INTRODUCTION Vitamins are well known for their contribution for our body regulation and development.

It is an organic compound that required only tiny amounts by an organism for normal growth, metabolism and health. A vitamin can be refer as organic chemical compound and it must be obtain from diet because organism cannot synthesized sufficient quantities that are needed by themselves. Vitamins are essential to human health as it is needed to make the thousands of enzymes, hormones and other chemical messengers our body uses to grow, repair itself, make energy, remove wastes, defend against infection, and generally keep you running smoothly. It is also needed to keep your bones strong, your eyes sharp and your brain alert. There are 13 vitamins in all, and every single one of them is needed without exceptions. Vitamins are not food or a substitute for food. They have no calories and give no energy directly. There are two main classifications of vitamins according to their solubility in solutions: fat-soluble and water-soluble. The fat-soluble vitamins are vitamin A, vitamin E, vitamin D, and vitamin K. The presence of fat is required for the assimilation of these vitamins in the body. Water-soluble vitamins dissolve easily in water, therefore it is easily excreted from urinary system and it is important to have daily intake for water-soluble vitamins. Many types of water soluble vitamins are synthesized by bacteria. Fat-soluble vitamins are absorbed through the intestinal tract with the help of lipids (fats). Since they are more likely to accumulate in the body, they might lead to hypervitaminosis compare to water-soluble vitamins. Vitamins have diverse biochemical functions. For example, vitamin D has hormone-like function as regulators of mineral metabolism. Some forms of vitamin A are involved in cell regulators and tissue growth and differentiation. Other vitamin E and C have antioxidants function for our body. The largest number of vitamins in our body; B complex vitamins function as precursors for enzyme cofactors that help enzymes in their as catalyst in metabolism. Our following project papers would explain more details on fat-soluble vitamins and their differences from water-soluble vitamins. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fat_soluble_vitamins#History

Fat-Soluble Vitamins

REVIEW The fat-soluble vitamins are vital for many of the functions our body needs to stay healthy, including cell differentiation; immune system function and they will help to keep your bones strong. The fat-soluble vitamins which are vitamins A, D, E, and K absorb through the large intestines. For this absorption process to work properly dietary fat must also be present. If fat is not eaten along with the fat-soluble vitamins, it will be more difficult for the body to complete the absorption process. Once they are finally absorbed however, fat-soluble vitamins are stored in the liver. Vitamin A is found in the body in three forms: retinol, retinal, and retinoic acid. Together, they are essential to vision, healthy epithelial tissues, and growth. Vitamin A is primarily found in animal foods, including dairy products, fish, liver, and egg yolks. It has a pro-vitamin, called beta carotene, which is found in vegetables with orange pigment, like carrots, sweet potatoes, and apricots, as well as some dark, leafy greens including spinach and kale. A deficiency of vitamin A can cause retarded skeletal growth, night blindness, various abnormalities of the skin and linings of the genitourinary system and gastrointestinal tract, and, in children, susceptibility to serious infection. Severe deficiency can cause death. Vitamin D can be differentiated into two types supplements which are D2, ergocalciferol and D3, cholecalciferol. Vitamin D can be synthesized in the body with the help of sunlight obtained from fortified milk. Vitamin Ds function is the mineralization of bones which raises blood calcium and phosphorus by increasing absorption from digestive tract, withdrawing calcium from bones and stimulating retention by kidneys. Normally, vitamin D is created when our skin is exposed to sunlight. Vitamin D is required by our body to absorb and utilize calcium, which keeps our bones and teeth strong. Vitamin E is also called tocopherol acts as an antioxidant, defending lipids and other components of the cells against oxidative damage. In addition, it works to protect vitamins A and C as well as red and white blood cells, promotes iron metabolism and helps to maintain nervous system tissue. Vitamin E is found predominantly in vegetable oils and appears to be one of the least toxic of the fat-soluble vitamins. Vitamin E is also found in seeds, whole grains, and nuts. Deficiency in vitamin E is rare but toxicity can occur. Vitamin K was named after the first letter of the German word Koagulation. Vitamin K is sometimes called the band-aid vitamin because its primary function is in the clotting of blood. Vitamin K also helps to strengthen bones and counter osteoporosis. The best sources are leafy green vegetables such as cabbage and spinach. Vitamin K is also found in plant oils, margarine, soybean and canola oils. Vitamin K deficiency stops blood clotting properly so it can cause uncontrolled bleeding and easy bruising.

Fat-Soluble Vitamins

CONTENT
1.0 Definition of Vitamins A,D,E & K 1.1 Vitamin A 1.2 Vitamin D 1.3 Vitamin E 1.4 Vitamin K Differences between Fat-Soluble Vitamin and Water-Soluble Vitamins 2.1 Stability 2.2 2.3 2.4 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0 8.0 9.0 Solubility Storage Overdosing

2.0

Importance of Fat-Soluble Vitamins Deficiency of Fat-Soluble Vitamins Recommended Level of Fat-Soluble Vitamins Over Dosage of Fat-Soluble Vitamins Conclusion References Appendices

Fat-Soluble Vitamins

1.0

Definition of Vitamins A, D, E, and K

In the ancient day, vitamin was called as Vitamine, meaning amine of life. This name was created by Kazimierz Funk. Despite of not all vitamins consist of amine groups, a new name was then suggested by Jack Cecil Drummond in 1920, which is called vitamin. Firstly, vitamins are organic compounds that cannot be synthesis in adequate amount by our own body, and we must obtain it from our diet. Therefore, it is importance for us to get a well balanced diet in our daily life. A well balanced diet should be included seven classes of foods. They are carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, minerals, fiber, water and also vitamins. Next, vitamins are required as an essential nutrient in a very small quantity by body. However, other essential nutrients such as dietary minerals, essential fatty acids or essential amino acids cannot be grouped as vitamins. This is because other essential nutrients like dietary minerals are inorganic compounds while essential fatty acids or essential amino acids are needed in larger amounts. Furthermore, the classification of vitamins is not based on their structure but is based on their biological and chemical activities. For humans, there are 13 types of vitamins. These 13 types of vitamins are classified into two main groups. They are water-soluble vitamins and fatsoluble vitamins. As a conclusion, vitamins are organic compound that are needed in tiny amount by our body and it is essential for us in order to have a healthy body. Types of Fat-Soluble Vitamins There are four types of fat-soluble vitamins which are vitamin A, D, E and K. Each of them plays different rules to maintain our healthy. Fat-soluble vitamins are usually being absorbed by stomach and intestinal tract with the help of lipids. Unlike water-soluble vitamins, fat-soluble vitamins can be store in our and fatty tissues for a long periods. Thus, taking fat-soluble vitamins in excess will lead up the toxicity inside our body. The foods one eat is the best way to get the nutrients one need. As a result, it is important for us to consult our doctor before taking any food supplements.

Fat-Soluble Vitamins

1.10

Vitamin A

Vitamer is the chemical substances which fulfill the same specific vitamin function. For vitamin A, the most common of vitamers are retinol, retinal and carotenoids. History of Vitamin A In 1500 BC, there are two ways of curing night blindness were practice in the society. Although the ancient Egyptians do not known that the night blindness is caused by a vitamin A deficiency, they still knew that the night blindness patient can be cured by feeding them liver. Another way to cure night blindness was suggested by London Medical Papyrus, which is the juice squeezed from cooked liver was put directly on the eyes. In 1913, the first fat-soluble vitamin was identified by scientists, that is vitamin A. George Wald was the person who discovery that vitamin A could participate directly in a physiological process. With this discovery, he and his partner, Ragnar Granit and Halden Keffer Hartline were awarded the Nobel Prize in 1967. The Sources of Vitamin A There are two main sources of vitamin A, which are precursor forms and preformed retinoid. The precursor forms of vitamin A is called provitamin A carotenoids. Beta-carotene is one type of provitamin A which will then converted to form retinoid. The foods that are rich in provitamin A are red, orange, yellow and dark green vegetables. Fruits which are orange in colour also rich in provitamin A. For example, carrot, sweet potato, spinach, pumpkin, apricots and papaya. Preformed retinoid such as retinol, retinal and retinoic acid are biologically active but they are sensitive to heat and light. It also can undergo oxidation easily. In the human intestines, retinoid are converted into retinols which will then store in the liver with the help of dietary fat. In the liver, vitamin A is then transfer to other tissues by a special transport protein named retinol binding protein (RBP). Milk, fish, egg yolk, dairy products and liver are rich in preformed retinoid.
* Food dietary table source of vitamin A can be referred in the Appendix 1

The Main Functions of Vitamin A The active forms of vitamin A have three basic functions: vision, growth and development of tissues, and immunity. To help with vision, vitamin A combines with a protein called opsin to form rhodopsin in the rod cells of the retina. When vitamin A is inadequate, the lack of rhodopsin makes it difficult to see in dim light. Vitamin A is also involved in normal cell differentiation, a process through which embryonic cells transform into mature tissue cells with highly specific functions. It thus supports male and female reproductive processes and bone growth. Besides that, vitamin A is essential for immune function and vitamin A deficiency is associated with decreased resistance to infections. The severity of some infections, such as measles and diarrhea, is reduced by vitamin-A supplementation among those who suffer from vitamin-A deficiency.
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Fat-Soluble Vitamins

The Structure of Vitamin A (Retinol)

Diagram 1: The structure of retinol (Source: http://www.en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Retinol_structure.svg ) The diagram above had shown the structure of retinol which is chemically a pale yellow crystalline solid. Retinol has the same structure and biologic activity with vitamin A. It can be clearly seen that the retinol have a retinyl group. Retinyl group comprises an isoprenoid chain which attached to the beta-ionone ring. This structure is very important as a site for vitamin activity. Others vitamin A family such as beta-carotene, alpha-carotene and gamma-carotene also have retinyl group. Toxicity Vitamin-A toxicity, called hypervitaminosis A, can result from long-term supplementation of two to four times the RDA for preformed vitamin A. Excess intake of preformed vitamin A is a teratogen, meaning it can cause birth defects. Birth defects associated with vitamin-A toxicity include cleft palate, heart abnormalities, and brain malfunction. Acute excess intake during pregnancy can also cause spontaneous abortions. Pregnant women should avoid prenatal supplements containing retinal, as well as medications made from retinoids, such as Accutane and Retin-A. Prolonged and excessive consumption of carotene-rich foods can lead to hypercarotenemia, a clinical condition characterized by deep orange discoloration of the skin and increased carotene levels in the blood. This condition is usually harmless.

Fat-Soluble Vitamins

1.20

Vitamin D

Vitamin D also known as calciferol. There are five types of vitamin D which are vitamin D1, vitamin D2, vitamin D3, vitamin D4 and vitamin D5. However, the two major vitamins for vitamin D are ergocalciferol and cholecalciferol. The other name for ergocalciferol and cholecalciferol are known as vitamin D2 and vitamin D3 respectively. History of Vitamin D During the 17th century, Dr. Daniel Whistler and Professor Francis Glisson are the scientists who wrote the first description about rickets. In the period 1910-1930, a lot of studies had been carried out in order to found out main causes of rickets. For example, Sir Edward Mellanby established that the cod liver oil was a best solution for rickets through his experiments. Soon, further studies like how to differentiate vitamin A and vitamin D has been done by E. V. McCollum and his coworkers. Other than that, Goldblatt and Soames had find out the reaction of vitamin D when it is exposing to sunlight. Rats are also been used by scientists like Hess, Weintock, Steenbock and Black to shown that we can get vitamin D from sunlight. Finally, Professor Adolf Windaus at the University of Gttingen in Germany had successfully determined the chemical structures of vitamin D, in 1930s. The Sources of Vitamin D Sunlight is one of the sources for vitamin D. Sunlight stimulates the synthesis of vitamin D, which regulates the bodys absorption of calcium and therefore is essential to skeletal health. Invertebrates, fungus and plants which have response to UV irradiation can produce vitamin D2. Halibut and cod fish oils; mackerel, salmon, and sardine are rich in vitamin D2. We can also obtain vitamin D from our skin with the help of sunlight. In the skin of most vertebrate animals, 7-dehydrocholesterol is produced in a large amount. UVB ultraviolet light at wavelengths between 270nm 300nm, with the peak synthesis occurring at 295nm 297nm is needed for 7-dehydrocholesterol to be converted into vitamin D3. It is importance for us to expose ourselves to sunlight for around 15 minutes per week to get vitamin D3. Nowadays, dairy products such as milk, margarine and vegetable oils are fortified with vitamin D. Therefore, for those who cannot gain enough quantities of vitamin D can take fortified foods rather than taking vitamin supplements. However, we must be careful while choosing the fortified foods. This is because some fortified foods may contain too much vitamin D which will cause toxicity in the body. For example, the fortified milk produced in European was banned because of the high content of vitamin D.
* Food dietary table source of vitamin D can be referred in the Appendix 2

Fat-Soluble Vitamins

The Main Functions of Vitamin D The best-known function of active vitamin D is to help regulate blood levels of calcium and phosphorous. Vitamin D increases absorption of these minerals from the gastrointestinal (GI) tract. In combination with parathyroid hormone, it enhances their reabsorption from the kidneys and their mobilization from bones into the blood. Vitamin D helps maintain calcium levels even if dietary intakes are not optimal. Calcitriol affects growth of normal cells and some cancer cells. Adequate vitamin-D status has been linked to a reduced risk of developing breast, colon, and prostrate cancers. The Structure of Vitamin D2 and Vitamin D3

Diagram 2: The structure of ergocalciferol (Vitamin D2).

Diagram 3: The structure of cholecalciferol (Vitamin D3). (Source: http://www.chm.bris.ac.uk/workprojects2002/schnepp/vitamind.html) The diagrams above showed the structure of ergocalciferol and cholecalciferol. Actually, all vitamers of vitamin D are secosteriods. It can be clearly seen that one of the bonds in the steroids rings is broken. We can differentiate the structure of ergocalciferol and cholecalciferol through their side chain. For example, there is a double bond located between carbons 22 and carbons 23 at the side chain of ergocalciferol. Other than that, a methyl group is attached to the carbons 24 on the side chain of ergocalciferol. Toxicity Vitamin D is most likely to have toxic effects when consumed in excessive amounts through supplementation. Excess vitamin D raises blood calcium levels, resulting in calcium precipitation in soft tissues and stone formation in the kidneys, where calcium becomes concentrated in an effort to excrete it.
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Fat-Soluble Vitamins

1.30

Vitamin E

The two major vitamers for vitamin E are tocopherols and tocotrienols. Tocopherols has four family members, there are alpha-tocopherols, beta-topoherols, gamma-topoherols and delta-tocopherols. Tocotrienols also has four family members; there are alpha-tocotrienols, beta-tocotrienols, gamma-tocotrienols and delta-tocotrienols. However, only alpha-tocopherols can carried out vitamin E activity in human body. Vitamin E also well known as a fat-soluble antioxidant. It helps to protect vitamin A from oxidation. History of Vitamin E In 1922, Herbert Evans and Katherine Scott Bishop are the scientists who discover vitamin E. However, it is only named as vitamin E in 1924. Tocophenol is the scientific name for vitamin E. This is because scientists discovered that vitamin E help in animal offspring. This word comes from Greeks. Tokos means childbirth, Phero means forward, and ol telling us it has alcohol properties. In 1936, wheat germ oil which is rich in vitamin E was discovered by scientists. Soon, several experiments and studies were carried out in order to proof that vitamin E is an essential vitamin. Research also proven the regularly intake of antioxidant-rich fruits and vegetables can cut down the risk of getting heart disease and cancer. The Sources of Vitamin E Some like others vitamin, we can gain vitamin E from our diet. Usually, foods that are rich in vitamin E contain polyunsaturated fatty acids. The higher the amount of polyunsaturated fatty acids, the higher the amount of vitamin E. For example, wheat germ oil which the most abundant source of vitamin E. It is important for us to take a well-balanced diet because scientists had found that approximately 2/3 of the sources of vitamin E are come from salad oils and margarine. The minor sources of vitamin E come from vegetables and grains. There are hazelnuts, pistachio nuts, almonds, soy beans, vegetables oils, and broccoli. Seeds like sunflower seeds and fruits like peaches are also rich in vitamin E.
* Food dietary table source of vitamin E can be referred in the Appendix 3

The Main Functions of Vitamin E Vitamin E is an antioxidant and one of the body's primary defenders against oxidative damage caused by free radicals. Its activity is enhanced by other antioxidants such as vitamin C and the mineral selenium. Vitamin E interrupts free-radical chain reactions by getting oxidized, thus protecting cell membranes from free-radical attack. Scientists have implicated oxidative stress in the development of cancer, arthritis, cataracts, heart diseases, and in the process of aging itself. However, it is not yet known whether supplementation with megadoses of vitamin E offers protection against heart disease and cancer beyond that provided by positive dietary and lifestyle changes.
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Fat-Soluble Vitamins

The Structure of Vitamin E

Diagram 4 : The structure of alpha-tocopherol and tocotrienol (Source: http://www.uic.edu/classes/phar/phar332/Clinical_Cases/vitaminE/VitaminEChemistry.htm) The diagram above showed the structure of alpha-tocophenol and tocotrienol. The similarity property between alpha-tocophenol and tocotrienol is each of them has 3 chiral centers. The chiral centers located at the phyty tail at the position of 2, 4 and 8. The difference between this two structure is tocotrienol have double bonds on isoprenoid units and an unsaturated tail. There is a possible for substituent to attach itself on aromatic rings at positions 5,6,7 and 8. Therefore, a lot of derivative of these structures are formed. Toxicity Large doses of vitamin E can counter the actions of vitamin K and decrease the production of vitamin Kdependent clotting factors, thus promoting serious hemorrhaging effects in adults. Individuals who are vitamin-K deficient or who are taking anticoagulant medications such as warfarin or aspirin are especially at risk from megadoses of vitamin E.

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Fat-Soluble Vitamins

1.40

Vitamin K

Phylloquinone and menaquinones are the primarily vitamer for vitamin K. Phylloquinone and menaquinones are come from a family compound called quinones. Vitamin K3 or menadione, vitamin K4 or menadiol and vitamin K5 are the synthetic forms of vitamin K. Each of them is used widely in their specific fields. For example, vitamin K3 was used in pet food industry while vitamin K5 is used to inhibit the growth of fungal. History of Vitamin K In 1929, vitamin K was discovered by Henrik Dam who is a Danish scientist. This discovery was reported in a German journal with the name of Koagulations Vitamin. Soon, the new for this vitamin is vitamin K. Henrik Dam didnt stop his research form discovering more about vitamin K. The structure and chemical nature of vitamin K were discovered by Edward Adelbert Doisy. Finally, both of them were awarded the Nobel Prize in 1947. At the University Of Iowa Department Of Pathology, Drs. Harry Pratt Smith, Emory Warner, Kenneth Brinkhous and Walter Seegers had successfully found out the way for saving a jaundiced patient with prothrombin deficiency. This discovery was happened in 1938. Stenflo et al was the person who discovered the precise function of vitamin K in 1974. Sources of Vitamin K It cannot be denied that the bacteria inside our intestine bring benefits to us. This is because the bacteria inside our intestine play a critical role in the production of vitamin K. The vitamin K that synthesized by the bacteria in the intestine is the main source of vitamin K. Therefore, it is important for a newborn baby to take supplement at the first week when the amount of intestinal bacteria of his or her is low. Besides that, we can also gain vitamin K from leafy green vegetables which including cauliflower, broccoli, spinach, cabbage and turnip greens. Soy bean oil, canolo oil, olive oil, oilseed rape and cottonseed oil are the examples of vegetables oils which are rich in vitamin K. Vitamin K also can be found in fruits like kiwifruit. Nevertheless, there are limited amount of vitamin K in animal foods. Eggs, liver and meat are the examples of animal foods that contain vitamin E.
* Food dietary table source of vitamin K can be referred in the Appendix 4

The Main Functions of Vitamin K Vitamin K helps in the activation of seven blood-clotting-factor proteins that participate in a series of reactions to form a clot that eventually stops the flow of blood. Vitamin K also participates in the activation of bone proteins, which greatly enhances their calcium-binding properties. Low levels of circulating vitamin K have been associated with low bone-mineral density. Thus, an adequate intake of vitamin K may help protect against hip fractures.

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Fat-Soluble Vitamins

The Structure of Vitamin K

Diagram 5 : The structure of vitamin K1 or phylloquinone.

Diagram 6 : The structure of vitamin K2 or menaquinones (Source: http://www.chm.bris.ac.uk/webprojects2002/schnepp/vitamink.html [Diagram 5] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Menaquinones.svg [Diagram 6] ) The diagrams above have shown the structure of vitamin K1, vitamin K2 and vitamin K3. It can be said that naphtoquinone is the functional group for vitamin K. This is because all forms of vitamin K have a methylated napthoquinone ring. At the side chain of vitamin K1, there are four isoprenoid residues and one of them is unsaturated. However, there are variable numbers of isoprenoid residues and all of them are unsaturated. Difference in the lipophilicity of the various side chains and food matrices might affect the transportation, absorption and bioavailability of vitamin K. Toxicity High doses of vitamin K can reduce the effectiveness of anticoagulant drugs such as warfarin (Coumadin), which is used to prevent blood clotting. People taking these drugs should maintain a consistent daily intake of vitamin K. Megadose supplements of vitamin A and E can pose a risk to vitamin-K status. Vitamin A interferes with absorption of vitamin K, and large doses of vitamin E decrease vitamin Kdependent clotting factors, thus promoting bleeding. Toxicity from food is rare, because the body excretes vitamin K much more rapidly than other fat-soluble vitamins.

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Fat-Soluble Vitamins

2.0

Differences between Fat-Soluble Vitamin and Water-Soluble Vitamins

Natural vitamins are those organic food substances which are found only in plants and animals, i.e., living things. Our body is not able to synthesize or manufacture vitamins although there are a few exceptions to this. Therefore, they must be supplied either directly in the diet, or by way of dietary supplements. Vitamins are vital if our body is to function normally. They are absolutely necessary for our growth, general-well being and vitality. Vitamins are essential nutrients that are mainly found in foods but some can also be produced by your body. They contain no calories and do not give your body energy but they do help in certain vital functions. Although each of the thirteen vitamins are unique they do share certain characteristics which allows them to be grouped into two broad categories; fat-soluble vitamins (A,D,E and K) and water-soluble vitamins (all the B vitamins and vitamin C) Many people wonder what the difference between a fat-soluble vitamin and a watersoluble vitamin is, and what the implications are for their nutrition. There is a big difference between these two types of vitamins, and how they are broken down and used by your body. Understanding both vitamin types will help you optimize your nutrition, so that your body has all the building blocks needed to stay fit and healthy. Part of the difference between these body types is apparent, because one dissolves in lipids, or fats, and the other dissolves in water, and this has an effect on how well your body can use the vitamin to meet your physical needs. If you do not have enough fat in your diet than vitamins which are fat-soluble can not be utilized, and the same is true of vitamins that are water soluble if there is not an adequate amount of water in your diet. The fat-soluble vitamins are vitamin A, vitamin D, vitamin E, and vitamin K. They may also go by the name lipid-soluble vitamins instead. These vitamins are stored in our body and are dissolved then stored fat in our body. Fat-soluble vitamins are released when fat is broken down to access the vitamins or for other nutritional or energy needs. These vitamins are absorbed into your intestines for our body needs. Without these four vitamins, your body could not perform the critical job of repairing daily damage or help your organs function efficiently. Because they are stored in the fat, these vitamins can build up. Fish liver oil and essential omega 3 fatty acids are very rich in both vitamin D and vitamin A, and these vitamins can be stored in your liver until it is needed by your body. These vitamins do not have to be consumed every single day because they can be stored until needed in your body. There are a number of different water-soluble vitamins, and these are all eight B vitamins and the sunshine vitamin, vitamin C. These are the vitamins which are not stored in your body, and because of this you must eat these vitamins every single day to ensure your body has all the nutrients required for proper maintenance and function. Because these vitamins dissolve in water and are excreted through your urine every day, it is impossible to overdose or be in any danger from a buildup in your body. This is why you need to consume them daily. Your intestine will absorb these vitamins and they will be sent directly into your bloodstream, some of them used or excreted. The eight B vitamins are B1, B2, B3, B5, B6, B7, B9, and B12.

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Fat-Soluble Vitamins

Taking a high quality multivitamin every day can ensure that your body gets enough of every water-soluble vitamin needed, without having to worry about your diet alone not being enough. Eating a balance and nutritious diet that contains adequate amounts of beneficial oils and fats will ensure that your body to use fat-soluble vitamins efficiently and effectively. Many foods are fortified to help meet the need of nutritional tool and standards, and eating a wide variety of foods from all the food groups and taking a multivitamin each morning will make sure you get enough of both vitamin types. This will help you guarantee that you have everything you need to stay fit and healthy. Not having enough of either vitamin type can cause health problems, so to make sure your diet is rich with nutrients and a variety of vitamins and phytochemicals. You should also make sure you have enough good fats in your diet and you drink plenty of water. This will let your body use the vitamins present very efficiently and get the most from them. Main comparison between the two vitamins; fat-soluble vitamins and water-soluble vitamins: 2.10 Solubility

One of the main differences between these two types of vitamins (as the names suggest) is how they dissolve. Fat-soluble vitamins dissolve within the bodys fat cells whilst water-soluble vitamins dissolve in water. As a result the vitamins that dissolve in fat are generally more difficult to break down and stay in the body for longer periods. 2.20 Stability

Fat-soluble vitamins are relatively stable and are generally resistant to heat and light. Water-soluble vitamins are much more volatile and can be quite easily destroyed by heat and light. Therefore, when preparing and storing foods you need to take much more care with those that contain vitamins that are soluble in water. Using a cooking heat that is too high can destroy these vitamins whilst boiling can cause the vitamins to be washed out and lost in the cooking water. 2.30 Storage

Your body can store fat-soluble vitamins in the liver and fatty tissues. If your body does not need these vitamins right away then they will be stored here for later use. However, your body cannot store water-soluble vitamins. If you consume too much of these vitamins then they will be excreted in your urine. Therefore, you need to make sure that you top up on vitamins that dissolve in water daily to ensure that you are getting enough. Vitamins which are fatsoluble do not need to be consumed as frequently because your body can turn to the stores if necessary. 2.40 Overdosing

It is generally much easier to overdose on fat-soluble vitamins than water-soluble vitamins. The reason for this is that vitamins which are soluble in water do not stay in the body for very long and are generally excreted if not needed. However, vitamins that dissolve in fat are stored by the body for later use if not required immediately. If these stores build up over a long period they can eventually become toxic causing a number of unpleasant symptoms. Therefore, you need to be careful that you do not consume excessive levels of these vitamins
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Fat-Soluble Vitamins

which can be an issue if you regularly take vitamin supplement.

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Fat-Soluble Vitamins

3.0

Importance of Fat-Soluble Vitamins

The four fat (lipid) soluble vitamin groups are vitamins A, D, E, and K can be stored in your body for up to six months and are all related structurally. Each of the lipid-soluble vitamin groups contains several related biological active compounds. The potency of the active forms in each group of these vitamins varies, and not all of the active forms now known are available from dietary sources - some are produced synthetically. The liver, the primary storage tissue for vitamins A and D. Vitamin E is mainly stored in body fat and to a lesser extent in reproductive organs. Relatively little vitamin K is stored. If you need vitamins, your body will pull out of storage used. Of the about ten carotenes, coloured molecules synthesized only in plants, that show vitamin A activity, only the alpha-carotenes and beta-carotenes and cryptoxanthin are important to human beings, and of those, beta-carotene is the most active. Retinol (vitamin A alcohol) is considered the primary active form of this vitamin, although retinal is the form involved in the visual process in the retina of the eye. The vitamin A group is important for our vision. In the retina of the eye, retinal is combined with a protein called opsin resulting in the formation of complex molecules known as rhodopsin (visual purple), which is involved in dark vision. Also, the skin, eyes and mucous membranes of the mouth, nose, throat and lungs depend on vitamin A to remain moist. Night blindness and very dry, rough skin may indicate a lack of vitamin A. A deficiency of the A vitamins may also lead to decreased resistance to infections, poor tooth development, and slower bone growth. Vitamin A is the vision vitamin. It helps eyes focus in dim light and helps differentiate colors. It also plays a vital role in tissue growth and differentiation. It boosts the immune system's ability to fight infection. A special protein called a transport protein helps the vitamin A that is stored in the liver travel to the tissues where it is needed. More of vitamin A is required when you consume alcohol, on a low-fat diet, or a diet high in polyunsaturated fatty acids, if you smoke or live in a polluted area. It may also be indicated if you suffer from diabetes or have an under-active thyroid gland. Consumption of vitamin A should be decrease in pregnancy. Retinol is destroyed by light, high temperatures as well as when using copper or iron cooking utensils. Beta-carotene rich vegetables and fruit must not be soaked in water for long periods, since the nutrients can be lost like that. Although about 10 substances have fat soluble vitamin D activity, vitamins D2 (or ergocalciferol) and D3 (or cholecalciferol) are the two most significant to us. Vitamin D3 is found in our diet, while vitamin D2 occurs in yeasts and fungi. Both can be formed from their respective provitamins by ultraviolet irradiation; in man the provitamin (7-dehydrocholesterol), which is found in skin, can be converted by sunlight to vitamin D3 and thus is an important source of the vitamin. We can utilize both vitamins D2 and D3. The groups known as the D vitamins are required for growth, especially bone growth or "calcification". Vitamin D plays a critical role in the bodys use to regulate the amount of calcium and phosphorous in the blood. It increases the amount of calcium absorbed from the small intestine and helps form and maintain bones. Storing Vitamin D helps ensure that even if a person doesn't drink enough milk, bones won't suffer. Children in particular need adequate amounts of vitamin D to develop strong bones and healthy teeth. Symptoms of vitamin D deficiency in growing children include rickets (long, soft bowed legs) and flattening of the back
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Fat-Soluble Vitamins

of the skull. Vitamin D deficiency in adults is called osteomalacia, which leads to muscular weakness and weak bones. It's interesting to note that the symptoms of a calcium deficiency are almost identical to the symptoms of a Vitamin D deficiency. The tocopherols, which are otherwise called the Vitamin E group, are a closely related group of biologically active compounds. The active tocopherols are named in order of their potency. Thus, alpha-tocopherol is the most active. Taking antioxidant supplements, vitamin E in particular, might help prevent heart disease and cancer. When your diet is high in refined carbohydrates, fried foods and fat, or you are taking a birth control pill or hormone replacement therapy, then a supplement of Vitamin E might be called for. People suffering from pre-menstrual cramps, menopausal hot flushes, after a stroke or suffering from a heart disease might benefit from Vitamin E. It might also be beneficial to relieve painful or swollen joints, if you are exposed to pollution (that is about all of us), suffer from poor circulation or from Dupuytren's disease, which is a thickening of the ligaments in the hands. Vitamin E is lost in food processing which includes milling, cooking, freezing, long storage periods and when exposed to air. Vitamin E should not be taken together with inorganic iron supplements as it may destroy the vitamin, while organic iron, such as ferrous gluconate and ferrous fumarate does not affect the vitamin. The K vitamins are needed for normal metabolism, including the conversion of food into cellular energy. Vitamin K also is necessary for the proper clotting of blood and helps promote bone health. It's responsible for protecting the blood's clotting ability by supplying the seven blood clotting proteins involved in the process. Without sufficient amounts of vitamin K, hemorrhaging can occur. New born babies lack the intestinal bacteria to produce vitamin K and need a supplement for the first week. Individuals on anticoagulant drugs (blood thinners) may become deficient in vitamin K as may those taking antibiotics, even if temporarily because intestinal bacteria populations are sometimes reduced by the long-term use of antibiotics. Also, people with chronic diarrhea may be unable to absorb enough vitamin K through the intestine. These groups of people need to take additional Vitamin K to ensure a proper level in the body. Apart from that, vitamin K is also necessary for normal bone growth. Vitamin K can be destroyed by freezing and radiation as well as air pollution. Absorption may be decreased when rancid fats are present, as well as excessive refined sugar, antibiotics, high dosages of vitamin E, or calcium and mineral oils. When you are prone to bruising easily, or when pregnant you might be in need of more Vitamin K. But be careful not to take too much Vitamin K in the last stages of pregnancy, since it could be toxic for the baby.

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4.0

Deficiency of Fat-Soluble Vitamin

Vitamins are essential nutrients that our body needs in small amounts for various roles in the human body. Vitamins are divided into two groups as a water-soluble (B-complex and C) and fat-soluble (A, D, E and K). Unlike water-soluble vitamins that need regular replacement in the body, fat-soluble vitamins are stored in the liver and fatty tissues, and are eliminated much more slowly than water-soluble vitamins. Vitamin A Vitamin A is needed by the retina of the eye in the form of a specific metabolite, the light-absorbing molecule retinal. This molecule is absolutely necessary for both scotopic and color vision. Vitamin A also functions in a very different role, as an irreversibly oxidized form retinoic acid, which is an important hormone-like growth factor for epithelial and other cells. Dietary deficiencies of vitamin A are in North America and Western Europe, but it is the leading cause of blindness in children worldwide. Newborn and premature infants, the urban poor, older adults, people with alcoholism or liver disease, and those with fat malabsorption syndrome are all at increased risk. One of the earliest symptoms of vitamin A deficiency is night blindness. It is a temporary condition, but if they left untreated it can cause permanent blindness. This degeneration is called xerophthalmia, and it usually occurs in children after they are weaned. Symptoms include dryness of the cornea and eye membranes due to lack of mucus production, which leaves the eye vulnerable to surface dirt and bacterial infections. Vitamin A deficiency can cause follicular hyperkeratosis, a condition in which hair follicles become plugged with keratin, giving a bumpy appearance and a rough, dry texture to skin. When excess amounts of vitamin A are being stored in your body, the condition is called hypervitaminosis A. The harmful effects of hypervitaminosis A are birth defects, reduced bone density that may result in osteoporosis, central nervous system disorders, and liver abnormalities. Acute vitamin A toxicity may result from consuming very large quantities of vitamin A over a short period of time. The symptoms are nausea, vomiting, irritability, drowsiness, altered mental status, anorexia, abdominal pain, blurred vision, muscle pain with weakness, and/or headache. Elderly people and people who drink alcohol heavily are more susceptible to vitamin A toxicity. The others, deficiency include decreased resistance to infections, faulty tooth development, and slower bone growth.

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Fat-Soluble Vitamins

Vitamin D Deficiency of vitamin D affects the skeletal system. In children, vitamin D deficiency leads to rickets, a condition in which bones weaken and bow under pressure. Although vitamin D fortification has reduced incidence of rickets in North America, it is sometimes seen in children with malabsorption syndrome and is still common in many parts of the world. In adults, vitamin-D deficiency causes osteomalacia , or soft bones, increasing the risk for fractures in hip, spine, and other bones. Vitamin D deficiency also contributes to osteoporosis. In elderly persons, vitamin-D supplementation reduces the risk of osteoporotic fractures. Osteomalacia, a bone-thinning disorder that occurs exclusively in adults and is characterized by proximal muscle weakness and bone fragility. The effects of osteomalacia are thought to contribute to chronic musculoskeletal pain; there is no persuasive evidence of lower vitamin D status in chronic pain sufferers. Older adults are especially at risk for vitamin D deficiency for several reasons. The skin, liver, and kidneys lose their capacity to synthesize and activate vitamin D with advancing age, and older adults typically drink little or no milk, a major dietary source of vitamin D. Older adults also rarely venture outdoors, and when they do, they apply sunscreen to exposed areas of the body.
* Infant that suffered from rickets due to lack of Vitamin D can be referred in Photo 2 of Appendices

Calcium regulation in the human body. The role of vitamin D is shown in orange.

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Fat-Soluble Vitamins

Vitamin E Vitamin E is an antioxidant and one of the body's primary defenders against oxidative damage caused by free radicals. Its activity is enhanced by other antioxidants such as vitamin C and the mineral selenium. Vitamin E interrupts free radical chain reactions by getting oxidized, thus protecting cell membranes from free radical attack. Scientists have implicated oxidative stress in the development of cancer, arthritis, cataracts, heart disease, and in the process of aging itself. However, it is not yet known whether supplementation with mega doses of vitamin E offers protection against heart disease and cancer beyond that provided by positive dietary and lifestyle changes. Deficiency of Vitamin E is not common, and the symptoms not very clear cut, but may include fatigue, inflamed varicose veins, wounds healing slowly, premature aging and subfertility. When Vitamin E is in short supply symptoms may include acne, anemia, muscle disease, dementia, cancers, gallstones, shortened red blood cell life span, spontaneous abortion (miscarriage), and uterine degeneration. Vitamin E deficiency causes neurological problems due to poor nerve conduction. Most deficiencies occur in people with fat malabsorption syndrome. Smokers and adults on very lowfat diets are at increased risk of developing vitamin E deficiency. Preterm infants are particularly susceptible to hemolytic anemia (anemia caused by the destruction of red blood cells) due to vitamin E deficiency. These infants are born with limited stores of vitamin E, which are exhausted by rapid growth, and they are inefficient in absorbing vitamin E from the intestinal tract. Without vitamin E to protect against oxidation, the destruction of cell membranes causes red blood cells to burst. To prevent hemolytic anemia, special formulas and supplements containing vitamin E are prescribed for preterm infants. Vitamin K Average diets are usually not lacking in vitamin K and primary vitamin K deficiency is rare in healthy adults. As previously mentioned, newborn infants are at an increased risk of deficiency. Other populations with an increased prevalence of vitamin K deficiency include individuals who suffer from liver damage or disease (e.g. alcoholics), people with cystic fibrosis, inflammatory bowel diseases or those who have recently had abdominal surgeries. Groups that may suffer from secondary vitamin K deficiency include bulimics, those on stringent diets, and those taking anticoagulants. Other drugs that have been associated with vitamin K deficiency include salicylates, barbiturates, and cefamandole, although the mechanism is still unknown. There is no difference between the sexes as both males and females are affected equally. Symptoms of deficiency include heavy menstrual bleeding in women, anemia, bruising, and bleeding of the gums or nose. Osteoporosis and coronary heart disease are strongly associated with lower levels of K2 (menaquinone). Menaquinone is not inhibited by salicylates as happens with K1, so menaquinone supplementation can alleviate the chronic vitamin K deficiency caused by long
20

Fat-Soluble Vitamins

term aspirin use.

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Fat-Soluble Vitamins

5.0

Recommended Level of Fat-Soluble Vitamins

Standards for Measuring Intake Vitamin requirements are expressed in small units. Most are given in milligrams (mg) or micrograms (mcg). When comparing vitamin amounts on labels, note whether values are in micrograms (mcg), milligrams (mg) or International Units (IU). Vitamin A The dosage of vitamin A depends a lot on age and gender. Children under the age of three years should not consume more than 300 micrograms of it in a day. While children whose age lies between four years to eight years can consume up to 400 micrograms daily. Those whose age ranges from 9 years to 18 years should consume around 600 micrograms of vitamin A per day. While those above 18 require 700 to 1200 micrograms of vitamin per day. Pregnant and lactating females will require more amount of vitamin A. Regular intake of beta carotene is necessary for human beings, because it gets converted into vitamin A when it enters the body. Many doctors recommend beta carotene supplements to people who have vitamin A deficiency. Human beings require 700 - 900 micrograms of beta carotene everyday, and so the daily intake of beta carotene should be somewhere around 8.54 - 10.8 mg. Though beta carotene is available in the form of tablets as well as gel, the best way of consuming it is through one's diet Vitamin D Vitamin D is required in very small amounts by the human body. Individuals aged between one to fifty years require a daily dose of 5 micrograms. However, the daily requirement increases with age. Although vitamin D can be obtained from a number of dietary resources, sunshine is considered to be an important source of vitamin D. Exposure to sunlight for about 10 to 15 minutes thrice every week is enough to meet the body requirements for this vitamin. However, symptoms of vitamin D deficiency are often seen in people who live in regions with bright sunlight. The normal requirement of vitamin D is between 200 to 400 international units (IU).The recommended amount of vitamin D for a child above one year of age is 2000 IU (International Unit for vitamins).

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Fat-Soluble Vitamins

Vitamin E A person requires 15-20 International Units (IU) of vitamin E a day. Those with vitamin E deficiency start taking vitamin E supplements on a daily basis Vitamin K The recommended dietary allowance (RDA) for vitamin K is 80 mg per day for adult males and 65 mg per day for adult females, and 5 mg per or the newborn infant. Natural forms of vitamin K found in foods are only about half as potent compared to synthetic version. While adequate amount of vitamin K can be obtained by consuming leafy green vegetables on a regular basis for many men and women between 18 and 44 years may benefit from supplemental vitamin K. Dietary Reference Intakes (DRI) is dietary standards for desirable and safe vitamin intake levels published by the Food and Nutrition Board of the National Academy of Sciences National Research Council. DRIs include three sets of values; recommended dietary allowances (referred to as RDAs) which are intended to meet the nutrient needs of healthy individuals; tolerable upper intake levels (UL) which are designed to help people avoid harmful effects caused by consuming too much of a nutrient; and adequate intakes (AI), which are established when there is not enough scientific evidence to set an RDA. Table 1 provides the tolerable upper intake levels. Table 2 lists the recommended amounts of fat-soluble vitamins that individuals need daily for good health.
Table 1: Tolerable upper intake levels (UL)*.

Infants Children Males/Females

Life Stage Group 0.0-0.5 0.5-1.0 1-3 4-8 9-13 14-18 19-70 >71 19-50

Vitamin A (mcg) 600 600 600 900 1,700 2,800 3,000 3,000 3,000

Vitamin D (mcg) 25 25 50 50 50 50 50 50 50

Vitamin E (mg a-TE) ND1 ND 200 300 600 800 1,000 1,000 1,000

*A UL for vitamin K was not established. 1ND = not determinable due to insufficient data.

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Table 2: Dietary Reference Intakes (DRI) for fat-soluble vitamins.

Infants Children Males

Life Stage Vitamin A Vitamin Vitamin D Vitamin D Vitamin E Vitamin E (IU) Group (mcg1) A (IU) (mcg2) (IU) (mg a-TE3) 0.0-0.5 400* 1333 5* 200 4* 6 0.5-1.0 1-3 4-8 9-13 14-18 19-30 31-50 51-70 71+ 500* 300 400 600 900 900 900 900 900 600 700 700 700 700 700 750 770 770 1,300 1,300 1,300 4000 4333 4333 1666 1000 1333 2000 3000 3000 3000 3000 3000 2000 2333 2333 2333 2333 2333 2500 2566 5* 5* 5* 5* 5* 5* 5* 10* 15* 5* 5* 5* 5* 10* 15* 5* 5* 5* 5* 5* 5* 200 200 200 200 200 200 200 400 600 200 200 200 200 400 600 200 200 200 200 200 200 5* 6 7 11 15 15 15 15 15 11 15 15 15 15 15 15 15 15 19 19 19 7.5 9 10.5 16.5 22.5 22.5 22.5 22.5 22.5 16.5 22.5 22.5 22.5 22.5 22.5 22.5 22.5 22.5 28.8 28.8 28.8

Females

9-13 14-18 19-30 31-50 51-70 71+

Pregnant

<18 19-30 31-50

Lactating

<18 19-30 31-50

*Indicates an Adequate Intake (AI). All other values are Recommended Dietary Allowance (RDA). 1. As retinol activity equivalents (RAEs). 1 RAE = 1mcg retinol or 12 mcg beta-carotene. 2. As cholecalciferol. 10 mcg cholecalciferol = 400 IU of vitamin D. 3. As alpha-tocopherol equivalents. 1 mg of alpha-tocopherol = 1.5 IU of vitamin E.

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6.0

Over Dosage of Fat-Soluble Vitamins

Over dosage of fat-soluble vitamin is very dangerous compare to water-soluble vitamins because it cannot be excreted out from urine easily compare to water-soluble vitamin. Fat-soluble vitamins are not as quickly eliminated from the body, but rather are stored in fat tissues and in various organs throughout the body. The regulation of the body levels of these vitamins is therefore not as precise as for the water-soluble vitamins and long term consumption at levels above those required can mean the build up of toxic levels of fat-soluble vitamins in the body. Toxic symptoms have been recorded but for some fat-soluble vitamins such as vitamin E and vitamin K it has been difficult to establish the effects of chronic consumption levels. Over Dosage of Vitamin A Vitamin A is transported to other parts of the body via fats and is also stored in fat tissues present in the body. Vitamin A helps in functioning of the vision cells which consequently involve in vision correction. This vitamin also assists in fighting different kind of infections. However, the over dosage can have adverse effects and hence, should be avoided. Pregnant women especially should avoid excess intake of vitamin A as it can lead to problems during the birth and might also lead to defects in the child. There are varies symptoms of vitamin A overdose according to the excess amount of vitamin A present in the body. Some other symptoms of overdose of vitamin A will also be observed. Active symptoms of beta carotene toxicity may lead to initial stages of hypervitaminosis A. Hypervitaminosis A is the condition which refers to the effects of overintake of vitamin A. The very common symptom which is observed during the initial stages of vitamin A overdose is dry lips. Another disorders that can be observed which occur as a result of vitamin A overdose are nausea, loss of appetite and headache. Besides that hair loss and peeling of the skin will also be experienced by some people. Enlargement of the spleen and the liver and menstrual irregularity in females is also observed. The people having excess amount of vitamin A might get tires easily and they might also tend to feel weak at times. Retinoid which are simplified from the provitamin A carotenoids are converted to retinol in the intestines and transported with dietary fat to the liver for storing. Out of the many forms of vitamin A, retinol is the most usable. Retinol is an antioxidant which almost used as a dietary supplement and is widely used in many skin care products like facial and body lotions. Retinol based cream products have been claimed to have anti-aging effect on skin and have been reported to be effective in treating acne. Result of excessive application of the retinol based cream is reddening of the skin in the applied area, along with a mild stinging sensation. Besides, skin becomes extra sensitive to sunlight and irritation appeared on the applied skin area. A slight scaling of skin has also been reported in some cases.
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Some forms of carotenoids, including beta carotene, which are collectively referred to as provitamin A carotenoids. Beta Carotene, is a common form of carotenoids, which are lipophilic precursor of vitamin A, meaning that the body use beta carotene of vitamin A.

can be converted into retinol, carotene, symbolized as in nature. It is an important as a source for the synthesis

As beta carotene is a primary precursor of vitamin A, its supplements are often recommended for combating the deficiency symptoms of vitamin A, such as skin rash disorders, vision problems, weakened immune system and at times, night blindness. Beta carotene plays an important role in the maintaining the correct levels of vitamin A in the body. However beta carotene overdose is mostly caused, due to excessive administration of carotene supplements. Those who are sensitive to dietary products related to carotene and vitamin A are discouraged from beta carotene supplements. Rather, they should consume food sources rich in beta carotene. Failure to do so may result in allergic reactions such as skin problems, joint pain, headaches and dizziness. One of the most noticeable beta carotene overdose symptoms is skin discoloration. The body parts that are prone to change of skin color include palm, soles of the feet and face. However, the effects of this disorder can be easily treated by completely stopping the consumption of beta carotene supplements, until the symptoms vanish completely. The person may also experience diarrhea as well as unusual bruising or bleeding. Beta carotene, like any other antioxidants, is proven to interfere with other medications. It may reduce the body's ability to absorb the chemicals properly, hence, minimizing the therapeutic effects of other medicines. Pregnant women are advised not to take beta carotene supplements, because it can affect the fetus in a negative way. Moreover, even women who are breastfeeding their children should avoid consuming these supplements as it may cause certain problems to the child. As there is not much evidence to prove the side effects of beta carotene on the fetus, pregnant women should consult a doctor before taking beta carotene supplements.

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Fat-Soluble Vitamins

Over Dosage of Vitamin D Vitamin D is a group of fat-soluble vitamins that are essential for calcium and phosphorus absorption in our body. There are 5 types of vitamin D; vitamin D1, D2, D3, D4, D5. But the most important and essential ones are D2, ergocalciferol and D3, cholecalciferol. Vitamin D is very important for metabolism of calcium and phosphorus and also for maintaining their normal levels in the body. Higher intake of vitamin D helps lower the risk of cancers such as prostate cancer, breast cancer and cancer of the colon. Vitamin D supplements can also be taken by pregnant women as it aids proper development and bone growth of the fetus. Too much vitamin D occurs neither from over exposure to sunlight or from consuming high amounts of food rich in it. On the contrary, it occurs when a person has a larger intake of vitamin D supplements or consumes cod liver oil in larger amounts everyday. As it is a fat soluble vitamin, it does not get washed out from the body; rather gets stored, which results in severe side effects. The symptoms of vitamin D overdose are not specific hence, the condition is difficult to identify and diagnose. The signs of vitamin D overdose are muscle weakness, nausea, weight loss, constipation, nervousness, general weakness, irritability, fatigue and dehydration. Apart from these symptoms, there are other several vitamin D overdose side effects. Excess of vitamin D leads to kidney stone and calcification or even complete renal failure. There can some calcium deposits in the body, particularly affecting the kidney. It may also lead to excessive urine production. Higher levels of calcium in the blood stream can cause heart rhythm abnormalities and heart murmurs. Too much vitamin D can make the intestines absorb too much calcium. This may lead to high levels of calcium in the blood. Rising levels of calcium in blood can lead to calcium deposits the heart and lungs. Deposited calcium can block the entire cardiovascular system and the arteries which may lead to high blood pressure and cardiac arrest. Calcium deposits on lungs can reduce their ability to function properly. Consuming too much Vitamin D during pregnancy may increase the level of calcium in the blood stream which may lead to mental disability and physical disabilities like malformation of the bone structure in the fetus. Excessive intake of vitamin D can also cause some congenital birth defects. In addition, lactating or nursing mothers must also avoid too much vitamin D as it may suppress the functioning of the parathyroid gland in the new born which may lead to seizures, hypocalcaemia and tetany. As a conclusion, it is important to maintain proper intake of the sunshine vitamin in the body, as inappropriate levels will result in side effects of vitamin D. Taking a balanced diet can ensure the right amount of all nutrients in the body.

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Fat-Soluble Vitamins

Over Dosage of Vitamin E Vitamin E is popular for its antioxidant properties. As an antioxidant, vitamin E inhibits cellular damage by preventing the formation of free radicals. This vitamin contributes in healing of wounds, in the structure and functioning of the nervous system and protecting the liver from various toxic substances. A normal dose of Vitamin E is mostly safe, however, vitamin E overdose can spearhead scores of medical problems in people with medical conditions, such as, bleeding disorders, allergies, etc. People resort to taking vitamin supplements when they want more vitamin E than their daily diet provides. Experts believe that 100-200 IU of vitamin E is more than necessary for the human body. According to certain studies, people who take a higher vitamin E dosage of more than 400 IU per day are at a greater risk of death. The reason why this happens is still unknown. Over dosage of vitamin E may lead to headache, fatigue, nausea, weakness, abdominal pain, diarrhea, gas, blurred vision and higher chances of internal bleeding. Some other signs of vitamin E overdose are slow wound healing and hypertension. People on blood thinners such as Warfarin should avoid taking these supplements on a daily basis. This is because vitamin E increases the blood thinning function of Warfarin, resulting in increased risk of internal bleeding. Moreover, people with vitamin K deficiency should also consult the doctor before taking vitamin E supplements. People taking vitamin E supplements on a daily basis, need to drink a full glass of water with each pill. Moreover, if they miss a dose, they should not take a double dose the next day. This is because vitamin E is not eliminated. Over Dosage of Vitamin K 3 types of vitamin K are phylloquinone, menaquinone and menadione or known as K1, K2, and K3 respectively. Vitamin K is an often overlooked nutrient but not only is it essential for many bodily functions. It also has an impressive array of benefits, including lowering the risk of cancer. There is no known toxicity associated with high doses of phylloquinone vitamin K1, vitamin K2, vitamin K3 and its derivatives. High intake of vitamin K is not recommended for individuals taking anticoagulant medications such as Warfarin (coumadin). Although a tolerable upper intake level of vitamin K has not been establish yet, excessive amounts can cause the breakdown of red blood cells and liver damage. Large doses are not advised.

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Fat-Soluble Vitamins

7.0

Conclusion

All fat-soluble vitamins; vitamin A, D, E and K, have their specific roles in human growth and for maintenance of the body. The presence affects the health and function of eyes, skin, GI tract, lungs, bones, teeth, nervous system and blood. Their deficiency also may affect the same areas. For those who take supplement, they are possible to get toxicities of the fat soluble vitamins, because the body stores excesses. The function of one fat-soluble vitamin always depends on the presence of another, same with water-soluble vitamins. For example, vitamin A is supported by vitamin E from oxidation. In vitamin E deficiency, absorption and storage of vitamin A are impaired. Vitamin A, D, and K are playing important roles in bones growth and remodeling. While vitamin K helps synthesize a specific bone protein, and vitamin D regulates that synthesis. Vitamin A, in turn, may control which bone-building genes respond to vitamin D. Fat-soluble vitamin also interacts with minerals; vitamin D and calcium cooperate in formation of bone; zinc is required in synthesizing of vitamin As transport protein or retinol binding protein. Enzyme that regenerates retinal from retinol in the eyes also assisted by Zinc. The importance of fat-soluble vitamin is differ from those of water-soluble vitamins. They also appear in different foods, yet they are essential to life. The needs for us highlight the importance of eating a wide variety of nourishing food everyday.

Eleanor Noss Whitney, CorrineBalog Cataldo, Sharon Rady Rolfe (2002).Understanding Normal and Clinical Nutrition. Wadsworth Thomson Learning.

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8.0

References

E. Farnworth (2006).Toxicity of Vitamin. Retrieved July 24, 2010, from http://www.medicalfoodnews.com/vol03/issue3 J. Anderson, L. Young.(2008).Fat Soluble Vitamin. Retrieved July 20, 2010, from http://www.colostate.edu/info KE Elizabeth (2006). Micronutrient Deficiency Disorders (MDDs). In Suraj Gupte (Ed.), Textbook of Pediatric Nutrition (pp.221-231). PEEPEE Publishers and Distributors (P) LTD. Priyali Shah, Umesh Kapil (2006). Vitamin a Deficiency (VAD) Disorders. In Suraj Gupte (Ed.), Textbook of Pediatric Nutrition (pp.193-200). PEEPEE Publishers and Distributors (P) LTD. Wardlaw, Gordon M.; Hampl, Jeffrey S.; and Disilvestro, Robert A. (2004). In New York, Perspectives in Nutrition, 6th edition. McGraw-Hill. http://nutrition.about.com/od/nutrition101/tp/fatsoluble.htm http://vitaminsformula.com/health-fitness/the-importance-of-fat-soluble-vitamins-a-e-d-and-k/ http://www.anyvitamins.com/fat-soluble-vitamins-info.htm http://www.differencebetween.net/science/health/difference-betweem-water-and-fat-solublevitamins http://www.faqs.org/nutrition/Smi-Z/Vitamins-Fat-Soluble.html http://www.healthguidance.org/entry/2223/1/The-Importance-of-Fat-Soluble-Vitamins.html http://www.naturalfamilyonline.com/go/index.php/145/fat-soluble-vitamins http://www.vitaminsdiary.com/vitamins.htm

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9.0

Appendices

Appendix 1: Food dietary table source of vitamin A

Appendix 2: Food dietary table source of vitamin D

31

Fat-Soluble Vitamins

Appendix 3: Food dietary table source of vitamin E

Appendix 4: Food dietary table source of vitamin K

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Fat-Soluble Vitamins

Photo 1: Deficiency of Vitamin B1 results in Beri-Beri

Photo 2: Infant suffer from Rickets due to lack of Vitamin D

33

Fat-Soluble Vitamins