ICIATE EDITOR

. CUNNINGHAM
1iversity of Texas
Austin, Texas
IN HAPPEL
tbia University
ork, New York
Encyclopedia of
Chemical Processing
and Design
EXECUTIVE EDITOR
ASSOCIATE EDITOR
33
John J. McKetta
William A. Cunningham
Organic Liquids, Thermal
Conductivity Estimation to
Peat Supply-Demand
Relationships
828833
c:Mitchef! cM.emoziaf .fibzazg
c:Mi,HiJJippi eState 'llniveu.it!f
MARCEL DEKKER, INC.
NEW YORK AND BASEL
Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data (Revised)
Main entry under title:
Encyclopedia of chemical processing and design.
Includes bibliographical references.
I. Chemical engineering- Dictionaries. 2. Chemistry,
Technical- Dictionaries. I. McKetta, John J.
II. Cunningham, William Aaron.
TP9.E66 660.2'8'003 75 - 40646
ISBN: 0-8247-2480-1
COPYRIGHT@ 1990by MARCEL DEKKER, INC. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED.
Neither this book nor any part may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or" by any
means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, microfilming, and recording.
or by any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from
the publisher.
MARCEL DEKKER, INC.
270 Madison Avenue, New York, New York, 10016
LIBRARY OF CONGRESS CATALOG CARD NUMBER: 75- 40646
ISBN: 0-8247-2483-6
Current printing (last digit):
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 I
PRINTED IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA
I nternation
RAY C. ADAM
Fonner Chairman of the Boar<
N. L. Industries, Inc.
New York, New York
M. A. ALLAWALA
Managing Director
National Refinery Ltd.
Karachi, Pakistan
HAMED H. AMER
Chairman
Agiba Petroleum Co.
Cairo, Egypt
R. G. ANTHONY
Professor, Department of Cher
Engineering
Texas A & M University
College Station, Texas
H.J. AROYAN
Fonner Vice President
Chevron Research Company
Richmond, California
F. SID ASKARI
President
Technolog, Inc.
Engineering and Industrial COJ
sultants
Tehran, Iran
DONALD l. BAEDER
Fonner Executive Vice Preside
Science and Technology
Occidental Petroleum Corpora
Los Angeles, California
Wm. A. BAILEY, Jr.
Fonner Director, MTM Proce!
search and Development Lal
Shell Development Company
Houston, Texas
TRAVIS W. BAIN
Vice President
National Sales, Inc.
Jackson, Mississippi
GAREN BALEKJIAN
C. F. Braun
Arcadia, California
CESAR BAPTISTE
Vice President
Petroleos Mexicanos
Mexico City, Mexico
LEON R. MARTINEZ BASS
Sales Manager-Northern Mex
Zincamex, S. A.
Saltillo, Mexico
ROBERT 0. BATHIANY
Technical Planner
Weyerhauser Company
Tacoma, Washington
312 Paper Manufacture
Palladium (see Platinum Group Metals)
Palladium Catalysis (see Precious Metals Catalysis)
Paper Manufacture
Paper manufacture is one of the largest industries in the civilized world, and
its usage is still growing rapidly. The major applications are, first, in commun-
ications-newspapers, magazines, books, pamphlets, and in computer
readouts. The second major use is in packaging-wrapping paper, bags,
cartons, corrugated cardboard, and the like. There are also a host of smaller
applications such as insulation, lightweight structures, sporting goods, clean-
ing, and medical items.
The growth in demand could well outstrip the earth's supply of the basic
raw material, trees, except for two mitigating tendencies: the use of thinner
grades of paper and the substitution of plastics for paper. The latter are usually
made from petroleum or natural gas raw materials. Recycling wastepaper and
more efficient processing are also helpful.
Nearly all paper is now made from wood cellulose pulp. The pulping
process is described in a separate section, and it varies somewhat depending
on the type of wood being converted. Basically the process accomplishes the
separation of the source material into fine fibers with more or less removal of
lignin or other nonfibrous adjuncts. Some specialty papers are made from
sources of cellulose other than wood, such as rice hulls, hemp, bagasse, etc. ;
but a pulping process similar to that used for wood chips is still necessary. In
the very early days of papermaking, raw materials were used which were
already substantially pure cellulose, such as rags. In these cases, pulping as
such could be omitted and the source material merely mechanically chopped
up, washed, and bleached. Very high grade writing paper is sometimes still
made from rag stock. Manufacture of the cheapest newsprint also skips the
normal pulping operation, i.e., removal oflignin from cellulose. In this case a
high grade of wood is mechanically ground, washed, and bleached to provide
newsprint feedstock.
After pulping, the papermaking process may be subdivided into the
following operations.
Paper Manufc
Manufacture
zed world, and
;t, in commun-
in computer
g paper, bags,
host of smaller
g goods, clean-
Jly of the basic
use of thinner
tter are usually
vastepaper and
>. The pulping
rhat depending
the
less removal of
tre made from
>,bagasse, etc.;
II necessary. In
which were
ses, pulping as
,ically chopped
;ometimes still
t also skips the
e. In this case a
:hed to provide
vided into the
Paper Manufacture 313
A. Stock Preparation
Included in this operation are preparation of a thick slurry of pulp in water,
"beating," hydropulping or refining to reduce the thickness of fibers (disin-
tegrating thick clumps or bundles to fine individual fibers or fibrils), addition
of various chemicals to modify properties of the finished paper, a final
cleaning to remove dirt, sand, lumps, etc., and dilution with more water.
B. Sheet Formation
This is a key step in papermaking, and on a commercial scale is carried out at
high speed on a moving filter medium such as a wire or cloth on a Fourdrinier
machine or on rotating cylinders or moving belts. Multi-ply sheets can be
made by repeated deposition of fibers. In this step a very dilute slurry (less
than 1% in solids content) is run onto the filter medium, and water is rapidly
drained through the support to yield a sheet of somewhat interlocked fibers.
The gravity dewatering action is aided by vacuum, pressure from an adjacent
sheet, or even centrifugal force.
C. Drying and Calendering
The moist sheet leaving the forming area has little strength until it is dried
from an initial moisture of70 to 80% by weight to approximately 4 to 10% by
weight.
The wet sheet may be picked up from the forming section on a carrier felt
and transferred to a series of heated steel rolls, where moisture is removed by
evaporation. The initial rolls may provide for blowing hot air through the wet
paper. The steam heated rolls or "drying cans" are staggered so that both sides
of the paper are dried. At tne end of the drying train there will usually be one
or more pairs, or a stack, of calender rolls which smooth and densify the paper
with a pressure of several hundred pounds per inch. The calendered paper is
generally received on a large roll holding several tons of paper.
D. Finishing
Finishing of paper is a concept which may include several different steps
along the process. It may include the special additives such as dyes and
pigments added to the pulper or beater to enhance color and opacity, or
strength additives and fillers, also added in the stock preparation area.
It may include resin or latex dipping or spraying steps included part way
along the drying train. Or it may include the application of finish coatings at
the calendering stage.
In any case, the roll of paper on the take-up reel is first trimmed to exact
width with cutting knives at the edges, and then generally taken to a separate
station for cutting into smaller widths for specific uses.
314 Paper Manufacture
It may be subjected to "creping" where the sheet is jammed against a
mechanical resistance as it is unwound and rewound. It may be further
treated with resins or surface finishing agents.
Finally, the product is "converted" into specific types of end products.
Details of Papermaking Process
A. Stock Preparation
In most paper mills the cellulose pulp is stored in the form of large sheets,
either dry for purchased material or moist ("wet lap") for pulp produced on
site. It is generally handled on pallets, and when ready to be used, is dumped
from pallets into a machine for quickly breaking up the sheets (about 40 in.
2
and
1
/s-in. thick) and slurrying the fibers in water.
A typical machine for accomplishing this task is the Beloit hydropulper
shown in Fig. 1. A powerful agitator is driven from the bottom. Its curved
knife-like blades provide vigorous agitation for the whole contents of the
vessel as well as impelling sufficiently fine fibers through the slotted bottom
Mill water
To stock tank
Additives
Claflin refiner
Beloit pulper
FIG. 1. Pulper system.
Paper ManufactL
11
tl
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lc
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In
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ell
"I=
Manufacture
nmed against a
may be further
f end products.
of large sheets,
1lp produced on
1sed, is dumped
ts (about 40 in. 2
oit hydropulper
tom. Its curved
contents of the
~ slotted bottom
To stock tank
FD
Paper Manufacture 315
into the small chamber below. Agitator power may be as high as 100 hp per
thousand gallons of charge capacity. The charge capacity would be of the
order of3000 to 6000 gal, and the run time, 15 min to 1 h, part of which time
is devoted to circulating the slurry through the refiner, a high-speed rotating
device in which internal conically disposed knives move past stationary
knives or bars. A tight clearance is maintained by axial pressure against the
rotating cone. The concentration of pulp in water, known as consistency,
leaving this system is generally of the order of 1 to 2%, depending on fiber
length. The longer the fibers, the lower the consistency must be in order to
maintain a reasonable flowability. Besides cellulose pulp (or other fibers)
loaded into the pulper, many other additives are generally introduced at this
stage. These may be strength additives such as urea-formaldehyde resins,
melamine-formaldehyde resins, rosin, or various natural gums. Synthetic
gums such as polyethylene oxide derivatives and carboxymethyl cellulose
may be used. Pigments and dyes are added for control of transparency,
smoothness, and color. The cheapest of these is calcium carbonate or clay.
For effective whiteness, titanium dioxide is used in smaller quantities.
Alum is used in many cases to promote adhesion of the other additives.
Biocides may be added to prevent slime or mold growth. The total quantity of
additives may be as much as 30% of the weight of the pulp, but is generally
much less, of the order of 3 to 5%.
The thick slurry from the pulper is dumped into a "dump chest" for
storage, then transferred to a "machine chest" for continuous feed to the
paper machine area. It is diluted with "white water" or recycled liquid which
drains through the paper machine screen and suction boxes into a silo or
receiving tank. This system of recycling liquid not only conserves the water
used in large quantities on the paper machine (slurry concentrations entering
the machine are as low as 0.3% or even less) but also reclaims much of the
additives which are not trapped on or adsorbed by the fibers on the machine.
Thus, the additives put into the pulper are the net amounts taken up by the
paper, while a substantial amount may circulate with the "white water." The
diluted stock is generally filtered through a "barrier screen," a long rotating
perforated cylindrical screen, and also passed through one or two "cleaners"
in series (see Fig 2). These are long conical vessels into which the thinned
slurry enters tangentially near the top; the slurry spins around rapidly, its
radius of gyration decreasing as it moves downward in the cone, finally
turning around near the bottom and passing up through the central core of
the cone to an outlet at the top center. Meanwhile, any material such as sand,
grit, bits of tramp metal, or wood are thrown out to the side of the cone and
slide down into a chamber at the bottom, from which these contaminants
may be continuously or batchwise discharged. The cleaned slurry is adjusted
in consistency and fed to the "head box" of the paper machine, as described in
the next section.
In older paper mills or in highly specialized mills where relatively short
runs of a wide variety of products are made, the pulping operation may be
carried out in "beaters" or "Hollanders" as shown in Fig. 3. These are long
elliptical tubs, with a paddle wheel mounted on one long leg of the ellipse. The
"paddles" are actually iron or other metal bars rotating against a bed plate
316
F e e d - ~ -
Clean
slurry
Paper Manufacture
t discharge
~
Trash
Upper section, say 6" diameter
Inlet velocity
50 ft/s
(or more)
Cone length 2 to 4 ft.
stain I ess steel
~ Lower section, say 3" diameter
Catch chamber
(glass)
FIG. 2 . Hydroclone-type cleaner.
with a sharp knife mounted to give a narrow but adjustable clearance from
the bars. The assembly may be provided with a spring or counterweight
system designed to allow widening of the clearance in the event of a blockage
or oversized lump of hard material coming into the clearance area. The
beaters are slow compared to the hydropulper, but provide for good visual
observation of the fibrillating action and for holdup of batches pending
testing or chemical reaction of additives.
B. Sheet Formation
The basic equipment used for sheet formation is still the Fourdrinier moving
wire. Originally the feed end of the wire was mounted on an oscillating track,
and the whole feed end was shuttled from side to side a distance of several
inches. With the advent of high speed, wide machines, with screens traveling
as much as 3000 ft/min, the shaking mechanism became too troublesome to
Paper Manufactur
~
Lapped
loading
pulp [
ben
feed
mac
desiJ
box
as st
maiJ
butit
hydl
per Manufacture
' say 6" diameter
velocitY
l ft/s
morel
ft.
tV 3" diameter
able clearance from
g or counterweight
: event of a blockage
;learance area. The
vide for good visual
of batches pending
Fourdrinier moving
an oscillating track,
1 distance of several
ith screens traveling
! too troublesome to
Paper Manufacture 317

_. Path of stock
Additives
Motor drive
i

,. .... ,
''""" . ' ------------- -:.-f. :,
Rotor with
bars (paddles)
' / ..
A' pulp 1- _,.-'I
1

loadtng .; I


.... .. --.,.'"'- .. ....
Bed plate/knife
FIG. 3. Beater (Hollander).
Leve I of stock
( . . -.
Drain
be maintained; it has been abandoned in favor of more accurate control of the
feeding of the thin slurry onto the moving wire. The slurry feeding the
machine enters through a head box which is, in turn, fed through a carefully
designed manifold of piping to insure uniform flow and pressure. The head
box discharges through a "slice" or chute onto the surface of the moving wire,
as shown in Fig. 4. The head box is contoured and baffled so that the slurry is
maintained in moderately turbulent flow so as to maintain a random distri-
bution of fibers in uniform consistency with a combination of static and
hydraulic head uniform with respect to machine width and time. The "slice"
318
Pulp
slurry
Inlet
manifold
From
mix boxes
and cleaners
Paper Manufacture
Sheet
to
drier
FIG. 4. Fourdrinier sheet former.
is so designed that the slurry leaves the lip at a velocity close to that of the
moving screen. A slight excess of slurry velocity is known as "rush" and a
slight deficiency is known as "drag." The amount of rush or drag will affect
the character of sheet formation. To provide adequate hydraulic impetus,
sometimes head boxes are pressurized in the vapor space above the liquid
level.
The slurry as it is laid down on the wire should be uniform in depth,
consistency, free of waves or ripples, and free ofbubbles. Shortly after leaving
the slice, the screen passes over a series of"suction boxes," or chambers with
perforated tops connected to a knock-out pot and a uniform vacuum system.
The boxes may be 3 to 8 in. wide, of length equal to the full width of the
screen, and carefully gasketed so as to draw in water but not air. The water in
the slurry should be drawn off uniformly across the width of the machine.
Generally there are 3 to 6 wet suction boxes arranged close to each other in
series along the wire, and they suffice to draw the free water from the surface
of the newly formed sheet. Each box has its vacuum individually controlled so
as to achieve uniform proportional draw-off of water from the sheet. The
water from the boxes discharges into the "silo" or white water receiver tank,
which is generally maintained under some vacuum. The water from the silo is
returned to the slurry mixing boxes ahead of the head box via large centrifugal
pump ("fan" pump) to maintain constant slurry feed and approximately
constant level in the silo.
After the free water is drawn off the surface of the newly formed sheet, air
will start to pass through as additional water is drained through. The screen
therefore passes over one or more "dry" suction boxes, i.e., suction boxes
designed to handle appreciable quantities of air along with water. Such boxes
drain into a separator, the vapor space of which is piped to a high capacity wet
vacuum pump such as a Nash pump. The water from the dry box separator
will still drain into the silo.
After the last suction box, the sheet is ready to be removed from the wire.
This is usually accomplished by transferring it to a felt, a moving band of high
Paper Manufactu1
qt
su
a
th
m
cc
"c
en
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at
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C.
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th
>er Manufacture
Sheet
to
drier
er on felt
Jch pan
lose to that of the
n as "rush" and a
or drag will affect
tydraulic impetus,
~ above the liquid
miform in depth,
wrtly after leaving
or chambers with
n vacuum system.
: full width of the
>t air. The water in
h of the machine.
;e to each other in
:r from the surface
ually controlled so
>m the sheet. The
ater receiver tank,
Lter from the silo is
ia large centrifugal
nd approximately
r formed sheet, air
rough. The screen
.. e., suction boxes
water. Such boxes
L high capacity wet
dry box separator
ved from the wire.
)Ving band of high
Paper Manufacture 319
quality fabric which acts as a blotter to remove more moisture and as a
supporting carrier, moving the sheet to the drying section of the machine.
Pick-up from the screen to the felt is accomplished by the felt passing over
a "pick-up slot" vacuum source, which draws air through a narrow slot,
through the felt, and through the wet sheet, lifting it off the wire and onto the
moving felt. The felt will be moving at the same speed as the wire. The wire
continues around over a "couch roll" where adhering water is removed into a
"couch pan" for recycle. The wire then returns to the "breast roll" at the feed
end, just under the head box. Between the couch roll and the head roll are
several rolls which adjust the tension and alignment of the wire, and which
seal off water sprayed onto the wire by high pressure jets to keep the wire
clean. Under the wire just ahead of, and after, the suction boxes are several
small supporting rolls called "table rolls."
For special heavy duty materials, modern paper machines are available
which can lay down not only one but two or more layers of wet sheet, one over
the other. Often a top layer of thinner but more special quality stock can be
laid down over a bottom or base layer of heavier stock. In such cases the
forming section of the Fourdrinier is made slightly longer and a second
head box and slice are added to lay down the top layer before the bottom layer
is fully drained. Care must be taken that the entering top layer slurry does not
disrupt the partially formed bottom layer.
For heavy sheet made at high speeds, a considerably different design of
paper machine can be used. The wet sheet is formed under pressure between
two wires, one on one side, the other on the other side of the sheet, with the
feed injected between the two. The clearance between the wires decreases as
the sheet moves along, the water being squeezed out into chambers on each
side of the wire. To avoid the complication of a multitude of table rolls, one
side of the pair of wires may run on a large cylindrical roll, and the other side
stretched over it. The action can be repeated with any desired number of head
boxes and forming cylindrical rolls.
Returning to the basic simple Fourdrinier operation, the sheet being
carried on the felt is moved a relatively short distance (5 to 15ft) to the first of
several drying devices, either of squeeze roll, through drier, or "can" type, as
described further on. The sheet is removed from the felt at the point of entry
to this drying device by "blowing off." The "blow-off" is a slotted pipe placed
at the appropriate point behind the felt, through which air is blown at a
modest pressure to remove the wet paper. The felt continues on around its
cycling loop, generally past a water wash station and squeeze rolls, and a
vacuum box to dry the felt.
Felts used on paper machines must be of a high degree of uniformity in
porosity, mechanical strength, stretch qualities, and thickness .
C. Drying and Calendering
The wet sheet as transferred from the carrier felt to the drying system is more
than 70% by weight water, and a good deal of thermal energy would be
required if all the moisture were to be removed via the conventional steam-
320 Paper Manufacture
heated "can" driers. In many mills a rubber-coated pair of squeeze rolls is
used to mechanically remove as much water as possible. One of the rolls may
be porous to facilitate taking the water away from the surface of the paper. A
high degree of water removal by squeezing through rolls is limited by the poor
mechanical strength of the sheet at this point in the process, and also by the
disadvantage of excessive compression of the wet sheet, making it less
amenable to evaporative drying.
An alternative method of removing the large initial content of water in the
sheet is to use a "through drier," as shown in Fig. 5. The through drier is a
large diameter perforated metal drum which rotates, carrying the sheet
around under a large, closely fitting metal hood. Hot combustion gases pass
from the hood through the moist sheet, vaporizing water. The vapors pass
through the paper sheet and the perforations of the drum into the interior of
the drum which is maintained under a moderate vacuum (say 4-8 in. water).
The connection to the source of vacuum is a stationary shoe inside the
rotating drum, so placed that the sheet is under vacuum from the moment it
reaches the drum until shortly before it reaches the point of discharge (see
Fig. 5). At the discharge a short stationary shoe provides a modest blast of
compressed air to ensure removal of the sheet from the perforated drum.
The moist air coming from the sheet passes into the suction of a large fan,
which circulates the air past a chamber where natural gas or LPG is burned to
quickly heat the air to a controlled temperature well above the boiling point of
water (say 300-SOOoF). The upper limit of temperature depends upon the
residual moisture in the sheet leaving the drier-the greater the moisture
content, the higher the allowable temperature. Moisture balance in the
circulating air system is controlled by bleeding moist air out after the blower,
before the combustion chamber. The rejected moist air may be passed
through an economizer to recover its heat, transferring it to cold make-up air
required to keep the circulation volume in balance. Operation of a through-
drier system is usually controlled by a microcomputer.
Final drying of the paper is usually accomplished by use of the time-
honored "can" driers which are simply cylindrical drums over which the
paper passes, with alternating sides facing the drum surface. The cans are
heated internally by steam at a moderate pressure (say 10 to 50 lb/in.
2
),
admitted through rotary "Johnson joints." The condensate is similarly
removed, being picked up at the bottom of the rotating drum by a stationary
pickup siphon or manifold. The cans are built with as thin a shell as possible
to withstand pressure and mechanical requirements, to facilitate heat trans-
fer. They are highly polished and accurately aligned. A typical can-drier
arrangement is shown in Fig. 6.
After the paper has been dried to about 3 to 5% moisture it is ready for the
final steps in the ordinary papermaking process. The paper passes through
one or more calendering rolls which are highly polished, precision squeeze
rolls which provide for densification and a smooth finish on the paper. The
pressure on the rolls is hydraulically controlled to give a total load of many
tons across the width of the moving sheet. To ensure against differences in
pressure across the width of the calender, elaborate internal compensating
devices are built into the rolls.
Paper ManufactUI
From
drier
Wet
frorr
ti'
m
a{:
of
sp
to
m
1
aper Manufacture
tir of squeeze rolls is
. One of the rolls may
1rface of the paper. A
is limited by the poor
)Cess, and also by the
heet, making it less
ontent of water in the
'he through drier is a
:, carrying the sheet
Jmbustion gases pass
tter. The vapors pass
m into the interior of
n (say 4-8 in. water).
nary shoe inside the
1 from the moment it
)int of discharge (see
ies a modest blast of
.he perforated drum.
suction of a large fan,
s or LPG is burned to
ve the boiling point of
re depends upon the
greater the moisture
iture balance in the
r out after the blower,
: air may be passed
it to cold make-up air
>eration of a through-
by use of the time-
ums over which the
urface. The cans are
;ay 10 to 50 lb/in.
2
),
1densate is similarly
drum by a stationary
hin a shell as possible
, facilitate heat trans-
. A typical can-drier
ture it is ready for the
paper passes through
~ d , precision squeeze
ish on the paper. The
a total load of many
against differences in
tternal compensating
Paper Manufacture 321
From
drier
Wet sheet
from felt
Hot air hood
Rotating
cylinder
Combustion
chamber
Circulating
fan
FIG. 5 . Through drier.
Make-up
air
Moist
air
discharge
As the mechanical and chemical properties of paper are extremely sensi-
tive to final moisture content, it is sometimes desirable to use sophisticated
means to control it. One such means is the use of a "moisturizer," which
applies a controlled amount of a fine mistlike spray of water onto the surface
of the paper after the calender. A high voltage may be utilized to direct the
spray specifically to the paper surface. The can drier system is operated so as
to overdry the paper, and the final moisture is established by use of the
moisturizer.
exits via Johnson
joint
FIG. 6. "Can" driers.
' 4 To calender
322 Paper Manufacture
D. Finishing
The paper leaving the forming and drying section of the mill is normally
wound up, under controlled tension, on a "jumbo roll" which covers the full
width of the machine and may be wound to 5 ft in diameter or more. This
heavy roll is then removed (while a new roll is started) and taken to a
cutting/slitting machine, where the jumbo roll is unwound and rapidly run
past a series of circular knives set at the proper spacing to cut the sheet into
whatever widths may be desired.
For may purposes a highly glossy finish may be preferred, in which case a
separate calendering operation can be carried out whereby a layer of resin or
plastic material is sheeted through a pair of calender rolls and then immedi-
ately laid onto the paper as it passes through another pair of rolls. A pattern
may be embossed on the plastic surface during such an operation.
For speCial strength additives to the paper, such as vinyl acetate emulsions,
viscose solutions, rubber latex, and a wide variety of other materials, a
dipping plus squeeze-roll arrangement may be inserted into the drying train
part of the plant. For example, after a half-dozen drying cans, the paper with
a moisture content of 5-10% is dipped and squeezed to yield an impregnated
paper with 20-30% reinforcing agent and perhaps another 20-30% water.
This sheet then passes over another 6-12 drying cans or even a through drier
to work the moisture back to 3-5%.
A creping operation has already been described.
Miscellaneous Auxiliary Equipment
In this brief description a large number of auxiliary items have been skipped,
but perhaps deserve passing mention.
1. The white water circulation system takes advantage of gravity to a
considerable degree. The Fourdrinier wire with its suction boxes is
located on a floor of the mill well above the basement, while the white
water silo is well below the machine. This provides a natural drainage
suction, and vacuum pumps are needed only to trim the pressure in the
vapor space of the silo. Of course, the dry vacuum boxes do need Nash
vacuum pumps.
2. Because of many small sources of water around the paper machine (wire-
cleaning sprays or "showers") and felt cleaning showers, wet end paper
trimming jets, water seals, etc., a fair amount of excess white water is
developed (beyond what can normally be recycled to the machine). This
excess white water passes into a "save all" filter, a large rotary vacuum
filter which recovers most of the fibers in the excess water, and even some
of the pigments (which are present only in small amounts). The save all
product is recycled to the pulpers.
Paper Manufact
aper Manufacture
the mill is normally
which covers the full
meter or more. This
:ed) and taken to a
und and rapidly run
to cut the sheet into
rred, in which case a
by a layer of resin or
ls and then immedi-
.ir of rolls. A pattern
lperation.
yl acetate emulsions,
f other materials, a
into the drying train
cans, the paper with
ield an impregnated
'ther 20-30% water.
even a through drier
shave been skipped,
age of gravity to a
ts suction boxes is
ent, while the white
; a natural drainage
1 the pressure in the
Joxes do need Nash
aper machine (wire-
wers, wet end paper
"cess white water is
, the machine). This
arge rotary vacuum
rater, and even some
ounts). The save all
Paper Manufacture 323
3. When starting up a machine, or when operational upsets occur, a large
amount of damaged sheet "broke" is generated. This broke is also usually
recycled to the pulpers unless it is contaminated, in which case it may be
burned.
4. To facilitate startup with a minimum of scrap or "broke," a usual practice
is to cut only a narrow "tail" of sheet leaving the Fourdrinier wire (the rest
being recycled wet to the mix boxes). This "tail" is passed under a rope at
one side of the machine which threads over and under all the equipment
the sheet must pass through on its way through the drying end. If the tail
makes its run successfully, the tail is quickly widened to full sheet width
and the drying system thus becomes fully threaded. The edge of the sheet
that passed under the rope is trimmed away at the wet end, and the rope
no longer carries a "tail."
5. Since can driers are bulky, they are arranged close together in staggered
fashion. As water vapors emanate from the paper passing over the closely
stacked cans, it is advantageous to provide good ventilation between
successive cans to provide dry air and to remove hot, moist air.
6. As through driers handle very hot gases and since occasionally some
paper may be trapped in the through-drier ductwork, it is desirable to
provide adequate fire prevention measures. These include automatic
shutoff of the combustion system, shutoff of the fresh air intake, and
replacing the air with a steam snuffing system.
7. The paper, as it passes through the drying system, shrinks, and the speed
of the rolls handling it must be correspondingly adjusted. This is not a
simple task but is accomplished by providing many individually speed
controlled motor drives along the length of the machine. The speed is
adjusted to maintain constant tension in the moving sheet.
8. Occasionally it will happen that there is uneven shrinkage across the
width of the machine, a condition that can cause serious tracking prob-
lems and sheet breakage. This problem can be alleviated by judicious
placement and adjustment of Mount Hope rolls. These are rubber (or
elastomer) covered bowed rolls, the degree and direction of bowing being
controllable by simple adjustments which can be made while the
machine is running. The internals of these rolls are made up of a
multitude of short cylindrical sections, all rotating on a common small
diameter flexible axis.
Instrumentation
The instrumentation of a modern paper machine has become highly sophisti-
cated. Generally the machine is subdivided into a number of separate control
stations, each of which is monitored and controlled by a microcomputer.
These stations then feed information to a master computer and control
station which keeps the whole machine under the specified operating
conditions.
324 Paper Manufacture
Sensing instruments include flow to the head box, consistency, flow
through each suction box, vacuum, wire speed, wet and dry sheet thickness,
moisture content, porosity, presence of holes or contaminants, and many
other variables. Many of these are monitored across the width of the sheet,
and a degree of uniformity is controlled.
Some Paper Product Properties
Some key properties of typical grades of paper as made today may be listed as
follows.
Basis Weight (in grams per square meter)*
Tissue
Towel
Newsprint
Grocery bag
Fine papers
Kraft linerboard
Box board
Caliper (thickness) (in micrometers)
Capacitor tissue
Facial tissue
Newsprint
Offset bond
Linerboard
Book cover
15-20
50-60
45-50
50-100
60-150 (loaded)
125-440
190-585
7.6
65
85
100
230-600
770-7600
Tensile Strength (in kgjcm width or sometimes in breaking length,
i.e., length which is self-supporting)
Newsprint
Linerboard
Aluminum foil
2
12
20-25
The strength in the machine direction will be 1.5 to 2.5 times that in the cross
direction. The strength in thickness direction is even less than in the cross
*In older terminology, lb/3000 ft
2
ream; lib/ream= 1.62 g/m
2

Paper and Pulp, E1
din
nat
30.
Ot.
De
Me
Me
Liq
Elo
Te::
Op
T a ~
Ele
Paper and I
(see also Energy Cc
Ent
lati
cos
fin1
alte
enc
Co
OPI
reg
for
pla
cas
ste<
cor
cia!
use
tot
per Manufacture
consistency, flow
lry sheet thickness,
1inants, and many
width of the sheet,
lay may be listed as
eaking length,
nes that in the cross
5S than in the cross
Paper and Pulp, Energy Management 325
direction. A practically used measure of strength is the Mullen burst pressure,
namely the pounds pressure required to burst an unsupported disk of paper
30.5 mm in diameter. (Pressure may run lO to 100 lb.)
Other Properties Measured
Depending on the ultimate use, properties measured may include:
Moisture
Moisture vapor permeability
Liquid permeability
Elongation
Tear strength
Opacity, brightness, gloss, color stability
Taste, odor
Electrical resistance, dielectric strength
Paper and Pulp, Energy Management
ERNEST 0 . OHSOL
(see also Energy Conservation, Paper Operations, Fuel Choices, and Energy Demand)
Energy management is a vital concern throughout the paper industry. Regu-
lations requiring decreased consumption per unit of production, increasing
costs per Btu, and threats of curtailment have made it imperative that mills
find and implement means of increasing energy efficiency and of using
alternative sources. The control technology applicable to accomplishing
energy efficiency improvements in the pulp and paper industries is discussed.
Computer implementation of energy-saving techniques offer outstanding
opportunities because of the accuracy with which individual units can be
regulated, and the coordination which can be enforced over entire complexes
for broad-based optimization.
Early energy management efforts in paper mills and other industrial
plants were focused on electrical load control. Savings were achieved in many
cases without affecting production. Attention is now being turned toward
steam generation and distribution systems, because these relate directly to the
consumption of expensive purchased fuels. This can be particularly benefi-
cial in pulp and paper applications because of the large amounts of steam
used for direct and indirect heating needs in the processes and for conversion
to mechanical shaft work or electricity.