Sequences and Series

Introduction

16.1

In this block we develop the ground work for later blocks on innite series and on power series. We begin with simple sequences of numbers and with nite series of numbers. We introduce the summation notation for the description of series. Finally, we consider arithmetic and geometric series and obtain expressions for the sum of n terms of both types of series.

Prerequisites
Before starting this Block you should . . .

x understand and be able to use the basic rules of algebra y be able to nd limits of algebraic expressions

Learning Outcomes

Learning Style

After completing this Block you should be able To achieve what is expected of you . . . to . . .  check if a sequence of numbers is convergent  use the summation notation to specify series  recognise arithmetic and geometric series and nd their sums  allocate sucient study time

 briey revise the prerequisite material  attempt every guided exercise and most of the other exercises

1. Introduction
A sequence is any succession of numbers. For example the sequence 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, . . . which is known as the Fibonacci sequence, is formed by adding two consecutive terms together to obtain the next term. The numbers in this sequence continually increase without bound and we say this sequence diverges. An example of a convergent sequence is the harmonic sequence 1, 1 1 1 , , , ... 2 3 4

Here we see the magnitude of these numbers continually decrease and it is obvious that the sequence converges to the number zero. The related alternating harmonic sequence 1 1 1 1, , , , . . . 2 3 4 is also convergent to the number zero. Whether or not a sequence is convergent is often easy to deduce by graphing the individual terms. The following diagrams show how the individual terms of the harmonic and alternating harmonic series behave as the number of terms increase.
harmonic
1 1/2 1/3 1/4 1 2 3 4 5 term in sequence

alternating harmonic
1 1/3 1/4 1/2 1 2 3 4 5 term in sequence

Now do this exercise Graph the sequence: 1, 1, 1, 1, . . . Is this convergent? Answer A general sequence is denoted by a1 , a2 , . . . , an , . . . in which a1 is the rst term, a2 is the second term and an is the nth term is the sequence. For example, in the harmonic sequence 1 1 a1 = 1, a2 = , . . . , an = 2 n
Engineering Mathematics: Open Learning Unit Level 1 16.1: Power and Taylor Series

whilst for the alternating harmonic sequence the nth term is: an = (1)n+1 n

in which (1)n = +1 if n is an even number and (1)n = 1 if n is an odd number. Denition The sequence a1 , a2 , . . . , an , . . . is said to be convergent if the limit of an as n increases can be found. (Mathematically we say that lim an exists).
n

If the sequence is not convergent it is said to be divergent

Try each part of this exercise Verify that the sequence

3 4 5 , , , ... 12 23 34

is convergent. Part (a) First nd the expression for the nth term. Answer Part (b) Now nd the limit of an as n increases. Answer

2. Arithmetic and Geometric Progressions

Consider the sequences: 1, 4, 7, 10, . . . and 3, 1, 1, 3, . . .

In both, any particular term is obtained from the previous term by the addition of a constant value (3 and 2 respectively). Each of these sequences are said to be arithmetic sequences or arithmetic progressions and have general form: a, a + d, a + 2d, a + 3d, . . . , a + (n 1)d, . . . in which a, d are given numbers. In the rst example above a = 1, d = 3 whereas, in the second example, a = 3, d = 2. The dierence between any two terms of a given arithmetic sequence gives the value of d. Two sequences which are not arithmetic sequences are: 1, 2, 4, 8, . . . 3
Engineering Mathematics: Open Learning Unit Level 1 16.1: Power and Taylor Series

1 1 1 1, , , , . . . 3 9 27 In each case a particular term is obtained from the previous term by multiplying by a constant factor (2 and 1 respectively). Each are examples of geometric sequences or geometric 3 progressions with the general form: a, ar, ar2 , ar3 , . . . where a is the rst term and r is called the common ratio. In the two examples above a = 1, r = 2 in the rst sequence and a = 1, r = 1 in the second. 3 Try each part of this exercise Part (a) Find a, d for the arithmetic sequence 3, 9, 15, . . . Answer Part (b) Find a, r for the geometric sequence 8,
8 , 8, 7 49

... Answer

Part (c) Write out the rst four terms of the geometric series with a = 4, r = 2. . Answer The reader should note that many sequences (for example the harmonic sequences) are neither arithmetic or geometric.

3. Series
A series is the sum of the terms of a sequence. For example, the harmonic series is 1+ whilst the alternating harmonic series is 1 1 1 1 + + ... 2 3 4 1 1 1 + + + ... 2 3 4

The Summation Notation

If we consider a general sequence a1 , a2 , . . . , an , . . .
k

then the sum of the rst k terms a1 + a2 + a3 + . . . + ak That is,

k

is concisely denoted by
p=1

ap .

a1 + a 2 + a3 + . . . + a k =
p=1

ap 4

Engineering Mathematics: Open Learning Unit Level 1 16.1: Power and Taylor Series

When we encounter the expression

p=1

ap we let the index p in the term ap take, in turn, the

values 1, 2, . . . , k and then add all these terms together. So, for example
3 7

ap = a 1 + a 2 + a 3
p=1 p=2

ap = a 2 + a 3 + a 4 + a 5 + a 6 + a 7
6

Note that p is a dummy index; any letter could be used as the index. For example
i=1 6

ai , and

am each represent the same collection of terms, being a1 + a2 + a3 + a4 + a5 + a6 .

m=1

In order to be able to use this summation notation we need to obtain a suitable expression for the typical term in the series. For example, the nite series 12 + 22 + . . . + k 2
k

may be written as
p=1

p2 since the typical term is clearly p2 in which p = 1, 2, 3, . . . , k in turn.

16

In the same way 1 1 1 1 1 + + ... = 2 3 4 16

p=1

(1)p+1 p
(1)p+1 . p

since an expression for the typical term in this alternating harmonic series is ap = Try each part of this exercise Part (a) Write in summation form the series 1 1 1 1 + + + ... + 12 23 34 21 22 First nd an expression for the typical term, the pth term.
5

Answer

Part (b) Write out all the terms of the series

p=1

(1)p . (p + 1)2 Answer

Engineering Mathematics: Open Learning Unit Level 1 16.1: Power and Taylor Series

4. Summing Series
The arithmetic series
Consider the nite arithmetic series with 14 terms 1 + 3 + 5 + . . . + 23 + 25 + 27 A simple way of working out the value of the sum is to create a second series which is the rst written in reverse order. Thus we have two series, each with the same value A: A = 1 + 3 + 5 + + 23 + 25 + 27 or A = 27 + 25 + 23 + + 5 + 3 + 1 Now, adding the terms of these series in pairs 2A = 28 + 28 + 28 + + 28 + 28 + 28 = 28(14) = 392 so A = 196

We can use this approach to nd the sum of n terms of a general arithmetic series. If A = [a] + [a + d] + [a + 2d] + . . . + [a + (n 2)d] + [a + (n 1)d] then again simply writing the terms in reverse order: A = [a + (n 1)d] + [a + (n 2)d] + . . . + [a + 2d] + [a + d] + [a] Adding these two identical equations together we have 2A = [2a + (n 1)d] + [2a + (n 1)d] + . . . + [2a + (n 1)d] That is, every one of the n terms on the right-hand side has the same value: [2a + (n 1)d]. Hence 1 2A = n[2a + (n 1)d] so A = n[2a + (n 1)d]. 2 Key Point The arithmetic series [a] + [a + d] + [a + 2d] + . . . + [a + (n 1)d] having n terms has sum A where: 1 A = n[2a + (n 1)d] 2 As an example 1 + 3 + 5 + . . . + 27 So A = 1 + 3 + . . . + 27 =
Engineering Mathematics: Open Learning Unit Level 1 16.1: Power and Taylor Series

has a = 1, d = 2, n = 14

14 [2 + (13)2] = 196. 2 6

The geometric series

We can also sum a general geometric series. Let G = a + ar + ar2 + . . . + arn1 be a geometric series having exactly n terms. To obtain the value of G in a more convenient form we rst multiply through by the common ratio r: rG = ar + ar2 + ar3 + . . . + arn Now, writing the two series together: G = a + ar + ar2 + . . . + arn1 rG = ar + ar2 + ar3 + . . . arn1 + arn

Subtracting the second expression from the rst we see that all terms on the right-hand side cancel out, except for the rst term of the rst expression and the last term of the second expression so that G rG = (1 r)G = a arn Hence (assuming r = 1) G= a(1 rn ) 1r

(Of course, if r = 1 the geometric series simplies to a simple arithmetic series with d = 0 and has sum G = na) Key Point The geometric series a + ar + ar2 + . . . + arn1 having n terms has sum G where G= a(1 rn ) , 1r if r = 1 and G = nr, if r = 1

Try each part of this exercise Find the sum of each of the following series: Part (a) 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + . . . + 100. Answer Part (b) 1 1 1 1 1 1 + + + + + 2 6 18 54 162 486 Answer 7
Engineering Mathematics: Open Learning Unit Level 1 16.1: Power and Taylor Series

More exercises for you to try 1. Which of the following sequences is convergent? 2 3 4 (a) sin , sin , sin , sin , . . . 2 2 2 2 (b) sin 2
2

sin 2 2
2 2

sin 3 2
3 2

sin 4 2
4 2

, ...

2. Write the following series in summation form: (a) ln 3 ln 5 ln 27 ln 1 , , , ..., 21 32 43 15 14 1 1 1 1 (b) , , , ..., 2 ) 3 (1 (200)2 ) 2) 2 (1 + (100) 4 (1 + (300) 9 (1 (800)2 )
17

3. Write out the rst three terms and the last term of the following series: (a)
p=1

3p1 p!(18 p)

17

(b)
p=4

(p)p+1 p(2 + p)

4. Sum the series: (a) 5 1 + 3 + 7 . . . + 27 (b) 5 9 13 17 . . . 37 (c) 1 1 1 1 1 1 + + 2 6 18 54 162 486 Answer

Engineering Mathematics: Open Learning Unit Level 1 16.1: Power and Taylor Series

5. Computer Exercise or Activity

For this exercise it will be necessary for you to access the computer package DERIVE.

Derive is of some help with sequences and series. First it can be used to obtain the limits of expressions in n as n . For example to obtain the limit: n+2 lim n n(n + 1) we would key in (n + 2)/(n(n + 1)). DERIVE responds with n+2 n (n + 1) then hit Calculus:Limit to obtain the Calculus limit screen. In the limit Point box choose (from the list of symbols) and then choose Both in the Approach From section. If you then hit the OK button DERIVE responds with n+2 n n (n + 1) lim Finally, hit Simplify:Basic to obtain the response 0 which is as expected. DERIVE will also obtain the sum of nite series. To do this you will need to obtain an expression for the nth term of the series. For example, to nd 1 + 2 + 3 + . . . + 100 we need to recognise that the nth term is n. Thus
100

1 + 2 + 3 + . . . + 100 =
n=1

n.

To obtain this sum using DERIVE, enter the Calculus:Sum box and enter the expression for the nth term. In this case enter n. Make sure the Variable box contains n. Then choose Denite in the sum box and choose appropriate limits (1 as the Lower limit and 100 as the Upper limit). If you then hit the OK button DERIVE responds
100

n
n=1

Engineering Mathematics: Open Learning Unit Level 1 16.1: Power and Taylor Series

Finally, hit Simplify:Basic to get the value of the sum: 5050 a result which we have already obtained. As an exercise you could experiment with the limit and summation capabilities of DERIVE. DERIVE will also obtain the algebraic expressions for some nite sums: For example if you key in: p2 then Calculus:Sum as before but this time choosing Variable p and Upper limit n and then hit the OK button. DERIVE responds
n

p2
p=1

Now hit Simplify:Basic to obtain the expression n (n + 1) (2 n + 1) 6 which is easily checked to be correct (for e.g. 12 + 22 + 32 + 42 + 52 = 5(6)(11) = 55.) 6

Engineering Mathematics: Open Learning Unit Level 1 16.1: Power and Taylor Series

10

End of Block 16.1

11

Engineering Mathematics: Open Learning Unit Level 1 16.1: Power and Taylor Series

1 1

term in sequence

Not convergent. The terms in the sequence do not converge to a particular value. The value oscillates. Back to the theory

Engineering Mathematics: Open Learning Unit Level 1 16.1: Power and Taylor Series

12

an =

n+2 n(n+1)

Back to the theory

13

Engineering Mathematics: Open Learning Unit Level 1 16.1: Power and Taylor Series

2 1+ n n+2 1 = 0 n(n + 1) n+1 n+1

as n increases

Hence the sequence is convergent. Back to the theory

Engineering Mathematics: Open Learning Unit Level 1 16.1: Power and Taylor Series

14

a = 3,

d=6

Back to the theory

15

Engineering Mathematics: Open Learning Unit Level 1 16.1: Power and Taylor Series

a = 8,

r=

1 7

Back to the theory

Engineering Mathematics: Open Learning Unit Level 1 16.1: Power and Taylor Series

16

4, 8, 16, 32, . . . Back to the theory

17

Engineering Mathematics: Open Learning Unit Level 1 16.1: Power and Taylor Series

ap =

1 p(p+1)

1 1 + + ... 12 23 Back to the theory

1 + = 21 22

21

p=1

1 p(p + 1)

Engineering Mathematics: Open Learning Unit Level 1 16.1: Power and Taylor Series

18

 212 +

1 32

1 42

1 52

1 . 62

Back to the theory

19

Engineering Mathematics: Open Learning Unit Level 1 16.1: Power and Taylor Series

a = 1, d = 1, n = 100. 1 + 2 + 3 + . . . + 100 = 100 + 50(99) = 50(101) = 5050. Back to the theory

Engineering Mathematics: Open Learning Unit Level 1 16.1: Power and Taylor Series

20

a = 1, r = 1, n = 6 2 3
1 2

+ 1 + ... + 6

1 486

1 2

1( 1 ) 3 1 1 3

3 4

1 6 3

= 0.74897

Back to the theory

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Engineering Mathematics: Open Learning Unit Level 1 16.1: Power and Taylor Series

1(a) no; this sequence is 1, 0, 1, 0, 1, . . . which does not converge. 1 1 1 (b) yes; this sequence is /2 , 0, 3/2 , 0, 5/2 , . . . which converges to zero.
14

2. (a)

p=1 1 3 32 3. (a) 17 , 2!(16) , 3!(15) , . . . 45 56 67 (b) (4)(6) , (5)(7) , (6)(8) ,

ln(2p 1) (p + 1)(p)

(b) ,
p=1 316 17!

(1)p (p + 1)(1 + (1)p+1 p2 104 )

18

17 . . . , (17)(19) 4. (a) This is an arithmetic series with a = 5, d = 4, n = 9. A = 99 (b) This is an arithmetic series with a = 5, d = 4, n = 9. A = 189 (c) This is a geometric series with a = 1 , r = 1 , n = 6. G 0.3745 2 3

Back to the theory

Engineering Mathematics: Open Learning Unit Level 1 16.1: Power and Taylor Series

22