so that transformation between them results in a change of volume. In this case, expansion occurs. Internal stresses from this expansion generally take the form of compression on the crystals of martensite and tension on the remaining ferrite, with a fair amount of shear on both constituents. If quenching is done improperly, the internal stresses can cause a part to shatter as it cools. At the very least, they cause internal work hardening and other microscopic imperfections. It is common for quench cracks to form when water quenched, although they may not always be visible.

2.2 Heat treatment

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There are many types of heat treating processes available to steel. The most common are annealing and quenching and tempering. Annealing is the process of heating the steel to a sufficiently high temperature to soften it. This process occurs through three phases: recovery, recrystallization, and grain growth. The temperature required to anneal steel depends on the type of annealing and the constituents of the alloy. Quenching and tempering first involves heating the steel to the austenite phase, then quenching it in water or oil. This rapid cooling results in a hard and brittle martensitic structure. The steel is then tempered, which is just a specialized type of annealing. In this application the annealing (tempering) process transforms some of the martensite into cementite or spheroidite to reduce internal stresses and defects, which ultimately results in a more ductile and fracture-resistant metal. 2.2.1 Quenching and tempering The aim of quenching and tempering (QT) is to produce a microstructure consisting mainly in tempered martensite. Some amounts of lower bainite are also acceptable. Quenching of high strength steels is performed after austenizing at temperatures of some 900C. In order to suppress during cooling, the formation of softer microstructure such as ferrite, a accelerated cooling is necessary. The fastest cooling is obtained by exposing the plate surfaces to a rapid water stream. By such an operation the very surface is cooled to temperature below 300C within a few seconds. At the core of a plate cooling is essentially slower and the cooling rate decreases with increasing plate thickness. Table compares the average rates of cooling in still air with the ones attained by water cooling. Table 1 : comparison of cooling rates for subsurface and mid-thickness of a plate, Plate thickness 20 mm 100 mm Air cooling 0.5 K/s 0.1 K/s Watersubsurface 80 K/s 80 K/s Water-mid thickness 40 K/s 2.5 K/s

2.2.2 Effect of tempering Tempering martensite means essentially reducing the super-saturation of the matrix by the formation of carbides leading to a relaxation and a reduction of the high dislocation density associated with martensite formation. If we consider the mechanical properties in the as quenched condition the strength is considerably higher than required however, the material is too brittle for most structural applications. A suitable tempering of the martensitic microstructure is necessary in order to get a satisfactory combination of tensile and toughness properties.

3.Effect of Different alloying materials on of steel

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2.5

4.Effect of elements in Alloy steels:

(1) Vanadium:

It gives steel a fine-grained structure and increase its toughness. It is often used in tool steels because of its increased resistance to impact. Increases hardenability Imparts strength and toughness to heat-treated steel Causes marked secondary hardening

It is used with chromium to make chrome-vanadium steel from which transmission parts and gears are manufactured. This type of steel is very strong and has excellent shock resistance. Less than 0.2% is used normally with 0.5 to 1.5% of chromium. (2) Chromium:

It provides corrosion resistance. Increase hardenability or the depth to which steel can be hardened Adds hardness, toughness and resistance to wear.

Gears and axles are often made of chrome-nickel steel because of its strength. Chromium less than 0.2% can be effective in increasing hardenability. (3) Niobium:

Greatly increases tensile strength of steel. Only 40 lb of niobium per ton of steel will increase the tensile strength by 10,000 to 15000 lb/in2.

(4) Tungsten in the form of tungsten carbide:

Gives steel high hardness even at red heats. Promotes fine grains Resists heat Promote strength at elevated temperatures

It is used with chromium, vanadium, molybdenum, or manganese to produce high speed steel used in cutting tools. Tungsten steel is said to be "red-hard" or hard enough to cut after it becomes red-hot. Titanium is a very strong, very lightweight metal that can be used alone or alloyed with steels. It is added to steel to give them high strength at high temperatures. Modern jet engines used titanium steels.

It prevents localized depletion of chromium in stainless steels during long heating

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Prevents formation of austenite in high chromium steels Reduces martensitic hardness and hardenability in medium chromium steels.

(5) Phosphorus and Lead: are added to steel to increase its machinability. Phosphorus is considered detrimental in steel but small quantities up to 0.2% in low carbon steels increases hardness, strength and corrosion resistance. Phosphorus increases strength and hardness to approximately to the same extent as carbon in steels which are normally used in hotrolled conditions. In some steels, high phosphorus content is undesirable because it decreases ductility and impact toughness. It is undesirable in high carbon steels on account of excessive loss of ductility. It improves machinability in lower carbon steels and improves resistance to atmospheric corrosion. (6) Manganese: is used in steel to produce a clean metal. If manganese exceeds 1.65 -2.10%, the product is classed as alloy steel.

It increase hardenability and strength. It also adds to the strength of the metal and helps in heat treating. Counteracts brittleness from sulphur Lower both ductility and weldability if present in high percentage with high carbon content in steel.

Some times an excess of manganese is used for hard steel as manganese is a carbide forming element. (7) Silicon: is often used to increase the resiliency of steel for making springs. It increases the strength properties especially elastic limit without loss of ductility. Silicon is an important alloying element (0.2 - 0.7%) in certain high-yield point structural steels. If silicon exceeds 0.602.2%, product is classed as alloy steel. Increasing silicon increases resiliency of steel for spring applications. Spring raises the critical temperature for heat treatment. Increasing silicon content promotes susceptibility of steel to decrease. It is used for magnetic circuits in electrical equipments. It is used in spring steels which contain 2% silicon, 0.2% manganese and 0.6 % carbon. It is the principal deoxidizing used in steel making.

Improves oxidation resistance Strengthens low alloy steels Acts as a deoxidizer

Rimmed and capped steels contains no significant amount of silicon. Semi killed steel may contain a moderate amount of silicon. Fully killed steels may contain various amounts of silicon upto 0.30% maximum. It is less effective than manganese in increasing strength and hardness. In low-carbon steels, it is usually detrimental to surface quality. (8) Molybdenum:

Adds toughness and higher strengths to steel.

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Promotes hardenability of steel Makes steel fine grained Makes steel usually tough at various hardness levels Counteracts tendency towards temper brittleness. Raises tensile and creep strength at high temperatures. Enhances corrosion resistance in stainless steels. Forms abrasion resisting particles. It increases dynamic and high temperature characteristics. It is resistant to tempering and maintain their strength at elevated temperature. They have good creep resistance.

It is used for making high speed steels. It forms stable carbides resulting in fine grain size. (9) Nickel:

Increases strength and toughness. Helps to resist corrosion. Improves shock resistance It counteracts brittleness which develops in most pearlitic steels at subnormal temperature. It lowers the critical temperature of steel and widen the temperature range for successful heat treatment. Strengthens steels Renders high chromium iron alloys austenitic Lessens distortion in quenching. Mostly 2-5% of nickel combined with other alloying elements produce toughness.

(10) Sulphur: is not desirable in steel since it forms iron sulphide which cause brittleness and hot-shortness - a tendency to crack during hot working. Sulphur in steel forms the weak and soft sulphate "Fe"s which weakens the steel and promotes hot-shortness or brittleness at red heat. But sometimes a very small amount of sulphur is left in the steel to aid machinability. Manganese either present naturally or in small quantities added to the steel combines with small amount of sulphur that is usually present to form manganese sulphide which does not have much effect if not in large quantities and is well dispersed. If manganese sulphide is present in large quantities and in the proper form, it imparts desirable mechanical properties to steel. Therefore, certain free-machining steels which are to be machined automatically and are used for parts that will not be subjected to impact have 0.08 to 0.15% sulphur added. It is beneficial to machinability and the higher sulphur content of some steels reflect this useful property. It is detrimental to surface quality in low-carbon and low manganese steel. It decreases ductility and impact resistance. Weldability also decreases with increasing sulphur content. (11) Copper:

It is used in percentage of 0.1 - 0.4 to produce resistance to atmospheric corrosion. Acts as a strengthening agent.
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Although copper is corrosion-resistant, it is not used in steel for this purpose. Copper is nowadays, used extensively in low-carbon sheets especially thin gauges and other structural steels. It has minor effect on mechanical properties. It is beneficial to corrosion resistance if amount present exceeds 0.20%. When present in appreciable amounts, it is detrimental to hot working operations. It effects forge welding and is detrimental to surface quality. It does not effect arc or acetylene welding. (12) Cobalt:

Improves mechanical properties such as tensile strengths, fatigue strength and hardness. Refines the graphite and pearlite It is a mild stabilizer of carbides Improves heat resistance Retards the transformation of austenite and thus increases hardenability and freedom from cracking and distortion. Contributes to red-hardness by hardening ferrite

(13) Boron:

It is a very powerful hardenability agent and increases hardenability or depth to which steel will harden when quenched.

It is being 250-750 times as effective as nickel, 75- 125 times more effective than molybdenum and about 100 times as powerful as chromium. It is expensive but used in minute quantities. (14) Aluminum:

It is used to deoxidize steel Produces fine grain size. It is used to obtain non-aging characteristics alone or in the presence of other elements Prevents recurrence of strains in sheets and strip.

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Failure analysis 6.Analysis of materials

6.1 Standard Test Method for Tension Testing of Metallic Materials
ASTM International's Proficiency Test Program is a statistical quality assurance (SQA) tool enabling labs to compare, improve, and maintain performance in conducting tests per ASTM Intl. methods E8 (Tension Test), E18 (Hardness Test), E646 (n value), and E517 (r value) on steel sheet materials STANDARD METHODS E8 E18 E646 E517 Tension Test (E8M method to be supported on an exception basis. Indicate on registration form if your lab will be preparing E8M test pieces. Hardness Test (Program to suggest scales to be used) Labs unable to follow a specific ASTM Intl. method will be required to identify those areas where deviations occur. Standard Test Method for Tensile Strain-Hardening exponents (n-values) of metallic sheet materials. Standard Test Method for plastic strain ration (r-value) for sheet material.

7. Different methods of testing

7.1 Chemical Analysis of Metal Chemical Analysis by GDS provides a fast and relatively inexpensive method for analyzing most aluminum, brass, carbon steel, low alloy steel, cast iron, superalloy, and stainless steel materials. XRF Analysis or EDS Analysis can also be used if there is limited sample size or if elements not covered by GDS are required. We sub-contract for inductively coupled plasma (ICP) analysis on samples that don't work well with our other methods. 7.2 Mechanical Testing of Metal Tensile properties (ASTM E8) provide useful information about the strength and ductility of a metal. Hardness testing is also useful as it can often be correlated with tensile strength and can be done on smaller samples. There are many hardness scales to choose from depending on sample size, uniformity, and industry practice. Brinell Hardness (ASTM E10) uses the largest sample but is useful for materials which are non-uniform such as cast iron. Rockwell Hardness (ASTM E18) has a range of scales covering a large hardness range and uses less material than Brinell Hardness (ASTM E10).
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7.3 Metallographic Testing of Metal The microstructure of a metal (ASTM E407) can reveal useful information about service history as well as processes such as heat treatment, forming, forging, extrusion, cold rolling, hot rolling, threading, heading, and drawing. If carbon steel is heated until it is bright red then the microstructure can be altered depending on how fast it is cooled. Quench cooling of carbon steel will generate a hard, brittle structure called martensite which can be made less brittle using a heat treating process called tempering. Slow cooling of carbon steel will result in a softer, more ductile structure of ferrite and pearlite. For cast iron samples graphite distribution (ASTM A247) has a large effect on strength if not controlled properly. 7.4 Failure Analysis of Metal Our decades of experience and wide range of testing instruments provide a unique advantage for finding the probable root cause of a failure. Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) of a fracture surface can often identify the fracture initiation point, mode of propagation, and speed of propagation. A complete picture can be obtained with the addition of EDS Analysis for corrosive elements, microstructural analysis (ASTM E407), base material composition (GDS), mechanical properties, and a service history provided by the client. A detailed report with full documentation of results along with pictures illustrating defective areas is included with every failure analysis project.

8. Discussion 8.1 Mechanical Testing of Metal

Tensile testing 1. Tensile testing, also known as tension testing, is a fundamental materials science test in
which a sample is subjected to uniaxial tension until failure. The results from the test are commonly used to select a material for an application, for quality control, and to predict how a material will react under other types of forces. Properties that are directly measured via a tensile test are ultimate tensile strength, maximum elongation and reduction in area. From these measurements the following properties can also be determined: Young's modulus, Poisson's ratio, yield strength, and strain-hardening characteristics.

Tensile specimen
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Tensile specimens made from an aluminum alloy. The left two specimens have a round crosssection and threaded shoulders. The right two are flat specimen designed to be used with serrated grips. A tensile specimen is a standardized sample cross-section. It has two shoulders and a gage section in between. The shoulders are large so they can be readily gripped, where as the gage section has a smaller cross-section so that the deformation and failure can occur in this area. The shoulders of the test specimen can be manufactured in various ways to mate to various grips in the testing machine (see the image below). Each system has advantages and disadvantages; for example, shoulders designed for serrated grips are easy and cheap to manufacture, but the alignment of the specimen is dependent on the skill of the technician. On the other hand, a pinned grip assures good alignment. Threaded shoulders and grips also assure good alignment, but the technician must know to thread each shoulder into the grip at least one diameter's length, otherwise the threads can strip before the specimen fractures.

Test specimen nomenclature

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Various shoulder styles for tensile specimens. Keys A through C are for round specimen, while keys D and E are for flat specimen. Key: A. A threaded shoulder for use with a threaded grip B. A round shoulder for use with serrated grips C. A butt end shoulder for use with a split collar D. A flat shoulder for used with serrated grips E. A flat shoulder with a through hole for a pinned grip

Process
The test process involves placing the test specimen in the testing machine and applying tension to it until it fractures. During the application of tension, the elongation of the gage section is recorded against the applied force. The data is manipulated so that it is not specific to the geometry of the test sample. The elongation measurement is used to calculate the engineering strain, e, using the following equation:

where L is the change in gage length, L0 is the initial gage length, and L is the final length. The force measurement is used to calculate the engineering stress, , using the following equation:[4]

where F is the force and A is the cross-section of the gage section. The machine does these calculations as the force is increase so that the data points can be graphed into a stress-strain curve
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9. Materials Failure Analysis:

9.1 Typical Root Cause Failure Mechanisms Fatigue failures Corrosion failures Stress corrosion cracking Ductile and brittle fractures Creep and stress rupture It is possible for fracture to be a result of multiple failure mechanisms or root causes. A failure analysis can provide the information to identify the appropriate root cause of the failure. 9.2 Common Causes of Failure: Misuse or Abuse Assembly errors Manufacturing defects Improper maintenance Fastener failure Design errors Improper material Improper heat treatments Unforeseen operating conditions Inadequate quality assurance Inadequate environmental protection/control Casting discontinuities 9.3 Casting failure 9.3.1 Castings Several factors effect the quality of metal castings. Some of these factors are listed below: Coefficients of thermal conductivity Thermal expansion and contraction, Chemistry Precision of molds and dies Shrinkage allowances Dryness of molds Casting design Method of pouring liquid metal Design of gates and risers 9.3.2 Casting Discontinuities Some common casting deficiencies are: Inclusions Porosity (blow holes, pinholes) Cold Cracking
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Hot Cracking Cold Shuts Surface irregularities Distortion Improper composition Casting failures can be due to various causes. Some castings fail due to design deficiencies, while other castings fail due to casting deficiencies

Imperfections in castings may not be of concern for many types of service. They are commonly referred to as casting defects sincecastings are not perfect. This is unfortunate as imperfections beyond engineering design specifications should be considered defects, while imperfections within engineering design specifications should not be considered defects. Some casting imperfections may have no effect on the function or service life of castings. Many imperfections are easily corrected by blast cleaning or grinding. Other imperfections may be acceptable in some locations. It is not uncommon for engineers to zone a casting drawing. Depending on the criticality of the location or zone the same imperfection would be judged acceptable in one location while unacceptable in another location. 9.3.3 Casting Discontinuities Some common casting deficiencies are:

Inclusions Porosity (blow holes, pinholes) Cold Cracking Hot Cracking Cold Shuts Surface irregularities Distortion Improper composition

Casting failures can be due to various causes. Some castings fail due to design deficiencies, while other castings fail due to casting deficiencies.

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9.3.4 Casting Failure Analysis Casting failures can be due to various causes. Improper loading or environment may contribute to the cause of failure. Casting imperfections may or may not contribute to the cause of failure. Some imperfections may be commonly occurring discontinuities or anomalies that are normally expected to be present in castings. Other imperfections are casting defects that result in failure of the casting. Failure analysis can determine the cause of the casting failure and determine if a casting imperfections was the primary or contributing cause of failure.

10. Fatigue of steel structures

A component or structure, which is designed to carry a single monotonically increasing application of static load, may fracture and fail if the same load or even smaller load is, applied cyclically a large number of times. For example a thin rod bent back and forth beyond yielding fails after a few cycles of such repeated bending. This is termed as the fatigue failure. Examples of structures, prone to fatigue failure, are bridges, cranes, offshore structures and slender towers, etc., which are subjected to cyclic loading. The fatigue failure is due to progressive propagation of flaws in steel under cyclic loading. This is partially enhanced by the stress concentration at the tip of such flaw or crack. As we can see from Fig. 1.22, the presence of a hole in a plate or simply the presence of a notch in the plate has created stress concentrations at the points m and n. The stress at these points could be three or more times the average applied stress. These stress concentrations may occur in the material due to some discontinuities in the material itself. These stress concentrations are not serious when a ductile material like steel is subjected to a static load, as the stresses redistribute themselves to other adjacent elements within the structure. At the time of static failure, the average stress across the entire cross section would be the yield stress as shown in Fig.1.23. However when the load is repeatedly applied or the load fluctuates between tension and compression, the points m, n experience a higher range of stress reversal than the applied average stress. These fluctuations involving higher stress ranges, cause minute cracks at these points, which open up progressively and spread with each application of the cyclic load and ultimately lead to rupture.

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Stress concentrations in the presence of notches and holes

Stress pattern at the point of static failure The fatigue failure occurs after four different stages, namely: 1. Crack initiation at points of stress concentration 2. Crack growth 3. Crack propagation 4. Final rupture The development of fatigue crack growth and the various stages mentioned above are symbolically represented in Fig. 1.24. Fatigue failure can be defined as the number of cycles and hence time taken to reach a pre-defined or a threshold failure criterion. Fatigue failures are classified into two categories namely the high cycle and low cycle fatigue failures, depending upon the number of cycles necessary to create rupture. Low cycle fatigue could be classified as the failures occurring in few cycles to a few tens of thousands of cycles, normally under high stress/ strain ranges. High cycle fatigue requires about several millions of cycles to initiate a failure. The type of cyclic stresses
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applied on structural systems and the terminologies used in fatigue resistant design.

Crack growth and fatigue failure under cyclic load

Terminology used in fatigue resistant design of structural steel work

11. S-N curve

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Metal fatigue is caused by repeated cycling of of the load. It is a progressive localized damage due to fluctuating stresses and strains on the material. Metal fatigue cracks initiate and propagate in regions where the strain is most severe. The process of fatigue consists of three stages:

Initial crack initiation Progressive crack growth across the part Final sudden fracture of the remaining cross section Schematic of S-N Curve, showing increase in fatigue life with decreasing stresses.

Stress Ratio The most commonly used stress ratio is R, the ratio of the minimum stress to the maximum stress (Smin/Smax).

If the stresses are fully reversed, then R = -1. If the stresses are partially reversed, R = a negative number less than 1. If the stress is cycled between a maximum stress and no load, R = zero. If the stress is cycled between two tensile stresses, R = a positive number less than 1.

Variations in the stress ratios can significantly affect fatigue life. The presence of a mean stress component has a substantial effect on fatigue failure. When a tensile mean stress is added to the alternating stresses, a component will fail at lower alternating stress than it does under a fully reversed stress.

11.1 Preventing Fatigue Failure The most effective method of improving fatigue performance is improvements in design:

Eliminate or reduce stress raisers by streamlining the part Avoid sharp surface tears resulting from punching, stamping, shearing, or other processes Prevent the development of surface discontinuities during processing.
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Reduce or eliminate tensile residual stresses caused by manufacturing. Improve the details of fabrication and fastening procedures

11.2 Fatigue Failure Analysis Metal fatigue is a significant problem because it can occur due to repeated loads below the static yield strength. This can result in an unexpected and catastrophic failure in use. Because most engineering materials contain discontinuities most metal fatigue cracks initiate from discontinuities in highly stressed regions of the component. The failure may be due the discontinuity, design, improper maintenance or other causes. A failure analysis can determine the cause of the failure.

12. Creep And Stress Analysis:

12.1 High Temperature Failure Analysis Creep occurs under load at high temperature. Boilers, gas turbine engines, and ovens are some of the systems that have components that experience creep. An understanding of high temperature materials behavior is beneficial in evaluating failures in these types of systems. Failures involving creep are usually easy to identify due to the deformation that occurs. Failures may appear ductile or brittle. Cracking may be either transgranular or intergranular. While creep testing is done at constant temperature and constant load actual components may experience damage at various temperatures and loading conditions. 12.2 Creep of Metals High temperature progressive deformation of a material at constant stress is called creep. High temperature is a relative term that is dependent on the materials being evaluated. A typical creep curve is shown below:

In a creep test a constant load is applied to a tensile specimen maintained at a constant temperature. Strain is then measured over a period of time. The slope of the curve, identified in the above figure, is the strain rate of the test during stage II or the creep rate of the material. Primary creep, Stage I, is a period of decreasing creep rate. Primary creep is a period of primarily transient creep. During this period deformation takes place and the resistance to creep increases until stage II. Secondary creep, Stage II, is a period of roughly constant creep rate. Stage II is referred to as steady state creep. Tertiary creep, Stage III, occurs when there is a reduction in cross sectional area due to necking or effective reduction in area due to internal void formation.

13. Corrosion Failures :

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Corrosion is chemically induced damage to a material that results in deterioration of the material and its properties. This may result in failure of the component. Several factors should be considered during a failure analysis to determine the affect corrosion played in a failure. Examples are listed below:

Type of corrosion Corrosion rate The extent of the corrosion Interaction between corrosion and other failure mechanisms

Corrosion is is a normal, natural process. Corrosion can seldom be totally prevented, but it can be minimized or controlled by proper choice of material, design, coatings, and occasionally by changing the environment. Various types of metallic and nonmetallic coatings are regularly used to protect metal parts from corrosion. Stress corrosion cracking necessitates a tensile stress, which may be caused by residual stresses, and a specific environment to cause progressive fracture of a metal. Aluminum and stainless steel are well known for stress corrosion cracking problems. However, all metals are susceptible to stress corrosion cracking in the right environment. Laboratory corrosion testing is frequently used in analysis but is difficult to correlate with actual service conditions. Variations in service conditions are sometimes difficult to duplicate in laboratory testing 13.1 Corrosion Failures Analysis Identification of the metal or metals, environment the metal was subjected to, foreign matter and/or surface layer of the metal is beneficial in failure determination. Examples of some common types of corrosion are listed below:

Uniform corrosion Pitting corrosion Intergranular corrosion Crevice corrosion Galvanic corrosion Stress corrosion cracking

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Not all corrosion failures need a comprehensive failure analysis. At times a preliminary examination will provide enough information to show a simple analysis is adequate. 13.1.1 Uniform Corrosion: Uniform or general corrosion is typified by the rusting of steel. Other examples of uniform corrosion are the tarnishing of silver or the green patina associated with the corrosion of copper. General corrosion is rather predictable. The life of components can be estimated based on relatively simple immersion test results. Allowance for general corrosion is relatively simple and commonly employed when designing a component for a known environment. Some common methods used to prevent or reduce general corrosion are listed below:

Coatings Inhibitors Cathodic protection Proper materials selection

13.1.2 Pitting Corrosion: Pitting is a localized form of corrosive attack. Pitting corrosion is typified by the formation of holes or pits on the metal surface. Pitting can cause failure due to perforation while the total corrosion, as measured by weight loss, might be rather minimal. The rate of penetration may be 10 to 100 times that by general corrosion. Pits may be rather small and difficult to detect. In some cases pits may be masked due to general corrosion. Pitting may take some time to initiate and develop to an easily viewable size. Pitting occurs more readily in a stagnant environment. The aggressiveness of the corrodent will affect the rate of pitting. Some methods for reducing the effects of pitting corrosion are listed below:

Reduce the aggressiveness of the environment Use more pitting resistant materials Improve the design of the system

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13.1.3 Crevice Corrosion: Crevice corrosion is a localized form of corrosive attack. Crevice corrosion occurs at narrow openings or spaces between two metal surfaces or between metals and nonmetal surfaces. A concentration cell forms with the crevice being depleted of oxygen. This differential aeration between the crevice (microenvironment) and the external surface (bulk environment) gives the the crevice an anodic character. This can contribute to a highly corrosive condition in the crevice. Some examples of crevices are listed below:

Flanges Deposits Washers Rolled tube ends Threaded joints O-rings Gaskets Lap joints Sediment

Some methods for reducing the effects of crevice corrosion are listed below:

Eliminate the crevice from the design Select materials more resistant to crevice corrosion Reduce the aggressiveness of the environment

13.1.4 Stress Corrosion Cracking: Stress corrosion cracking is a failure mechanism that is caused by environment, susceptible material, and tensile stress. Temperature is a significant environmental factor affecting cracking. For stress corrosion cracking to occur all three conditions must be met simultaneously. The component needs to be in a particular crack promoting environment, the component must be made of a susceptible material, and there must be tensile stresses above some minimum threshold value. An externally applied load is not required as the tensile stresses may be due to residual stresses in the material. The threshold stresses are commonly below the yield stress of the material. Stress corrosion cracking is an insidious type of failure as it can occur without an externally applied load or at loads significantly below yield stress. Thus, catastrophic failure can occur without significant deformation or obvious
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deterioration of the component. Pitting is commonly associated with stress corrosion cracking phenomena. Aluminum and stainless steel are well known for stress corrosion cracking problems. However, all metals are susceptible to stress corrosion cracking in the right environment. 13.2 Controlling Stress Corrosion Cracking There are several methods to prevent stress corrosion cracking. One common method is proper selection of the appropriate material. A second method is to remove the chemical species that promotes cracking. Another method is to change the manufacturing process or design to reduce the tensile stresses. AMC can provide engineering expertise to prevent or reduce the likelihood of stress corrosion cracking in your components.

14. Metallographic Testing of Metal

BRINELL HARDNESS TEST

APM Testing provides A2LA accredited services for Brinell hardness testing at a fair price, with prompt delivery, and a detailed test report. Our laboratory also provides laboratory services for plastic testing, metal testing, rubber testing, oil testing, paint testing, plating testing, adhesive testing, circuit board testing, and other testing.
Purpose: Sample:

Measure the Brinell hardness of a metal sample per ASTM E10. inches (25 x 25 x 10 mm) or larger.

One block 1 x 1 x 0.4 Smaller samples can sometimes be tested.

Basic Description:

ASTM E10 is a method of determining hardness by pushing a ball into the surface of a metal and then measuring the diameter of the indent left by the ball. Brinell hardness gives good results for non-uniform materials such as castings since it has a large indent size. There are multiple Brinell hardness scales such as 10/3000 which specifies a ball diameter of 10 mm under a load of 3000 kg. The result is in the form of a hardness number between 100 and
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650 with a higher number indicating a harder material. Lower loads are used for small or soft samples. Samples which are too small to measure per ASTM E10 can be measured using ASTM E18 Rockwell Hardness or ASTM E384 Knoop Micro-Hardness. Brinell hardness is directly related to the strength and wear resistance of a metal sample. Results are reported in a table format with one indent per sample. The tested surface must be relatively smooth and flat. Samples less than 0.4 inches (10 mm) thick are usually too thin for accurate measurements.
Limitations:

ROCKWELL HARDNESS TEST

APM Testing provides A2LA accredited services for Rockwell hardness testing at a fair price, with prompt delivery, and a detailed test report. Our laboratory also provides laboratory services for plastic testing, metal testing, rubber testing, oil testing, paint testing, plating testing, adhesive testing, circuit board testing, and other testing.
Purpose: Sample:

Measure the Rockwell hardness of a metal sample per ASTM E18.

One block 1 x 1 x 0.050 inches (25 x 25 x 1 mm) or larger. Smaller samples can sometimes be tested. ASTM E18 is a method of determining hardness by measuring how deep an indenter pushes into a metal under a given load. There are multiple different Rockwell hardness scales with designations such as A, B, C, 30N, 30T, and more. Rockwell hardness readings can range from 20 to 100 with a higher number indicating a harder material. Rockwell B and C are the most common scales with B used for softer materials and C used for harder materials. The Rockwell B scale ends at a value of 100 which is roughly equal to the beginning of the Rockwell C scale at 20. Other scales are often used when the sample is too soft or thin to be measured by the B and C scales. Rockwell hardness is a good indication of the strength and wear resistance of a metal sample. Results are reported in a table as the average of 3 to 5 readings per sample.
Basic Description:

Samples must be prepared so that both the top and bottom surfaces are smooth or the results will not be accurate. Samples less than 0.050 inches (1 mm) thick are usually too thin for accurate measurements and may need to be measured by ASTM E384 Knoop Micro-Hardness. Readings may not be consistent for non-uniform materials such as cast irons which are commonly measured using ASTM E10 Brinell Hardness.
Limitations:

INCREASING STRENGTH OF STEEL

18. Some Facts to Know
152 million tons of CO2 emissions could be eliminated if all car makers built cars from

AHSS, being lighter , cars then have lower fuel consumption and emit less carbon
dioxide.

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 Steel is the worlds most important structural material because of its high strength in relation to its weight and price. Steel is produced in many forms from thin sheet to heavy load-bearing bridge beams. Industrial production is dependant on the availability of steel. Steel is continually being developed and is a high-tech material. Steel is the worlds most recycled material. Steel can be used time and time again and ensures good conservation of the Earths resources. The iron in the Eiffel Tower in Paris weighs 7,300 tonnes..A one-metre-high model of the Eiffel Tower made of the same material as the Tower would weigh around 270 grams. The Tower was built of cast iron. Gustave Eiffel had a metallurgical laboratory at the tower during the construction period. The cast iron available in 1889 had a tensile strength of 200 MPa (megapascal). Ultra-high strength steel with a tensile strength of 1,400 MPa could be used today to construct a new Eiffel Tower. This would reduce the weight to around 3,000 tonnes or by 241 percent. A one-metre-high scale model of the Eiffel Tower made from SSAB steel would then weight around 110 grams. How is the strength of steel measured The strength of steel can be measured, for instance, in a tensile testing machine. In simple terms, this means that a certain force is applied to pull a steel specimen until the specimen just begins to deform. The yield strength is the stress at which the steel loses its ability to resume its original form. The tensile strength is measured in megapascal, MPa. The unit of Newton per square millimeter, N/mm2, was used in the past, the value of which is the same as MPa. A typical extrahigh strength steel is Docol Super. A 100 mm wide and 0.5 mm thick piece of this steel can withstand a tensile force of 8.5 tonnes before it deforms. The yield strength is 1,700 MPa. This means that this piece of sheet steel would be able to lift five average-size cars. Another way of measuring the strength of steel is to determine its ultimate tensile strength, i.e., the stress at which the steel breaks. Toughness and wear resistance are important properties in heavier sizes. Strength can be increased by using thicker steel, but the weight will then also increase.

19. Cold rolling mill

High-strength steel: strong, stronger, and strongest

Over the past five years, researcher has worked intensively on the development of a range of steels with high-strength properties in both the hot rolled and the cold rolled and zinc-plated states. These steels are primarily used in the automotive industry. For the ultra-high-strength types, however, applications certainly exist in other markets, such as energy transport.
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Figure 1: overview of cold rolled high-strength steels High-strength steel: a development rather than an invention The development of high-strength steels involves proper application and the best possible combination of a number of fundamental metallurgical principles.

The most efficient way of increasing the strength is by refining the grain of the microstructure. This is achieved by controlling the treatment of the steel in the hot strip mill and during annealing, and by adjustment of the steel's chemical composition. A second method is solid-solution hardening. This method entails the addition of alloying elements such as Mn, Si and P. The last one in particular has a great influence upon the strength, even in small quantities. A third method involves the creation of precipitates such as titanium carbide (TiC) and niobium carbide (NbC) in the steel. These particles, which may measure as little as a few nanometres (1 nm = 0.000000001 m), have a major effect upon the final mechanical properties. The first steels to make major use of this method are the microalloyed steels, which have a strength in the order of 500 MPa.

MnS precipitate as a feeding-ground for TiN precipitates

In order to attain even higher strengths, the various phases in the microstructure have to be modified. Steel normally consists of a ferrite matrix in which Fe3C particles (cementite) are distributed. By optimization of the process parameters, however, metastable phases such as bainite, martensite and austenite can be obtained. They substantially enhance the strength, and in some cases other special properties such as toughness.

Typical microstructure of an IF high-strength steel (a), a dual-phase steel (b) and a TRIP steel (c) High-strength steels are typically grouped as follows:

High-strength interstitial-free (IF) steels: these are degassed products with a complete ferritic matrix to which Mn, Si and P are added, on order to attain strengths of typically up to 260 MPa. These steels may also have a bake-hardening effect, that causes a little residual free carbon to give rise to a further increase in strength during the paint baking at
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the (automotive) customer. The great advantage of these steels is that they can be used for external car body parts. High-strength low-alloy (HSLA) steels or microalloyed steels in which strength is attained by the precipitation of Nb(C,N) and Ti(C,N). Dual-phase steels consisting of a ferrite matrix containing small islands of martensite. These steels are characterized by a favourable deformation behaviour and by the absence of a fluid threshold without skinpass, which makes them unsusceptible to ageing. Improved hardenability of the steel is necessary to obtain the martensite phase. V, Cr and Mo are added for this purpose. TRIP (transformation induced plasticity) steels are characterized by a ferrite matrix containing a fine bainite phase and rest austenite. These steels owe their excellent formability to the last phase, and typically have high Al and Si contents.

Plant to develop the following new products:

ULC BH 260, hot-dip galvanized, for external automotive components TRIP 590, 700, 780, hot-dip galvanized DP1000, hot-dip galvanized DP500, hot-dip galvanized, for external automotive components

The use of transformation induced plasticity (TRIP) steel, which combines high strength with exceptional formability, enables automotive customers to make important progress in the field of passenger safety and weight savings (environmental responsibility). Since the beginning, in the late 1990s, the developments progressed particularly in the attained tensile-strength level, reaching 700MPa (TRIP 700) . Application tests performed by certain leading automobile manufacturers indicated, however, that scope still remained for improvement, particularly in the area of spot-weldability. In the course of 2002, then development of a concept involving less carbon, which resulted in the product attaining the same standard. At the same time, continued laboratory-scale research into ways of reducing the carbon content even further, by adding phosphor (P). These efforts were rewarded in mid-2003 with the lowest carbon content (best spot-weldability).

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20. Comparison of Different Steel with Technical details Toolox 33

Usage
Toolox 33 is a new steel delivered quenched and tempered with high impact toughness and very low residual stresses to get good dimensional stability. Toolox 33 has a low carbide content, and is therefore excellent to machine. Toolox 33 is suitable for plastic moulding, for rubber moulding and machine components. With proper surface treatment, the service life of the tool/component can be prolonged.

Weldox 1100

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ARMOX

Hardox

Some other Methods 1. Increasing the fatigue limit of a high-strength bearing steel by a deep cryogenic treatment
High-strength steels typically fail from inclusions. Therefore, to increase the fatigue limit of high-strength steels it is necessary to modify the inclusions and/or the surrounding matrix. The goal must be a higher threshold for crack initiation and/or crack propagation. One possibility to reach this goal seems to be a deep cryogenic treatment which is reported to completely transform the retained austenite as well as to facilitate the formation of fine carbides. Therefore, specimens were annealed before or after deep cryogenic treatment, which was carried out with different cooling and heating rates as well as different soaking times at 196 C. Hardness and retained austenite measurements and fatigue experiments were used to evaluate the different sequences of treatments mentioned above. The fatigue limit increases only after some of the sequences. The results show that the soaking times are not relevant for the fatigue limit but it is very important to temper the specimens before the deep cryogenic treatment. Also, repeated deep cryogenic treatments had a positive influence on the fatigue limit.

21. SCOPE
Steel is a material with a major strategic importance, vital to many industrial sectors such as transport, construction, oil & gas, and energy production industries. Both the design and production of components and of load bearing structures made of steel are constantly seeking the possibility of increasing the level of strength so as to reduce weight and dimensions in a significant way. The advantages of such an action are however to be seen not only from a pure economic point of view, but, in many sectors, also within a much more important socioenvironmental context. In addition to strength properties, the new steels under development should offer ease of forming, of welding and other fabrication procedures. Severe working conditions often require either good toughness at low temperatures anticipated in service or other improved performances such as low susceptibility to hydrogen embrittlement, and resistance to high temperature. For Material Scientists and Engineers it is a hard task to obtain a satisfactorily good combination of properties that makes the use of high strength steel materials in a selected
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context possible or even attractive. But the importance of the overall objective largely justifies the big efforts paid by the international Community through the years. After the previous successful 1st International Conference on Super-High Strength Steels, 2-4 November 2005, in Rome, organised by Associazione Italiana di Metallurgia and CSM - Centro Sviluppo Materiali and the Conference on New Developments on Metallurgy and Applications of High Strength Steels, 26-28 May 2008, Buenos Aires, Argentina, organised by Ternium, Tenaris and Asociacin Argentina de Materiales, AIM invites delegates to attend the 2nd International Conference on Super-High Strength Steels, in Peschiera del Garda, Italy on October 17-20, 2010. The Conference will be a suitable meeting place for those involved in research, development and application of advanced steels. The congregation of these groups has proven to be a fruitful seed for the successful development of innovative processes, of new grades for a wide range of carbon and alloyed steels options and of new applications for improved performances high strength steels. With this conference the organisers intend to achieve the continuation of the path towards a cooperation on a permanent basis between Industry and Academia on the topic of high strength steels. This International Conference will provide a technical forum for the dissemination of recent advances in the field of high strength steels. Academics, research centres, operators in leading market sectors such as Automotive, Mechanics, Oil & Gas and Energy production and transmission, Constructions, are addressed to report on the latest progresses made in the field of formability, weldability, corrosion, fatigue & fracture resistance, creep resistance, just to quote some of the main properties to be developed in association with the required High or Super High Strength levels. Metallurgists and Technologists will be asked to contribute also on the fabrication cycles set-up and control themes as well as the identification and description of the relevant property controlling mechanisms. High-strength steels: the bruisers among steel products High-strength steels enable the thickness of the material to be reduced without sacrificing the structural strength characteristics, and with improved crash test results. The strength of a material is often characterised by its yield strength, i.e. the minimum force that must be applied to the material in order to produce a permanent (plastic) deformation or by its drawing load, i.e. the minimum force that must be applied in order to have necking involved in the permanent deformation. High-strength steel or HSS, is steel with a yield strength (YS) of 220 Mpa (1 Mpa or megapascal is equal to 1 million N/m). Ultra-high-strength steels or UHSS possess a tensile strength (TS) of 550 Mpa or higher. A major metallurgical challenge is to produce steel grades with a high YS but that also remain sufficiently deformable (deep-drawable). If lighter car bodies, for example, are to be manufactured from steel, the steel strip must also exhibit perfect deforming behaviour during pressing, whilst at the same time possessing a sufficiently high YS value in order for a thinner
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(and therefore lighter) strip to have the necessary strength, for example to ensure the safety of passengers. Lighter car bodies obviously result in lower fuel consumption, and therefore also in lower exhaust emissions. Each reduction by 100 kg in vehicle weight leads to a drop in fuel consumption by 0.7 l per 100 km.

Steel is in this respect an ideal material, since it can combine high strength with excellent deformability much better than aluminium cars, for example. Car manufacturers seek to achieve optimum safety by manufacturing cars with an undeformable passenger compartment and a deformable, energy-absorbing engine compartment. The strength and deformability of steel are determined chiefly by its composition (addition of alloying elements, reduction of the sulphur and/or carbon content) and by thermal treatment of the steel during the rolling, annealing and coating processes, or even during the final processing of the strip (take for example the bake hardening principle. This means that steel gets stronger during the baking of the paint layer on the car body). Typical examples of high-strength steels are:

Microalloyed steels (alloyed with Nb and/or Ti) for suspension components, longitudinal runners on heavy goods vehicles, car passenger cells and reinforcement elements on cars. Ferritic-bainitic steels (with very low sulphur content) for wheel rims and wheel disks. Dual-phase hot rolled steels (with added chromium and very low sulphur content) for wheel disks. Dual-phase cold rolled and coated steels for exposed components and components for increasing the crash resistance of car bodies. TRIP (TRansformation Induced Plasticity) steels for wheel rims and wheel disks. Degassed high-strength steel for exposed components of the car bodywork (generally hot dip galvanised strip). Bake hardening steel for exposed components of the car bodywork (controlled annealing cycle and skinpass rolling: both electrolytically galvanised and hot dip galvanised strip).

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22. Conclusion:The strength of steel depends upon its composition, due to its wide use in different sectors in world each having its own importance in context of steel. As we had seen that different composition has different impact on strength of steel, so as per our requirement we can change the strength of steel. Since high variation in process or composition creates high difference in cost of steel produced, thus it becomes costly to use these steel for normal use only for the sake of strength and alternative cost effective steel is chosen. Our aim of this study is to maximising the strength with a cost effective method. Since strength of steel depends upon how we are changing the composition for example:- if we increase the composition of Cr, Mo, Ni, V, Cu.. etc, we can increase the hardness of steel as well as the ductility. Also the strength is judged by the shear, tensile and compressive strength of steel, so while using any steel we have to check that all these data are fulfilling the criterion or not, if they then we can go for it otherwise we search for other steel, who have better composition and strength then the previous one. Now other factor on which strength depends is the fatigue failure and deformation. Since we have to check that either steel have sufficient strength against repeated load that is given to steel, so we can judge that what the life of steel is. Now because of deformation we can judge that what should be the stiffness of the steel that is on giving the load what should be its strength if it is simply supported or cantilever or fixed ends or something else. So these are the major factor on which the strength of steel depends and according to the areas where steel are used we can compare their strength. So by comparing the strength of steel we can change the composition and the area of interest of using steel.

23. References:
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[1]. IOPscience (http://iopscience.iop.org/1742-6596/240/1/012059) [2]. Wikipedia http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strength_of_Steel http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/High-strength_low-alloy_steel http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steel http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_steel [3]. www.ssab.com [4]. khurmi R.S. Strength of material [5]. Raghavan , Smith , Material Science. [7]. Callister, Material Science [6]. www.google.com

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