Food & The City

Can Glasgows Future Be Influenced By Cubas Past

Scott Abercrombie. 200521348. University of Strathclyde / Department of Architecture Bsc (Hons) Architectural Studies / 16.03.2010

Food + The City

declaration
Department of Architecture University of Strathclyde Dissertation AB 420 BSc (Architectural Studies), BSc (Architectural Studies with European Studies), Pg Diploma in Architectural Studies Declaration I hereby declare that this dissertation submission is my own work and has been composed by myself. It contains no unacknowledged text and has not been submitted in any previous context. All quotations have been distinguished by quotation marks and all sources of information, text, illustration, tables, images etc. have been specifically acknowledged. I accept that if having signed this Declaration my work should be found at Examination to show evidence of academic dishonesty the work will fail and I will be liable to face the University Senate Discipline Committee.

Name: Scott Abercrombie Signed: Date: 16.03.2010

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Food + The City

contents
Abstract Introduction Chapter 1: Reasons For Change Chapter 2: Cubas Agricultural Revolution Chapter 3: Urban Agriculture In Havana Chapter 4: The Case For Change In Glasgow Chapter 5: Towards A Greener Glasgow Conclusion Bibliography Image Bibliography 1. 3. 5. 13. 17. 24. 31. 48. 51. 59.

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Food + The City

list of illustrations
Fig 1. An urban farm in Havana. P.2 Fig 2. Thousands of mothers with malnourished children gather outside a feeding centre in Niger. P.4 Fig 3. Cattle are reared at a factory farm in the United States. P.4 Fig 4. Graph of world population. P.5 Fig 5. Markham suburbs, Ontario. P.6 Fig 6. Safeway poster from the 1950s. P.6 Fig 7. October 2006: Production Forecasts and EIA Oil Production Numbers P.7 Fig 8. Cattle graze on recently cleared land in Brazil. P.9 Fig 9. Novo Progreso, Brazil: An aerial view of deforestation caused by soybean farmers. P.10 Fig 10. Dust plumes of Western Africa. P.11 Fig 11. A street in Havana in 1958 showing the presence of American corporations. P.13 Fig 12. Guerrillero Heroico. P.14 Fig 13. A 1963 Soviet Propaganda poster that reads: Long live everlasting, indestructible friendship and cooperation between Soviet and Cuban nations! P.14 Fig 14. John F Kennedy signs an order in 1962 resulting in a naval blockade of Cuba. P.15 Fig 15. Urban farms in Havana. P.18

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Food + The City Fig 16. A Cuban community garden. P.19 Fig 17. Organopnico Alamar, Havana. P.19 Fig 18. A state farm on the outskirts of Havana. P.20 Fig 19. Graph indicating the growth in yields for the various forms of production. P.21 Fig 20. Graph charting vegetable production in Havana. P.21 Fig 21. A Cuban tends to oxen in Havana. P.22 Fig 22. Help Scotlands Harvest: World War II recruitment poster. P.23 Fig 23. A vegetable garden is created in a bomb crater within a school playground near Westminster Catherdral, 1940. P.24 Fig 24. The land in front of the Reichstag is used for potato farming in 1946. P.25 Fig 25. The land in front of the Reichstag as it is now. P.25 Fig 26. Old poster from the Dewars world of whisky centre at the Aberfeldy distillery in Perthshire. P.26 Fig 27. Tescos new 1million square foot distribution centre in Livingston. P.27 Fig 28. Work Architects Public Farm One installation in New York. P.28 Fig 29. View north towards Glasgow city centre. P.29 Fig 30. Diagram illustrating methods of production and their escalating costs / rates of production. P.31 Fig 31. Aerial view of Glasgow city centre. P.32 Fig 32. The roof of Chicagos City Hall. P.32 Fig 33. The roof of True Nature Foods in Chicago. P.33 Fig 34. A sign inside True Nature Foods. P.34 Fig 35. What Glasgows rooftops could look like. P.34 iv.

Food + The City

Fig 36. The West End. P.35 Fig 37. An aerial photograph illustrating the layout of tenements. P.35 Fig 38. One of the many ways a tenement backcourt could be used for Urban Agriculture. P.36 Fig 39. The South Side. P.37 Fig 40. A group of four tower blocks. P.37 Fig 41. The potential for productive land to surround tower blocks. P.38 Fig 42. Urban sprawl in the East End of Glasgow. P.39 Fig 43. A woman tends a vegetable patch in her back garden. Edinburgh, circa 1950. P.39 Fig 44. An engraving of Glasgow Green in 1850 complete with cows. P.40 Fig 45. Queens Park Allotments in Glasgow. P.41 Fig 46. The potential of derelict land between the Gorbals and Govanhill. P.42 Fig 47. Atelier SOAs Vertical Farm Proposal. P.43 Fig 48. Computer controlled farming at Paignton Zoo. P.44 Fig 49. Pig City. P.44 Fig 50. Patrick Blancs Green Wall at The Caixa Forum Museum, Madrid. P.44 Fig 51. Table indicating potential yields. P.46 Fig 52. Graph comparing the three estimates. P.46 Fig 54. A vision of a greener Glasgow. P.47 Fig 53. Graph suggesting that the three production estimates would relate to stages two, three and four. P.49

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Food + The City

abbreviations
EIA FAO GCC IPCC IRRI SAGS SG UA UNDP UNESCO UNFPF UNU UPA US DoE WHO WRAP United States Energy Information Administration United Nations Food and Agriculture Organisation Glasgow City Council Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change International Rice Research Institute Scottish Allotments and Gardens Society Scottish Government Urban Agriculture United Nations Development Programme United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation United Nations Population Fund United Nations University Urban and Peri-Urban Agriculture United States Department of Energy World Health Organisation Waste and Resources Action Programme vi.

Food + The City

abstract
This dissertation advocates the need for the preemptive re-localisation of food production throughout the world as an attempt to ensure food stability in a world without cheap oil. The widespread adoption of urban farming in Cuba during the 1990s will be considered as a successful model for the swift implementation of localised food production and the methods used there will be closely examined. We will then look at the potential for these techniques to be exported elsewhere, with particular comparison being drawn between Cubas capital city, Havana, and Scotlands most populous city, Glasgow. Scotlands current agricultural model is comparable to Cubas prior to the 1990s and both Glasgow and Havana have a very similar proportion of area available per capita making them ideal for comparison. There is an immediate need for considerable urban and social reform to combat the evergrowing demand food production places on the planets dwindling resources. Currently there are over 1 billion people on our planet who suffer from chronic hunger, a number that has grown by 10% in the last year. With the population of the planet continuing to rise and our ability to produce food through industrial methods of agriculture set to dramatically drop, alternative methods will have to be adopted. In the 1990s the collapse of the Soviet Union had massive implications on Cuba and its supply of food, the loss of its primary source of trade left the country with the huge problem of becoming as self-sufficient as possible in a very short space of time. The Cubans responded with extensive land reforms and the widespread adoption of urban agriculture, resulting in thousands of small plots in cities being converted into urban market gardens. This was supported by the government through the provision of parcels of land to anyone willing to cultivate them and experts from universities to educate the citizens about agriculture. As a result, yields within Cubas cities are steadily increasing and there are now more vegetables available to Cubans than there were before the crisis. Whilst there are obvious differences between Havana and Glasgow - from socioeconomic factors and the political environment through to climate - the principles remain the same. As the impacts of climate change, industrial farming methods, soil erosion, global water shortages and the peak of cheap oil production occur it is almost a certainty that cities will 1.

Food + The City have to adopt a new agricultural model in order to sustain their inhabitants. With the people of Havana now producing around 90% of their fruit and vegetables from over 200 gardens in the city, could such an approach be adopted in Glasgow and how successful would it be?

Fig 1. An urban farm in Havana 2.

Food + The City

introduction
The test of our progress is not whether we add more to the abundance of those who have much; it is whether we provide enough for those who have too little. Franklin D Roosevelt (BBC News, 2005) For every living thing on this planet one of the major concerns is the provision of food. Food has always influenced the way we live our lives and one of the most prominent examples of this is the urban landscape of our planet. The form of our cities from the very first examples in Mesopotamia through to present day, has at least in part, been dictated by food. This relationship used to be a delicate balance between the scale of a city and the ability of its hinterland to provide adequate sustenance, a relationship that has been eroded over time by trade, the discovery of oil, the birth of the combustion engine, an ever increasing ability to store food, consumer demand and the rise of the corporation. These influences combined have led us to the point that global food production has become unsustainable. The production of meat alone is currently responsible for a fifth of global Greenhouse Gas Emissions (FAO, 2006). Meanwhile the way we purchase food, where we grow it, and an ever-growing lack of knowledge about food has led to around a third of the food purchased in the UK being thrown away (WRAP, 2007:1). All the more terrible when you consider that the UN predicts that 1.02 billion people will go hungry this year, an increase of 100 million on last year (FAO, 2009b:4). With the US Census Bureau (2009a) expecting world population to grow to 9 billion by 2043, one of the largest questions we face as a species is how we provide for the predicted extra 2 billion people, whilst finding food for the 1 billion we are currently not feeding and simultaneously making the entire process more environmentally friendly? The answer to this, unfortunately, seems to be that the current methods of agriculture will no longer suffice. Instead of getting the increase in production we require in the coming decades we could potentially see a reduction, the main causes for this being a lack of a cheap oil supply, impending global water shortages, soil erosion and shifts in global climate. The impacts of each of these factors could be disastrous on their own, but it seems that we will have to deal with all of them in the very near future, so what could potentially occur? 3.

Fig 2. Thousands of mothers with malnourished children gather outside a feeding centre in Niger. 90% of Africas exports of fruit and vegetables go to the UK (Defra, 2007)

Fig 3. Cattle are reared at a factory farm in the United States 4.

Food + The City

chapter 1reasons for change

We have allowed oil to become vital to virtually everything we do. Ninety per cent of all our transportation, whether by land, air or sea, is fuelled by oil. Ninety-five per cent of all goods in shops involve the use of oil. Ninety-five per cent of all our food products require oil use. Just to farm a single cow and deliver it to market requires six barrels of oil, enough to drive a car from New York to Los Angeles. (Leggett, 2006)

Fig 4. Graph of world population The above graph of world population shows that human population remained relatively stable until the mid 1300s when it began to steadily grow, the rate increased again around 1800 and from then on human population has consistently increased year on year. When you compare these shifts in population growth with technological advancements we can see a clear correlation emerge. The most significant of which relates to the invention of the automobile and its mass production, with Henry Ford producing the first widely affordable automobile in 1908. As a result American production of oil grew even more dramatically than population, illustrated by the 2000 barrels produced in 1859 growing to 9.64million barrels per day when US production peaked in 1970 (EIA, 2009), less than half the 19.5million barrels now consumed every day in the United States (CIA, 2008). Technology has since improved exponentially and been proliferated throughout the world against a backdrop of universally cheap oil. This rapid industrialisation has meant that for a sustained period the world has been able to produce more, faster and it could distribute this produce rapidly across the globe, resulting in the carrying capacity of the earth being temporarily expanded. 5.

Fig 5. Just a prison with the cells all in a row. A line of semi-detached torture chambers where the poor little five-to-ten- pound-a-weekers quake and shiver (Orwell, 1939:16)

Fig 6. Widespread access to cars led to a mass migration to the suburbs in the western world and the profligate use of oil that is inherent in urban sprawl, it also heralded the birth of the out of town supermarket, dramatically changing the way much of the world interacted with food.

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Food + The City However, the oil that this way of life is based upon is, like all other fossil fuels, a finite resource. The world is approaching, or has perhaps already passed, the point of Peak Oil, which is regarded as the moment the worlds cheap oil supply peaks and subsequently goes into decline. As the availability of cheap oil deteriorates the price will rise and as a result food prices, along with almost all other products, will rise. This theory is also known as Hubberts Peak, after Marion King Hubbert who originally used his models to correctly predict that American oil production would peak between 1965 and 1970. In 1974 Hubbert then adopted this model to predict the peak of world oil, which he believed would occur in 1995 (Grove, 1974:792-825). A number of contemporary scientists have updated this model in an attempt to provide an accurate timescale, resulting in a variety of estimates that indicate a peak occurring between 2005 and 2015 (Foucher, 2006).

Fig 7. Graph of peak oil estimates When the energy cost of recovering a barrel of oil becomes greater than the energy content of the oil, production will cease no matter what the monetary price may be Marion King Hubbard (US DoE, 2006:2) Agriculture is an incredibly oil intensive process, the entire process of industrial farming relies on oil, from the planting and harvesting of the crop, creation of fertiliser, food processing, through to distribution and packaging. At present over 4 barrels of oil are used in the process

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Food + The City of feeding the average person in the UK each year, whilst in America it is estimated that for every calorie of food that is produced 10 calories of fossil fuel energy have to be invested (Heinberg, 2007). It is only the highly concentrated energy in fossil fuels that has allowed the explosion in world population and production, but our relationship with this finite resource is an unhealthy one. We have taken a commodity that takes hundreds of thousands of years to form and used half of it in just over 100 years. However, this isnt the only reason that we have to move away from our reliance on fossil fuels; our reckless overuse continually adds carbon dioxide to the atmosphere that is contributing to the destabilisation of our already fragile climate. The IPCC confirmed in 2007 that warming of the planet is taking place with a report stating that they were more than 90% sure that this warming had been caused by human activity since 1750 (Black,2007). We continue to work the Earths resources harder and harder pushing ourselves toward a point of global climatic and economic collapse, and we can already see the effects of this on the precious commodities we rely on to feed the world. The threat of nuclear weapons and mans ability to destroy the environment are really alarming. And yet there are other almost imperceptible changes - I am thinking of the exhaustion of our natural resources, and especially of soil erosion - and these are perhaps more dangerous still, because once we begin to feel their repercussions it will be too late. The Dalai Lama (Dalai Lama, 2002:144) Despite the fact that approximately two-thirds of our planet is covered in water, the vast majority is of little use to us, in fact only 0.8% of our planets water is actually a viable resource. Agriculture currently accounts for around 70% of freshwater withdrawals, reaching up to 90% in some developing countries (UNESCO, 2009a:99), and were it not to be optimised could be responsible for around 90% globally by 2050 (UNESCO, 2009b). But this limited water resource is shrinking, due in part to pollution and also to the growing reliance and overuse of groundwater (Kirby, 2000). Agriculture is generally a very water intensive process, but certain foods require more than others, the main culprit being meat. A kilogram of beef takes on average 9,680 litres of water to produce, compared to an average of 1,790 litres per kilogram of wheat (Vidal, 2004). Meat consumption has increased significantly in the last century; the average UK resident has gone from consuming 25kg of meat per year to 80kg (FAO, 2009b), though this pales in comparison to the average of consumption in the USA of 125kg per person (UNESCO, 2009b). These unhealthy trends can be seen continuing within emerging nations that are now consuming more meat and dairy than ever, in China consumption of meat rose from 3kg per

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Food + The City person in 1961 to 54kg in 2003 (FAO, 2009a). China is a country that is now relying more and more heavily on imports, a worrying statistic given that despite much of its landmass being covered by both mountains and deserts it had managed to be self-sufficient in most food products until around 20 years ago. Since then it is has struggled to produce enough food for its population to the point where it is now the worlds biggest importer of both grain and soya. Between 1995 and 2005 we can see an interesting relationship play out, in those 10 years China lost 6 million hectares of arable land to urbanisation and desertification, whilst Chinas imports of Brazilian soya beans grew by an incredible 10,685%. To facilitate this a substantial amount of deforestation had to take place and as a result the Amazon lost an average of 1.7million hectares per year (Steel, 2009). This has its own serious effects on the climate out with the obvious destruction of irreplaceable ecological systems. According to Peter Melchett, previously a Labour minister and Executive Director of Greenpeace: Historically, 50% of the total increase in carbon dioxide from 1850-1990 is from land use change, mainly because of farming. (Melchett, 2007)

Fig 8. Cattle graze on recently cleared land in Brazil 9.

Food + The City

Fig 9. An example of deforestation by soybean farmers in the Amazon Soil erosion and the problems caused by monoculture and intensive industrialised farming are affecting yields across the globe, but although scientists regard this to be just as big a problem as global warming it seems very little is being done to combat it. Over 99% of food is grown in soil, yet each year over 10million hectares of arable land is either degraded or lost (Radford, 2004). In 2004 The Guardian reported that: An area big enough to feed Europe - 300m hectares, about 10 times the size of the UK - has been so severely degraded it cannot produce food, according to UN figures. (Radford, 2004) Soil erosion is generally caused by soil being displaced by natural forces like wind and rain, and as such is a natural and healthy process. The main problem is the growing rate of soil erosion, which in most cases is facilitated by increased use of land by humans. Deforestation, overgrazing and ploughing all disrupt the structure of the soil and as a result make it more susceptible to erosion. The affect of this is being felt everywhere, but more so in the developing world where either necessity or corporate influence greatly exacerbates the issue. Karl Harmsen, Director of the United Nations Universitys Institute for Natural Resources in Africa Director, said that estimates now suggested if the decline of soils in Africa continues, by 2025 it would be capable of feeding only 25% of its population (UNU, 2006:3).

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Fig 10. A satellite image showing the affect of soil erosion on the coast of Africa 11.

Food + The City The Nation that destroys its soil destroys itself. Franklin D. Roosevelt (Jones, 2009) The effects of soil degradation, if they were to continue at the current rate would have a considerable impact upon food security in the future, but its effects could be further influenced by climate change. Studies have shown that increased precipitation leads to increased erosion and one of the main accepted results of global warming is increased intensity and frequency of extreme weather events. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change predicts that a one-metre rise in sea levels would leave nearly 1/3 of the worlds crop growing land flooded (Smith and Edwards, 2008). They also suggested global temperature could rise by between 1.8C and 4C by the end of the century, concluding that it may even rise as far as 6.4C (IPCC, 2007:13). With the International Rice Research Institute (2004) predicting that with every degree of warming there would be a 15% reduction in rice yields this would have a massive impact, particularly in Asia where over 2 billion people rely on rice for between 60-70% of their calories. With the many threats to food security in the developed world accompanied by a continually worsening situation in the developing world, significant changes have to be made to our current methods to sustainably feed everyone on this planet. As the world becomes increasingly urbanised it becomes clear that the biggest problem we face is creating sustainable cities. Cities have become parasites on the landscape huge organisms draining the world for their sustenance and energy: relentless consumers, relentless polluters. Richard Rogers (Rogers, 1997:27) Currently over 50% of the worlds population lives in cities, although this is set to grow to almost 5 billion by 2030 (UNFPF, 2007). However it is only relatively recently that this migration to urban centres has occurred - the cities of the world housed only 200 million people in 1950 and it is feeding these cities that offers the biggest problem (Rogers, 1997:27). Tokyo has an estimated population of just under 32.5 million people, meaning that were everyone to eat 3 meals a day over 95 million meals would have to be produced for Tokyo alone. The fact that such a city survives would have been considered miraculous in centuries past, but our generation barely notices it, and as such it is obvious that we have become divorced from the process it takes to feed ourselves. But in Cubas capital city, Havana, over 90% of the fruit and vegetables consumed in the city are produced in and around the city (Lotter, 2003).

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chapter 2

cubas agricultural revolution

In the early 1990s Cuba faced the immense task of becoming almost entirely self sufficient in as short a space of time as possible. This situation was forced upon them by the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1990, which had been Cubas primary source of trade since the imposition of an embargo by the US in 1960 (BBC News, 2008). The sheer scale of the problems faced by the Cuban people in the 1990s was greatly exacerbated by the way that Cubas agricultural system was operating up until that point. Cuba produced a significant amount of the worlds sugar, and as a result the majority of the islands productive landscape was taken over by export plantations (Schwab, 1998). From 1898 through to the Revolution in 1959, the United States had a massive influence within Cuba, from the US government supporting corrupt leaders and approving military interventions, to the corporations who controlled much of the Cuban land and economy. This lasted until Fidel Castro and his revolutionary forces removed the US-supported, unpopular regime of Fulgencio Batista and promised to take back the land for the Cuban people (Schwab, 1998).

Fig 11. A street in Havana in 1958 showing the presence of American corporations 13.

Food + The City

Fig 12. Che Guevara

The first step towards this was taken in May of 1959, when Cuba sought to counteract American control by enacting Ernesto Che Guevaras Agrarian Reform Law. This restricted the size of farms to a maximum of 3,333 acres, with anything larger being expropriated and either distributed to peasants or retained by the government. A provision was also included that prevented any external party owning Cuban land, resulting in the forced sale of an estimated 480000 acres of US owned land (Kellner, 1989). In response the US government significantly reduced the amount of sugar they would import, and with Cuba being so dependent on trade they had to look elsewhere for a buyer; they found one in the Soviet Union.

Fig 13. A 1963 Soviet Propaganda poster that reads: Long live everlasting, indestructible friendship and cooperation between Soviet and Cuban nations! 14.

Food + The City

Fig 14. John F Kennedy signs an order in 1962 resulting in a naval blockade of Cuba 15.

Food + The City The new alliance caused relations between the US and Cuba to deteriorate further. After assassination attempts by the CIA on Castro and the eventual failed, US-sponsored, Bay of Pigs invasion, Cuba turned to the Soviets for military assistance, who in 1962 responded by placing nuclear weapons on Cuba. It was then that John F. Kennedy signed a full and permanent trade embargo against Cuba into power, banning the import of any Cuban produce, along with preventing the export of goods - eventually including food and medicines - by US companies or their subsidiaries, to Cuba (Schwab, 1998). Key foodstuff imports by Cuba prior to the collapse of the Soviet Union included 100 percent of its wheat, 50 percent of its rice, 38 percent of its milk and dairy, 99 percent of its beans, 44 percent of its fish, 22 percent of its poultry, 21 percent of its meat, 94 percent of its oil and lard and 64 percent of its butter. Of the populations total calories in diet 57 percent came from imported food items. (Schwab, 1998:73) Cubas ability to produce on its own was also severely impacted by a reduction of its petroleum supplies by 98% (Schwab, 1998:73). The lack of fuel, machinery and spare parts hindered any kind of large-scale agricultural endeavor and the subsequent transport of any gains from rural areas. This also contributed to a much-reduced ability to generate energy and as a result the capacity of food that could be stored dropped (Viljoen, ed. 2005:137). As these factors took hold Castro declared The Special Period in the Time of Peace, representative of the decline of the economy and the breakdown of the agricultural, industrial and transportation infrastructure. During this period organic agriculture began to take hold throughout the country, and with around 70% of the population living in an urban environment much of this development took place in the city (Rosset and Benjamin, 1994:10). As the average intake of calories dropped and rationing was increased the Cuban people took the situation into their own hands and started producing food everywhere they could, and as a result Cubas urban landscape began to change (Rosset and Benjamin, 1994:10; Schwab, 1998:84).

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Food + The City

chapter 3

urban agriculture in havana

When the socialist camp and the USSR disappeared, our people, in spite of abruptly losing 70 percent of their imported goods and all military cooperation, didnt hesitate for a second, but went ahead to defend, at all cost, their independence. Fidel Castro (Castro, 1995) The Cuban government had realised before the collapse of trading relations with the Soviet Union, that their heavy reliance on outside sources put them in a precarious position. Their first effort at tackling this was the National Food Program, described by Castro as attempting the rectification of errors and negative tendencies, which had its beginnings in 1986 (Deere, 1993:35). The central aim of this was to improve food security by increasing domestic production, with one of the approaches adopted being to try and move production towards urban areas. Havana was seen as the primary concern as over 30% of the population lived there and the city relied heavily on imports and other areas within Cuba (Rosset and Benjamin, 1994:26). Analysis of the Cuban agricultural landscape indicated that in early 1993 state farms held around 80% of the arable land whilst cooperatives and individual farmers cultivated the remaining 20%, with this 20% being responsible for over 35% of Cubas agricultural output (Levins, 1993:55; Martn, 2001:58). The government reacted quickly to these results by instituting a widespread shift towards this highly productive non-state agriculture. As Cuba was parceling off land to private owners in the countryside the popularity of urban agriculture was also growing. The government eventually recognised how much it could contribute to the goals set out by the National Food Program and began to support its growth through a variety of methods including providing vacant urban spaces to anyone wiling to cultivate them, allowing people to sell their produce at markets and by setting up the Department for Urban Agriculture. By 1995 Havana was home to over 25000 allotments belonging to families and small cooperatives as well as a number of larger market gardens and in 2002 any settlement of more than 15 houses had its own food production facility (Ewing, 2008; Kisner, 2008). The availability of organic produce was growing exponentially due to the rising number 17.

Food + The City

Fig 15. Urban farms in Havana of gardens, refined techniques and the increasing level of experience among the farmers, resulting in around 8% of the land in Havana being utilised for urban farming by 2008. Havanas Urban Agriculture developed into many different typologies, but these can be reduced to four main categories: 1. Huertos Privados take into account people using their own property for farming, for example those growing on their rooftops or in their gardens. It was estimated in 2003 that over 300,000 back gardens had been turned into productive spaces, although due to their nature there is no indication of much they produce (Kisner, 2008). These gardens, through their locations and innovative use of space embody the grassroots of the urban agriculture movement in Cuba and as well as being used to grow diet staples they are also utilised by many to raise rabbits or poultry. 2. Huertos Populares are community gardens located within an urban or peri-urban environment. These community gardens can be dissected into two subheadings: plots and intensive cultivation gardens, with plots typically occupying an area of less than 1000m, whilst intensive gardens are usually between 1000m and 3000m. They can be farmed by anyone from individuals through to a cooperatives and in 2000 they produced an average of around 8-12kg per m for the year (Viljoen, ed. 2005:148-149). 18.

Food + The City

Fig 16. A Cuban community garden

Fig 17. Organopnico Alamar, Havana 19.

Food + The City 3. Organopnicos are the most publicised component of Cubas urban agriculture, most likely due to their highly impressive rates of production. They can be distinguished from Huertos Populares by the method of farming that is used. Organopnicos traditionally consist of containers - typically low concrete walls - that contain a mixture of organic materials like manure, soil and compost. Raising the bed in this manner provides the ability to grow on sites that would otherwise have been unsuitable. They can also be separated into two typologies: community gardens and high yield gardens. The community gardens are usually between 2000m and 5000m in size with the high yield gardens typically being hectare or more. In 2000 they produced 20kg/m.yr and 25kg/m.yr respectively, around double the production rates of the Huertos Populares (Viljoen, ed. 2005:148-149). 4. Autoconsumos Estatales are generally located in peri-urban sites and are usually around a hectare in size. These are for state production and are farmed by volunteers, but despite their more favorable position on the outskirts of the city they produce considerably less than the Huertos and Organopnicos averaging only 0.6kg/m.yr (Viljoen, ed. 2005:148-149). These innovative solutions saw Cuba through one of the most difficult periods in its history and many thought that as the economy recovered there would be a transition to a more

Fig 18. A state farm on the outskirts of Havana 20.

Food + The City industrialised form of agriculture. However, while some reports suggest that their has been a reduction in the number of farms and farmers - with money now being available for building projects and with people being able to return to their primary profession - it appears the efficiency of the remaining urban farms continues to improve.

Fig 19. Graph indicating the growth in yields for the various forms of production

Fig 20. Graph charting vegetable production in Havana 21.

Food + The City

Fig 21. Oxen help to fight against soil erosion by compacting the soil much less than a tractor would What makes these achievements so important is that the production methods are as organic as possible; tractors are replaced with oxen, highly nutritious compost created through vermiculture takes the place of fertiliser and instead of constantly spraying pesticides, marigolds are planted to attract insects that will protect the crops. What started out as a desperate response to dire circumstances has now developed into the most revered organic agricultural experiment in the world. It is now less expensive for the residents of Havana to buy produce from the Urban Farms within the city than to buy food that has been brought in from the countryside, making organic produce the cheapest option (Viljoen, ed. 2005:143). The average calorie consumption in Cuba is now just slightly less than that of a typical person in the UK, but the Cuban diet is much healthier due to the typical western diet containing three times as much meat and dairy produce. But the benefits extend beyond the availability of food, the creation of the larger farms has provided thousands of jobs within Havana and throughout Cuba. In 2003 22% of new jobs created were in the Urban Agriculture sector (Kisner, 2008). The Cuban economy still relies heavily on the export of agricultural produce like sugar, tobacco and citrus, but the creation of this productive agricultural land within the city means that much of the countryside can remain dedicated to cash crops. The urban landscape of Havana has been beautified by the conversion of rubbish tips and collapsed buildings into gardens, creating a variety of green 22.

Food + The City spaces spread throughout the city that can also absorb CO2, improving air quality. Their positioning throughout the city and stalls at the farm gates dramatically reduces much of the fuel use that can be associated with transporting food, whilst waste is diminished as food can be picked as people request it (Jason, 2007). There are also 200 or so research centres spread throughout Havana where researchers have pioneered a variety of techniques that allow Cuba to export organic methods to other countries. Not to mention the immeasurable benefits, namely the community spirit that has been generated by an entire country having to pull together to provide for itself. Clearly the Urban Farms have been an exceptional addition to the urban landscape and their role in Cuban society has been compounded by their inclusion, for the first time, in the masterplan for Havana and the insertion of an Urban Agriculture class within the curriculum intended to train a new generation of Urban Farmers. Cuba looks set to be at the forefront of large-scale organic Urban Agriculture for the foreseeable future, but with the unpredictable future of the planets climate and the end of the age of oil approaching is it possible to have farming in the heart of a city like Glasgow.

Fig 22. Scottish World War II recruitment poster 23.

Food + The City

chapter 4

the case for urban agriculture in glasgow

Urban Agriculture has been overlooked, underestimated and underreported. (UNDP, 1996) Although this dissertation has focused on Havana, Urban Agriculture is a key part of urban life for a huge amount of people and has been throughout history. In 1999 the FAO reported that findings of national censuses, household surveys and research projects suggest that up to two-thirds of urban and peri-urban households are involved in agriculture. (FAO,1999) Yet in the U.K. only 1.5% of the population is employed in agriculture with the figure dropping even further in Scotland to 1.2% (Girardet, 2008:256; SG, 2009a; General Register Office for Scotland, 2009). Urban agriculture is often regarded as something that is turned to in times of desperation, both through the fact that most substantial current examples are within developing nations throughout Asia, Africa and Latin America and in Britains most notable experiment with Urban Agriculture, the victory gardens of World War II. These urban farms that sprung up throughout Britain, America and the rest of Europe offer proof that urban agriculture can be as successful here as it is in other climates.

Fig 23. A vegetable garden is created in a bomb crater within a school playground near Westminster Catherdral (October 1940) 24.

Food + The City

Fig 24. The land in front of the Reichstag is used for potato farming in 1946

Fig 25. The land outside the Reichstag now 25.

Food + The City Disappointingly there seems to be a tendency for Urban Agriculture to be scaled down or stopped completely once a crisis is over or after a nations economy strengthens. There seems to be a complacency throughout the developed world in relation to food security and this could leave nations exposed to a crisis comparable with what Cuba has already experienced. For example, Scotlands current agricultural model is not entirely dissimilar to Cubas prior to the reforms of the 90s. In 2003, it was estimated that around 50% of the arable land in Scotland was owned by just 350 people (Flower, 2006). The Scottish economy relies heavily on its food and drink industry with exports being worth around 5 billion per year; leading to Scotland being ranked as the worlds 5th largest producer of premium food and drink (SG, 2009d; SG, 2009e). Yet the recently published, Recipe for Success: Scotlands National Food and Drink Policy stated: Scotland has long been dependent on imports to complement domestic production in meeting our food needs. The supply of food and drink is highly reliant on highly complex domestic and global food chains. These may be vulnerable to both short and longer term emergency situations which could disrupt this supply. (SG, 2009e) But despite this realisation exports continue to grow, with exports outside the UK being 16% higher in the first quarter of 2009 than they were in 2007 (SG, 2009e).

Fig 26. Poster for Dewars whisky 26.

Food + The City Comparable to Cuba is the significance oil has in feeding the Scottish people. A government report providing Mapping and Analysis of the Resilience of the Food Supply Chain in Scotland emphasises the reliance on road transport for food as being a vulnerable link in the food supply chain: Recent nationwide fuel protests, industrial action at Grangemouth and conflict in oil producing regions has demonstrated that there is a significant likelihood and severe consequence to interruption of the petroleum supply network. As all logistic links in the food supply chain are almost exclusively dependent on road haulage, the diesel supply infrastructure is critical to its continued operation. (SG, 2009d)

Fig 27. Tescos new 1million square foot distribution centre in Livingston Scotland could also benefit from a transition to healthier consumption patterns, particularly in Glasgow where the instances of severe illnesses are almost the highest in Europe, many of which can be attributed to a poor diet (Fotheringham, 2010). Currently around 61.8% of women and 68.5% of men are overweight or obese; children are affected too with 34.9% of Primary 1 students being overweight or worse, rising to 64.7% at 11-12 years old, 11.2% of whom were considered severely obese (SG, 2009e; SG, 2006). The typical Scots person consumes more meat, more alcohol and less fruit and vegetables than the average English person, resulting in a diet that is now so bad the only country in the developed world with worse levels of obesity in adults is America (SG, 2009c; Devlin, 2007).

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Food + The City These levels have to be addressed if we are to combat Scotlands worsening health record as a bad diet can be the root of a variety of deadly conditions such as coronary heart disease, cancer, strokes and diabetes, for example 500000 of Scotlands recorded cases of cardiovascular hypertension can be attributed to obesity (SG, 2006; SG, 2009b; SG, 2008). Glasgows health problems are further compounded by the fact that a third of its population are smokers and 48% of men and 29% of women drink more than the recommended weekly amount (Fotheringham, 2010). There are also problems in levels of employment with over 200,000 people in Scotland unemployed, a perceived lack of community spirit throughout the UK and the stress that has long been associated with living in a modern city (Gunn, 2010). To suggest that Urban Agriculture could resolve all these problems would be inaccurate, but it could contribute substantially across all of these factors as we have already seen in Cuba. This is slowly being recognised and cities in developed nations are once again turning to Urban Agriculture in a time of crisis, although this time war has been replaced with an economic crash.

Fig 28. Work Architects Public Farm One installation in New York 28.

Food + The City There has been a surge in the popularity of Urban Agriculture in North America, particularly in post-industrial cities such as Detroit where there is a variety of abandoned urban spaces, but also in cosmopolitan cities like San Francisco and New York, where there has always been a fondness for Urban Gardens. Across the world there is a growing understanding that we can no longer continue down the paths of mass consumption that we are currently on, but the steps that are being taken are too small. There is an opportunity now to make a transition to sustainable agriculture whilst the existing infrastructure still exists instead of being forced into it when the food supply chain has collapsed. Dr Gerry McCartney and Professor Phil Hanlon acknowledged this in their commentary for the Scottish Public Health Organisations Obesity in Scotland report Unfortunately nations that make a change to sustainability only when forced, when unsustainable practices and consumption patterns collapse, will be in a far more difficult position where there are no resources to invest in radical change. [] The public health community should therefore see the sustainability agenda as a potential lever for health improvement in addition to the need for sustainability for its own sake. (McCartney and Hanlon, 2007:3) It is clear that industrial agriculture in its current form is inefficient and unsuccessful, in learning from Cubas example Glasgow should implement an organic and re-localised food production system that reduces the use of fertilisers, the distance food has to travel, as well as diminishing the need for other oil intensive processes such as packaging and refrigeration; but how might something like this manifest itself within Glasgow?

Fig 29. View looking north towards Glasgows City Centre 29.

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Food + The City

chapter 5
1. 2. 3. 4.

towards a greener glasgow

There are four major questions that have to be asked when adopting a large-scale urban farming production system: Is land available and what methods of farming will be used? Who will produce it? How will the produce be distributed? How much will it produce?

The answers to these questions will determine the success of any venture so it is vital to consider them before embarking on a program of change. 1. Is Land Available and What Methods of Farming Will Be Used? The short answer to the first part of the question is, yes. Throughout Glasgow there is a huge array of urban spaces that could be given over to Urban Agriculture, but much like solving the global food supply problem, there are a wide variety of solutions applicable to the varying built environments within Glasgows urban and peri-urban landscape.

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Fig 30. Diagram illustrating methods of production and their escalating costs / rates of production

Food + The City

Fig 31. Aerial view of Glasgows City Centre

Fig 32. The roof of Chicagos City Hall 32.

Food + The City The City Centre Unlike the city centre of Havana there are very few gap sites within the heart of Glasgow, this is due to fact that many of the vacant lots in Havana were created as the city decayed in its post-oil period. Assuming that Glasgow makes the decision to farm within the city before the impact of an oil crisis then the urban fabric would remain as it is, but this does not mean there arent opportunities for Urban Farming. As can be seen by looking at Figure 31 many of the rooftops within Glasgows city centre are flat and could potentially be turned into farms, supplying restaurants or shops below. Roof gardens are a popular solution in cities where space is at a premium. In Chicago there were more than 200 roof gardens that covered 2.5million square feet in place in 2006. The original imperative was to reduce the impact of the urban heat island effect but True Nature Foods, a recipient of a grant from the City of Chicago, took the opportunity to supplement their stock by growing vegetables and herbs on their roof (Pilloton, 2006). This idea of taking the landscape and lifting it on top of the buildings is becoming more and more common both in new buildings and in existing cities. The Chinese government has

Fig 33. The roof of True Nature Foods in Chicago 33.

Food + The City been working towards greening rooftops in Beijing, with the United Nations Environment Program estimating that were 70% of the roofs to be covered that there would be around an 80% reduction in carbon dioxide levels (McIntire-Strasburg, 2006). Much like the Hotel Nacional in Havana grows the mint for its world famous Mojitos on its roof, the restaurants and bars of Glasgow could nurture a variety of herbs and hard wearing vegetables several storys above where they are being served.

Fig 34. A sign inside True Nature Foods

Fig 35. What Glasgows rooftops could look like 34.

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Fig 36. Glasgows West End

Fig 37. An aerial photograph illustrating the layout of tenements 35.

Food + The City The West End Tenements can be found throughout almost all of Glasgow, but are most prominent in the citys West End. With regards to urban food production they are suited to a much more traditional method of farming. Each tenement block usually has a small front garden that belongs to the ground floor flat and a much larger shared backcourt. The backcourts that were once used for drying clothes are now no longer the social spaces they once were and would serve as an ideal space for communal Urban Agriculture. By farming in these spaces they could once again become hubs of social activity as residents come together to grow a variety of produce whilst at the same time beautifying their backcourts. Or in another situation, the residents of the many tenement blocks that have retail units within the ground floor could rent the garden to a shop or restaurant within the building.

Fig 38. One of the many ways a tenement backcourt could be used for Urban Agriculture 36.

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Fig 39. The South Side of Glasgow

Fig 40. A group of four tower blocks 37.

Food + The City The South Side Between the 1950s and 1970s a trend emerged for demolishing tenements to make way for tower blocks, which appear sporadically throughout the city, nowhere was this more prevalent than in the South Side of Glasgow. When replacing the tenements most tower blocks tried to provide the same facilities the residents had been used to, including somewhere you could hang out your clothes to dry. In the case of the tower blocks this generally took to form of an accessible roof. Similar to the flat roofed buildings of the city centre these would also be suitable for a raised bed form of agriculture. Growing on the roofs of high rise buildings is not a new idea, in Fustat, the capital of Egypt prior to Cairo, there were buildings rising up to 14 stories in height as early as the 10th century that accommodated roof gardens that were irrigated by oxen drawn water wheels (Behrens-Abouseif, 1992:6). Inexplicably, several of the tower blocks in Glasgow have open balconies or exposed circulation areas that could be used for small scale planting as is seen in the balconies of Havana. Also due to the overshadowing caused by these towers many are surrounded by green space, as can be seen in Figure 40. This could be adopted as arable land for direct cultivation in the style of the Huertos Populares or could even be used for pasturing livestock.

Fig 41. The potential for productive land to surround tower blocks 38.

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Fig 42. Urban sprawl in the East End of Glasgow The Urban Sprawl As you travel further out from the city centre, particularly towards the North and the East End, the block form of the city is broken down and as the density decreases the urban fabric is replaced by a more suburban layout. This diagram of houses with substantial front and back gardens are again suited to traditional planting and are also large enough to also keep poultry or bees in a similar fashion to the recommended design for war gardens. With the average garden size in Britain estimated to be 190m and 87% of households considered to have access to a garden these spaces potentially have a lot to offer (Davies et al., 2009).

Fig 43. A woman tends a vegtable patch in her back garden. (1950) 39.

Food + The City Other Spaces Within The City The previous solutions described potential for an Urban Agriculture suited to supplying individual homes, as well as small co-operatives and businesses. Within the city there are a variety of institutions like schools and hospitals as well as commercial or government funded UA that would require a larger, more easily accessible space. Glasgow is home to over 90 parks of varying sizes throughout the city that could prove incredibly productive spaces. The most significant green space in the city centre is Glasgow Green, which has a history of being used for agriculture. Throughout the 18th and 19th centuries the Green was used to graze cattle and sheep, the southern most edge was given over to allotments for people from the Gorbals and Calton area and an area was provided for dry fishing nets (GCC, 2007; GCC, 2010). Parks are valuable public places within a city and it wouldnt be advisable to completely eradicate all usable public green space in favour of arable land, but when you consider that Glasgow has an estimated 5,000 hectares of green space, 3,975 of which is managed by Glasgow City Council, then setting aside a portion of this for production is justifiable (McCue, 2010).

Fig 44. An engraving of Glasgow Green in 1850 complete with cows 40.

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Fig 45. Queens Park Allotments, Glasgow Several parks already devote area to allotments with 99% of allotments in Scotland being part of a larger green space (SAGS, 2007). Glasgow currently has 25 different allotment sites, containing a total of 1,320 plots, this amounts to an area of 22 hectares or 0.04% of the current available green space (SAGS, 2007; CEiS, 2009). There is consistent demand for more allotments with over 650 people on a waiting list in 2007 to pay to grow on them, surely with such a huge amount of space available we should be integrating these into the cities parks to not only satisfy the people who want to cultivate them but for them to contribute towards food security as they did during World War II, when there were over 70,000 in Scotland (SAGS, 2007). There is also a law in place at the moment that prevents produce grown on city council allotments from being sold Were this law to be removed then demand would potentially increase further as they could be used for commercial gain. But the greatest potential lies in the available open space that is either derelict or vacant within the city; after all it was this type of plot that proved to be most productive in Cuba. The Scottish Derelict and Vacant Land Survey 2009 has indicated that within Glasgow City Council there is 712ha of derelict land and 633ha of vacant urban land giving a total of 41.

Food + The City 1,344ha of available land over 922 sites. 66% of the total is located in land that is regarded as being within the 15% most deprived zones, traditionally the area where urban agriculture contributes the most to the community (SG, 2010). If we crudely calculate the average size of each plot we get an average area of just over 14,500m per site. This would make them comparable both in size and nature with Havanas Organopnicos that took vacant urban sites that were considered unsuitable for direct agriculture and used a raised bed form of growing.

Fig 46. The potential of derelict land between the Gorbals and Govanhill As we have seen, there are already many avenues that could be explored for Urban Agriculture in Glasgow, although should we choose to act before the impact of peak oil we would have the opportunity to adopt systems that are far more technologically advanced than the methods we have seen so far.

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Food + The City Futuristic Farming There is a substantial amount of research into innovative ways of farming in the city, the most highly publicised of which is the Vertical Farm, the basic concept of which is stacking food production inside high-rise buildings. This idea is now being experimented with in the UK at Paignton Zoo, where a small scale vertical farm has been built to provide food for the animals. Valcent, the company that has produced the system claims it will be at least twenty times more efficient than traditional field growing (Valcent, 2010). MVRDV looked at solving the Netherlands problem with pig population, where in 1999 there were 5.5 million humans and 5.2 million pigs. Their solution was Pig City, a collection of high-rise pig farms intended to take the pressure off of the land whilst allowing a transition to organic pig farming, a process that would otherwise have required 75% of the Netherlands (MVRDV, 2000).

Fig 47. Atelier SOAs Vertical Farm Proposal 43.

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Fig 48. Computer controlled farming at Paignton Zoo Other ideas include, living walls that involve panels being attached to the side of a building allowing for plants to be grown vertically. With the largest area of most buildings being the wall these provide an interesting way to make them productive, although I remain skeptical about how easily these could be harvested. It is these projects that are attracting the interest of large corporations and as a result it may not be long till we see a 20-story vertical farm supplying a Tesco Metro in its ground floor.

Fig 49. MVRDVs Pig City

Fig 50. Patrick Blancs Green Wall at The Caixa Forum Museum, Madrid

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Food + The City Who will grow it? Many are the difficulties that beset the person equipped for the first time with a spade, a packet of seeds, and a plot of soil (Brown, 1940:III) The largest issue when it comes to bringing huge swathes of new land into production is who will farm it. This can be seen with the rates of production in Cuba where the production rates at the average Huerto Populares in 1996, six years into the Special Period were only 1-2kg/m.yr. This eventually rose to 8-12kg/m.yr in 2000 as the methods of sustainable urban agriculture were developed and perfected and the knowledge was subsequently disseminated, but there is still clearly a steep learning curve (Viljoen, ed. 2005:148-149). With regards to individual production I believe that the most significant, wide-reaching and cost effective way to spread knowledge and methods is through the Internet. An online community should be established containing basic instructions for making your garden productive, along with this there should be advanced advice and a forum for people to discuss their various methods; this could also be supplemented by outreach events or a dedicated advice team who can visit gardens and offer guidance. For the more commercial forms of production we have to look towards the thousands of unemployed people in and around the city. In association with the Council and involved social enterprises apprenticeships in Urban Farming should be established to offer training and provide a qualification. By creating a formal qualification that is required to participate in commercial production it makes it easier to answer the next question. How do you distribute the produce? There are a number of routes to market for produce grown in the city, from selling at the farm gate through to distributing to supermarkets. By having a training process it would not only rapidly increase the growth in efficiency and therefore commercial viability but it would also make it possible to that the growers operate within food safety standards, this of course would have to be checked by a regulatory body. Although selling at the farm gate offers the most environmentally friendly way of distributing produce - as the food doesnt have to travel before it is sold - it may not necessarily be the desired option for many farms due to money having to be kept at the site and staff having to be made available for retail. Therefore potentially the best method in most cases is distributing to already established retailers through the citys existing food markets (CEiS, 2009).

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Food + The City How Much Will You Produce? The final and probably most significant question is How Much Will You Produce? Given the variety of forms of production that are available across a number of different urban landscapes as well as a number of other variables, any estimate is bound to be inaccurate. The WHO recommends a minimum daily consumption of 400g of fruit and vegetables, which based on Glasgows population of 1.2million means that were everyone to eat the advised amount Glasgow would consume 175,200 Tonnes per year (WHO, 2005). Despite Scottish people currently only consuming around 65% of this amount we should adopt this as a total in the hope that consumption increases. We will compare how much could be produced if we matched Cuban production levels in comparison to the Peters Produce study carried out by the Scottish Allotments and Gardens Society (a study into how much one person could produce on a typical allotment) and Brighton based architects Bohn&Viljoens research into how much space is required to sustain someone.

Fig 51. Table indicating potential yields

Fig 52. Graph comparing the three estimates 46.

Food + The City Bearing in mind that these estimates dont include the potential yield of the gardens of flats or tenement properties that make up over 65% of Glasgows housing stock as well as the possibility of adopting roof gardens and advanced technology it is clear that Glasgow has huge potential to produce the majority of its fruit and vegetables within the confines of the city. So how should Glasgow move forward?

Fig 53. A vision of a greener Glasgow 47.

Food + The City

conclusion
Were Glasgow to be the first city in the developed world to try and establish a successful network of Urban Farms there would be a number of issues to overcome. Therefore the best approach would be to put in place a timetable for change that will play out over a number of years, allowing for a smooth transition to localized production. The process could be visualised as taking place over 5 stages: Stage 1: The creation of a number of trial projects to establish viability and yields as well as giving an indication of the set-up costs. These pilots should be at least part funded by Glasgow City Council or the Scottish Government and conducted in partnership with universities to provide biotechnical assistance. Funding should also be directed towards community groups who are already actively involved in Urban Agriculture as well as steps being taken to provide allotments for everyone who wants one (CEiS, 2009). Stage 2: Once the original research phase is completed the results should be published to raise public awareness and legislation should be sought to provide a grant system for individuals and groups wishing to become involved in Urban Food Production. This should be accompanied by legislation allowing the temporary occupation of vacant urban land and a change in allotment laws that currently prevent people from selling the produce grown on council allotments. An online community should be established that allows the dissemination of knowledge amongst those involved resulting in efficiencies improving as quickly as possible. Stage 3: What will have essentially been a community based movement should shift towards the commercial with the creation of social enterprises that provide apprenticeships in Urban Agriculture and create jobs within the city. Routes to market should be provided for these new intensive farms and incentives should be offered to organisations who purchase local organic food over industrially produced, imported food. Partnerships should now be being formed between Glasgow and other cities in the UK that are now following Glasgows lead and becoming heavily involved in Urban Agriculture, this allows for discussions to begin about the creation of a sustainable food distribution network.

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Food + The City Stage 4: As corporations see the potential for food production in the city that reduces food transport costs and improves their Green image, investment will dramatically increase both in the research and realisation of advanced techonological solutions. As vertical farms begin to compete with offices as viable developments and as the price of their construction decreases Glasgows economy will soar due to the growing levels of investment and the rise in Green Tourism. Stage 5: As Glasgow heads towards becoming a self-sustaining city unemployment levels will drop as new jobs are created throughout the city, health will improve as people begin eating more healthy seasonal food, whilst localised food production will greatly reduce food miles and our reliance on oil. Happiness in the city will rise as drab vacant spaces become vibrant productive spaces and communities producing food for one another will be drawn together. Meanwhile, across the globe cities will be looking at Glasgow as an exemplar city and trying to replicate the Glasgow Effect.

Fig 54. Potentially the three production estimates suggested in Fig 51 would relate to stages two, three and four, indicating a steady rise in production and the possibility of Glasgow setting a new precedent by stage five for what can be achieved within a city.

The benefits that the inclusion of Urban Agriculture could make are undeniable but it would require commitment on the part of the Government, the City Council and most importantly, the people to make it succesful. What the Cuban government achieved in Havana is remarkable, most notably for the fact it was done in a country the had been ostracised by the 49.

Food + The City majority of the world and also that it was achieved in a climate of economic collapse with very few resources. The key to the success of Urban Agriculture in Glasgow will be how early it is adopted; as the price of oil rises the price of implementing UA will also rise. A window exists at the moment to shift from our oil dependant food chain to organic, local production without any disruption to the food supply and we have a responsibility to take this opportunity, both to the people of Glasgow and to the rest of the world. Throughout the planet people are being affected by the way we consume, from the people who suffer from chronic hunger in Africa who see the food they grown being packed into planes and flown away, to the people of India where commercial farming is causing the water table to drop by over a metre a year. If we wait for a crisis before we act Scotland may be able to recover over a period of years, but there are many people on this planet who are in a much more fragile position than those in the developed world. In 2008 the World Food Program provided food for over 100million people, but it relies on the UN for its funding and of the $6.7 billion it required in 2009 to feed 108million, by September it had only received $2.7 billion, this was blamed on the current economic climate (CNN, 2009). It would have taken less than 0.01% of the money plowed into attempting to stabilise the financial markets to bridge the gap in funding (CNN, 2009). With Peak Oil expected to cause worldwide economic collapse as well as a huge rise in the price of food it is unimaginable the effect this could have on levels of famine and global population. As a report commissioned by the US Department of Energy shows, an emergency programme to replace current energy supplies or equipment to anticipate peak oil would need about 20 years to take effect. It seems unlikely that we have it. The world economy is probably knackered, whatever we might do now. But at least we could save farming. George Monbiot (Monbiot, 2009) Action has to be taken now and it has to be taken quickly.

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Food + The City

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Food + The City Enterprise. Glasgow City Council: Unpublished CNN. (2009). UN World Food Program Issues Urgent Appeal for Aid. CNN [Online] Available: http://www.cnn.com/2009/US/09/16/un.food.aid/index.html. [8 March 2010]. Davies, Z., Fuller, R., Loram, A., Irvine, K., Sims, V. and Gaston, K. (2009). A national scale inventory of resource provision for biodiversity within domestic gardens. Biological Conservation [Online] 142(4), April:761-771. Available: http://www. sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6V5X-4VGDNT5-1&_user=10&_ coverDate=04%2F30%2F2009&_rdoc=1&_fmt=full&_orig=search&_cdi=5798&_ sort=d&_docanchor=&view=c&_searchStrId=1249475478&_rerunOrigin=google&_ acct=C000050221&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=10&md5=4d38e256733261ead9a6 8e72306c2e46. [8 March 2010] Deere, Carmen Diana. (1993). Cubas National Food Program And Its Prospects For Food Security. Agriculture and Human Values. [Online] 10 (3) June:35. Available: http://www. springerlink.com/content/f271qh06334t6236/ [15 March 2010] DEFRA. (2007). Overview of the Benefits and Carbon Costs of the African Horticultural Trade with the UK. [Online] Available: https://statistics.defra.gov.uk/esg/reports/Final%20Africa%20 trade.pdf. [8th March 2010]. Devlin, Kate. (2007). Scotland is second in the world for obesity. The Telegraph [Online] Available: http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/uknews/1564208/Scotland-is-second-in-theworld-for-obesity.html. [16 Feb 2010]. EIA. (2009). Crude Oil Production. Available: http://www.eia.doe.gov/neic/infosheets/ crudeproduction.html. [9th March 2010]. Elder, Gerri L. (2009). Green in the City: Rooftop Gardens. Available: http://webecoist. com/2009/07/18/green-in-the-city-rooftop-gardens/. Last accessed 8th March 2010. Ewing, Ed. (2008). Cubas organic revolution. The Guardian [Online] Available: http://www. guardian.co.uk/environment/2008/apr/04/organics.food. [15 Feb 2010]. FAO. (1999). Issues in Urban Agriculture. [Online] Available: http://www.fao.org/ag/ magazine/9901sp2.htm. [8th March 2010]. FAO. (2006). Livestocks Long Shadow. [Online] Available: http://www.fao.org/docrep/010/ a0701e/a0701e00.HTM. [9th March 2010]. FAO. (2009). Food Balance Sheets. Available: http://faostat.fao.org/site/368/default. 53.

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Food + The City Melchett, Peter. (2007). Organic Farming and Food Distribution. Available: http:// organicsouthwest.org/web/sa/saweb.nsf/(UNID)/30D0ABA2D2D354548025726F0071190F? OpenDocument. [10th March 2010]. Monbiot, George. (2009). The One Thing Depleting Faster Than Oil is the Credibility of those Measuring It. The Guardian [Online] Available: http://www.guardian.co.uk/ commentisfree/2009/nov/16/oil-running-out-madman-sandwich-board. [8th March 2010]. Montes de Oca, Nivian. (2005). Outlook for the manufacture of a fungus Bionematicida from Pochonia chalmydosporia. Available: http://www.monografias.com/trabajos26/bionematicida/ bionematicida.shtml. [8th March 2010]. MVRDV. (2000). Pig City. Available: http://www.mvrdv.nl/#/news/181pigcity. [9th March 2010]. Pilloton, Emily. (2006). Chicago Green Roof Program. Available: http://www.inhabitat. com/2006/08/01/chicago-green-roof-program/. [8th March 2010]. Radford, Tim. (2004). Soil Erosion as Big a Problem as Global Warming, Say Scientists. The Guardian [Online] Available: http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2004/feb/14/science. environment. [15 Feb 2010]. SAGS. (2007). Finding Scotlands Allotments 2007. [Online] Available: http://www.sags.org. uk/docs/ReportsPresentations/AuditReport07.pdf. [8th March 2010]. SAGS. (2008). Peters Produce. [Online] Available: http://www.sags.org.uk/docs/ AllotGrowingStatistics/PeterProduce.pdf . [12th March 2010]. Sample, Ian. (2007). Global Food Crisis Looms as Climate Change and Population Growth Strip Fertile Land. The Guardian [Online] Available: http://www.guardian.co.uk/ environment/2007/aug/31/climatechange.food. [15 Feb 2010]. Scottish Government. (2006). Improving the Health and Nutrition of Scotlands Children: Consultation on the Schools (Nutrition and Health Promotion) (Scotland) Bill. [Online] Available: http://www.scotland.gov.uk/Resource/Doc/113711/0027629.pdf. [8th March 2010]. Scottish Government. (2008). Healthy Eating, Active Living: An action plan to improve diet, increase physical activity and tackle obesity. [Online] Available: http://www.scotland.gov.uk/ Resource/Doc/228860/0061963.pdf. [8th March 2010]. Scottish Government. (2009). Agriculture Facts and Figures 2009. [Online] Available: http:// 56.

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US Census Bureau. (2009). International Data Base. Available: http://www.census.gov/ipc/ www/idb/worldpopgraph.php. [9th March 2009]. US Census Bureau. (2009). World POPclock Projection. Available: http://www.census.gov/ ipc/www/popclockworld.html. [9th March 2009]. US Department of Commerce. (1996). World Population at a Glance: 1996 and Beyond. [Online] Available: http://www.census.gov/ipc/prod/ib96_03.pdf. [8th March 2010]. US DoE. (2006). Fact Sheet: Energy Efficiency of Strategic Unconventional Resources. Available: http://fossil.energy.gov/programs/reserves/npr/Energy_Efficiency_Fact_Sheet.pdf. [9th March 2009]. Valcent. (2010). Growing Solutions. [Online] Available: http://www.valcent.eu/PDF/ Valcent%202010_p561_use_valcent.pdf. [8th March 2010]. Vidal, John. (2004). Meat-eaters soak up the worlds water. The Guardian [Online] Available: http://www.guardian.co.uk/environment/2004/aug/23/water.famine. [15 Feb 2010]. WHO. (2005). Promoting fruit and vegetable consumption around the world. [Online] Available: http://www.who.int/dietphysicalactivity/fruit/en/index.html. [8th March 2010]. Wiles, William. (2009). Urban Farming: Food and Famine Change the Face of the City. Icon. 72 (June), P. 70 78 WRAP. (2007). Understanding Food Waste. [Online] Available: http://www.wrap.org.uk/ downloads/FoodWasteResearchSummaryFINALADP29_3__07_25a4c08b.f6f7c37a.3819. pdf. [9th March 2010]. Other Resources: McCue, D. dennis.mccue@glasgow.gov.uk, (2010). Area of parks in Glasgow. [E-mail] Message to Abercrombie, S. (scott.abercrombie@strath.ac.uk). Sent 23rd February 2010, 11:30. The Future of Food, (2009). [TV programme] BBC, BBC2, 31 August 2009 21:00. Collapse, (2009). [Documentary] Directed by Chris Smith. USA: Bluemark Productions The Power of Community: How Cuba Survived Peak Oil, (2006). [Documentary] Directed by Faith Morgan. USA: AlchemyHouse Productions Inc

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image bibliography
Title Page. An Organopnico in Havana. Available: http://www.flickr.com/photos/ leilaarfa/3261638298/. [15.03.2010] Fig 1. An urban farm in Havana. Available: http://www.flickr.com/photos/ thesafaripress/4101346085/sizes/o/. [13.03.2010] P.2 Fig 2. Thousands of mothers with malnourished children gather outside a feeding centre in Niger. Available: http://images.lightstalkers.org/images/331949/001_large.jpg. [13.03.2010]. P.4 Fig 3. Cattle are reared at a factory farm in the United States. Available: http://www.flickr. com/photos/sraproject/3239977930. [13.03.2010]. P.4 Fig 4. Graph of world population. Available: http://chartsbin.com/view/g7e. [13.03.2010]. P.5 Fig 5. Markham suburbs, Ontario. Available: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Markhamsuburbs_aerial-edit2.jpg. [13.03.2010]. P.6 Fig 6. Safeway poster from the 1950s. Available: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ File:Safeway50s.jpg. [13.03.2010]. P.6 Fig 7. October 2006: Production Forecasts and EIA Oil Production Numbers (from Foucher, 2006). Available: http://www.theoildrum.com/story/2006/10/3/104458/751. [8th March 2010]. P.7 Fig 8. Cattle graze on recently cleared land in Brazil. Available: www.guardian.co.uk/.../24/1? picture=331046301. [13.03.2010]. P.9 Fig 9. Novo Progreso, Brazil: An aerial view of deforestation caused by soybean farmers. Available: www.guardian.co.uk/.../24/1?picture=331046301. [13.03.2010]. P.10 Fig 10. Dust plumes of Western Africa (NASA, 2009). Available: http://modis.gsfc.nasa.gov/ gallery/individual.php?db_date=2009-07-04. [13.03.2010]. P.11 Fig 11. A street in Havana in 1958 showing the presence of American corporations. Available: http://www.flickr.com/photos/dosepocas/397835771. [13.03.2010]. P.13 Fig 12. Guerrillero Heroico by Alberto Korda, 1960. Available: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ 59.

Food + The City File:Heroico1.jpg. [13.03.2010]. P.14 Fig 13. A 1963 Soviet Propaganda poster that reads: Long live everlasting, indestructible friendship and cooperation between Soviet and Cuban nations!. Available: http:// sovietposter.blogspot.com/2007/09/more-bombers-less-room-for-doves-of.html. [13.03.2010]. P.14 Fig 14. John F Kennedy signs an order in 1962 resulting in a naval blockade of Cuba. http:// www.flickr.com/photos/7860803@N06/463098690. [13.03.2010]. P.15 Fig 15. Urban farms in Havana. Available: http://www.democraticunderground.com/discuss/ duboard.php?az=view_all&address=103x375981. [13.03.2010]. P.18 Fig 16. A Cuban community garden. Available: http://www.flickr.com/photos/8403818@ N02/525145125/sizes/o/. [13.03.2010]. P.19 Fig 17. Organopnico Alamar, Havana (de Oca, 2005). Available: http://www.monografias. com/trabajos26/bionematicida/bionematicida.shtml. [8th March 2010]. P.19 Fig 18. A state farm on the outskirts of Havana (from BBC2, 2009). P.20 Fig 19. Graph indicating the growth in yields for the various forms of production (created by author, Source: Viljoen, ed. 2005) P.21 Fig 20. Graph charting vegetable production in Havana (created by author, Source: Koont, 2009) P.21 Fig 21. A Cuban tends to oxen in Havana. Available: http://cuba.foreignpolicyblogs. com/2009/08/16/caribbean-comparisons/. [13.03.2010] P.22 Fig 22. Help Scotlands Harvest: World War II recruitment poster (McKenna, circa 1940). Available: http://www.st-andrews.ac.uk/~pv/pv/courses/posters/images1/scotharvest.html. [13.03.2010] P.23 Fig 23. A vegetable garden is created in a bomb crater within a school playground near Westminster Catherdral, 1940. Available: www.westminstercathedral.blogspot.com. [13.03.2010] P.24 Fig 24. The land in front of the Reichstag is used for potato farming in 1946. Available: http:// www.downtheallotment.merseyblogs.co.uk/berlinersgrowveginshadowofruinedreichstag.jpg. [13.03.2010] P.25 Fig 25. The land in front of the Reichstag as it is now. Available: http://www. fosterandpartners.com/Projects/0686/Default.aspx. [13.03.2010] P.25 Fig 26. Old poster from the Dewars world of whisky centre at the Aberfeldy distillery in Perthshire. Available: http://www.topfoto.co.uk/aboutus/pdfguides/scotfoto.pdf. [13.03.2010] P.26

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Food + The City Fig 27. Tescos new 1million square foot distribution centre in Livingston. Available: http:// www.flickr.com/photos/50626930@N00/2423520908. [13.03.2010] P.27 Fig 28. Work Architects Public Farm One installation in New York. Available: http://ps1.org/ exhibitions/view/201. [13.03.2010] P.28 Fig 29. View north towards Glasgow city centre. Available: http://www.webbaviation.co.uk/ scotland/glasgow.jpg. [13.03.2010] P.29 Fig 30. Diagram illustrating methods of production and their escalating costs / rates of production (by Author). [13.03.2010] P.31 Fig 31. Aerial view of Glasgow city centre. Bing Maps Birdseye View, retrieved 21 February 2010. Available: www.bing.com/maps. P.32 Fig 32. The roof of Chicagos City Hall (Elder, 2009). Available: http://webecoist. com/2009/07/18/green-in-the-city-rooftop-gardens/. [8th March 2010]. P.32 Fig 33. The roof of True Nature Foods in Chicago (Urban Habitat Chicago, 2009). Available: http://www.urbanhabitatchicago.org/projects/true-nature-foods. [13.03.2010] P.33 Fig 34. A sign inside True Nature Foods (Urban Habitat Chicago, 2009). Available: http:// www.urbanhabitatchicago.org/projects/true-nature-foods. [13.03.2010] P.34 Fig 35. What Glasgows rooftops could look like (authors photograph digital compact, taken 8th March 2010, edited in Adobe Photoshop CS4). P.34 Fig 36. The West End (Original image: Webb, 2009; edited by author in Adobe Photoshop CS4). Original available: http://www.webbaviation.co.uk/scotland/glasgow.jpg. [13.03.2010] P.35 Fig 37. An aerial photograph illustrating the layout of tenements. Bing Maps Birdseye View, retrieved 21 February 2010. Available: www.bing.com/maps. P.35 Fig 38. One of the many ways a tenement backcourt could be used for Urban Agriculture (authors photograph digital compact, edited in Adobe Photoshop CS4). P.36 Fig 39. The South Side (Original image: Webb, 2009; edited by author in Adobe Photoshop CS4). Original available: http://www.webbaviation.co.uk/scotland/glasgow.jpg. [13.03.2010] P.37 Fig 40. A group of four tower blocks. Bing Maps Birdseye View, retrieved 21 February 2010. Available: www.bing.com/maps. P.37 Fig 41. The potential for productive land to surround tower blocks (authors photograph digital compact, taken 8th March 2010, edited in Adobe Photoshop CS4). P.38 Fig 42. Urban sprawl in the East End of Glasgow. Bing Maps Aerial View, retrieved 21 February 2010. Available: www.bing.com/maps. P.39 61.

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Fig 43. A woman tends a vegetable patch in her back garden. Edinburgh, circa 1950. Available: http://www.scran.ac.uk/database/image.php?usi=000-000-471-600-R&cusi=000000-471-600-C&searchdb=scran&. [15.03.2010] P.39 Fig 44. An engraving of Glasgow Green in 1850 complete with cows (Lizars and Stewart, 1850). Available: http://www.scran.ac.uk/database/record.php?usi=000-000-095-756-C&sca che=18w0t18va8&searchdb=scran. [13.03.2010] P.40 Fig 45. Queens Park Allotments in Glasgow (Muir, 2007). Available: http://www.flickr.com/ photos/krmuir/433816246. [13.03.2010] P.41 Fig 46. The potential of derelict land between the Gorbals and Govanhill (authors photograph digital compact, taken 8th March 2010, edited in Adobe Photoshop CS4). P.42 Fig 47. Atelier SOAs Vertical Farm Proposal (Atelier SOA, 2007) Available: http://www. ateliersoa.fr/verticalfarm_en/urban_farm.htm. [12.03.2010] P.43 Fig 48. Computer controlled farming at Paignton Zoo (Valcent, 2009) Available: http://blog. valcent.net/?tag=vertical-farming. [12.03.2010] P.44 Fig 49. Pig City (MVRDV, 2000) Available: http://www.mvrdv.nl/#/projects/181pigcity. [12.03.2010] P.44 Fig 50. Patrick Blancs Green Wall at The Caixa Forum Museum, Madrid. Available: http:// upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5d/Madrid136.jpg. [12.03.2010] P.44 Fig 51. Table indicating potential yields (created by Author, Sources: Davies et al., 2009; McCue, 2010; SAGS, 2007; SAGS, 2008; SG, 2010; Viljoen, ed. 2005; WHO, 2005). P.46 Fig 52. Graph comparing the three estimates (created by Author, Sources: Davies et al., 2009; McCue, 2010; SAGS, 2007; SAGS, 2008; SG, 2010; Viljoen, ed. 2005; WHO, 2005). P.46 Fig 54. A vision of a greener Glasgow (authors photograph digital compact, taken 8th March 2010, edited in Adobe Photoshop CS4). P.47 Fig 53. Graph suggesting that the three production estimates would relate to stages two, three and four (created by Author, Sources: Davies et al., 2009; McCue, 2010; SAGS, 2007; SAGS, 2008; SG, 2010; Viljoen, ed. 2005; WHO, 2005). P.49

62.