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p
Propeller efficiency
Stroke efficiency
t
Tire efficiency
Taper ratio
h
Ratio of the dyn pressures on hor.tail and the free stream
v
Ratio of the dyn pressures on ver.tail and the free stream
Airplane relative density parameter, ground rolling resistance
and C
l
design
=
W
1
2
V
2
S
they can be calculated as:
Re =
Vd
=
(1.1)(15)(0.35)
18,9710
6
= 3,04*10
5
C
l
design
=
W
1
2
V
2
S
=
5,19
1
2
(1,1)(15
2
)0,46
= 0,0912
According to these calculations and the airfoils selected we will try to find out the best
airfoil for our aircraft. Here are some graphics to consider easily.
Chapter 4 Airfoil and Geometry Selection
27
4.2.1 Graphics for NACA 64
Figure 4.1 Cl-Alpha and Cd-Alpha changes
Figure 4.2 Cl-Cd
Figure 4.3 ClCd-Alpha_Cm-Alpha
Chapter 4 Airfoil and Geometry Selection
28
4.2.2 Graphics for NACA 2412
Figure 4.4 Cl-Alpha and Cd-Alpha changes
Figure 4.5 Cl-Cd
Figure 4.6 ClCd-Alpha_Cm-Alpha
Chapter 4 Airfoil and Geometry Selection
29
4.2.3 Graphics for DAE 21(chosen)
Figure 4.7 Cl-Alpha and Cd-Alpha changes
Figure 4.8 Cl-Cd
Figure 4.9 ClCd-Alpha_Cm-Alpha
Chapter 4 Airfoil and Geometry Selection
30
4.2.4 Graphics for CLARK-Y
Figure 4.10 Cl-Alpha and Cd-Alpha changes
Figure 4.11 Cl-Cd
Figure 4.12 ClCd-Alpha_Cm-Alpha
Chapter 4 Airfoil and Geometry Selection
31
Table 4.1 Comparison of the aerodynamic values for airfoils
It was chosen DAE 21 as the airfoil type for our aircraft during the mission. Because
we want to have the high value of the Clmax and low value of Cm in between some criterias.
Of course there are some limits for choosing these values, in the meaning of, if it is going to
be chosen the highest value of Clmax it will be difficult to control the aircraft and also will be
hard to control it. On the other hand if the value Cm will be the lowest value of itself the
pith down effects will be occurred and the aircraft will have the tendency of loosing altitude
all the time. In case of these all to have the desired stall characteristics the relatively fat
airfoils are chosen because of the fact of stall phenomena starts from the trailing edge across
to the way of wing upper surface. And also Fat airfoils are described to contain more than
%15 thickness ratio. Deciding about the best airfoil for the missions has to be done, even if
the values of Cd was a bit higher than the others, DAE21 is the best of these airfoils worked
on.
While working on aeronautical effects also it has to be considered about ease of
manufacturing. Since DAE profiles are the comman-used profile types, producing it is not
going to cost more than the other with the advantageous of we can ask more related with our
misson.
Figure 4.13 Cl-Alpha and Cd-Alpha changes
4.3 Tail Geometry and Arrangements
As it is explored on the second phase of our design process, the conventional tail was
chosen. According to Daniel Raymers book, conventional tail provides adequate stability and
control at the lightest weight. It also has a good pitch up recovery and provides a good spin
maneuverability. It also has a good stall recovery at high angle of attacks, because the
downwash effect from the wings dont effect the rudders in the tail much in these angles.
Airfoil of the tail is chosen the same as the wing airfoil.
Chapter 4 Airfoil and Geometry Selection
32
Tail aspect ratio is chosen 3 just below the wing aspect ratio. Because it would weight
a lot and isnt necessary for our kind of aircraft, no sweep was given to the wing. A little twist
is given to have a gradual stall starting from root to the tip of the wing. A dihedral effect is
not necessary for the aircraft due to the missions expected.
Vertical Tail Horizontal Tail
(Conventional)
Airfoil Type NACA009 NACA 0009
A 1,4 3,755
0.3 0.3
4.4 Airfoil Geometry
Figure 4.14 Airfoil Geometry
4.5 Conclusion
I n this chapter selection of the airfoil, the wing and tail geometry were performed.
These results were important already to be used in the following chapters. Also in later design
processes and their manufacturability, validity will be checked by mostly focusing on other
factor and in later studies. On the other hand, the results which were tabulated on the tables
are also important while discussing and making decision for the airfoil geometry and for the
other parameters related with our aircraft.
Chapter 5 Power to Weight Ratio and Wing Loading
33
5. POWER TO WEIGHT RATIO AND WING LOADING
5.1 Introduction
With the performance requirements, atmospheric conditions and some other
parameters given, we are supposed to estimate and tabulate some parameters with the
help of our analysis. We are asked to find stall speed in four conditions: empty-flaps
up, empty-flaps down, fully loaded-flaps up, fully loaded-flaps down. Then we need
to find the take off ground roll, best range speed and maximum speed for both empty
and fully loaded conditions. Finally, we have to find climb gradient and rate of climb
at the beginning of climb.
5.2 Power To Weight Ratio Estimation
In the process of power to weight ratio selection, firstly we shall check our
competitor study. According to the data found on the competitor study, power to
weight ratio can be estimated as the average of the values, which is 0,2047 h.p/lb.
Another selection must be made based on the thrust matching calculations.
From thrust matching calculations we will have different values of W/S (wing
loading). Then at the end one of them will be decided to use finding all the answers
for the questions asked.
From Competitor Study:
Power to Weight Ratio
(h.p./kg)
0,03 0,13 0,117 0,03 0,03 0,17 0,21 0,24 0,25 0,84
=
0,03 + 0,13 + 0,117 + 0,03 +0,03 + 0,17 +0,21 + 0,24 + 0,25 + 0,84
10
= 0,1828 . /
To find the values of Power to weight ratio, some parameters are given and
calculated as follows;
= 0,6 =1,1kg/m
3
1,0
0,5
0
= 0,025 AR = 3,755
e = 0,8
Chapter 5 Power to Weight Ratio and Wing Loading
34
=
1
=
1
. =
. =
.
.
)
=
1
.
1
=
1
..
=
1
.(3,755).(0,8)
= 0,10596
=
+^2
= 9,7146
= (1,1)
= 0,7
= (1,1). 10 = 0,7.11
= 11 / = 7,7 /
.
1
=
7,7
0,6
.
1
9,7146
= 1,321 . /
= 0,5941 . /
Since we would like to have more horse power according to the weight, the
bigger power to weight ratio will be chosen. So the value of power to weight ratio is
0,59 h.p/kg.
= 0,59 . /
Table 5.1 Selection of P/W
P/W [hp/kg]
Competitor Study 0.1828
Thrust Matching 0.5941
Chapter 5 Power to Weight Ratio and Wing Loading
35
5.3 Wing Loading Selection
In the process of wing loading selection, firstly we shall check our competitor
study. According to the data found on the competitor study, wing loading can be
estimated as the average of the values, which is 12,7545 lb/ft
2
.
= 12,7545 [kg/m
2
]
5.3.1 Stall Speed Requirements
(
)
max/
=
0
. . . => (
)
max/
= 0,0253,7550,8 =
0,2359
=
1
2
=
1
2
(1,1). 10
2
. 0,2359
= 12,97 /
2
5.3.2 Take off Ground Roll Requirements
=
1
2
ln (
2
)
=
2.(/)
. (
0
.
2
)
To find the values of K
T
and K
A
, some parameters are given and
calculated as follows;
= 0,6 =1,1kg/m
3
1,0
0
= 0,025 AR = 3,755
e = 0,8
= 1,321
S
G
=90ft=27,4mt
g=9,81
Chapter 5 Power to Weight Ratio and Wing Loading
36
=
0,6
7,7
.1,321 0,1
= 2,9351 10
3
=
1
2
2
2
=
1
29.8127.432
ln
7.7
2
29.8127.4320.002935
== 6,735610
3
Flaps up (C
L
=0.5) :
=
1
2
2
=
1
20,006736
. (10,5 0,025 0,105960,5
2
)= 33,29
2
Flaps down (C
L
=0.7) :
=
1
2
2
=
1
20,006736
. (10,7 0,025 0,105960,7
2
)= 46,25
2
5.3.3 Cruising speed requirement
. (/)
/
+
/
. . .
=
1
2
2
=
1
2
(1,1)(25)
2
=343,75 kg/m.s^2
.(/)
/
+
/
...
25 =
(0,6). (1,321)
(343,75). (0,025)
+
/
(343,75). . (3,775). (0,8)
Chapter 5 Power to Weight Ratio and Wing Loading
37
*If (W/S) a , the equation turns into;
a
2
- 103,4453xa 28027,363 = 0
a
1
= - 108,2 (can not be negative)
a
2
= 210,2 (selected)
*Converting from British System to SI System
= 210,2
2,205
10,764
= 43,05 /
2
Since the value of wing loading must be the most suitable one for all
conditions, one of these wing loading results has to be chosen. The lowest value of
wing loading is calculated with the method of Stall speed, and the highest value of the
wing loading is calculated with the method of T.O Ground roll (flaps down). Here it
has to be chosen the minimum result of W/S but because of the fact that producing the
lowest value of W/S is going to be a more expensive than the others.
On the other hand choosing the highest value of W/S is not going to be good
idea because the result will not fit in all the equations. So this is why it has to be
estimated all situations and has to be chosen the optimal value of W/S. According to
the reasons mentioned about the value of 33,29 was chosen as W/S.
Table 5.2 Selection of W/S
Method W/S (kg/m^2)
Competitor Study 12,75
Stall Speed (10 m/s) 12,97
T.O. Ground Roll (Flaps up)
33,29
T.O. Ground Roll (Flaps
down)
46,25
CruiseSpeed
43,05
Chapter 5 Power to Weight Ratio and Wing Loading
38
5.4 Anlysis
After calculating the values of power to weight ratio and wing loading now all
the speed requirements can be found by putting the unknowns of P/W and W/S in the
formulas.
5.4.1 Stall Speed: Empty and flaps up
=
2(
=
2(33.29)
1.10.5
= 11,00
5.4.2 Stall Speed: Empty and flaps down
=
2(
=
2(33.29)
1.10.7
= 9,29
5.4.3 Stall Speed: Fully Loaded and flaps up
=
2(2
=
2(66.58)
1.10.5
= 15,56
5.4.4 Stall Speed: Fully Loaded and flaps down
=
2(2
=
2(66.58)
1.10.7
= 13,15
5.4.5 Take Off Ground Roll: Empty
=
1
2..
2
V
f
= V
TO
= 1,1x V
stall
= 11m/s
V
i
= 0 m/s
=
2.(/)
. (
0
.
2
) = 0,007410
= 0,0029351
=
1
2(9,81)(0,007410)
0,0029351+(0,007410)(11)
2
0,0029351
= 39,379 m
Chapter 5 Power to Weight Ratio and Wing Loading
39
5.4.6 Take Off Ground Roll: Fully Loaded
=
1
2..
2
V
f
= V
TO
= 1,1x V
stall
= 11m/s
V
i
= 0 m/s
) = (2,0)
) = (0,5)
=
2.(/)
. (
0
.
2
) = 0,003705
= 0,048532
=
1
2(9,81)(0,003705)
0,048532+(0,003705)(11)
2
0,048532
= 32,998 m
5.4.7 Best Range Speed: Empty
.
=
=
2
0
= 0,10596
0
= 0,025
= 33,29
= 11,16 m/s
5.4.8 Best Range Speed: Fully Loaded
.
=
=
2
0
= 0,10596
0
= 0,025
= 66,58
= 15,79 m/s
Chapter 5 Power to Weight Ratio and Wing Loading
40
5.4.9 Maximum Speed: Empty
) =
1
=
1
2
0
= 9,7146
) = 0,10294
=
.
. . .
(1)
*From (1) formula when q unknown found as
q
1
= 58,53 , q
2
= 78,53 (selected)
q=( )..V
max
2
V
max
=11,95 m/s
5.4.10 Maximum Speed: Fully Loaded
) =
1
=
1
2
0
= 9,7146
) = 0,10294
=
.
. . .
(1)
*From (1) formula when q unknown found as
q
1
= 37,122 , q
2
= 237,022 (selected)
q=( )..V
max
2
V
max
=20,76 m/s
5.4.11 Climb gradient and rate of climb at the beginning of climb
Before calculating the climb gradient, first we need to find V
climb
and q
values :
= 1,2 .
= 1,2 .10
= 12
Chapter 5 Power to Weight Ratio and Wing Loading
41
=
1
2
2
=
1
2
. 1,1 . 12
2
= 79,2 kg/ms
2
After finding Vclimb and q, we can calculate T/W and D/W to find climb
gradient (G) :
=
0,6
12
.0,1828 .550
= 5,027
0
+
. (
0
+
=
1
66,58
. (79,2 . 0,025 +79,2 .
0,7
2
. 3,755 .0,8
)
= 0,0915
Now we can calculate the climb gradient :
=
= 5,027 0,0915 = 4,9355
Then to find the rate of climb (Vy):
=
= (33,135). W
o
+ 336,17
This equation is formed by rubber engine sizing study, which is shown in the 4
th
part
of the report.
Figure 6.1 Conceptual Sketches (from top and side view)
Chapter 6 Initial Sizing
44
6.3 Mission Description
Design mission is similar to a mission in one of the mission in the second part of our
design process. That was our last mission which called as 3-d. Our plane has to take off, travel
a 4000 feet circuit for 3 times with a 20 m/sec cruise speed and land on. It has to carry 5 bats,
which corresponds to a 2835 gram payload weight.
6.4 Rubber Engine Sizing Study
In the second part of our design process, we have used a quick method of sizing an
aircraft. In this part, we have to make some refining to the sizing equation so that we can get
better and more realistic results. As a first step of our calculations we have to know about the
changes between
P
o
and W
o
. So here it is the relations in between mentioned again as plotted
in the graphic.
P
o
= (33,135). W
o
+ 336,17
Figure 6.2 Relation between Wo - P
o
/W
o
So then we will start our calculation with guessing the value of W
o
as 8,40. When this
parameter is put in the equation we will be finding the value of P
o
/W
o
as 138,3078 watt/k.g.
And W
o
is found as 5,97kg. However to find the W
o
_
calculated
as 5.97 it has to be made 46 steps
of iterations. This is why after that as the value of W
o
was taken 6,40. After 14 steps of
iterations approximately the same value of W
o
=5,97.
Calculation of P
o
(power,watt)
P
o
=
P
o
. W
o
= (138,3078)x(5,97) ----------> P
o
= 825,89 watt
y = -33,135x + 336,17
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
350
400
0 5 10 15
Wo - P_o/W_o
wo-p/w
Dorusal (wo-p/w)
Chapter 6 Initial Sizing
45
Calculation of S (wing area)
Again while using the values and parameter from competitor study we have the
equation which shows the relations in between S and W
o
. The equation plotted and
found is:
S=(0,0305)x(W
o
)+0,2902
And with using this formula;
= (0,0305)x(Wo) +0,2902 = (0,0305)x(5,97) +0,2902
= 0,4723
2
Calculation of W
e
(empty weight)
W
e
=
W
e
W
0
xW
0
= 0,44 x 5,97 = 2,6268 kg
6.5 Motor Selection
In this section we will decide for a motor as which one is going to be the best for our
aircraft and the missions. To make this decision of course we have some parameters and some
values which are calculated as P
0
(power needed), and how many batteries we need to use,
battery weight allowed etc. However while deciding the motor, the most important criteria
was how much trust power needed.
Of course there is variety kind of motors but we have to choose the one it has to be
matched with our mission. Our motor performance is the basic factor which automatically and
directly affects the flight in any cases, while taking off round, during cruise, carrying the bats
and landing etc. That was why the power calculated 825,89 watt will be based on as a first
motor selection criteria.
And the other topic of how many batteries will be used was the one of the important
criteria. During calculations each battery has 1.1 V was chosen and with the basic formula of
P=I.V how much volt energy we needed was calculated. On the other hand for the joints and
cable there were some voltages more than our result which need to be added more. That was
why %10 percent of the calculation voltage was added more into the previous one.
This was important, coz according to our mission and how much power the aircraft
needs, gave an idea about choosing the motor to us. It has to have enough power but at the
same time we have some limit for Battery weight. If we think about each battery has 22,95gr
weight, here we have to make engineering decision with our optimizations.
So finally according to the result of we need to have a motor which has 825,89 watt
energy and as we have already calculated the battery weight.
0
= (0,003)x(Wo) +0,1228 = (0,003)x(5,97) +0,1228
= 0,6263 kg
Chapter 6 Initial Sizing
46
We can say about this battery weight as allowable maximum battery weight.
According to our calculation 21 batteries will be used for the motor. This calculation was
made for all of these batteries weight.
After calculation and researching for which motor will be used then with the brand of
NEU 1506/3Y was chosen to use for our aircraft. It has 1342 watt power and 0,6056kg
weight as total. And battery type is ELITE 1500 26-Cell Pack. Propeller type is selected as
APC 18x12 E.
Table 6.1 Motor and Propeller Features
Powerplant (Motor) NEU 1506/3Y
Power (h.p.) 1342 watt
Propeller APC 18x12 E
6.6 Fixed Engine Sizing Study
The sizing procedure for the fixed-size engine is similar to the rubber engine sizing,
but there are some exceptions. A parameter which is allowed to vary as the aircraft is sized is
needed. By adding this parameter to the takeoff weight equation, fixed engine sizing can be
made.
Estimate Take off weight (Newton)
W
O
=
NT
PerEngine
(T/W)
=
1.1342
217,0632
= 6,18 kg
W
O
= (6,18)x(9,81) = 60,65 N
Empty Weight (Newton)---(for W
0
=6,18kg)
W
e
=
W
e
W
0
x W
0
= (0,44) x (6,18) =2,7192kg
W
e
= (2,7192)x(9,81) = 26,68 N
Battery Weight (kg)
W
f
= 21 x
22,95
1000
= 0,48kg
W
f
= (0,48)x(9,81) = 4,709 N
Wing area ( m
2
)
= (0,0315). W
o
+ 0,2962
= (0,0315). (6,18) + 0,2962 ---------------> = 0,49087 m
2
Chapter 6 Initial Sizing
47
Payload Weight ( W
payload
)
W
payload
= 2,835 kg = 27,811 N
6.7 Geometry Sizing Study
In the geometry sizing study part, firstly we should find our fuselage length. To find it,
we will use the higher W
0
value which we have obtained in the engine sizing study. The
formula for the fuselage length is :
= .
0
For W
0
= 6,18 kg and for a homebuilt-composite airplane, a = 1,28 m and C = 0,23 .
If we use those values in the formula :
= .
0
= 1,28 . 6,18
0,23
= 1,94597
Then, we need to find the wing size. To find it, we will simply divide the weight by
the takeoff wing loading.
=
0
=
6,18
12,7545
= 0,4845
2
To calculate tail volume coefficient, we will use the following formulas.
For a homebuilt airplane, c
HT
=0,5 and c
VT
=0,04 .
= 0,35 , S
wing
=0,4845 m
2
, and
to find b
w
:
=
0,4845
0,35
= 1,3843
Chapter 6 Initial Sizing
48
Our airplane has a front-mounted propeller engine, so L
HT
is 60% and L
VT
is 55% of
the fuselage. So :
=
0,50,350,4845
1,167582
= 0,07262
2
=
0,041,38430,4845
1,070284
= 0,025066
2
6.8 Summary of Results
Table 6.2 : Results in SI unit system
Rubber Engine
Sizing
Fixed Engine
Sizing
W
o
(N) 58,5657 60,6258
W
e
(N) 25,768908 26,675352
W
p
(N) 27,81135 27,81135
W
f
(N) 6,144003 4,7088
P
o
(watt) 825,89 -
S (m
2
) 0,4723 0,49087
Table 6.3 : Results in British Engineering systems
Rubber Engine
Sizing
Fixed Engine
Sizing
W
o
(lbf) 13,16609316 13,62922207
W
e
(lbf) 5,793080992 5,996857711
W
p
(lbf) 6,252240221 6,252240221
W
f
(lbf) 1,381226826 1,058580355
P
o
(h.p) 1,107536736 -
S (ft
2
) 5,08379489 5,283680706
Chapter 6 Initial Sizing
49
Table 6.4 : Geometry results Table 6.54 : Geometry results British
SI unit system Engineering systems
Fuselage_Length(m) 1,94597
Fuselage_Length(ft) 6,384416
S
wing
(m
2
) 0,4845
S
wing
(ft
2
) 5,215115
c
HT
0,5
c
HT
0,5
c
VT
0,04
c
VT
0,04
c
w
(m) 0,35
c
w
(ft) 1,148294
b
w
(m) 1,3843
b
w
(ft) 4,541667
L
HT
(m) 1,167582
L
HT
(ft) 3,83065
L
VT
(m) 1,070284
L
VT
(ft) 3,51143
S
HT
(m
2
) 0,07262
S
HT
(ft
2
) 0,781675
S
VT
(m
2
) 0,025066
S
VT
(ft
2
) 0,269808
6.9 Conclusion
In this section, we performed a rubber engine sizing study. Then according to the data
we obtained, we selected a motor for our aircraft. We continued our process with a
performing of fixed engine sizing study. If we look at the results in these to studies in table 1
and 2, we can see that the values are not absurdly different than each other, and according to
the competitor study, we can see that the results are acceptable.
Finally we have performed a geometry sizing study so that we could see that
dimensions of our airplanes components such as fuselage, wing and tail.
Now we have our motor model and dimensions of our airplane. As we can see, our
airplane is started to have a numeric shape which is calculated in this study.
Chapter 7 Configuration Layout and Interior Design
50
7. CONFIGURATION LAYOUT AND INTERIOR DESIGN
7.1 Introduction
The configuration layout and interior design of the aircraft are performed in
this chapter. So many values of the parameters which are belonging to the aircraft
have already been calculating until now. It will be needed to know some values of
aircrafts to calculate the other unknowns related with wing, tail, fuselage. First of all it
will be rearticulated the mean aerodynamic chord. Then it will be studied on the
airfoils and twist distributions which were mentioned in the last studies. As a second
step, the location of the wing and the tail will be decided on fuselage. This decision
will be made by using the equations and relations in between the wing and tail
parameters. As a third step 3 dimension drawings will be added to be able to consider
more detailed way on the aircraft and to be able to have much more realistic results.
7.2 Wing and Tail Surfaces
The wing area, the horizontal tail area and the vertical tail area are calculated
on previous studies. Also, according to the calculations before which were made, the
values of aspect ratio of the wing, the horizontal tail and vertical tail were found
already. With the values of their own taper ratio the known parameters are tabulated
below as:
Table 7.1: The calculated parameter before
AR S (m
2
)
Wing 0,5 3,755 0,4845
Horizontal tail 0,7 3 0,07262
Vertical tail 0,7 3 0,025066
According to these values we will be calculating the span distance as first. Then
with using the result of the previous step we will try to find the root chord and tip
chord. Meanwhile we will have the all unknown parameters to calculate the value of
the mean aerodynamic chord (m.a.c), location of mean aerodynamic chord.
Respectively the following equations will be used to find the dimensions for the wing,
the horizontal and vertical tail.
7.3 Locating Wing and Tail Surfaces
Span
Root Chord
=
2
(1+)
Tip Chord
Chapter 7 Configuration Layout and Interior Design
51
=
2
3
(1++
2
)
(1+)
Location of m.a.c Y=
6
1+2
1+
Wing Calculations
=
0
=
6,18
12,7545
= 0,4845
2
= 3,7550,4845 = 1,3488
=
2
(1 + )
=
20,4845
1,3488(1 +0,5)
= 0,4789
= 0,50,4789 = 0,2395 = ,
Tail Calculations
= 0,07262
2
= 0,025066
2
= (
)
1/2
= (30,024423)
1/2
= 0,2707
= (
)
1/2
= (3,00,077286)
1/2
= 0,4815
Figure 7.1 Location of the mean aerodynamic chord for main wing
Mean Aerodynamic
center(m.a.c)
Mean Aerodynamic Chord = 299,375mm
674 mm
Chapter 7 Configuration Layout and Interior Design
52
Figure 7.2 Location of the mean aerodynamic chord for vertical tail
Figure 7.3 Top view of the aircraft with all components
Figure 7.4 Side view of the aircraft with all components
145,9 mm
237,5 mm
M. A. C=
191,7mm
286 mm
Chapter 7 Configuration Layout and Interior Design
53
Figure 7.5 Front View
Figure 7.6 Isometric View (Before loading the balls and bats )
Figure 7.7 Isometric View (After loading the balls and bats )
Chapter 7 Configuration Layout and Interior Design
54
Figure 7.8 Transparent view (motor component)
7.4 Wetted Area and Volume Determination
In this step we will try to find the wetted area first and then with using this
result we will try to calculate the volume of our aircraft. First it will be estimated a
value of exposed area for our aircraft and then find the approximate value of the
wetted area. The wetted area directly depends on the exposed area and the equation
which shows the relationship in between is;
S
wet
= S
exposed
[ 1,977 +0,52
]
Wing Wetted Area
S
exposed
will be guessed as the exact value of our area of the wing as 0,4845
m
2
. So;
S
wet
= S
exposed
[ 1,977 +0,52
]
S
wet
= 0,4845 [ 1,977 +(0,52 )(0,13)]
S
wet
= 0,9906 m
2
Horizontal Wetted Area
S
exposed
will be guessed as the exact value of our area of the wing as
0,07262m
2
. So;
S
wet
= S
exposed
[ 1,977 +0,52
]
S
wet
= 0,07262 [ 1,977 +(0,52 )(0,11)]
S
wet
= 0,1477 m
2
Chapter 7 Configuration Layout and Interior Design
55
Vertical Wetted Area
S
exposed
will be guessed as the exact value of our area of the wing as
0,025066m
2
. So;
S
wet
= S
exposed
[ 1,977 +0,52
]
S
wet
= 0,025066 [ 1,977 +(0,52 )(0,07)]
S
wet
= 0,05047 m
2
7.5 Conclusion
After calculating, this is very obvious that initial layout of the aircraft is
extremely heuristic effect of the aircraft. Especially with the locations of the wing, the
vertical tail and the horizontal tail are one of the most effective design parameters
while designing an aircraft. And also we have seen that the locations of the vertical
and the horizontal tail depend on their moment arm directly.
Chapter 8 Propulsion and Fuel System Integration
56
8. PROPULSION AND FUEL SYSTEM INTEGRATION
8.1 Introduction
In this section of our aircraft design, we will be discussing about the
propulsion system criteria. And we will be describing in detail the motor which is
going to be selected. After that we will size the propeller and describe its properties.
Then the propeller location will be selected and it will be discussed with our selection
criteria. And then the installation of the motor will be decided with the reasons why it
was chosen as like that.
As a second step the battery compartment will be designed and the criterias for
the selection and decision will be discussed. While making all these decisions and
discussions it will be checked already the volume provided is sufficient or not. At the
end the drawing figures will be added to the report and our last design shape for the
aircraft will be showed with the configuration layout drawings.
8.2 Propulsion System Selection
For the real aircrafts there are several choices to make the propulsion. Because
there are several choices of motors according to the design criterias for the aircraft
and the mission it has to be designed for. But our aircraft, being designed now, will be
mini unmanned air vehicle, so this is why we will definitely have to choose the most
effective mini motor to have the highest trust from it. And we already made a chose
for the motor in our study 5. And according to our selections our motor was chosen
as NEU 1506/3Y, our battery type was chosen as ELITE 1500 26-Cell Pack and
the propeller type as APC 18x12 E.
Battery type
Battery type was chosen as ELITE 1500 26-Cell Pack. According to our
calculations, to get the maximum trust with the minimum weight, this type of the
batteries were the optimum ones. And in our aircraft 21 batteries will be used for
creating the energy for our motor.
Figure 8.1: The picture of the battery ELITE 1500 26-Cell Pack
Chapter 8 Propulsion and Fuel System Integration
57
Table 8.1. The dimensions for the battery type
Diameter (mm) Height (mm)
ELITE 1500-26 Cell Pack 17 28,5
Battery box
As it was calculated in study 5, how many batteries will be used, to get the
enough voltage for our motor, at the end 21 batteries will be used. However to hold
the all batteries together, obviously a battery box has to be designed. And according to
our aircrafts size and the minimum weight criteria considered, finally it has the
dimensions as follows:
Table 8.2. The dimensions for the battery box designed
Height (mm) Width (mm) Depth (mm)
Battery Box 12 17,5 2,5
Basicly the design criterias for the battery box, were minimum weight,
minimum volume inside of the aircraft, enough space between the batteries and the
battery boxs walls, easy way to plug the batteries in and out. Actually to leave
enough space in between the batteries and the battery boxs wall was the one of the
important optimized criteria, because while the aircraft is working the batteries heat
will be increasing gradually.
Additionally for this situation, if the enough space will not be left it may effect
the batteries performance in a bad way or damages the aircraft directly. Even it may
cause a fire during flight. So with leaving some space it will be cooled by its own.
Chapter 8 Propulsion and Fuel System Integration
58
Figure 8.2: The batteries loaded in the battery box
The battery box will get the energy from the batteries and according to our
design the energy will be carried with 2 cables, as anode and cathode, then it can send
the energy to the motor.
Figure 8.3: After connecting the battery box and the motor
Then the battery box will be sticked to the payload compartment. While we
were analyzing and searching for which part would be best to connect the battery type
it was decided to stick the battery type into the payload compartment. As a first reason
for this decision, it can be said that according to our design, the payload compartment
is so near to the nose of the aircraft. And because of the fact of our motor has to be
behind of the motor, the payload compartment is the best place that we stick the
battery box on it. Otherwise we would stick this into the fuselage of our aircraft and
that may affect the aerodynamical forces and create some drug also.
And the other reason for choosing the payload compartment is, our payload
compartment has holes to be able to put the balls inside. And there is a cover for that
which we will put the bats on. That means payload compartment directly connects to
the air. And the air passing around the payload compartment will cool the air inside as
well. That means if we stick the battery box into the payload compartment, this cooled
air inside of it, will also cool the air around the batteries, which are increasing the heat
during the flight.
Chapter 8 Propulsion and Fuel System Integration
59
Figure 8.4: Sticked battery box into the payload compartment
Cuff system
To connect the motor to the fuselage, there will be need to design a new system
which makes the motor tight to the aircraft. So a cuff system was chosen for this
problem as the one in the front of the motor and the one in the back of the motor. It
will have 6 clips as total. 3 clips from the front of the motor and the other 3 clips will
be back of the motor. Because of the fact of two middle clips will be carrying the
motor mostly, these have to be designed as much stronger which means much wider
than the other 4 clips. And also according to the other fact of the weight of the motor
will be heavier on back side of the motor, the clips on the back are also much wider
than the one from front. The right and left clips will keep the motor stable especially
while rolling during the flight.
Figure 8.5: The Cuff system on the motor zoomed view
Chapter 8 Propulsion and Fuel System Integration
60
Figure 8.6: The Cuff system on the motor from back
Figure 8.7: The Cuff system on the motor from front
Figure 8.8: The final model after making all connections from left view
Chapter 8 Propulsion and Fuel System Integration
61
Figure 8.9: The final model after making all connections transparent
Propeller
Our propeller was chosen as APC 18x6. Each propeller has 457,2mm length.
And the distance in between its center and the top of the fuselage is 85mm. The width
and height of the fuselage are 280mm, 250mm respectively. According to these
dimensions which has the information about the location of the propeller tabulated as
follows:
Table 8.3: Length for some size of the propeller
Length (mm)
Propeller 457,2
Width of the fuselage 280
Height of the fuselage 250
Center of the propeller to top of fuselage 85
Chapter 8 Propulsion and Fuel System Integration
62
Figure 8.10: Front view of propeller and size of it
Figure 8.11: Another view for a close look at the propeller and motor location
Figure 8.12: Design on the configuration layout drawing
Chapter 8 Propulsion and Fuel System Integration
63
8.3 Conclusion
The location of the propeller and the design of it were decided according to the
calculations and the choices from the previous studies. It was given information about
the battery type and then designed a box for all batteries. Also it was mentioned why
we need a battery box and why we sticked it to the place of its decided. Then the need
of the cuff system was explained and the details about its own with strengths and
width etc. As last all the compartments were assemblied all together and showed the
details with the locations of each others.
Chapter 9 Landing Gear and Subsystems
64
9. LANDING GEAR AND SUBSYSTEMS
9.1 Introduction
In this section of our aircraft design, we will be designing the landing gear.
Also the criteria for selecting the landing gear arrangement and landing gear design
will be discussed. In the same topic we will be estimating the maximum loads to be
carried by the main and nose wheels then we will show the details of the landing gear
system which was drawn by using 3-d computer aided drawing program. Then about
the tire and its pressure the required tire size will be estimated based on load carrying
and braking requirements.
As a next step stroke will be determined and we will decide whether we will
need an oleo and/or solid spring study depending on our system. Then the castoring
wheel geometry will be designed and showed its details. We will also design and
discuss about using retractable or non retractable landing gear with its reasons. And as
last, we will discuss and make a decision on the aircraft subsystems which will be
installed.
9.2 Landing Gear Arrangement
In this section we will choose the type of our landing gear. There are several
types of landing gear systems for real aircrafts, with considering its stability and
payload. But because of the fact of we are designing and mini unmanned air vehicle
we will not focusing of payload, duration, cruise in a detailed way. However there
will be some other criteria appears at this point as the landing gear will not be fold up
to the fuselage. Because if we try to design a system which will pull the landing gear
system up and hide the landing gear inside of the fuselage, the take off weight of our
aircraft will increase and also the manufacturing cost will get higher as well. So this is
why as a first step this system which holds the landing gear will not be designed as
explained above.
After all these calculations and estimations for our aircraft, it is nearly done
for the entire design of our aircraft. It will try to choose about which style of landing
gear arrangements is going to be the best for our aircraft. Even there are some basic
styles for these arrangements, even we could create for our own aircraft. But as basic
selections, we will have the choices of single main, taildragger, quadricycle, bicycle,
tricycle and multi-bogey from the book of Aircraft Design: A Conceptual
Approach we have chosen the tricycle type of landing gear. When we compare this
with the others we face some more advantages than the others. First of all, with using
tricycle lading gear system we will need more propeller clearance and it will create
less drag in total. On the other hand with using the tricycle landing gear system we
will have more ground control during not only landing and also taking off. Also it is
the most popular landing gear design which has been using lately.
Chapter 9 Landing Gear and Subsystems
65
Figure 9.1: Tricycle style landing gear view
Figure 9.2: Tricycle landing gear system detailed view
9.3 Tire Selection
After we have chosen the landing gear system as tricycle landing gear, now we
have to mention the location for the nose wheels and the main wheels. We will decide
about where to put the wheels on our aircraft according to the basic momentum
calculations. As we have estimated and calculated about the weights for our aircraft it
was 2,7192 kg for as empty weight, 0,48kg for the batteries and 2,835 kg for our
payload for the mission. Approximately it makes 6.02 kg as our take off weight in
total.
W
e
= 2,7192
W
battery
= 0,48 kg
W
payload
= 2,835 kg
Chapter 9 Landing Gear and Subsystems
66
Figure 9.3: Main wheels view
Figure 9.4: Nose wheels view
Firstly it was thought to put the nose wheel project of the payload box.
Because payload weight is the heaviest weight for our aircraft loaded. And we wanted
to make the moment effect of this weight according to the nose wheel 0 with putting
the nose wheel right bottom of the payload box. However, during our design period,
we also have to consider about applying approximately the same weight into each
wheels. Because of this fact we will not be able to organize it with putting the nose
wheel just right bottom of the payload box. Then it was decided as, from front view,
the distance in between nose wheel and each main wheel will be 210mm. And the
distance in between the main wheel each other will be 420mm. From side view of our
aircraft the distances in between the nose wheel and the main wheel will be 290mm.
And the wheel diameter has chosen as 56mm to carry the whole weight we
will have for our aircraft. Also the wheels have to be strong enough according to the
air forces especially during landing. On the other hand the tire has to be made by the
material which creates minimum drag. According to our aircraft will not need to tire
which has air inside, the solid tyre will be chosen for it.
420 mm
210 mm
290 mm
Chapter 9 Landing Gear and Subsystems
67
9.4 Shock Absorber Type
The shock of a bad landing has to be absorbed by landing gear. Also the
landing gear has to smooth out the ride when taxiing. Additionally of that tires can
provide some shock-absorbing ability too. In this chapter we will decide about which
shock absorber type will be used for our aircraft. There are also several types of basic
shock absorbers but if the mission and the aircraft will be unique it also can be
designed for the aircraft manufacturing.
As a shock absorber we have chosen as solid spring type. There were some
criteria while deciding with considering the weight and aerodynamics of the aircraft.
Even the solid spring type of shock absorber type is slightly heavier than the others;
however, it is the simplest shock absorber that can be produced easily and
economically.
9.5 Castoring Nose Wheel Geometry
In this section we will discuss about castoring on wheels. Castoring the wheels
increase the stability both statically and dynamically. This operation will be loaded to
nose wheels and tail wheels.
Figure 9.5 Castored wheels side view
Figure 9.6: Castored wheels isometric view
Chapter 9 Landing Gear and Subsystems
68
Figure 9.7: Castored wheels back view
9.6 Non Retractable Landing Gear
In this section we will discuss about having retractable landing gear or not.
Mostly there are several advantages of using retractable style of landing gear for air
vehicles. Retractable landing gear system will hold the wheels inside of the fuselage
not to create more drag. This system is being used for the aircrafts which have speed
more than 0.5 mach number. However our aircraft will not have that much speed so
then not using retractable system will not be able create lots of drags.
On the other hand if we decide to get rid of the bad effects of the drags we
have to add more weight for that into our aircraft around 4 kg. However when we
consider that our aircrafts take off weight will be around 6,05kg, it is obvious that to
use non retractable landing gear system is the best choice will be for our aircraft
according to its take off weight and its mission.
9.7 Subsystems
Since our airplane is needed to be controlled with the commands sent by the
remote control to the control stick, a hydraulics system is needed. In a hydraulics
system, there is a hydraulic fluid, a light oil-like liquid, which is pumped up to some
specified pressure and stored in an accumulator. When the valve is opened, the
hydraulic fluid flows into the actuator where it presses against the piston, causing it to
move and, in turn, moving the control surface.
To move the control surface the other direction, an additional valve admits
hydraulic fluid to the back side of the piston. The hydraulic fluid returns to the pump
by a return line. To obtain rapid response, the valve must be very close to the actuator.
The valve therefore cannot be in or near the cockpit, and instead is usually attached to
the actuator. Here is a drawing of the hydraulics system:
Chapter 9 Landing Gear and Subsystems
69
Figure 9.8: Hydraulics subsystem mechanism
Electrical system is also needed, because our hydraulics needs electrical
power. Thats why we use batteries in our airplane as a source of electrical power.
Pneumatic/ECS system is not needed for our airplane. Because of our low
speed and low altitude flight, we dont need to compress air for pressurization and
also dont need anti-icing mechanism.
Since it is mostly needed on large or high-speed aircrafts and we are trying to
make our airplane as light as possible, we dont need to have an Auxiliary/Emergency
power system. Accessory drive (AMAD) is not important for such a low speed
aircraft.
9.8 Conclusion
As a result we have designed the landing gear system for our aircraft. It was
chosen tricycle landing gear system. Then we have decided about what kind of tire we
need for our aircraft and for our mission. The locations for the tires were showed in
the pictures. And the effect of shock absorbs was discussed and decided that the
landing gear system has to absorb the shock effects, which was created with bad
landing. Then we reported about the castoring nose wheel geometry and mentioned
why it has to be on nose wheels. And then for our aircraft non-retractable landing gear
is used, because our airplane flies in a slow speed and the drag produced by landing
gear is not a big issue. Also, a retractable landing gear increases the weight
significantly. As last we reported about the subsystems on our aircrafts.
Chapter 10 Aerodynamics
70
10. AERODYNAMICS
10.1 Introduction
In this part of the process, aerodynamics properties are calculated (by
assuming Mach = 0.2) including the lift curve slope ( C
L
), maximum lift ( C
L
max
)
with and without high lift devices at take off, landing and cruise settings, angle of
attack for maximum lift (
C
L
max
) at take off and landing configurations. Then parasite
C
D
0
and inducedC
D
i
drags are estimated for both skin friction method and component
buildup method. Finally, C
L
- and C
L
-C
D
curves for clean, take off and landing
configurations are plotted.
10.2 Lift
10.2.1 Lift Curve Slope
Lift curve slope ( C
L
=
+ + +
|
\
|
.
|
|
\
|
.
|
|
2
2 4 1
2 2
2
2
2
tan
max,
exp
[1/rad] (10
Where
2
= 1-M
2
max,t
is the sweep of the wing at the chord location (x/c)
m
where the airfoil
thickest.
For wing (x/c)
m
=0.13 and
max,t
=0 (no sweep angle).
F is the fuselage lift factor that accounts for the fact that the fuselage creates
some lift due to the spill over of lift from the wing and it is given by
5606 , 1
43 , 4
92 , 0
1 07 . 1 1 07 , 1
2 2
= |
.
|
\
|
+ =
|
.
|
\
|
+ =
b
d
F
S
exposed
is the wing reference area less the part of the wing covered by the
fuselage. From previous studies, S
exposed
=5,125 ft
2
.
is the airfoil efficiency and can be approximated as 0,95.
For M=0,2;
2
= 1
2
= 1 0,2
2
= 0,96
Chapter 10 Aerodynamics
71
=
23,755
2 +4 +
3,755
2
0,96
0,95
2
1 +
2
0
0,96
5,125
5,216
1,5606
= 5,69
1
= 0,0997
1
10.2.2 Maximum Lift (
=
) Clean
The maximum lift coefficient of the wing is usually determined the wing area.
This turn will have a great influence upon the cruise drag that strongly affects the
aircraft takeoff performance. This strongly affects the aircraft takeoff weight to
perform the design mission.
Thus the maximum lift coefficient is critical in determining the aircraft
weight; yet the estimation of maximum lift is probably the least reliable of all of the
calculations used in aircraft conceptual design. Even refined wind tunnel tests cannot
predict maximum lift with great accuracy. Frequently an aircraft must be modified
during flight test of achieve the estimated maximum lift.
To calculate the maximum lift, following formulas are used ;
C
L
max
=0.9*C
max
*cos
0.25c
C
L
max
=
C
C
L
L
L C
L
max
max
+ +
0
From airfoil data of DAE-21, C
max
=1,581 and
0L
=-2.2.
0.25c
=0 (no sweep angle).
C
L
max
was calculated using Fig. 12.10
*
for the following
L.E.
.
L.E.
=0 . From Fig.12.10:
C
L
max
= 2,2
For M=0,2;
C
L
max
=0,9*1,581*cos0 = 1,4229
C
L
max
=1,4229/0,0997+(-2,2)+2,2=14,27
10.2.3 Maximum Lift,
=
and
|
.
|
|
where
C
f
e
=0,0055 from Table 12.3 for light aircraft.
0
= 0.055 (
3,15
0,862
) = 0.02
10.3.2 Component Buildup Method
Component Buildup Method estimates the subsonic parasite drag of each
component of the aircraft using a calculated flat-plate skin-friction drag coefficient
(C
f
) and a component form factor (FF) that estimates the pressure drag due to
viscous separation. Then the interference effects on the component drag are estimated
as a factor Q and the total component drag is determined as the product of the
wetted area, C
f
, FF, Q. The following formula is used to calculate C
D
0
of each
component.
)
( )
D L misc
c c
D D
ref
wet c c f
subsonic
D
C C
S
S Q FF C
C
& 0
) (
+ + =
where flat-plate skin-friction coefficient (C
f
) for turbulent, subsonic flow is,
C
R M
f
=
+
0455
1 0144
10
2 58 2 0 65
.
(log ) ( . )
. .
and skin roughness R for subsonic flow is,
R=R
cutoff
=38,21(l/k)
1.053
"l" is the characteristic length of the component. For fuselage, it is the total
length (l=L) and for wing or tail, it is the mac. "k" is the skin roughness value and for
smooth paint, it is 0,17x10
-5
from Table 12.4.
For M=0,2 clean, calculated R and C
f
values are shown in table 10.1;
Chapter 10 Aerodynamics
73
Table 10.1 : R&C
f
at M = 0.2
Component l (ft) R C
f
Wing 5.125 253993129 0.001866837
Fuselage 3.937 192408168.3 0.001937762
Horizontal Tail 2.029 95737552.13 0.002133392
Vertical Tail 0.941 42628906.94 0.002396184
Component form factors and interference factors:
Fuselage:
FF = 1
60
400
3
+ +
|
\
|
.
|
f
f
where
d
l
f =
f = 3.937/0,92 = 4,279
FF= 777 , 1
400
279 , 4
279 , 4
60
1
3
= |
.
|
\
|
+ +
Fuselage has a negligible interference factor;
Q =1
Wing:
Where
(x/c)
m
=0,35, (t/c)
m
=0,13 and
m
=0 for DAE-21 airfoil
FF =
| |
1
06
100 134
4
018 0 28
+
|
\
|
.
| +
|
\
|
.
|
(
.
( / )
. ( )
. .
x c
t
c
t
c
M Cos
m
m
FF=1,255
High wing has a negligible interference factor;
Q =1
Chapter 10 Aerodynamics
74
Horizontal Tail:
Where
(x/c)
m
=0,315 , (t/c)
m
=0,105 for DAE-21 airfoil and
m
=0.
FF = ( ) ( ) | |
28 . 0 18 . 0 4
) 0 ( ) 2 , 0 ( 34 , 1 105 , 0 100 105 , 0
315 , 0
6 , 0
1
o
Cos
(
+ +
FF 1,216
Conventional tail's interference factor;
Q =1,05
Vertical Tail:
Where
(x/c)
m
=0.315 , (t/c)
m
=0.125 for DAE-21 airfoil and
m
=0.
FF = ( ) ( ) | |
28 . 0 18 . 0 4
) 0 ( ) 2 , 0 ( 34 , 1 125 , 0 100 125 , 0
315 , 0
6 , 0
1
o
Cos
(
+ +
FF 1,266
Q =1,05
Table 10.2 : Parasite Drag of Each Component
Component C
f
S
wet
(ft
2
) FF Q C
do
)
c
Wing 0.001866837 11.338 1.255 1 0.003188
Fuselage 0.001937762 6.994 1.777 1 0.00289
Horizontal
Tail 0.002133392 2.216 1.216 1.05 0.000724
Vertical Tail 0.002396184 1.315 1.266 1.05 0.000503
So the final result is;
=
( )
ref
wet c c f
S
S Q FF C
c c
) (
=0,003188+0,00289+0,000724+0,000503= 0,007305
Because of our aircraft type is an UAV,
and
&
coefficients can be taken as
almost equivalent to zero. So;
=0,007305
Chapter 10 Aerodynamics
75
10.4 Estimation of Induced Drag (Drag due to Lift)
The drag polar of the DAE-21 airfoil shows that the wing's C
D
0
and C
D
min
parameters are very close to each other, so the following formula can be used to find
the drag coefficient.
C
D
= C
D
0
+C
D
i
= C
D
0
+ KC
L
2
where K is the drag-due-to-lift factor and defined as,
K
Ae
=
1
For
L.E.
=0 < 30 , Oswald efficiency factor e can be calculated from the
straight-wing aircraft relation;
e A = + 178 1 0045 064
0 68
. ( . ) .
.
64 , 0 ) ) 755 . 3 ( 045 , 0 1 ( 78 , 1
68 . 0
= e
e = 0,943
0899 . 0
943 . 0 755 . 3
1
= =
x x
K
and C
D
i
=KC
L
2
= 0, C
L
2
C
D
i
= 0, 0899 C
L
2
10.4.1 Ground Effect
=
33(
)
1,5
1 + 33(
)
1,5
h is estimated as 0,14 m in the landing gear arrangement part of the design.
=
33(
)
1,5
1 + 33(
)
1,5
=
33(
0,14
1,3488
)
1,5
1 + 33(
0,14
1,3488
)
1,5
= 0,525
= 0,0472
Chapter 10 Aerodynamics
76
10.5
and
Curves
According to the final calculations shown in table 10.3, C
L
- and C
L
- C
D
curves are shown in Figures 10.1 and 10.2.
Figure 10.1 : C
L
- Graph
Figure 10.2 : C
L
- C
D
Graph
Chapter 10 Aerodynamics
77
10.6 Tabulated Results
Table 10.3 : Tabulated Results
For C
L
- Curves
C
L
(1/) 0.0997
C
lmax
1.4229
0L
() -2.2
CLmax
() 14.27
CLmax () 2.2
For C
L
- C
D
Curves
C
D
0.007305+0.0899 C
L
2
10.7 Conclusion
In this part of our design process, aerodynamic parameters are estimated and
calculated. Taking Mach = 0.2, calculations have been made to find the lift curve
slope( C
L
), maximum lift (
max
L
C ) with and without high lift devices for cruise,
landing and takeoff conditions, angle of attack for maximum lift
C
L
max
,parasite C
D
0
and inducedC
D
i
. After finding those parameters, C
l
- and C
L
- C
D
graphs are shown
in the figures.
Chapter 12 Conclusion
78
12. CONCLUSION
In the beginning of our design, first we found information about existing aircrafts in
the category of electric propeller and radio controlled mini unmanned air vehicle. We have
organized those information and plotted some graphs to make it more understandable. That
was the base of our design.
Then we started to select our initial configuration and made a first guess sizing. We
made the initial sizing through reducing the error nearly zero between our estimation and
calculation. For 8 sample missions given, we have made those calculations and calculated the
take off power, P
0
and wing area.
Next, the process came to the part of the airfoil and geometry selection. We have
acquired some information for the airfoil type from our competitor study and selected the best
airfoil that suits to our aircraft. We made that selection for both our wing and tail.
In the process of power to weight ratio and wing loading calculation, we decided our
horsepower to weight ratio and wing loading.In the decision of the process, we have used our
competitor study's data, thrust matching, stall speed requirement, take off ground roll
requirement and cruising speed requirement. Making the calculations, we have made our final
decision.
After that, we began making our initial sizing. By rubber engine sizing study, we
selected the motor of our aircraft, then applied a fixed engine sizing study. In the end of the
geometry sizing study, we could see the dimensions of our airplanes' components such as
fuselage, wing and tail.
Afterwards, we performed the configuration layout and interior design of the aircraft.
We have calculated the important parameters for our wing,horizontal tail and vertical tail, so
we happened to have the locations of the vertical and horizontal tail accurately.
In pursuit of, we applied the propulsion and fuel system integration to our airplane.
According to the battery type and number we have obtained before, we designed a battery box
and connected it to the motor so it can work. We have discussed the design of the connections
for motor and battery box to the fuselage. Also we have obtained some measurements for the
propeller. Finally we have shown all the compartments and pieces in detail.
Later, we have selected a landing gear arrangement for our airplane, made some
decision on the selection of tire, shock absorber, castoring nose wheel geometry and
subsystems through necessary calculations and showed the elements in drawings.
Finally, we have applied the aerodynamics analysis to our airplane. We have
calculated the aerodynamics properties such as lift curve slope, maximum lift, parasite and
induced drags. For the drags, we used both skin friction method and component buildup
method. In the end, we have shown the results in a simpler way in figures.
References
79
REFERENCES
[1] - Raymer, D.P., Aircraft Design: A Conceptual Approach, AIAA,Washington,1992
[2]- Principles of Aircraft Design course lectures, Prof. Dr. Mehmet erif Kavsaolu
[3] - The following URL for competitor study :
http://www.aiaadbf.org
[4] - Taylor, J., JANEs All The Worlds Aircraft, 1989-1990, 1991-1992, and 1994-
1995.
[7] - Roskam, J., Airplane Design, Roskam Aviation and Engineering Corp., Ottawa,
Kansas, 1985
[8]- Riegels, F.W., Aerofoil Sections, Butterworths, 1961
Appendices
80
APPENDICES
SOME CONVERSION FACTORS
Multiply By To Obtain
Foot (ft) 1.200 10 inches
3.48 10
-4
kilometers
3.49 10
-1
meters
Foot/Second (ft/s) 5.921 10
-1
knots
3.48 10
-1
meters/second
Horsepower (hp) 550 foot-pounds/second
7.604 10 kilogram meters/second
Knot 1.689 feet/second
1.151 miles/hour
1.852 kilometers/hour
Liter (l) 3.532 10
-2
cubic feet
2.6417 10
-1
gallons
1.0 10
-3
cubic meters
Meter (m) 3.281 feet
3.937 10 inches
1.0 10
-3
kilometers
Meter/Second (m/s) 3.281 feet/second
3.600 kilometers/hour
1.943 knots
2.237 miles/hour
Nautical Mile (nmi) 6.076 10
3
feet
1.852 10
3
meters
1.15078 mile
Pound (lb) 4.536 10
2
gram