MATERIALS OF CONSTRUCTION, SELECTION & FABRICATION

MATERIALS SELECTION
The designer of any product, other than software must get involved with material selection. Only occasionally will the exact grade of material be specified by the customer. Even then the designer must understand the material to be able to design the product.

DECISIONS, DECISIONS!
So many materials, so much information. How do we decide? How do we begin to choose?

First we need to look at the function of the product product analysis

CASE STUDY A BIKE

What is the function of a bike obvious? How does the function depend on the type of bike?

Racing Touring Mountain bike Childs

CASE STUDY A BIKE (2)

How is it made to be easily maintained? What should it look like (colours etc.)? What should it cost? How has it been made comfortable to ride? How do the mechanical parts work and interact?

SYSTEM ANALYSIS THE BIKE (2)

We now need to look at the following for each part: Requirements (mechanical, ergonomic, aesthetic etc.) Function How many are going to be made? What manufacturing methods are we going to use?

FRAME MATERIALS
Steel Strong, stiff, heavy, but cheap Aluminium weaker, lighter, more expensive than steel Composite (CFRP) strong, stiff, very light, but expensive to buy and to fabricate

BIKE FRAME

WHAT PROPERTIES?

Mechanical Strength, modulus etc. Physical Density, melting point. Electrical Conductivity, resistivity. Aesthetic Appearance, texture, colour Processability Ductility, mouldability And last, but not least. Cost, cost, cost!

CASE STUDY (2) DRINK CONTAINER

What are the requirements?

CASE STUDY (2) DRINK CONTAINER

Provide leak free environment for storing liquid. Comply with food standards & protect liquid from health hazards. For fizzy drinks, withstand pressure. Brand image & identity Easy to open Easy to store & transport Cheap for high volumes

POSSIBLE MATERIALS
Steel Aluminium Glass Plastic

MATERIAL PROPERTIES
The most important characteristics to be considered when selecting a material of construction are: Mechanical properties Strength-tensile strength Stiffness-elastic modulus (Young's modulus) Toughness-fracture resistance Hardness-wear resistance Fatigue resistance Creep resistance The effect of high and low temperatures on the mechanical properties Corrosion resistance Any special properties required; such as, thermal conductivity, electrical resistance, magnetic properties Ease of fabrication-forming, welding, casting Availability in standard sizes-plates, sections, tubes Cost

MECHANICAL PROPERTIES

Tensile strength Stiffness Toughness Hardness Fatigue Creep

TENSILE STRENGTH The tensile strength (tensile stress) is a measure of the basic strength of a material. It is the maximum stress that the material will withstand, measured by a standard tensile test.

STIFFNESS Stiffness is the ability to resist bending and buckling. It is a function of the elastic modulus of the material and the shape of the cross-section of the member (the second moment of area).

TOUGHNES S Toughness is associated with tensile strength, and is a

measure of the material's resistance to crack propagation. The crystal structure of ductile materials, such as steel, aluminium and copper, is such that they stop the propagation of a crack by local yielding at the crack tip. In other materials, such as the cast irons and glass, the structure is such that local yielding does not occur and the materials are brittle. Brittle materials are weak in tension but strong in compression.

HARDNESS: Hardness is the measure of how resistant solid matter is to various kinds of permanent shape change when a force is applied The surface hardness, as measured in a standard test, is an indication of a materials ability to resist wear. An important property if the equipment is being designed to handle abrasive solids, or liquids containing suspended solids which are likely to cause erosion.

FATIGUE: Fatigue failure is likely to occur in equipment subject to cyclic loading; for example, rotating equipment, such as pumps and compressors, and equipment subjected to pressure cycling.

CREEP

Creep is the gradual extension of a material under a steady tensile stress, over a prolonged period of time. It is usually only important at high temperatures; for instance, with steam and gas turbine blades

EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE
The tensile strength and elastic modulus of metals decrease with increasing temperature. If equipment is being designed to operate at high temperatures, materials that retain their strength must be selected. The stainless steels are superior in this respect to plain carbon steels. Creep resistance will be important if the material is subjected to high stresses at elevated temperatures. At low temperatures, less than 10C, metals that are normally ductile can fail in a brittle manner. Serious disasters have occurred through the failure of welded carbon steel vessels at low temperatures.

CORROSION RESISTANCE

General wastage of material-uniform corrosion. Galvanic corrosion-dissimilar metals in contact. Fitting-localised attack. Intergranular corrosion. Stress corrosion. Erosion-corrosion. High temperature oxidation. Hydrogen embrittlement.

UNIFORM CORROSION This term describes the more or less uniform wastage of material by corrosion, with no pitting or other forms of local attack.

GALVANIC CORROSION Galvanic corrosion occurs when two different metals and/or alloys have physical or electrical contact with each other and are immersed in a common electrolyte.

 PITTING Pitting is the term given to very localized corrosion that forms pits in the metal surface.

INTERGRANULAR CORROSION

Intergranular corrosion is the preferential corrosion of material at the grain (crystal) boundaries. Though the loss of material will be small, intergranular corrosion can cause the catastrophic failure of equipment. Intergranular corrosion is a common form of attack on alloys but occurs rarely with pure metals

 EROSION HIGH

CORROSION

TEMPERATURE OXIDATION EMBRITTLEMENT

HYDROGEN

SELECTION FOR CORROSION RESISTANCE:

In order to select the material of construction, the process environment to which the material will be exposed must be clearly defined. Addition to the main chemical present, the following must be considered. 1.Temperature: Effect corrosion rate and mechanical properties. 2. Pressure. 3. pH. 4. Presence of trace impurities, Stress Corrosion. 5. The amount of aertaion-differential oxidation cells. 6. Stream Velocity and agitation-erosion-corrosion. 7. Heat transfer rates- differential temperatures.

COMMONLY USED MATERIAL OF CONSTRUCTION: IRON AND STEEL STAINLESS STEEL NICKEL MONEL INCONEL THE HATELLOYS COPPER AND COPPER ALLOYS ALUMINIUM AND ITS ALLOYS LEAD TITANIUM TANTALUM ZIRCONIUM

 NON-METALS

PVC POLYVINYLIDENE GLASS-FIBRE REINFORCED PLASTICS GLASS AND GLASSED STEEL CARBON AND GRAPHITE STONEWARE AND PORCELAIN BRICK AND CEMENT MATERIALS RUBBER AND ELASTOMERS PLASTICS WOOD REFRACTORY MATERIALS