THE IMPACT OF SCHOOL START TIMES ON ADOLESCENT HEALTH AND ACADEMIC PERFORMANCE

Introduction In the early 1990s, a team of researchers lead by Brown Universitys Mary Carskadon determined that circadian biology drives the delayed sleep-wake patterns of adolescents. (1) Pubertys onset marks the beginning of a phase shift, with adolescents going to bed later and rising later than younger children. (2, 3, 4) Typically adolescents are unable to fall asleep at earlier times and sleep in later to get the 9 (5) hours of sleep they need. (2, 3, 6, 7, 8, 9) In 1994, physicians began advising school leaders to eliminat[e] early starting hours for teenagers[.] (10) Sleep experts urge a delay in morning classes until 8:30 a.m., or later, for middle and high school students. (2, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15) Few administrators have listened, (12) instead adhering to school schedules described by preeminent scientists as abusive, (16) nonsense, (17) deleterious, (18) cruel, (19) and nuts. (20) Most U.S. high schools schedule classes during the 7 oclock hour, (12, 21, 22, 23) while melatonin still pressures adolescents to sleep. (3, 24) The vast majority of teenagers attending early starting schools meet the morning bell in a sleep-deprived state. (2, 6, 8, 12, 23, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39) The consequences of this sleep deprivation are severe, impacting adolescents physical and mental health, as well as daytime functioning. (40) Students at later starting schools get more sleep, (4, 13, 30, 37, 41, 42, 43) perform better academically, (13, 24, 44, 45) have significantly fewer automobile accidents, (31, 46) report greater motivation (41) and less depression, (3, 37, 41, 47) experience fewer physical health difficulties, (37, 41) are less likely to be tardy or truant, (2, 30, 41, 44, 47, 48) demonstrate better performance in attention level, impulsivity, and rate of performance[,] (13) and, according to Brookings Institute economists, will likely earn significantly more money as adults when school begins at roughly 9 a.m. (49) Policymakers may eventually decide when the school day begins. (50, 51) Until then, at least during the school year, adolescent sleep sufficiency, a point of concern for the CDC (18, 26, 52, 53, 54) and the National Institutes of Health, (55, 56, 57) will substantially be determined by the whims of local school boards. (58)

This paper is updated weekly here -- http://schoolstarttime.org/; a three-page summary is available here (pdf).

I.

The Prevalence of Restricted Weeknight Sleep Among Adolescents

Almost all teenagers in this country are sleep-deprived. (99)---Maida Chen, M.D., Assistant Professor of Pediatrics, University of Washington School of Medicine, Assistant Director, Pediatric Sleep Disorders Center, Seattle Childrens Hospital. The great majority of high school students are getting insufficient sleep. (25, 26, 27, 100, 101) The 2011 National Sleep Foundation poll found only 14% of teenagers between the ages of 13 and 18 report getting nine or more hours of sleep on weeknights. (25) A 2010 study published in the Journal of Adolescent Health found that nationwide, on an average school night, 68.9% of students reported insufficient sleep (<8 hours), 23.5% reported borderline sleep (8 hours), and 7.6% reported optimal sleep (>9). (26) The 2007 Youth Risk Behavior Survey of the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) found that on weeknights, 31.1% of U.S. students reported getting 8 or more hours of sleep; 42% of ninth graders did so versus only 22% of 12th graders. (100) The 2006 National Sleep Foundation poll found only one in five adolescents get the recommended 9 hours of sleep per night. (101) Studies have shown sleep deficiency on school nights as prevalent for the better part of the last three decades. Researchers comparing data from 1981 and 20032006 found that bed times and wake times were similar, with teens averaging 8-8 hours sleep on school nights. (28) In a 1994 survey of high school students, 26% reported sleeping less than 6.5 hours on school nights, while only 15% reported sleeping 8.5 hours or longer. (55) In 2002, teenagers averaged 7.5 hours sleep on school nights, with a quarter of them getting only 6.5 hours per night. (102) Scientists writing in the June 2005 issue of Pediatrics observed, Both shortterm and long-term strategies that address the epidemic of sleep deprivation among adolescents will be necessary to improve health and maximize school performance. (6) In 2008, Norwalk Hospital sleep experts noted that the pattern of rising sleep debt during the week followed by weekend catch-up still leaves most teens sleep-deprived by an estimated 10 hours sleep per week. (2) In 2009, researchers again commented, Sleep deprivation among adolescents is epidemic. (103) Sleep scientists have uniformly concluded, Sleep deprivation among adolescents appears to be, in some respects, the norm rather than the exception in contemporary society. (27) Because of a multitude of intrinsic and environmental factors, adolescents are particularly vulnerable to disturbed sleep, and are one of the most sleep deprived age groups in the country. (40) It has been shown that adolescents increased sleepiness is similar to the clinical level of sleepiness presented by patients with severe sleep disorders. (104)

Multiple factors contribute to sleep deficiency in teens, including electronic devices, jobs, erratic sleep schedules, caffeine, social and school obligations. (21, 29, 105, 106, 107, 108) Restricted sleep, however, is primarily limited to school nights, rather than weekend nights, with students losing up to 2 hours of sleep after the start of school. (2, 6, 21, 22, 26, 28, 29, 30, 55, 102, 109, 110) The consequences of this sleep deprivation are severe, impacting adolescents physical and mental health, as well as daytime functioning. (40) Sleep deficiency in adolescents is associated with: profoundly impaired learning capacity, memory, and alertness (11, 21, 27, 29, 111, 112, 113,
114, 115, 116, 117)

depression, anxiety, fatigue (29, 118, 119) increased risk of suicidal ideation and completed suicide (53, 120, 121, 122, 123, 124) increased frequency of automobile accidents (31, 46) decreased athletic and motor skills (125, 126) excessive weight gain (127, 128, 129, 130) increased likelihood of risk-taking behaviors, including drug or alcohol use (53, 131, 132) increased likelihood of criminal conduct (133) physical, psychological, or social difficulties (134, 135, 136) elevated blood pressure (137) interference with secondary brain development, (138, 139) etc. These findings generally appear to apply equally to young adults, (24, 40, 136, 140) and, with the obvious exception of driving accidents, to middle school children as well. (22, 23, 30, 44) In light of these myriad negative effects on adolescent health and well-being, the identification of potentially modifiable factors that escalate the risk of insufficient sleep in this population is an important public health issue. (41) The vast majority of adolescents do not get enough sleep. Research has shown that the average teenager needs 9 to 9 hours of sleep a night. This is not all that much less than school-aged children need. However, the average amount of sleep that teenagers get is about 7 hours on school nights. Even on weekends and holidays, when they try to catch-up, teenagers average just 9 hours of sleep. This leads to teenagers missing an average of 2 hours of sleep per night, and it accumulates over time. (Mindell & Owens, Clinical Guide to Pediatric Sleep: Diagnosis and Management of Sleep Problems (Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, 2nd ed. 2010) p. 258.) This two hour discrepancy between weekend and school-night sleep has caused researchers to consider the relationship between pedagogical structures and adolescent biology. (2, 5, 6, 21, 23, 24, 26, 30, 31, 41, 44, 46, 101, 115, 116, 131, 138, 141)

II.

The Basics of Adolescent Sleep Biology

Sending kids to school at 7 a.m. is the equivalent of sending an adult to work at 4 in the morning. (179) ---William Dement, M.D., Sc.D., Ph.D., Professor of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Stanford University School of Medicine, Division Chief, Stanford University Division of Sleep. In todays society, persevering through tiredness is often considered a badge of honour. (180) Functioning while sleep deprived shows the ability to endure hardship. (181) Historically, many members of the military view sleep as an indulgence; sleep deprivation in the interest of duty is even revered. (182) Diminished sleep, however, is a stressor which may adversely affect the morale or psychological well-being of even highly-trained military personnel. (183) Adolescents represent a population far more vulnerable to the effects of restricted sleep. (2, 5, 6, 21, 29, 40, 53, 55, 107, 131) Most adolescents rise between 5 a.m. and 6:30 a.m. to meet the morning school bell, essential training, some believe, for the real world. (184) While many adults in the real world start work early, many start considerably later than the average high school student. Recent census data reflect that roughly 30 percent of adults begin their morning commute after 8:00 a.m. (185) College students may get underway even later. In the Fall of 2010, for example, fewer than 2 percent of undergraduate courses at the University of Michigan started at 8:00 a.m. or earlier, and roughly 85 percent of classes started at 9:30 a.m. or later. (49) Until reaching the age of majority, adolescents are judged as too young to vote, sit as jurors, or join the armed forces, but old enough to rise while much of the world is still sleeping.
(25)

The hour when the school day begins is the factor with the biggest impact on adolescent sleep sufficiency, (28) a point seldom considered by those preparing students for the real world. (12) Professor of Neurology and Director of the Minnesota Regional Sleep Disorders Center, Mark Mahowald, explains: All of the research that has been done shows that older adolescents need more sleep than younger ones. They fall asleep later and wake up later to get the sleep they need. Despite these two facts, almost all districts start the senior high schools first. Were sending them to school during the last one-third of their sleep cycles. Its comparable to adults getting up at 3 a.m. or 4 a.m. You wouldnt want to be making important decisions at that hour. I think its nuts. The sleep deficit builds up until they fall asleep at school or driving. (20, italics added.) In adults, shift work desynchronizes sleep cycles, resulting in sleep loss, and, in some instances, serious adverse health consequences. (186, 187, 188) Sleep cycle disruption, a feature of early school start times, and the attendant restricted
4

sleep, (20, 23) are similarly closely associated with serious health-risk consequences among adolescents, except that these individuals are still developing, (2) their mortality/morbidity is increasingly implicated, (31, 46, 53, 120) and learningostensibly the primary purpose of educationis diminished. (2, 11, 13) While younger adolescents (i.e., middle school children) may be less likely than secondary school students to draw an early start time, (1, 121) those who do experience outcomes similar to those found among their older peers. (13, 23, 30, 44) As will be discussed, there are at least three significant biological factors to consider when evaluating the confluence of start times and adolescent sleep requirements: the essential/restorative value of sleep, (189, 190) adolescent circadian timing, (1, 103, 191) and the increased susceptibility in this population to the negative effects of sleep loss. (2, 5, 6, 21, 29, 40, 53, 55, 107, 131, 192) A. Sleep Needs/Sleep Loss as a Stressor Sleep is vital to your well-being, as important as the air you breathe, the water you drink and the food you eat. (219)---Nelson L. Turcios, M.D., Pediatric Pulmonologist. Animal studies have demonstrated that sleep properly belongs in Maslows hierarchy of physiological needs as indispensable to survival. (189, 190) Sleep is not some biological luxury. (220) Sleep is biologically obligatory. (5) Animals deprived of sleep die.
(189, 220)

For adolescents, the National Sleep Foundation defines sleep as insufficient if <8 hours per night, borderline if 8 hours per night, and optimal if >9 hours per night. (26) Carskadon and Wolfson point to ~9.2 hours of sleep as optimal and ~8.5 hours as adequate for this population. (12) Older adolescents require 9-10 hours. (2) Early sleep research suggested that after birth, sleep requirements declined during childhood development, leveling off at eight hours during puberty. (2) Research over the past thirty years, however, has demonstrated that the number of sleep hours required during the explosion of growth and other body changes of puberty remains at nine hours or more throughout adolescence. (2) Mere rest does not create the restorative state of having slept. [] The fundamental difference between sleep and a deeply relaxed wakefulness is that sleep involves dropping into a state with a relative loss of awareness of and responsiveness to the external world. This state of unresponsiveness appears to be necessary for the restorative processes that occur during sleep to take place. (220) Sleep helps to restore both mind and body. The bodys engines are able to slow down and cool off when we sleep, decreasing the metabolic processes, heart rate, respiration, digestion, and body temperature. Sleep can also be a time of increased healing or, in children, a time of accelerated growth. (Abaci, Take Charge of Your
5

Chronic Pain: The Latest Research, Cutting-Edge Tools (Globe Pequot Press 2010) p. 241, n. omitted.) Deep sleep coincides with the release of growth hormone in children and young adults. (190) [S]leep seems to be particularly important during periods of brain maturation. (Across species, maturing individuals sleep more than fully mature individuals.) (220) [A]dolescent sleep systems appear to become more vulnerable to stress at a time when social turmoil and difficulties are often increasing. (220) Restricted sleep and interrupted circadian timing, discussed infra, serve as environmental/physiological stressors in humans. (183, 221, Wise, Hopkin, & Garland, Handbook of Aviation Human Factors (CRC Press 2nd ed. 2009) p. 18-3.) Sleep loss means sustaining wakefulness longer, which stresses the body, leading to additional problems. (222) Prenatal development, infancy, childhood and adolescence are times of increased vulnerability to stressors. The presence of stressors during these critical periods can have prolonged effects, such as sustained cacostasis [defective homeostasis, dyshomeostasis, distress] that can last the entire lifetime of an individual. (223) B. Adolescent Circadian Timing All life on earth has evolved under a rhythmically changing cycle of light and darkness, and organisms from single-celled bacteria up to man possess an internal representation of time. These 24 hour cycles, termed circadian rhythms, persist in the absence of external cues, and provide a means of anticipating changes in the environment rather than passively responding to them. In mammals, including man, light provides the critical input to the circadian system, synchronising the body clock to prevailing conditions. (248)---Russell Foster, Ph.D., F.R.S., Chair of Circadian Neuroscience, Oxford University [circadian: circa = about; die = day]. Although sleep/wake patterns have long been known to delay in adolescents, behavioral factors (e.g., jobs, social diversions, scholastic obligations) were assumed to be entirely responsible. (21, 191) Terman and Hocking in 1913, for example, noted a shift from vesperal to matinal sleeping during adolescence, attributing the change to increasing homework. (21) In the 1970s, researchers recognized that sleep patterns change fundamentally at the transition to adolescence. (5) Adolescence commences at pubertys onset; (2) i.e., when children attain Tanner stage 2 (sexual maturation rating). (250, Stang & Story, Adolescent Growth and Development, publish. in, Guidelines for Adolescent Nutrition Services (Stang & Story, edits., Univ. Minn. 2005) p. 1.) The normal age range of pubertal onset is between 8 and 13 years in girls and between 9 years 6 months and 13 years, 6 months in boys. (249) The timing and tempo of puberty vary widely, even among healthy children. (250) Adolescence concludes at about 19.5 years in girls and 20.9 years in boys. (7, 103)

In 1993, Carskadon and colleagues determined that the circadian system undergoes developmental biological changes when puberty arrives. (1, 191) Other researchers have made similar observations, together providing converg[ing] evidence that the circadian phase undergoes a delay in association with puberty[.] (Carskadon, Maturation of processes regulating sleep in adolescents, publish. in, Sleep in Children: Developmental Changes in Sleep Patterns (Marcus, Carroll, & Donnelly eds., Informa Healthcare, 2nd ed. 2008) p. 100.) Growing evidence supports the conjecture that endogenous circadian period and light sensitivity of the circadian system are altered during puberty in humans and animals. Such changes could explain the development of delayed sleep phase during puberty. (103) Recent studies demonstrate adolescent changes in sleep (delayed sleep phase and disrupted sleep) are evident prior to the bodily changes associated with puberty. (Wolfson & Richards, Young Adolescents: Struggles with Insufficient Sleep, publish. in, Sleep and Development (Oxford Univ. Press., El Sheikh edit. 2011) p. 268, citations omitted.) Young people have special needs during adolescent development that are related directly to their intrinsic sleep cycles. (6) The sleep pressure rate, or homeostatic drivethe biological trigger that causes sleepinessslows down in adolescence. (26, 103) Adolescents develop a resistance to sleep pressure that permits them to stay up later. (103) At the same time, their circadian phase becomes relatively delayed, which provides them with a drive to stay awake later in the evening and to sleep later in the morning. (103) The magnitude of the delay is greater on nonschool days. (21) Additionally, rising time on nonschool days also gets later as adolescence progresses. (21) The preferred sleep onset time for most adolescents is 11 p.m. or later. (2, 7, 8, 9) Bedtime gets later on school and nonschool days with increasing adolescent age. (21, 191) The circadian system and melatonin, a sleep-inducing hormone, direct a sleep cycle in teens which operates from approximately 11 p.m. to 8 a.m. (2, 3, 6, 7, 8, 9) The pubertal stage correlates with the circadian phase marker such that more mature children show a later phase of melatonin secretion offset. (21, Carskadon, Maturation of processes regulating sleep in adolescents, publish. in, Sleep in Children: Developmental Changes in Sleep Patterns (Marcus, Carroll, & Donnelly eds., Informa Healthcare, 2nd ed. 2008) p. 100 [the presence of melatonin may be measured in salivary levels].) Melatonin continues in peak production until 7 a.m., then stops at 8 a.m. (24) In adults, levels peak at 4 a.m. Therefore, waking a teenager at 7 a.m. is equivalent to waking up an adult at 4 a.m. (20, 24) According to Stanford sleep expert Dr. William Dement, adolescents biological rhythms are set in such a way that they really cant wake up earlier. Its like telling a person they have to jump eight feet. They just cant.
(184)

Many parents and teachers become frustrated that adolescents seem to create their own problem of not getting enough sleep by choosing a late bedtime, despite their complaints of sleepiness in the morning. However, there are multiple factors that contribute to later bedtimes, and it is increasingly clear that adolescents stay awake later largely for biological, not social, reasons. As with adults, the physiological factor that most powerfully regulates the timing of waking and sleeping in adolescents is the circadian rhythm, a hard-wired clock in the suprachiasmatic nucleus of the brain. (2) Phase delayed sleep/wake patterns prevail among adolescents globally. (251, 252, 253, 254, 255, 256, 257) [A] delay in the timing of sleep during the second decade of life has been observed in over 16 countries on 6 continents, in cultures ranging from pre-industrial to modern. (103) Forced awakening does not appear to reset the circadian rhythm. (Wahlstrom, Accommodating the Sleep Patterns of Adolescents Within Current Educational Structures: An Uncharted Path, publish. in, Adolescent Sleep Patterns, Biological, Social, and Psychological Influences (Carskadon, edit., Cambridge Univ. Press 2002) p. 174, ns. omitted.) Scientists have repeatedly observed that adhering to Poor Richards judgment Early to bed, early to risemay be difficult in the presence of a biologically driven phase preference. (1, 7, 32) Light/Technology Exposure Nearly all adolescents in the U.S. have at least one electronic item such as a television, computer, telephone, or music device in their bedrooms. (25, 105) The brightness of a television or computer screen may interfere with melatonin release, because release occurs only under dark conditions. (105) In turn, regulation of the sleep-wake cycle may be disturbed. (105) Electronic device multitasking appears to be a good predictor of diminished sleep. (105) Video gaming may be particularly disruptive to adolescent sleep.
(108)

As little as five hours exposure to normal levels of indoor lighting, and not just very bright light, can reset the human biological clock, a finding which indicates that many people in industrialized countries may be constantly sleep deprived and in a permanent state of jet lag. (280) A study of Brazilian adolescents living without electricity showed a delay in sleep, however, those living in nearby electrified homes delayed sleep to a greater degree and slept less. (Carskadon, Maturation of processes regulating sleep in adolescents, publish. in, Sleep in Children: Developmental Changes in Sleep Patterns, supra, p. 96.)

Although light treatments have served to modify circadian timing in some populations, a 2005 study reported early morning light treatments did not change adolescent sleep/wake cycles or improve daytime performance during weekdays. (6) By contrast, carefully controlling light exposure, including wearing eyeshades to exclude evening light, has been successful in modifying adolescent circadian timing. (8) However, this approach may be less than practical for most adolescents. Inadequate exposure to short-wavelength (blue) light further delays the adolescent sleep/wake cycle, pushing back the onset of melatonin by about six minutes for each morning light-deprived day. (281) According to Mariana Figueiro, Ph.D., Assistant Professor and Program Director at Rensselaer Polytechnic Institutes Lighting Research Center, As teenagers spend more time indoors, they miss out on essential morning light needed to stimulate the bodys 24-hour biological system, which regulates the sleep/wake cycle[.] (282) The problem is that todays middle and high schools have rigid schedules requiring teenagers to be in school very early in the morning. These students are likely to miss the morning light because they are often traveling to and arriving at school before the sun is up or as its just rising. This disrupts the connection between daily biological rhythms, called circadian rhythms, and the earths natural 24-hour light/dark cycle, explains Figueiro. (282) In addition, the schools are not likely providing adequate electric light or daylight to stimulate this biological or circadian system, which regulates body temperature, alertness, appetite, hormones and sleep patterns. Our biological system responds to light much differently than our visual system. It is much more sensitive to blue light. Therefore, having enough light in the classroom to read and study does not guarantee that there is sufficient light to stimulate our biological system. (282) The situation in schools can be changed rapidly by the conscious delivery of daylight (e.g., via large windows/skylights), (283) which is saturated with blue light. (282) We hypothesize that if light has an impact on students performance and wellbeing, it is by promoting their circadian entrainment [synchronization] to the solar day, especially in winter months. Those who are not exposed to enough daylight will experience a more pronounced delayed circadian phase, which will result in sleep problems and more severe stress. (284) Figueiro and Professor of Architecture and Cognitive Sciences Mark Rea postulate that those who do not get enough shortwavelength light during the school day will exhibit reduced scholastic performance.
(281)

III.

The Intersection of School Start Times and Adolescent Health/Academic Performance

Our study does confirm that on school days adolescents are obtaining less sleep then they are thought to need, and the factor with the biggest impact is school start times. If sleep loss is associated with impaired learning and health, then these data point to computer use, social activities and especially school start times as the most obvious intervention points. (28)---Kristen Knutson, Ph.D., M.A., Assistant Professor of Medicine, Pulmonary/Critical Care, University of Chicago, Department of Medicine, Diane Lauderdale, Ph.D., M.A., M.A., Professor of Epidemiology, University of Chicago. Most high schools begin during the 7 oclock hour, (12, 21, 22, 23) while melatonin still pressures adolescents to sleep. (3, 24) Schools begin early for administrative and financial reasons, rather than because of any perceived benefits to students. (12, 310) Multi-tiered busing schedules often save school districts money. (12, 310) High school students average two hours less sleep on school nights than on weekends or weekdays during summer. (6, Mindell & Owens, Clinical Guide to Pediatric Sleep: Diagnosis and Management of Sleep Problems (Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, 2nd ed. 2010) p. 258.) The starting time of school puts limits on the time available for sleep. This is a nonnegotiable limit established largely without concern for sleep. (5) Early high school start time is a significant, externally imposed constraint on teenagers sleep/wake schedules; for most adolescents, waking up to go to school is neither spontaneous nor negotiable. (21) Most teenage students would sleep longer on school days if not for the typical 7:30 a.m. or earlier school start-times. (Rauch, What is Normal Sleep for Children and Adolescents? publish. in, Attention Deficit Disorder: Practical Coping Mechanisms (Fisher, edit., Informa Healthcare, 2nd ed. 2007) p. 175, ns. omitted.) Early school start times contribute substantially to sleep deprivation in teens. (2, 6, 8, [S]chool sleep lag is worse for earlier starting schools. Additional weekend sleep does not alleviate this negative effect. (Wahlstrom, Accommodating the Sleep Patterns of Adolescents Within Current Educational Structures: An Uncharted Path, publish. in, Adolescent Sleep Patterns, Biological, Social, and Psychological Influences (Carskadon, edit., Cambridge Univ. Press 2002) p. 174, ns. omitted.) Weekend oversleep further contributes to circadian disruption and decreased daytime alertness levels. (6)
21, 22, 23, 26, 27, 28, 29, 31, 32, 33, 38)

Most districts set the earliest starting time for older adolescents and the latest starting time for younger children. Ironically, the school starting time moves earlier as childrens grade advances. Although school starts earlier, children cannot adjust their bedtime accordingly, and this could result in sleep deprivation. (Cardinali, Chronoeducation: How the Biological Clock Influences the Learning Process, publish. in, The Educated Brain: Essays in Neuroeducation (Battro, Fischer, & Lna, edit., Cambridge Univ. Press 2008) p. 121.) [I]ncreasing societal demands promoted by a
10

24/7 culture over the past three decades have contributed to even earlier school start times for both middle and high school students. (2) [T]he widespread practice in U.S. school districts for school buses to run and for the opening bell to ring earlier at high schools than at junior high schools, and earlier in junior high schools than primary schools, may run precisely counter to childrens biological needs. (1) Adolescence is associated with a circadian phase delay with an increasing preference to sleep at later hours; despite this, in most U.S. school districts school days begin progressively earlier as students transition from elementary to middle school and then from middle school to high school. (121) Multiple surveys of high school students conducted in the 1980s and 1990s found that students who start school at 7:30 a.m. or earlier obtain less total sleep on school nights than students at later starting schools. (21) A study published in 1992 found 12th graders beginning school at 7:40 a.m. reported getting less school-night sleep, more sleep problems, and sleeping later on weekends than 12th graders starting school at 8:30 a.m. (34) (Subjective measures of sleep from children and adolescents are correlated with objective measures.) (311, 312) In 1994, a study of 3,120 adolescents attending four Rhode Island high schools with start times ranging from 7:10 a.m.7:30 a.m. found most students were sleep deficient. 87% of the students reported needing more sleep than they were getting. (35, 36) Studies published in 2007, (30) 2009, (28) and 2011 (313) also found that students attending schools with early start times obtained significantly less sleep than students at later starting schools. These outcomes are consistent with the findings of other published studies. (2, 12, 27, 37, 38, 39) An exhaustive search has failed to uncover any contrary research findings. [E]arly school start times, which our results indicate were the main predictor of an earlier wake time among adolescents on school days, conflict with adolescent circadian biology. The fact that these adolescents spent 2 hours less time in bed on school days is consistent with one other study among 60 high school seniors that observed sleep duration reduced by an average of 2 hours on school days. Another study found that students attending schools with later start times (8:37 AM versus 7:15 AM) obtained almost an hour more sleep. [O]ur study does confirm that on school days adolescents are obtaining less sleep then they are thought to need, and the factor with the biggest impact is school start times. If sleep loss is associated with impaired learning and health, then these data point to computer use, social activities and especially school start times as the most obvious intervention points. (28)

11

The problem of inadequate sleep affects more segments of our society than adolescents; however, adolescents appear to be particularly vulnerable and face difficult challenges for obtaining sufficient sleep. Even without the pressure of biological changes, if we combine an early school starting timesay 7:30 a.m., which, with a modest commute, makes 6:15 a.m. a viable rising timewith our knowledge that optimal sleep need is 9 hours, we are asking that 16-year-olds go to bed at 9 p.m. Rare is the teenager of the 1990s who will keep such a schedule. School work, sports practices, clubs, volunteer work, and paid employment take precedence. When biological changes are factored in, the ability even to have merely adequate sleep is lost. (5) Some bus riders may need to awaken during the 5 oclock hour. (3, 314) The 2011 National Sleep Foundation poll found 54% of teenagers (13-18 years) awaken between 5 a.m. and 6:30 a.m. on weekdays, with the majority (81%) getting to bed at 10 p.m. or later. (25) Thus, on school days, 6 in 10 obtain fewer than 8 hours of sleep. (25) Studies of middle school students have also found early school start times associated with sleep deficiency and its attendant problems. In addition to the sleep deficit, school records indicated that students at the earlier starting school were tardy four times more frequently, and eighth graders at the earlier starting school obtained significantly worse average grades than the eighth graders at the comparison, later starting school. (30) Even pre-adolescent fifth grade students reported significant sleep deprivation when an extremely early school start time of 7:10 a.m. was imposed. (315) Students attending early starting schools are likely to carry significant chronic sleep debt. (38) Early rise times also interrupt a critical sleep phase. Getting adequate dream (rapid eye movement [REM]) sleep is essential to perceptual, cognitive, and emotional processing. Selective REM sleep deprivation has been demonstrated to cause symptoms of irritability and moodiness, as well as problems with memory. The issue of undersleeping in adolescents takes on added significance when one considers that waking up too early costs the sleeper mostly REM sleep which predominates during the last two to three hours of a nights sleep. (2) In REM sleep, many parts of the brain are as active as at any time when awake. One study found that REM sleep affects learning of certain mental skills. People taught a skill and then deprived of non-REM sleep could recall what they had learned after sleeping, while people deprived of REM sleep could not. (190) Associate Professor of Psychology Avi Sadeh, a leading authority in this field, has concluded that in teens, A loss of one hour of sleep is equivalent to [the loss of] two years of cognitive maturation and development. (139, 316)
(189)

12

[P]eople who are sleep-deprived are less efficient, thus a cycle develops in which a student takes longer to complete the same amount of work, leading to her staying up later, and starting the vicious cycle all over again. (Mindell & Owens, Clinical Guide to Pediatric Sleep: Diagnosis and Management of Sleep Problems (Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, 2nd ed. 2010) p. 258.) Researchers have also found a general cloud of negative daily affect that is associated with chronic patterns of inadequate sleep among adolescents.... (118) Dr. Carskadon is persuaded that these early school start times are just abusive. (16) Children may feel adapted to being tired, but performance tests show the opposite. (317, 318) Although conventional wisdom holds that individuals can train themselves to adapt to less sleep, laboratory tests belie this. (319) Chronically sleepdeprived teens often become so used to the feeling of sleepiness that they dont recognize that they are settling for less than they are capable of in creativity, academic performance, and communication both in and out of the classroom. (Rauch, supra, p. 175.) A 2009 study of Chicago public high schools found students beginning morning classes at 8 a.m. show marked deficiencies in performance in first period courses throughout the term. (320) As in other early starting schools, (2, 30, 41) the students were more likely to be absent (about 6 more days per year) in first period relative to other periods. (320, see discussion, n. 570, infra.) [E]arlier start times are associated with significant sleep deprivation, daytime fatigue, irregular sleep schedules, and the tendency to fall asleep at school [] This clash between bodily rhythms and contextual factors can have a wide variety of negative consequences. Insufficient sleep results in an increased risk for school absences because of physical illness, falling asleep in school, oversleeping in the morning, fatigue, and irritability, all of which are detrimental to academic outcomes[.] (23) Economists from Columbia University and the University of Michigan calculate that the earliest school start times are associated with annual reductions in student performance of roughly 0.1 standard deviations for disadvantaged students, equivalent to replacing an average teacher with a teacher at the sixteenth percentile in terms of effectiveness. (49) A 2005 study published in Pediatrics, the official Journal of the American Academy of Pediatrics, concluded, School schedules are forcing [adolescents] to lose sleep and to perform academically when they are at their worst. (6) A. Academic Performance Sleep, in essence, is food for the brain. (4)---James Maas, Ph.D., Retired Professor of Psychology, Stephen H. Weiss Presidential Fellow, Cornell University. Sleep plays an important role in learning and memory, (11, 111, 113, 114, 117) with studies finding an inverse relationship between sleep and academic performance in children, adolescents, and young adults at every educational level. (2, 24, 27, 29, 21, 30, 34, 35, 44, 112, 115, 116, 181) Sleep loss is associated with brief mental lapses in attention during simple tasks that can be
13

partially offset by increased effort or motivation. (11, 220) Tiredness and fatigue, however, tend to diminish motivation, particularly for tasks perceived as boring or tedious. (220) Sleep deprivation can sometimes mimic or exacerbate symptoms of ADHD (attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder), including distractibility, impulsivity, and difficulty with effortful control of attention. (220, 11) There is also evidence that sleep deprivation has marked influences on the ability to perform complex tasks or tasks that require attention in two or more areas at the same time. (11, 21, 220) Memory consolidation, long-term recall, and retrieval, particularly of novel material, are all affected by sleep restriction. (182) [I]nstalling new memoriesi.e., learningclearly benefits from, if not depends upon, intervals of normal sleep. (2) Not getting enough sleep may result in problems with attention, memory, decision-making, organization, and creativity, all of which are clearly important for success in school. [] [S]tudies actually show that students who get better grades sleep more, not less. (Mindell & Owens, Clinical Guide to Pediatric Sleep: Diagnosis and Management of Sleep Problems (Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, 2nd ed. 2010) p. 258, original italics.) Scientists have consistently found a constellation of sleep factorsearlier bedtimes, more total sleep, and later rise timesassociated with superior academic performance and higher grades. (2, 29, 30, 34, 181, see also, discussion n. 345, infra.) A meta-analysis (statistical method combining different study results) of 61 studies found poor sleep quality, insufficient sleep and sleepiness significantly associated with worse school performance among students 8-18 years of age. (340) In 2009, Kyla Wahlstrom, Director of the Center for Applied Research and Educational Improvement (CAREI), noted that in schools which have delayed start times, the academic trend following the change goes exclusively towards higher grades, (45) an assertion which appears supported by the evidence. (13, 30, 34, 35, 41, 44, 139, 316, 341, 342) A 2011 study of Israeli middle school students found significant improvement in mathematics and alphabet attention tasks when classes were delayed by one hour to 8:30 a.m. (13, 343) The study strongly recommends that middle schools should consider delaying the school starting time by at least one hour. Such a change could enhance students cognitive performance by improving their attention level, increasing rate of performance, as well as reducing their mistakes and impulsivity. (13, italics added.) Similarly, when start times were delayed by one hour, to 9:30 a.m., Norwegian 10th graders demonstrated improved performance in reaction time tests (e.g. psychomotor vigilance tasks), proven as valid predictors of performance and levels of fatigue[.] (344) Finley Edwards, Ph.D., compiled test data covering a 10-year period for middle school students in Wake County, North Carolina. (44) Edwards found delaying start times by one hour (from 7:30 a.m.) lead to a 3 percentile point gain in standardized math and reading test scores for the average middle school student in Wake County, North Carolina. (44) The improvement was greatest for the bottom half of the distribution, suggesting that delaying start times may be particularly important for schools
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attempting to reach minimum competency requirements. (44) Edwards also found later start times associated with decreased absences, less time spent watching television and a greater amount of time spent on homework, indicating that these factors may help explain why later starting students have higher test scores. (44) Georgetown University Assistant Professor of Public Policy Peter Hinrichs has found later start times had no effect on ACT college entrance exam testing scores in Kansas or Minnesota. (345) As Hinrichs points out, however, only 59-66% of Minnesota students sat for the ACT test. (345) (The percentage of Kansas test-takers is unstated.) Edwards surmises his results differ from Hinrichs because start times have a greater impact on the bottom half of students. (44) In 2002, echoing the same point, Wahlstrom noted Those students who do take these tests [SAT/ACT] typically tend to be the most academically able, attend classes regularly, and are likely have study habits that supercede any tiredness they experience. As a result, it is difficult to compare their scores with those of their suburban counterparts on nationally normed tests. (37) Until recently, most researchers did not believe a cause and effect relationship between later start times and higher scores had been adequately established. Even so, as Wahlstrom recognized, there is clearly a statistical relationship between these two variables that may be explained by other variables (e.g., less depression, less struggle to stay awake in class) that change when the start time of school is changed. (342, emphasis in original.) One recent study appears to have isolated the effect of later start times on academic performance. Bearing in mind that adolescence lasts until around 19.5 years for women and 20.9 years for men, (7, 103) a four-year study of more than 6,100 first semester United States Air Force Academy freshman published in the American Economic Journal: Economic Policy, found a 50 minute delay in the first class increased grades by 0.15 standard deviations. (24) The researchers, economists from the United States Air Force Academy and the University of California, controlled for potentially confounding factors -- grading structure, class selection and teachers, for example -- to determine the causal effect of start times on academic achievement. (24) We find that when a student is randomly assigned to a first period course starting prior to 8 a.m., they perform significantly worse in all their courses taken on that day compared to students who are not assigned to a first period course. Importantly, we find that this negative effect diminishes the later the school day begins. [] Our findings suggest that pushing back the time at which the school day starts would likely result in significant achievement gains for adolescents. [] Students with a first period class are disadvantaged for two reasons. First, they are in class at a time that their body wants to be asleep, which both makes it difficult to

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learn and fatigues the brain. Second, they may be getting less sleep than their peers who napped during first period. [] Our findings have important implications for education policy; administrators aiming to improve student achievement should consider the potential benefits of delaying school start time. A later start time of 50 minutes in our sample has the equivalent benefit as raising teacher quality by roughly one standard deviation. Hence, later start times may be a cost-effective way to improve student outcomes for adolescents. (24, italics added.) Stanford University economist Eric Hanushek calculates that replacing one average teacher with one above average teacher (one standard deviation above the mean) for a class of 20 willeach yearraise students aggregate earnings by more than $400,000. (346) Economists from Columbia University and the University of Michigan estimate an increase of $17,500 in individual student earnings in present value based upon a one hour delay in morning classes, from roughly 8 a.m. to 9 a.m. (49) Edwards study and the study of Air Force Academy cadets suggest that changing start time policies generates these effects for the entire middle or high school. (49) Professor Maas proposes we reconsider Poor Richards advice. Sleep deficit is hampering high school achievement. Tiredness should not be confused with laziness. All teens should have the right to learn in an optimum environment. Rather than the early to bed... adage, the new adage should be, Wake up later and your grades will be greater. (4) B. Depression, Anxiety, and Fatigue Among adolescents, daily feelings of anxiety, depression, and fatigue are the most consistent psychological outcomes of obtaining less sleep at night. (118)---Andrew Fuligini, Ph.D., Professor of Psychiatry & Biobehavioral Sciences, David Geffen School of Medicine, UCLA, Christina Hardway, Ph.D., Assistant Professor of Psychology, University of Michigan. The prevalence of depression increases with age, especially after the onset of puberty. (380) Excessive irritability, moodiness, sleep and appetite changes may signal a vulnerability to depression. (381) [D]epression is not only a symptom of sleep deprivation but can also be a cause. (381) Scientists refer to this as a bidirectional relationship (Dobson & Dozois, Risk Factors in Depression (Academic Press 2008) p. 109), or bidirectional causal pathway. (23) Adolescents who present with depression display high rates of sleep disturbance and those who present with complaints of poor sleep display high rates of depression. This may create a perpetual cycle, where lack of sleep leads to feelings of fatigue and apathy at school, impaired

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academic and social functioning, reduced levels of motivation, and impaired ability to regulate mood and emotional responses. (119) Depressed children often report disturbed sleep despite normal architecture measured by electroencephalography. (134) Adolescents who are anxious, depressed, or feel less healthy may in fact, need more sleep than those with better psychological functioning. The challenges of getting through an ordinary day may require increased energy for these adolescents. (134) Depressed adolescents frequently have difficulty falling asleep, are unable to get up or refuse to go to school, sleep until late in the day, complain of extreme daytime fatigue, and, over time, shift to increasingly more delayed sleep-wake schedules. (220) Reports of depression have been shown to decline in schools which have delayed start times. (3, 37, 41, 47) Depression is linked to suicidal ideation in teens. (380, 382, 383) C. Suicidal Ideation and Completed Suicide The majority of children who attempt or contemplate suicide are likely to suffer from depression. (380, 382, 383) Sleep loss or disturbances may signal an increased risk of future suicidal action in adolescents. (120, 121, 122, 123, 124) A 2011 study published in the Journal of Psychiatric Research found that children who had trouble sleeping at 12 to 14 years of age were more than twice as likely to have suicidal thoughts at ages 15 to 17. (400, 401) The association between short sleep duration and suicidality has been hypothesized to be due, in part, to the negative effects of insufficient sleep on judgment, concentration, and impulse control. (121) Sleep problems and sleep deficiency have long been associated with suicidal ideation in teens. (52, 53, 400) Suicide is the third leading cause of death among adolescents, in recent years accounting for 10% or more of all teen fatalities. (402, 403) Recent data put the suicide rate in the general population at 2.7%. (404) Poor academic performance is among the risk factors for teen suicidality. (382, 405) As previously noted, sleep deficiency is closely associated with poor academic performance. (2, 27, 29, 30, 34, 35) D. Psychomotor Performance/Automobile Accidents Sleep deprivation, whether from disorder or lifestyle, whether acute or chronic, poses significant cognitive risks in the performance of many ordinary tasks such as driving and operating machinery. (420)---Jeffrey S. Durmer, M.D., Ph.D., Assistant Professor, Department of Neurology, Emory University School of Medicine, David F. Dinges, Ph.D., Professor of Psychology in Psychiatry, Associate Director, Center for Sleep and Circadian Neurobiology, University of Pennsylvania School of Medicine.

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There is increasing evidence correlating early start times with higher crash rates among adolescents. (31, 46, 421, 422) Both motor and mental acuity suffer when we are sleep deprived, which can lead to dangerous human errors and accidents. Studies done on test subjects with occupations associated with sleep deprivationincluding pilots, truck drivers, and medical residentstypically show a greater risk for fatigue-related mistakes and crashes. Accidents related to lost lives and billions of dollars in costs. (Abaci, Take Charge of Your Chronic Pain: The Latest Research, Cutting-Edge Tools (Globe Pequot Press 2010) p. 241, n. omitted.) In 1999, school districts in Lexington, Kentucky delayed start times for high school students county-wide by one hour to 8:30 a.m. (31) Average crash rates for teen drivers in the study county in the 2 years after the change in school start time dropped 16.5%, compared with the 2 years prior to the change, whereas teen crash rates for the rest of the state increased 7.8% over the same time period. (31) The researchers concluded that allowing adolescents to sleep more on school nights by delaying the start of school not only results in them sleeping more, but also may have a measurable positive effect on their driving safety. (31) In reviewing the study, John Cline, Assistant Clinical Professor of Psychiatry at the Yale School of Medicine, commented, Given the danger posed to young people from car accidents this is a strong reason in itself to change school start times. (423) A 2011 study published in the Journal of Clinical Sleep Medicine found that in 2008, the teen crash rate was about 41% higher in Virginia Beach, Virginia, where high school classes began at 7:207:25 a.m., than in adjacent Chesapeake, Virginia, where classes started an hour later at 8:408:45 a.m. (421) Although a cause and effect relationship has not been established, the Virginia study associates early start times with increased teenage car crash rates. (46, 422) We were concerned that Virginia Beach teens might be sleep restricted due to their early rise times and that this could eventuate in an increased crash rate, said lead author Robert Vorona, M.D., Associate Professor of Internal Medicine at Eastern Virginia Medical School in Norfolk, Virginia. (421) Similar results were found for 2007, when the weekday crash rate for Virginia Beach teens (71.2) was 28 percent higher than for Chesapeake teens (55.6). (46) In a secondary analysis that evaluated only the traditional school months of September 2007 through June 2008, the weekday crash rate for teen drivers was 25 percent higher in Virginia Beach (80.0) than in Chesapeake (64.0). (46) The morning peak in crash rates occurred one hour earlier in Virginia Beach than in Chesapeake. (46) The congestion data for Virginia Beach and Chesapeake did not explain the different crash rates. (46, 422) Dr. Vorona contends delaying high school start times may promote driver alertness by reducing the severity of chronic sleep restriction, a common problem during adolescence. (421) We believe that high schools should take a close look at having later start times to align with circadian rhythms in teens and to allow for longer sleep

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times. Too many teens in this country obtain insufficient sleep. A burgeoning literature suggests that this may lead to problematic consequences including mood disorders, academic difficulties and behavioral issues. (421) Harvard Professor of Medicine Stuart Quan concurs: They are additional data suggesting that high school start times should be delayed to increase the amount of sleep that teenagers get during the school week and, hence, reduce the amount of sleep deprivation they incur. (343) Teenagers, especially older teenage boys, are at the highest risk for falling asleep at the wheel. The most common drowsy driving accident involves a single vehicle with a single driver who drives off the road. These accidents happen most often late at night and in the middle of the afternoon. So dont be fooled that just because it is bright daylight, your teen wont fall asleep at the wheel. In addition, all teens who are not getting enough sleep are at risk, especially when a beer or two, marijuana, and relative driving inexperience compound lack of sleep. (Mindell & Owens, Clinical Guide to Pediatric Sleep: Diagnosis and Management of Sleep Problems (Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, 2nd ed. 2010) p. 258.) Consistent with previous studies, (2) a five year study by the Ohio Department of Transportation released in August of 2011 showed that 7 a.m. is the most dangerous time for teens driving to school. (424) Given that the sleep-inducing hormone, melatonin, pressures adolescents to sleep until approximately 8 a.m., (3, 24) this outcome should not be surprising. Nationally, sleepiness is the leading cause of motor vehicle crashes among drivers 16 to 29 years of age. (21, 46, 425) Psychomotor impairment due to sleep deprivation, as seen on tests like driving performance, can resemble that seen with blood alcohol levels between .05 and .10 percent. (426, 427, 428, Abaci, supra.) Motor vehicle crashes are the leading cause of death for U.S. teens, accounting for more than one in three deaths in this age group. (403, 177) E. Athletic Performance Sleep is a universal recovery strategy that is essential to both physiological adaptation and to the consolidation of skill development[.] (440) Sleep deprivation and sleep disturbance can impair mental and physical function, immune response and other restorative processes important for athletes. (440) Athletes should aim for 10 hours of sleep per night. Adolescent athletes may need more sleep. (440) Just as insufficient sleep is associated with diminished athletic/psychomotor performance, (126, 420, 426, 427, 428) so extra sleep is correlated with improved athletic/psychomotor performance. (125) The benefits of extra sleep for athletes have been established repeatedly. (441, 442, 443, 444, 445) Increased sleep is associated with faster reaction

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times, (141, 446) improved peripheral vision, (447) and peak athletic performance. (448) Sleepiness, by contrast, can increase the risk of sports injuries in teens. (449) Dr. Phil Eichling, a sleep medicine specialist, notes that peripheral vision can be affected by loss of sleep resulting in slow eye movement. (447) Decreased peripheral vision is a huge competitive disadvantage for athletes. (447) Sleep duration may be an important consideration for an athletes daily training regimen, according to Dr. Cheri Mah of the Stanford Sleep Disorders Clinic and Research Laboratory. Furthermore, sleep extension also may contribute to minimizing the effects of accumulated sleep deprivation and thus could be a beneficial strategy for optimal performance. (450) Dr. Mahs 2010 study of college athletes found most entered training with sleep deficits. The athletes were encouraged to press for extra sleep, up to 10 hours nightly. After several weeks of consistent additional sleep, athletic performance began to improve. (450, 451) While most athletes and coaching staff may believe that sleep is an important contributing factor in sports, many do not realize that optimal or peak performance can only occur when an athletes sleep and sleep habits are optimal. (448, 452) F. Excessive Weight Gain A study published in the September 2010 issue of the journal Sleep found that teenagers who slept less than eight hours per weeknight ate more fatty foods and snacks than adolescents who slept eight hours or more. (470) For each one-hour increase in sleep duration, the odds of consuming a high amount of calories from snacks decreased by an average of 21 percent. (129, 470) A significantly greater proportion of teens who slept less than eight hours per weeknight consumed food in the early morning between 5 a.m. and 7 a.m. (129, 470) According to Harvards Dr. Susan Redline, Altered timing of eating in shorter sleepers also may be a metabolic stress that contributes to metabolic dysfunction. (129, 470) Obviously, being awake for longer hours means more opportunities to eat. Weight gain may be promoted by eating at a time when circadian rhythm dictates sleep. (471) A 2010 CDC study published in the Journal of the American Medical Association reports that the rate of obesity in U.S. adolescents between the ages of 12 and 19 years was 18.1 percent in 2007-2008. (472) The authors noted that the prevalence of high body mass index in childhood has remained steady for 10 years and has not declined despite coordinated prevention efforts. (472) Overweight children and adolescents tend to have reduced REM sleep. (128) Although a recent study suggests otherwise, (473) Dr. Redline and other researchers

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surmise sleep loss may be the missing link (129) in understanding why diet and exercise obesity interventions fail. (127, 130, 474, 475) G. Risk-Taking & Delinquent Behavior Risk-taking is a complex phenomenon, and adolescents seem to be a particularly vulnerable population. (131)--- Erin M. OBrien, Ph.D., Instructor in Psychiatry and Human Behavior, The Warren Alpert Medical School, Brown University, Jodi Mindell, Ph.D., Professor of Psychology, Director, Graduate Program, St. Josephs University, Associate Director, Sleep Center, Childrens Hospital of Philadelphia. In ruling the Eighth Amendment (barring cruel and unusual punishment) prohibits imposing the death penalty for juvenile offenders, the United States Supreme Court noted differences between juvenile and adult offenders. Writing for the Courts majority, Justice Kennedy observed, First, as any parent knows and as the scientific and sociological studies respondent and his amici cite tend to confirm, [a] lack of maturity and an underdeveloped sense of responsibility are found in youth more often than in adults and are more understandable among the young. These qualities often result in impetuous and ill-considered actions and decisions. It has been noted that adolescents are overrepresented statistically in virtually every category of reckless behavior. In recognition of the comparative immaturity and irresponsibility of juveniles, almost every State prohibits those under 18 years of age from voting, serving on juries, or marrying without parental consent. [] The second area of difference is that juveniles are more vulnerable or susceptible to negative influences and outside pressures, including peer pressure. (`[Y]outh is more than a chronological fact. It is a time and condition of life when a person may be most susceptible to influence and to psychological damage). (490) The adolescent qualities referenced by Justice Kennedypsychological vulnerability, impulsivity, immature judgment, susceptibility to negative influence and peer pressuretend to be exacerbated by restricted sleep. (52, 53, 121, 131, 132, 134) Adolescents inability to control emotional responses when sleep deprived could influence aggression, sexual behavior, the use of alcohol and drugs, and risky driving. (21) Teenagers who are sleep deprived are often more impulsive and more likely to engage in risk-taking behaviors, such as drinking, driving fast, and engaging in other dangerous activities. (Mindell & Owens, Clinical Guide to Pediatric Sleep: Diagnosis and Management of Sleep Problems (Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, 2nd ed. 2010) p. 258.) Despite the robust health typical of adolescents, death rates soar at this age largely because of misfortunes associated with elevated risk-taking behaviors, including use of alcohol and other drugs that may further increase the incidence of risky
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behaviors. Adolescence may be a vulnerable period not only because of the high prevalence of risk-taking, but also because of the potential lasting consequences of perturbations to the brain as it is sculpted during this time. For instance, brain regions undergoing particularly marked remodeling during adolescence (e.g., PFC, amygdala, nucleus accumbens) are among those that are most sensitive to alcohol and other drugs of abuse. (Coch, Fischer, & Dawson, Human Behavior, Learning, and the Developing Brain: Typical Development (Informa Healthcare 2010) p. 383, citations omitted.) One unintended consequence of the earlier school schedule is the amount of unstructured time some teens are faced with after school in the afternoons. This selfcare time lends itself to greater risk taking, and has been correlated with increased substance use and depressed mood. Indeed, juvenile crimes are four times more likely to occur in the hours after school than at other times during the day or night. (2, 310) A study published last year in the Journal of Youth and Adolescence found that teenagers sleeping seven or fewer hours per night had a significantly higher rate of property crimes such as vandalism, shoplifting, and breaking and entering than their peers who had 8-10 hours of sleep. (133) Teenagers sleeping five or fewer hours per night had a significantly higher rate of violent crimes such as being involved in a physical fight or threatening someone with a weapon than those teenagers who had slept 8-10 hours. (133) The researchers note, Our analysis provides preliminary evidence that sleepdeprived adolescents participate in a greater volume of both violent and property crime.... Further, our results indicate that every little bit of sleep may make a difference. That is, sleeping 1 (hour) less (i.e., 7 hours) than the recommended range increased the likelihood of property delinquency, and this risk increased for each hour of sleep missed. (133) In a 2005 study of 388 Philadelphia high school students, 67% of participants indicated that they thought they obtained too little sleep. (131) Researchers found students reporting more sleep problems were also more likely to report that they were experiencing behavior problems and substance use. (131) Students who obtained the least amount of sleep on school nights reported greater alcohol usage than those students who obtained the most sleep on school nights, and those students with the biggest difference between their school-night and weekend-night bedtimes reported higher levels of risk-taking behavior and lower academic performance. (131) Overall, the results of this study support the expectation that inadequate sleep and increased sleep problems have negative effects on adolescents daytime functioning, including poorer academic performance, increased daytime sleepiness, negative moods, behavior problems, and increased risk-taking. (131)

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A 2011 CDC study of 12,154 high school students also found an association between diminished sleep and increased likelihood of health-risk behaviors, including use of cigarettes, alcohol, or marijuana, sexual activity, and serious consideration of attempting suicide. (53) These outcomes appear to be universal. A survey of 6,632 students from 349 secondary schools across Italy found an association between increased complaints of daytime sleepiness and poor academic achievement, greater use of caffeine, alcohol, and tobacco, sleep problems, evening phase preference, anxiety, and depressive mood. (Gianotti & Cortesi, Sleep Patterns and Daytime Function in Adolescents: An Epidemiological Survey of an Italian High School Student Sample, publish. in, Adolescent Sleep Patterns: Biological, Social, and Psychological Influences, (Carskadon, edit., Cambridge Univ. Press 2002) pp. 132-147.) Lela McKnight-Eily, Ph.D., lead author of the recent CDC study, recently commented, consideration of delayed school start times may hold promise as one effective step in a comprehensive approach to address this problem. (52) Stimulant Use Young people are increasingly using caffeine to compensate for chronic inadequate sleep. (106, 491) Ironically, falling asleep in school is associated with high caffeine consumption. (105) Caffeine, a methylxanthine and adenosine receptor antagonist, can be considered the most commonly consumed psychoactive substance worldwide. (105) Of the 5,448 US caffeine overdoses reported in 2007, 46% occurred in those younger than 19 years. (212) Currently, the U.S. does not regulate the amount of caffeine in energy drinks. (492) Energy drinks are classified as dietary supplements rather than sodas and are not limited by the same caffeine restrictions that are applied to soft drinks. (492) The FDA limits regular soft drinks to a maximum of 71 milligrams of caffeine per 12 ounce can, however, these limits do not apply to most energy drinks. (492) According to self-report surveys, energy drinks are consumed by 30% to 50% of adolescents and young adults. (492) Reports indicate that some high school students drink as many as five cans of energy drinks a day to combat sleep loss. (29) Frequently containing high and unregulated amounts of caffeine, these drinks have been reported in association with serious adverse effects, especially in children, adolescents, and young adults with seizures, diabetes, cardiac abnormalities, or mood and behavioral disorders or those who take certain medications. (492) Clusters of Sleep/Drug Use Behavior Researchers from Harvard and the University of California mapped the social networks of 8,349 adolescents in order to study how sleep behavior spreads, how drug use behavior spreads, and how a friends sleep behavior influences ones own drug use. (132) Their study found clusters of poor sleep behavior and drug use that extend up to four degrees of separation (to ones friends friends friends friends) in the social

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network. [I]f a friend sleeps <7 hours, it increases the likelihood a person sleeps <7 hours by 11%. If a friend uses marijuana, it increases the likelihood of marijuana use by 110%. [T]he likelihood that an individual uses drugs increases by 19% when a friend sleeps <7 hours[.] (132) Teenage marijuana use may lead to significant, long-lasting cognitive deficits. (493) H. Physical, Psychological, or Social Difficulties Sleep deprived adolescents are more prone to headaches (510) and illness. (135) The immune system is compromised by restricted sleep. (135, 440) The primary emotional changes following sleep loss suggest a decrease in the ability to control, inhibit, or modify emotional responses to bring them into line with long-term goals, social rules, or other learned principles. (220) Sleep deprivation, and poor sleep quality also increase the likelihood of interpersonal problems and psychiatric illness. While many students are able to function well in school with shorter amounts of sleep, they may pay a price in other ways such as emotional instability, argumentativeness, and disturbed social interactions. (2) Sleep deprived teenagers are more often moody, irritable, and cranky, and are more likely to get frustrated or upset more easily. (Mindell & Owens, Clinical Guide to Pediatric Sleep: Diagnosis and Management of Sleep Problems (Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, 2nd ed. 2010) p. 258.) [O]ne of the major concerns regarding the co-occurrence of sleep and mood problems in adolescents is that it can contribute to a negative spiral in school and social functioning. For example, late night and erratic schedules and early school start times can lead to sleep deprivation, which in turn can erode mood and motivation. Difficulties with mood, motivation, and school performance create greater stress and affective problems. The negative affective experiences further interfere with sleep and arousal regulation and circadian effects and lead to difficulty falling asleep, more erratic schedules, and additional deterioration across these systems. (21) Using an average self-reported nightly sleep duration of eight to nine hours as a reference, a 2010 study of young adults (17-24) found a linear association between sleep durations of less than eight hours and psychological distress. (136, 140) The increase in levels of distress reported by young adults over the past decade may reflect temporal changes in young peoples sleep patterns. (136) Insomnia is extraordinarily common in children and adolescents, with an estimated prevalence of 2030%. (511, 512) A 12-month prospective study demonstrated that insomnia in younger adolescents significantly increased the risk for subsequent declines in social, psychological, physical, and mental health. (40)

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Increased Risk of Hypertension (Elevated Blood Pressure) A study of 238 adolescents found a 3.5-fold increased risk of prehypertension or hypertension in children with low sleep efficiency (i.e., recurrent arousals or awakenings from sleep) and a 2.5-fold increased risk of hypertension in children with short sleep duration (<6.5 hours). (137) The researchers note that childhood hypertension is associated with hypertension in adulthood, a risk factor for cardiovascular disease incidence and death. It also is associated with end-organ damage, notably left ventricular hypertrophy, in both children and adults. (137) Interference with Secondary Brain Development It has now been clearly established that both sleep loss and disrupted sleep, or sleep fragmentation, have a detrimental effect on childrens neurocognitive development. (513, 139) Perhaps the most significant impact of sleep deprivation may be on the secondary development of the brain that commences in puberty. The lag between attainment of sexual maturity and emotional development of high intensity feelings, such as risk taking, and the development of a set of neurobehavioural systems for self-control and affect regulation may be accentuated by sleep deprivation. For example the risk for addiction is high in this population. (138) As previously noted, sleep seems to be particularly important during periods of brain maturation. (Across species, maturing individuals sleep more than fully mature individuals.) (220) IV. Delaying School Start Times

Hopefully, in the near future, increased awareness of the sleep problems faced by teenagers should motivate schools across the country to synchronize school schedules with students circadian clocks. That way, teenagers are in school during their most alert hours to achieve their full academic potential. (539)---Saiprakash B. Venkateshiah, M.D., F.C.C.P., Assistant Professor, Emory University School of Medicine. Scientists from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) report, Delaying school start times is a demonstrated strategy to promote sufficient sleep among adolescents. (26) In some districts, however, implementing the change to later start times may be a challenging undertaking. The National Sleep Foundation recognizes eight potential obstacles to adjusting school schedules and proposes possible solutions for each problem. (540) Transportation is the first obstacle noted. (540) Fredonia State College Associate Professor Charles Stoddart observes, The tail of transportation wags the dog of the educational system. (541) While the financial impact of adjusting bus schedules may range from substantial expense to windfall savings (see discussion, n. 540, infra), a 2011 Brookings Institute study, undertaken by economists from Columbia University and the University of Michigan, conservatively estimates the ratio of benefits to costs at 9 to 1
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when middle and high school start times are delayed by 60 minutes; i.e., from roughly 8 a.m. to 9 a.m. (49) The National Sleep Foundation proposes flipping the schedules of primary and secondary school children to address transportation since young children can rise early without difficulty, provided they get to bed early enough to ensure the 10-11 hours of sleep they need. (540) However, in discussing obstacle number 3, Other Students and Programs, the Foundation appears to challenge its own advice, noting, Research is lacking on the effect of school start times on younger students, so it is hard to justify their earlier start. (540) As previously observed, even pre-adolescent fifth grade students reported significant sleep deprivation when a start time of 7:10 a.m. was imposed. (315) In addition, care must be taken to ensure young children will not be left unattended in darkness. (20) Nonetheless, the National Sleep Foundations solution has been implemented widely. (48) The Brookings Institute proposes additional transportation alternatives. (49) The remaining obstacles or objections to later school scheduling include resistance to change, concerns that students will be in school too late in the day to reasonably participate in sports, jobs, internships, and other extracurricular activities; (12, 316, 540, 542, 543) daycare plans being interrupted; (544) and, parents failing to address proper sleep hygiene with their children. (545) Teachers often oppose the change due to concerns they may have to commute during peak traffic, (316) or may have less time with their families. (540) Certainly, parents should ensure reasonable bedtimes, (121, 122) impose limits on technology use, and encourage exercise in children to help them get the sleep they need. (108) We can also help teenagers gain control over their own sleep patterns by teaching sleep and circadian principles in middle and high school health education. Minimizing exposure to light at night, as well as reducing computer or TV usage immediately before bedtime can naturally advance circadian phase. Similarly, incorporating outdoor morning activity into a teenage schedule can reduce trouble falling asleep at night. (103) In 2011, the journal Educational Researcher responded to the remaining objections: Many who oppose changing school start times cite the disruption of extracurricular activities as a prohibiting factor. Some school boards have successfully implemented a start time change without disrupting extracurricular activitiesand, ironically, without having to schedule after-school activities before schoolsimply by scheduling events later. In fact, results from the Minneapolis study show that later start times did not significantly affect student participation in after-school activities (Center for Applied Research and Educational Improvement, 1998b). The only problem was that some children were pulled out of class early for away-from-school sporting events (e.g., Center for Applied Research and Educational Improvement, 1998a; National Sleep Foundation, 2005e). (546)
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A recent unpublished study undertaken at Winona Senior High School in Minnesota found no adverse impact on student-athletes academic performance, despite a 9 a.m. start time and as many as 15.1 school periods missed to attend sports contests. (547) An earlier published study comparing preseason and postseason grades in English, math, science, and social science courses found that playing sports had no impact on academic achievement for students from four rural high school districts. (548) Perhaps the most important consideration is that the schools that have successfully delayed school start times with minimal complications had adequate time to prepare, which they spent engaged in research, policy analysis, and a healthy discourse with the public. However, it should be noted that, in any school district where the start times are changed, it is likely that those directly and indirectly involved in the school system will need to make some degree of sacrifice for the benefit of the students. [] [T]he inconvenient consequences of changing school start times can be attenuated. There is evidence that with adequate planning and preparation, school boards have been able to delay school start times at acceptable monetary cost (given the enormous potential payoff) and tolerable disruption of community functioning. (546, italics added.) Economists note that some of the conflicts associated with later start times could be minimized if the change in school schedules took place at a regional rather than at a district level. (49) Some parents and school administrators, however, simply arent persuaded the scientific evidence is reliable, (184, 316) or that delaying start times would make a positive difference. (548) When asked about adjusting school schedules to comport with adolescent phase delay, former San Mateo County Superintendent of Schools Floyd Gonella, Ed.D., responded, Trying to adjust school times to sleep patterns has no validity. And even if it does, scientific facts come out and then three days later, theres another study countering that. (184) Edmond Burnes, principal of Battery Creek High School, said hes not convinced delaying start times would have much effect on students at his school. (548) Mr. Burnes explained that the research with which he was familiar involved different demographics than those of Battery Creek. (548) When Westchester schools declined an initiative to start high schools later, then-superintendent Karen McCarthy, Ph.D., explained, Theres still something that doesnt click for me. (316) Following students assertions that the plan to advance high school start times to 7:35 a.m. would run counter to findings from studies conducted in other districts, Parkway School Board Member Bruce Major responded, I can Google right now, and come up with research that will say just about anything. (549) In his preface to the Stanford Sleep Book, Professor William Dement notes the stunning truth of this observation by former U.S. Senator Mark Hatfield: America is a vast reservoir of ignorance about sleep, sleep deprivation and sleep disorders. As Holy Cross Professor of Psychology Amy Wolfson points out, Although sleep

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consumes approximately one-third of our lives (50% at early school age), it is often ignored by developmental psychologists, pediatricians, educators, and others who devote their lives to working with children and adolescents. For example, sleep is rarely mentioned in textbooks on adolescent development, child-adolescent sleep topics are infrequently presented at the Society for Research on Child Development meetings (.3% of presentations at the 1995 biennial SRCD meeting), and pediatricians get very little training in sleep medicine. (560) CAREI Director Kyla Wahlstrom suggests that pairing the growing body of medical research with the educational outcomes seems to be the logical path to argue for changing to later start times. (549) In Fairfax, Virginia, the group Start Later for Excellence in Education Proposal (SLEEP) has been pressing to delay the Fairfax County Public Schools 7:20 a.m. high school start time for at least 10 years. A 2009 county health youth survey showed 90 percent of Fairfax County secondary school students were not getting enough sleep. School leaders have focused on surveys which they assert show parent opposition to later start times (discussed here). Mel Riddile, M.Ed., Ed.D, Associate Director for High School Services at the National Association of Secondary School Principals, Virginia (2005) and National Principal of the Year (2006), has little patience for school administrators who fail to implement later start times for adolescent students. You know a school or a school district is in trouble when the strategic plan follows the principles of the ABC School of Management--Administration By Convenience. One of the best indicators of an adultfocused environment, one that is practicing the principles of ABC, is when research is blatantly ignored in favor of current practice. (561) Administrators persuaded by the science may nonetheless find the issue of delaying start times politically untenable. (58) Changing times may be the subject of some acrimony, with parents and coaches often vehemently opposed. (24, 562) In some districts, superintendents and board members pressing for the change have been replaced by those opposing it. (550) Thus, the initiative to adjust start times may be undertaken by community constituents such as physicians, (10) legislators, (50) PTAs, (564) voters groups, (565) rather than by school leaders. (58, 550) Although sleep scientists uniformly support delaying school start times for adolescents, Wahlstrom cautions, changing a schools starting time provokes the same kind of emotional reaction from stakeholders as closing a school or changing a schools attendance area. A schools starting time sets the rhythm of the day for teachers, parents, students, and members of the community at large. The impact of changing that starting time is felt individually, and the individuals who are affected need to have their views heard and legitimized so that the discussion can move forward in search of common ground. [] High school starting time is a seemingly simple issue with prickly political dimensions, and there is no single solution that will fit all districts. Only
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through open discussion of their concerns can stakeholders develop a shared understanding of the facts that will lead to a reasonablebut purely localdecision.
(58)

Brazilian researchers share this perspective. [A]pparently simple modifications such as delaying the beginning of morning classes involves the participation of the whole communityparents, teachers, and transport service providersand should be discussed and planned before implementation. (567) The Connecticut League of Women Voters actually utilizes the services of a school start time change specialist to assist communities in making the change. (562) The state league embraces efforts to change school start times because it sees the change as a way to improve communities that is both nonpartisan and research-based. (562) In 1999, psychologist Gordon Wrobel distilled seven points to be addressed by administrators when presiding over a start time change: (1) Inform and involve all stakeholders; (2) Allow ample time [between informing stakeholders of the decision and implementing the new times]; (3) Provide justifications for decisions based on research data; (4) Support families in the decision process; (5) Involve the community; (6) Dont forget school staff; and, (7) Commit to providing follow-up regarding the change. (568) According to St. Georges School headmaster Eric Peterson, finding ways to adjust start times is the job of talented, smart school administrators. (569) In early 2007, the National Sleep Foundations informal data put the number of districts to have implemented delayed start times at 80, with 140 considering. (22) At the time of this writing, the National Sleep Foundation website reports individual schools or districts in 19 states have pushed back their start times, and more than 100 school districts in an additional 17 states are considering delaying their start times[,] (570) although it appears this information has not been updated in some time. Neurologist and Professor of Medicine Mark Mahowald has been involved in many school start-time debates, and he dismisses claims there are too many obstacles to changing school start times. (571) Of all the arguments Ive heard over school start-times, not one person has argued that children learn more at 7:15 a.m. than at 8:30. (571) Despite formidable opposition from tradition and inertia, school leaders need to remember what is best for students, Dr. Mahowald said. (20) Not a single excuse [for not changing times] weve heard relates to education. None of the excuses have the word education in them. We should send kids to high school in a condition that promotes learning rather than interfering with it. (20) A. The Students Perspective Most adolescent students appear to recognize they get too little sleep. (35, 109, 131, 590) Many students also appear to appreciate that early start times contribute to their sleepiness. (541, 591, 592, 593) Citing scientific research and fiscal analysis to support their
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position, the California Student Advisory Board on Legislation in Education recommended delaying start times throughout the state to 8:40 a.m. (51) Students from Ladue Horton Watkins High School in Missouri produced a video for SchoolTube.com advocating later school schedules for teens. (594) In California, students founded The Sleep Club to advocate for high school later start times in the Temecula Valley Unified School District. (595) High school students write frequently about diminished sleep (541, 591, 596) and the benefits of later start times. (597, 598, see also, the student advocacy page.) Web-surfing through Facebook reveals a number of studentcreated pages challenging the wisdom of early start times. Dr. Richard Schwab, Associate Professor of Pulmonary Medicine at the University of Pennsylvania and Co-Director of the Penn Sleep Center, conducted a survey of 280 high school students attending Harriton High School in suburban Philadelphia. His daughter, Amanda, then one of the sleep-deprived teens attending the school, assisted with the study. (599) Their findings, presented at the American Thoracic Society 2007 International Conference, showed that 90% of students thought their academic performance would improve if school were to start later than the present 7:30 a.m. starting time. (599, 600) 78% of students said it was difficult to get up in the morning; 16% said they regularly had enough sleep; 70% thought their grades would improve if they had more sleep. (599, 600) The surveyed teens said they do not feel alert while taking tests during early morning periods, and they do not think they can perform at their best during the early morning hours. (599) Most students said they thought the best time to take a test would be from 11 a.m. to 1 p.m. (600) (Scientists writing in the journal Pediatrics note that students show their poorest performance levels at 8 a.m. and administrators clearly need[] to push back testing to 10 a.m. (6) Russell Foster, Ph.D., F.R.S., Chair of Circadian Neuroscience, Oxford University, proposes classes not begin until the afternoon.) (19) After the high schools in the Arlington, Virginia, public school system moved their start times from 7:30 a.m. to 8:15 a.m., students reported in a survey that they felt more alert and prepared for school (and teachers reported improvement in both student alertness and participation). (43) While some student bodies have voted against delaying start times, (541) in each instance where students have been surveyed following a change to later start times they have overwhelmingly approved of the change, whether in Minnesota, (3, 37, 342) Connecticut, (2) or Rhode Island. (41, 601) B. The National Institutes of Health on Problem Sleepiness The National Institutes of Health (NIH) have identified shift workers, adolescents and emerging adults (ages: 1225 years) (620) as populations at high risk for problem sleepiness. Although problem sleepiness and its consequences affect all segments of society to some extent, the working group selected the target audiences of
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(1) shift workers and (2) adolescents and young adults because there is evidence that the prevalence of problem sleepiness is high and increasing in these groups, with particularly serious consequences. (55) The NIH has pointed repeatedly to early school start times as a factor contributing to restricted sleep in adolescents. (55, 56, 57) The need for sleep may be 9 hours or more per night as a person goes through adolescence. At the same time, many teens begin to show a preference for a later bed time, which may be due to a biological change. Teens tend to stay up later but have to get up early for school, resulting in their getting much less sleep than they need. (56, original emphasis.) For most teens, the school start time means a nonnegotiable wake-up time. Most adolescents would sleep significantly longer if they could. [] Older adolescents are staying up later, rising earlier, and incurring sleep debts. As a result, teachers end up with sleepy students, and teens live under a dark cloud of insufficient sleep that may include microsleeps, attention lapses, decreased reaction times, impaired divergent thinking skills, impaired mental functioning, low mood, and a higher rate of accidents and injuries. (57) Recent data indicate that regulation of the circadian timing system may change during pubertal development and contribute to delayed timing. This type of sleep phase delay is in direct conflict with early school starting times, which form an uncontrollable and nonnegotiable aspect of a childs daily program. Youngsters faced with a lengthy commute to school have an even more difficult schedule problem. Oversleeping during the school week is not a legitimate option for adolescents, and early bedtimes may not be achievable for adolescents at the dawning of the 21st century due to biological and psychosocial impediments. (55) C. Sleep Scientists on the Timing of Education The timing of education is also important. There is clear evidence for a phase shift during adolescence, with adolescents going to bed later and rising later than children. This phase shift is largely biological, with adolescents typically unable to fall asleep at earlier times. For the most part, school systems have not considered this adolescent phase shift, with many systems traditionally having earlier (rather than later) start dates for high school than for grade school students. By recognizing the shift in biological rhythms during adolescence and delaying school start times accordingly, classroom experience can be matched to the times when adolescents are most alert and attentive.---Donna Coch, Ed.D., Associate Professor and Chair, Department of Education, Dartmouth College, Kurt Fischer, Ph.D., Charles Bigelow Professor of Education, Director, Mind, Brain, and Education Program, Harvard University, Geraldine Dawson, Ph.D., Autism Speaks, Chief Science Officer. (Coch, Fischer, & Dawson, Human Behavior, Learning, and the Developing Brain: Typical Development (Informa Healthcare 2010) pp. 382-383.)

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There is a need for educators to be more aware of the impact of school start times and academic scheduling, and to consider sleep problems as potential factors in students who fail to achieve or who exhibit behavioural problems. While it may be administratively convenient to begin high school classes early, there is strong evidence in our data, supported by the literature, suggesting that later start times would be more appropriate for teens. (138) Students at later starting middle and high schools obtain more sleep due to later wake times and, in turn, function more effectively in school. (30) Where possible, efforts should be made to encourage lighter homework loads and later school start times, so that adolescents can go to bed and wake up at times that are more suited to their bodily rhythms. (23) [C]hildren and adolescents with restricted sleep are at greater risk for increased oppositionality and irritability, as well as reduced attention, executive functioning, processing speed, behavioral/emotional regulation, motivation and academic achievement. ... Certainly this causal link between between sleep loss and impaired functioning in children and adolescents provides the impetus for consideration of delaying school start times, particularly for adolescents, who are experiencing a natural delay in circadian rhythm. (Crabtree & Witcher, Impact of Sleep Loss on Children and Adolescents, publish. in, Sleep and Psychiatric Disorders in Children and Adolescents (Informa Healthcare 2008, Ivanenko edit.) p. 144.) [S]chools need to incorporate into their pedagogical proposal measures that would reduce the impact of phase delay on the students performance. [] The first step would be to reconsider the schools temporal organization, in particular its class schedules, and systematize the results of possible interventions that aim to reduce the students daily sleepiness and thereby improve performance. [] The changes we propose are apparently simple modifications, such as delaying the beginning of morning classes. (567) For policy makers, teachers and parents, these results provide a clear mandate. The effects of sleep deprivation on grades, car accident risk, and mood are indisputable. A number of school districts have moved middle and high school start times later with the goal of decreasing teenage sleep deprivation. We support this approach, as results indicate that later school start times lead to decreased truancy and drop-out rates. (103) Recent research has focused on the effects of daytime sleepiness in the student population. Poor sleep quality has been linked to increased tension, irritability, depression, more frequent use of alcohol and illicit drugs, accidents, and lowered academic performance. Sleep problems are common and unrecognized in the student group. The influence of sleep on learning and behavior has recently captured the attention of school districts across the United States and school administrators

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increasingly need to weigh the factual information about the biology of student sleep patterns against the competing demands of teachers work preferences and athletic and after-school schedules. [] [T]here is increasing data that early school start times result in increased daytime sleepiness, and altering the times to a later time period has positive effects on academic performance and sleepiness. (Bijwadia & Dexter, The Student with Sleep Complaints, publish. in, Sleep: A Comprehensive Handbook (LeeChiong, edit., Wiley-Liss 2006) pp. 959, 960.) Start Time Recommendations, etc. The often serious impact of this chronic under-sleeping is now evident in both high school and middle school students. [] For all students one of the most salient and correctablesocial factors contributing to student sleep deprivation, is school start times. [] In brief, there are two features of the circadian rhythm especially important to understand regarding sleep in teenagers: (1) the drowsy signal that cues bedtime is dependent on the dampening of circadian-dependent alertness; and (2) the physiology of puberty causes a shift in the circadian rhythm which delays the timing of this biological bedtime by about an hour. These two biological factors underlie the main difficulties faced by adolescents attending school before 9:00 a.m.: the general problem that one cannot easily fall asleep before their biological bedtime, and the additional problem that puberty creates a tendency for even later bedtimes. [] Though research has not yet identified an ideal school schedule, the wealth of evidence reviewed in this chapter and elsewhere strongly suggests that students have a better opportunity to be rested and ready to learn by delaying school start time to 8:30 a.m. or later. (2) The study strongly recommends that middle schools should consider delaying the school starting time by at least one hour. Such a change could enhance students cognitive performance by improving their attention level, increasing rate of performance, as well as reducing their mistakes and impulsivity. (13, italics added [study shifted school schedules from 7:30 a.m. to 8:30 a.m.].) Schools with start times before 8:30 a.m. place students at a disadvantage in terms of arousal and alertness, not only for early morning classes but also throughout the day because adolescents biological rhythms are out of sync with typical school routines. (11) Right now, high schools usually start earlier in the morning than elementary schools. But if school start times were based on sleep cycles, elementary schools should start at 7:30 and high schools at 8:30 or 8:45right now its the reverse. School systems should be thinking about changing their start times. It would not be easythey would have to change the busing systembut it would increase their students sleep time and likely improve their school performance. (599)

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Although providing a home environment to promote healthy sleep is the first step to eliminating sleep deprivation in adolescents, increased public awareness of the impact of sleep on learning and behavior is important. For this to occur legislation to ensure that high school start times not begin before 9:00 a.m. may help in reducing sleep deprivation leading to improved academic performance and behavior[.] (15) Another short-term solution that can be implemented is to change the time we give standardized tests to 10:00 a.m. Almost all standardized tests in high schools begin at 8 am. Because this is when adolescents show their poorest performance levels, a change is clearly needed and would be relatively easy to negotiate. (6) Overall, many adolescents confront a major challenge if schools begin earlier than 8:30 a.m.; many schools start too early in the morning for adolescents to get adequate sleep, whether in the United States or in other countries such as Canada, Israel, Brazil, or Italy (Andrade & Menna-Barreto, 2002; Carskadon & Acebo, 1997; Epstein et al., 1998; Giannotti & Cortesi, 2002). [] [S]chool administrators are being urged to acknowledge the evidence and to adjust school schedules accordingly (e.g., delay high school start times). (12) Psychiatrist Jeffrey Deitz proposes that [h]igh school should start at 8:45 a.m., or better at 9 oclock. (630) Sleep medicine and pulmonary specialist Dr. Robert Geck suggests high schools begin classes between 9 a.m. and 10 a.m. (631) Martin Ralph, Ph.D., Professor of Psychology at the University of Toronto, recommends that university and high school classes start at 11 am., (7) perhaps based on a Harvard study showing the teen brain doesnt fully awaken until after 11 a.m. (632) Russell Foster, Ph.D., F.R.S., Chair of Circadian Neuroscience at Oxford University, says teenagers are biologically wired to stay up late and wake late, making a 9 a.m. start too early. (633) Professor Foster suggests classes not begin until the afternoon because teens body clocks can be delayed between two and four hours. (19) D. Medical Intervention: Minnesota, Connecticut, & Rhode Island The results were stunning. Theres no other word to use. We didnt think wed get that much bang for the buck. (544)---Patricia Moss, M.A., Ph.D., Assistant Head of School and Head of the Latin Department, St. Georges School, Rhode Island, after start times were delayed from 8 a.m. to 8:30 a.m. The American Lung Association of New England encourages schools to delay start times as a means of addressing teen sleep deficiency. (4) According to Dr. Heidi
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Connolly, Associate Professor of Psychiatry and Pediatric Sleep Medicine at the University of Rochester Medical Center in New York, Sleep medicine specialists have long known that delaying high school start times helps teenagers sleep better. (601) The Center for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) is exploring means of addressing the impact of high school start times on the health and academic performance of high school students. (54) Citing the deleterious impact of school times on our teenagers, Janet Croft, Ph.D., a senior epidemiologist at the CDC, referred to early high school start times as an unrealistic burden on children and their families. (18) Edina & Minneapolis, Minnesota In 1994, the Minnesota Medical Association wrote to every school superintendent in the state of Minnesota, requesting school start times be pushed back to comport with adolescent sleep cycles. (10, 20, 650) As a result, thousands of students had their school start times delayed from 7:25 a.m. to 8:30 a.m. (Edina) or later (Minneapolis, 8:40 a.m., high schools, and 9:10 a.m., middle schools). In what remains the most comprehensive study to date, CAREI researchers found that student health, well-being, and performance (including SAT scores), improved in every respect. (3, 37, 139) The study demonstrated multiple benefits to the students as a result of the delayed schedule: increased daily attendance and reduced tardiness, increased rates of continuous and graduation, and overall improvement in student academic performance. (37) (It should be noted Hinrichs challenges the accuracy of CAREIs attendance determinations, (345) however, reports from other jurisdictions also reflect improved attendance following a start time delay.) (2, 30, 41, 44, 47, 48) Surveys of teachers demonstrated a qualitative leap in the school morale as a result of the later schedule, with comments like there is an alertness in the students coming into school that I havent seen in many, many years. (342) Administrators reported the school seemed calmer and were impressed with the attendance changes. (342) Prior to the delay, parents predicted adjusting start times would interfere with after-school sports and transportation. Afterward, however, 92% of the parents decided they favored the new schedule. (3, 37) Four years into the study, researchers found students in Minneapolis high schools continued to get 60 minutes more sleep on weeknights than did their peers whose school began at 7:30 a.m. (37) In short, an hour more of sleep improved students quality of life. (316) Edina researchers found marked improvement in student behavior, students felt more alert and well rested during the first hour of class and less tired at the end of the day, students had less erratic sleep behaviors, after-school activities were not negatively affected, there was a significant reduction in school dropout rates, less

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depression was evidenced, higher grades were reported, and teachers reported positive effects on both their professional and personal lives. (47) Edina is a very stable, wealthy suburb, while Minneapolis is highly urban, with 67% students of color and 83% of students qualifying for free/reduced lunch. Although the districts were vastly different, the outcomes and effects were essentially the same.
(549)

Wilton, Connecticut In Connecticut, physicians from the Thoracic Society assembled a task force to both raise awareness and advocate for the change to later start times. (4, 645) As a result, in 2003, about 4,300 Wilton, Connecticut students in grades 6-12 had their start times delayed 40 minutes to 8:15 a.m. Students weeknight sleep increased by 34 minutes, or 83 percent of the available additional time. (2) Although the response was overwhelmingly positive among parents, teachers, and students, researchers concluded, it is likely that a longer delay in start time than was adopted in Wilton could have an even greater benefit for students, given the number of teens who reported continuing to experience significant sleepiness. However, it is reassuring that the new schedule did result in increased sleep and the impact was so widely apparent.
(2)

Wiltons teachers reported students were more awake, had better attitudes, and were overall more pleasant. In addition, the number of students who said they had no trouble with daytime sleepiness doubled and there has been a trend toward higher grades. Wiltons athletic coaches, who had been worried they wouldnt be able to hold practices because of the time change, reported that their teams had one of the best athletic seasons ever, winning several state championships. (47) Middletown, Rhode Island In 2009, sleep medicine specialist Dr. Judith Owens persuaded the headmaster of St. Georges School to push back start times from 8 a.m. to 8:30 a.m. (41, 569) The results were similarly positive. (41, 569) Researchers characterized the impact as striking and broad in scope, but noted it fell far short of achieving the ideal, and additional schedule modifications and education of students regarding the impact of sleep loss and fatigue should be considered. (41) As in Minnesota, fewer depressive symptoms were reported among students following the change. (41) Researchers found this particularly noteworthy[,] given the relationship between depression and suicidal ideation in adolescents. (41) In addition, students reported feeling more motivated to participate in a variety of activities and were less likely to seek medical attention for fatigue-related concerns. (41)

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Students got to bed 15 minutes earlier following the change to later start times, increasing their nightly sleep total by an average of 45 minutes. (41) The percentage of students getting less than 7 hours of sleep decreased by 79.4%, and those reporting at least 8 hours of sleep increased from 16.4% to 54.7%. (41) Students reported significantly more satisfaction with sleep. (41) Alertness increased, daytime sleepiness and fatigue were reduced. (41) Food Services data showed a substantial increase in consumption of hot foods (i.e., eggs and breakfast meats) at breakfast (35 vs. 83 servings a month). (41) Teacher-reported first class absences/tardies decreased by 45 percent. (41) Grades rose slightly, but the differences were not statistically significant. (41) Participation in after-school activities remained high. (41) Despite considerable resistance from faculty and athletic coaches before the change, students and faculty voted overwhelmingly to retain the 8:30 a.m. start time. (41) One faculty member wrote, I have found the 8:30 start to be the single most positive impact to my general quality of life at [the school] since I started 12 years ago. (41) At the end of the experimental period, there was not a single faculty member, student or administrator who wanted to go back to the old start time. (601) E. Will Students Squander the Opportunity for Extra Sleep? Inherently, the majority of kids with a later start will get more sleep, which is beneficial to grades as well as being safer. (665)---Philip Fuller, M.D., Medical Director, Mary Washington Hospital Sleep and Wake Disorders Center. A study of Brazilian teenagers found that adolescents frequently fail to maintain good sleep hygiene when vacationing, suggesting that early start times are not the sole cause of adolescent sleep irregularity. (33) The researchers note that while studies have shown students benefit from delayed school schedules, students may take advantage of the later start times by staying up later to play electronic games, etc. (33, 599) This speculation, however, has not been borne out by the evidence. (4, 30, 37, 41) As previously noted, in 2010, CDC scientists reported, Delaying school start times is a demonstrated strategy to promote sufficient sleep among adolescents. (26) Neurologist and sleep center director Dr. Helene Emsellem explains, Contrary to what you might think, teens whose schools have later start times do use the extra time for sleep; they dont stay up later, but go to sleep at the same time they always have and sleep later in the morning. (43) As discussed, supra, CAREI researchers found that 4 years into their longitudinal study, students in Minneapolis high schools continued to get 5 more hours sleep per week than their peers in schools starting earlier in the day. (37) A 2007 study comparing

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two New England middle schools with different start times (7:15 a.m. vs. 8:37 a.m.) found similar bedtimes, but that by rising later, students at the later starting school obtained 50 minutes more sleep per night. (30) Lead author, Professor Amy Wolfson observed, Students at later starting middle and high schools obtain more sleep due to later wake times and, in turn, function more effectively in school. (30) In 2008, physicians Zaw Htwe and Mary OMalley of Norwalk Hospitals Sleep Disorders Center conducted a study of 259 high school students to determine changes in sleep duration following a start time change. When morning classes began at 7:35 a.m., the students averaged 7.03 hours per school night. (42) When start times were delayed by 40 minutes to 8:15 a.m., the students slept 33 minutes longer per night. In other words, 83 percent of the extra time was utilized for sleep. (42) The changes were consistent across all age groups. (42) Bedtime on school nights was marginally later, and weekend night sleep time decreased slightly. (42) More students reported no problem with sleepiness after the schedule change. (42) The mean wake-up time prior to the delay was 6:12 a.m. Following the delay, students were able to sleep in to 6:53 a.m. (42) As previously discussed, student participants in the 2009 Rhode Island study reported getting to bed 15 minutes earlier following the change to later start times, increasing their nightly sleep total by an average of 45 minutes. (41, 660) One student explained, Well for me, ever since the 8:30 start, I have seen how much good 30 minutes of extra sleep does for me, so I have been inspired to ... get an additional half hour on top of the 30 minutes. (41) The 2011 Israeli study of 14-year-old eighth-grade students found that the teens slept about 55 minutes longer each night and performed better on tests when their start time was delayed by one hour. (13, 340) A 2012 study of Norwegian 10th graders found students got 66 minutes more sleep per night than students in a control group starting school one hour earlier, at 8:30 a.m. (344) Students in schools which have delayed their start times have not delayed their bedtime significantly but have been provided with the opportunity to obtain more sleep by sleeping later in the morning. This then provides a pathway whereby these students are better rested at school, have better attendance, and report better mood. Such policy changes may have a major impact on the health and education of adolescents. (Crabtree & Witcher, Impact of Sleep Loss on Children and Adolescents, publish. in, Sleep and Psychiatric Disorders in Children and Adolescents (Informa Healthcare 2008, Ivanenko edit.) p. 144.) Closing Observations Given that the primary focus of education is to maximize human potential, then a new task before us is to ensure that the conditions in which learning takes place address the very biology of our learners. (5)---Mary Carskadon, Ph.D., Professor of Psychiatry, Brown
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University School of Medicine, Director of Chronobiology and Sleep Research at Bradley Hospital. Cross-cultural research reinforces the view that less total sleep time among adolescents is associated with inability to concentrate on schoolwork and poorer school performance, as well as with mood disorders and substance abuse. [] With so many adolescents working too many hours or too late in the evening, and adolescents starting school so early each weekday, there seems to be a need for thoughtful oversight of the demands of employers and schools. Adolescence is defined as a time for development, and harmful sleep patterns that increase risks for adolescents during that sensitive period cause adult society to pay a high price. Policy makers will soon be asked to take into account the impact of sleep deprivation on adolescents. (107)Sanford Dornbusch, Ph.D., Reed-Hodgson Professor of Human Biology and Professor of Sociology and Education, emeritus at Stanford, Chair of the Advisory Board of the Stanford Center on Adolescence. Data suggest that adolescents are starting school at increasingly earlier times, working increasingly longer hours after school, and sleeping fewer hours than in the past. If this trend continues, teenagers will have difficulty successfully negotiating the transition into adulthood. We must focus on how to make things more manageable for adolescents as opposed to setting up systems that are likely to promote failure. (560) Amy Wolfson, Ph.D., Professor of Psychology, College of the Holy Cross. The actions and policies of school administrators can have a significant effect on the well-being of sleep-deprived students. Mitigating the effects of sleep problems has implications not only for school performance in the near term but also for students long-term health and quality of life. Given the pressures of the No Child Left Behind Act (NCLB) and the imperative to improve student outcomes, school administrators clearly need to better understand sleep and the effect of sleep deprivation on mental health and school functioning. (11)Peg Dawson, Ed.D., N.C.S.P., Staff Psychologist, Center for Learning and Attention Disorders, Seacoast Mental Health Center, past president of the New Hampshire Association of School Psychologists, the National Association of School Psychologists, and the International School Psychology Association. Most adolescents are sub-optimally alert in the morning. Yet their biological clocks program them to go to sleep late--too late to get an optimal amount of sleep before the next school day begins. If we as a society are sending kids to school to learn, it would be wise to send them in a condition that fosters learning. (670)Mark Mahowald, M.D., University of Minnesota, Neurology Department; Professor and Chair, Hennepin County Medical Center; Director, Minnesota Regional Sleep Disorders Center.

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The often serious impact of this chronic under-sleeping is now evident in both high school and middle school students. [] For all students one of the most salient and correctablesocial factors contributing to student sleep deprivation, is school start times. [] E]arly school start times clearly contribute to sleep-deprivation in growing teens, making them even more vulnerable to all the challenges of adolescence, and increases the likelihood of accidents, psychological problems, and impaired learning in school. [] There are so many negative consequences associated with sleep deprivation in adolescents that school leaders in many areas are beginning to consider the practical measures that would improve total sleep time for their students to promote their health and learning. (2)Edward OMalley, Ph.D. & Mary OMalley, M.D., Ph.D. The benefits to students following delayed start times in Minnesota, (3, 37, 47, 139, 342) Connecticut, (2, 47) and Rhode Island, (41) are consistent with the outcomes in every jurisdiction examined by researchersNorth Carolina, (44) Kentucky, (2, 31, 47, 48) Virginia, (43, 46, 421) New England, (30) Colorado, (24) and Israel. (13) The single most profound difference we could make [i]n education would be to let teens sleep on natures schedule[.] (671)---JoAnn Deak, Ph.D.

Endnotes Introduction 1. (Carskadon, Vieira, & Acebo, Association between puberty and delayed phase preference (1993) 16 Sleep 3, 258-262, http://www.sleepforscience.org/stuff/contentmgr/files/d2639df6ae30de274482fbac22473883/pdf/carskadon_etal._1993.pdf; see also, Taylor, Jennis, Acebo, & Carskadon, Sleep tendency during extended wakefulness: insights into adolescent sleep regulation and behavior (2005) 14 J. Sleep Res., pp. 239244,
http://www.sleepforscience.org/stuff/contentmgr/files/f572a152a25ab3109d5b33e9334d1785/pdf/journal_of_sleep_research_2005_taylor.pdf

2. (OMalley & OMalley, School Start Time and Its Impact on Learning and Behavior, publish. in, Sleep and Psychiatric Disorders in Children and Adolescents (Ivanenko edit., Informa Healthcare 2008) pp. 7994, http://www.neurofeedback.ch/downloads/Schlaf_und_Schule.pdf) It is almost assumed that insufficient sleep is the normal right of passage for high school and college students, but is this problem of insufficient sleep the beginning of problems with sleep in adults? Could insomnia, anxiety and depression, psychosomatic disorders and the widespread use of stimulants in adults have their genesis in the poor sleep patterns that develop in adolescence? The answers to these questions await further research. (Id., p. 91.) 3. (Later Start Times for High School Students (Jun. 2002) University of Minn., http://www.cehd.umn.edu/research/highlights/Sleep/) 4. (Am. Lung Assoc., Sleep Disorders Section, School Daze: A Wake Up Call, http://www.lungusa.org/associations/charters/new-england/programs/msb/sleep-disorders-section.html; Am. Lung Assoc. of New England, School Daze: A Wake Up Call (Sept. 2008) Healthy Air Matters, p. 4, http://issuu.com/lungne/docs/healthy_air_matters_9-08, http://teensneedsleep.files.wordpress.com/2011/05/08-september-air-matters.pdf; see also, Tammen, Pediatrician addresses school board over start times (Jan. 11, 2011) NewsHerald.com, http://www.newsherald.com/articles/fort-89968-pediatrician-school.html) Gaps in the endnote numerical sequence exist to allow this paper to more readily expand as new information becomes available. The Appendix, infra, follows the Endnotes.

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5. (Carskadon, When Worlds Collide: Adolescent Need for Sleep Versus Societal Demands (Jan. 1999) 80 Phi Delta Kappan 5, pp. 348-353, http://www.parentscoalition.net/When%20World%20Collide.pdf) 6. (Hansen, Janssen, Schiff, Zee, & Dubocovich, The Impact of School Daily Schedule on Adolescent Sleep (Jun. 2005) 115 Pediatr. 6, pp. 1555-1561, http://pediatrics.aappublications.org/cgi/reprint/115/6/1555.pdf) Knowledge of the unusual weekday/weekend sleep phenomenon among adolescents could promote better family relationships if parents understood that sleeping late on weekends is part of their childrens inborn cycle and not lazy or antisocial behavior. (Id., p. 1560.) 7. (Kruszelnicki, Teenage Sleep (May 3, 2007) ABC Science, http://www.abc.net.au/science/articles/2007/05/03/1913123.htm) Martin Ralph, Professor of Psychology at the University of Toronto, simply recommends that university and high school classes start at 11 am. (Ibid.) 8. (Backgrounder: Later School Start Times (2011) NSF, http://www.sleepfoundation.org/article/hot-topics/backgrounder-later-school-starttimes) 9. (Emsellem & Whiteley, Snooze... or Lose!: 10 No-War Ways to Improve Your Teens Sleep Habits (Joseph Hill Press 2006) pp. 11-22, http://books.nap.edu/openbook.php?record_id=11633&page=11) 10. (Edina Pub. Schools (1994) Minn. Med. Assn. Letter to Superintendent Dragseth, http://www.edina.k12.mn.us/news/reports/laterstart/mmaletter.html ) 11. (Dawson, Sleep and Adolescents (Jan. 2005) Counseling 101, http://www.nasponline.org/resources/principals/Sleep%20Disorders%20WEB.pdf ) Lack of sleep is associated with academic and behavior problems, tardiness and absenteeism, reduced alertness, and heightened irritability. (Id., p. 11; see also, Dawson, Sleep and Sleep Disorders in Children and Adolescents: Information for Parents and Educators (2004) National Association of School Psychologist Resources, http://www.nasponline.org/resources/health_wellness/sleepdisorders_ho.aspx; Peigneux, Melchior, Schmidt, Dang-Vu, Boly, Laureys, & Maque, Memory Processing During Sleep: Mechanisms and Evidence from Neuroimaging Studies (2004) 441/2 Psychologica Belgica, pp. 121-142, http://dev.ulb.ac.be/ur2nf/reprints/Peigneux(B)_PyschologicaBelgica_44(1-2)04.pdf; OBrien, The neurocognitive effects of sleep disruption in children and adolescents (Oct. 2009) 18 Child Adolesc. Psychiatr. Clin. N. Am. 4, pp. 813-823, http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19836689; Dahl, The impact of inadequate sleep on childrens daytime cognitive function (Mar. 1996) 3 Semin. Pediatr. Neurol. 1, pp. 44-50, http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8795841?dopt=Abstract ) 12. (Wolfson & Carskadon, A Survey of Factors Influencing High School Start Times (Mar. 2005) 89 NASSP Bulletin 642, pp. 47-66, http://www.slrsd.org/slrhs/information/pdf/sleepneedsSurveryInfluencing.pdf ) 13. (Lufi, Tzischinsky, & Hadar, Delaying School Starting Time by One Hour: Some Effects on Attention Levels in Adolescents (Apr. 2011) 7 J. Clin. Sleep Med. 2, pp. 137-143, http://www.aasmnet.org/jcsm/ViewAbstract.aspx?pid=28100, http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21509327; see also, Am. Acad. Sleep Med. (Jun. 12, 2008) Delaying School Start Time by One Hour Positively Affects Adolescents Cognitive Performance, http://www.aasmnet.org/articles.aspx?id=932; Klein, Planning Middle School Schedules for Improved Attention and Achievement (Sept. 2004) 48 Scandinavian J. Ed. Res. 4, pp. 441-450, http://www.aea11.k12.ia.us/prodev/MSPN/minutes/planning.pdf; see also, Macleans.ca, Why you should let your teenager sleep in (Feb. 11, 2011) On Campus, http://oncampus.macleans.ca/education/2011/02/03/why-you-should-let-your-teenagersleep-in/ [Canadian high school in second year of 10 a.m. start time with students appearing to show improved academic outcomes].) 14. (Schwab & Schwab (May 2007) The Role of Sleep Deprivation on Academic Performance in Adolescents,
http://www-archive.thoracic.org/sections/publications/pressreleases/conference/articles/2007/abstracts/The_Role_of_Sleep_Deprivation_on_Academic_Performance_in_Adolescents_4677.pdf

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15. (Mitru, Millrood, & Mateika, The Impact of Sleep on Learning and Behavior in Adolescents (Jun. 2002) 104 Teachers College Record 4, pp. 704-726, http://teensneedsleep.files.wordpress.com/2011/05/mitru-and-millrood-the-impact-of-sleep-on-learningand-behavior-in-adolescents.pdf, http://www.tcrecord.org/Content.asp?contentid=10893) 16. (Carpenter, Sleep deprivation may be undermining teen health (Oct. 2001) 32 APA Mon. Psych. 9, http://www.apa.org/monitor/oct01/sleepteen.aspx) 17. (Ryan, Lie-in for teenagers has positive results (Mar. 22, 2010) BBC News, http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/education/8579951.stm) Professor Till Roenneberg, Interim Director of the Institute of Medical Psychology and Team Leader of the Chronoscience and Systems Biology project, refers to early start times as nonsense. (Ibid.) 18. (Park, Falling Asleep in Class? Blame Biology (Dec. 15, 2008) CNN, http://edition.cnn.com/2008/HEALTH/12/12/sleep.teenagers.school/index.html) 19. (Making teens start school in the morning is cruel, brain doctor claims (Dec. 1, 2007) London Evening Standard, http://www.thisislondon.co.uk/news/article-23381421-making-teens-start-school-in-the-morning-is-cruel-brain-doctor-claims.do) Professor Russell Foster, Oxford Universitys Chair of Circadian Neuroscience proposes classes not begin until the afternoon, noting, It is cruel to impose a cultural pattern on teenagers that makes them underachieve.(Ibid; see also, Head urges lie-ins for teenagers (Mar. 9, 2009) BBC News, http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/england/tyne/7932108.stm [includes hyperlink to brief audio interview with Professor Foster]; see also, Why do teenagers sleep late? (Mar. 9, 2009) BBC News, http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/magazine/7932950.stm) 20. (Delisio, Its About Time (and Sleep): Making the Case for Starting School Later (Jun. 3, 2003) Ed. World, http://www.educationworld.com/a_admin/admin/admin314.shtml) 21. (Millman, edit., Excessive Sleepiness in Adolescents and Young Adults: Causes, Consequences, and Treatment Strategies (Jun. 2005) 115 Pediatr. 6, pp. 1774-1786, http://aappolicy.aappublications.org/cgi/reprint/pediatrics;115/6/1774.pdf) The circadian pacemaker is synchronized to the 24-hour day through external time cues from the environment (zeitgebers). The strongest of these zeitgebers is exposure to the light/dark cycle. Phototransduction from the retina to the suprachiasmatic nuclei occurs primarily via the retinohypothalamic tract. Entrainment of the circadian system to Earths 24-hour day provides temporal balance between endogenous activities and the external environment such that sleeping/waking behavior, hormonal activity, temperature fluctuations, and neurobehavioral functioning occur in proper synchrony with the environmental day. (Id., p. 1775.) 22. (Wolfson, Adolescent Sleep Update: Narrowing the Gap between Research and Practice (Mar./Apr. 2007) Sleep Review: The Journal for Sleep Specialists, http://www.sleepreviewmag.com/issues/articles/2007-03_01.asp) 23. (Fredriksen, Rhodes, Reddy, & Way, Sleepless in Chicago: Tracking the Effects of Adolescent Sleep Loss During the Middle School Years (Jan./Feb. 2004) 75 Child Dev. 1, pp. 8495, http://www.rhodeslab.org/files/sleepless.pdf) [A]ny attempts to improve the quality of life for adolescents and reduce their risk to a range of negative health, academic, and emotional outcomes should consider the importance of a good nights sleep. Teachers could devote attention to the topic in health and physical education classes, and parents could encourage earlier bedtimes, especially on school nights. (Id., p. 94.) 24. (Carrell, Maghakian, & West, As from Zzzzs? The Causal Effect of School Start Time on the Academic Performance of Adolescents (Aug. 2011) 3 AEJ: Econ. Policy 3, pp. 62-81, http://teensneedsleep.files.wordpress.com/2011/05/carrell.pdf, http://www.econ.ucdavis.edu/faculty/scarrell/sleep.pdf, http://www.econjimwest.com/sleep.pdf)

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25. (2011 Sleep in America Poll: Communications Technology in the Bedroom (Mar. 2011) National Sleep Foundation (NSF), http://www.sleepfoundation.org/sites/default/files/sleepinamericapoll/SIAP_2011_Summary_of_Findings.pdf [7 percent of 13 to 18-year-olds report getting less than 6 hours of sleep; 54 percent wake up between 5 a.m. and 6:30 a.m. during the week].) 26. (Eaton, McKnight-Eily, Lowry, Croft, Presley-Cantrell, & Perry, Prevalence of Insufficient, Borderline, and Optimal Hours of Sleep Among High School Students United States, 2007 (2010) J. Adolesc. Health, pp. 1-3, http://www.cfah.org/hbns/archives/viewSupportDoc.cfm?supportingDocID=873) Adolescent sleep requirements appear to be universal. (See, e.g., ns. 2, pp. 86, 87; 5; 13; 37, p. 19; 112, 187, 251, 253, 254, 255, 256, 257; Emsellem & Whiteley7, Snooze... or Lose!: 10 No-War Ways to Improve Your Teens Sleep Habits, supra, pp. 225230, http://www.nap.edu/openbook.php?record_id=11633&page=225) The sleep needs of adolescents appear similar across cultures, but there are cultural differences in sleep patterns reflecting differences in parental and peer control, in leisure activities and in schooling. (N. 107, p. 3.) 27. (Roberts, Roberts, & Duong, Sleepless in adolescence: Prospective data on sleep deprivation, health and functioning (2009) 32 J. Adolesc., pp. 1045-1057, http://www.nutrociencia.com.br/upload_files/artigos_download/slepless.pdf) 28. (Knutson & Lauderdale, Sociodemographic and behavioral predictors of bed time and wake time among U.S. adolescents aged 1517 years (Mar. 2009) 154 J. Pediatr. 3, pp. 426430, http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2783185/) 29. (Willis, How Students Sleepy Brains Fail Them (Summ. 2009) Kappa Delta Pi Rec., pp. 158-162, http://www.kdp.org/publications/pdf/record/summer09/Record_Sm09_Willis.pdf ) Sleep-deprived children display lower brain activity while working on math problems than they do when rested, and they make more mistakes and omit more answers on tests. (Id., p. 159; Drummond, Brown, Stricker, Buxton, Wong, & Gillin, Sleep deprivationinduced reduction in cortical functional response to serial subtraction (Dec. 16, 1999) 10 Neuroreport 18, pp. 3745-3748, http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10716202?dopt=Abstract) 30. (Wolfson, Spaulding, Dandrow, & Baroni, Middle School Start Times: The Importance of a Good Nights Sleep for Young Adolescents (Aug. 15, 2007) 5 Behav. Sleep Med. 3, pp. 194-209, http://www.slrsd.org/slrhs/information/pdf/Wolfson%20et%20al%20(2007).pdf ) 31. (Danner, & Phillips, Adolescent Sleep, School Start Times, and Teen Motor Vehicle Crashes (Dec. 2008) 4 J. Clin. Sleep Med. 6, pp. 533535, http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2603528/) 32. (School Start Time and Sleep (2010) St. Johns Med. Ctr., http://www.tetonhospital.org/sleeplab/school-start-times) It might be noted that while the popular proverb Early to bed, early to rise, appears in Poor Richards Almanac, it was not actually Ben Franklin who coined the phrase. (Mieder, De Proverbio (1995) No. 1, http://www.deproverbio.com/DPjournal/DP,1,1,95/FRANKLIN.html) 33. (Cortez de Sousa, Mazzilli, Louzada, & Macdo de Azevedo, Sleep-Wake Cycle Irregularity and Daytime Sleepiness in Adolescents on Schooldays and on Vacation Days (Feb./Mar. 2007) 2 Sleep Science 1, pp. 30-35, http://www.sleepscience.com.br/pdf/SleepScience_vol2_iss01_05.pdf) 34. (Wolfson & Carskadon, Understanding adolescents sleep patterns and school performance: A critical appraisal (2003) 7 Sleep Med. Rev. 6, pp. 491-506, http://web.mit.edu/writing/2010/July/Wolfson&Carskadon2003.pdf) 35. (Wolfson & Carskadon, Sleep Schedules and Daytime Functioning in Adolescents (Aug. 1998) 69 Child Dev. 4, pp. 875-887, http://www.personal.psu.edu/users/s/e/seb302/wolfson_carskadon.pdf) 36. (Graham, edit., Sleep Needs, Patterns and Difficulties of Adolescents: Summary of a Workshop (Nat. Acad. Press 2000) p. 6, http://www.nap.edu/openbook.php?record_id=9941&page=6)

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37. (Wahlstrom, Changing Times: Findings From the First Longitudinal Study of Later High School Start Times (Dec. 2002) 86 NASSP Bulletin 633, pp. 3-21, http://www.cehd.umn.edu/carei/reports/docs/SST-2002Bulletin.pdf) Minneapolis [c]oaches and activity leaders were generally supportive of the change because they saw students who were less tired and seemingly more mentally alert at the end of the day. A few coaches whose sports involved long practices and traveling long distances for events were outspoken about their dislike of the later start and dismissal time for the school day. (Id., p. 16) Parents commented that they were having more actual conversations with their teenage children in the morning, finding that they had new connection time with their child. (Id., p. 18.) Parents also cited some of the challenges, like eats dinner later because of sports, no time for a job, but also less stressful mornings, breakfast never missed, and the later start time is very beneficial, both relative to grades and to energy level. Many parents commented fix the middle schools too! The vast majority of the students approved of the change in start time. (N. 132; see, n. 2, p. 89.) 38. (Carskadon, Wolfson, Acebo, Tzischinsky, & Seifer, Adolescent sleep patterns, circadian timing, and sleepiness at a transition to early school days (Dec. 15, 1998) 21 Sleep 8, pp. 871-881, http://www.sleepforscience.org/stuff/contentmgr/files/5598e427689cd7382cdb641dbb672c2a/pdf/carskadonschltrans1998.pdf ) 39. (Dexter, Bijwadia, Schilling, & Applebaugh, Sleep, Sleepiness, and School Start Times: A Preliminary Study (2003) 102 Wisconsin Med. J. 1, 42-46, http://www.wisconsinmedicalsociety.org/_WMS/publications/wmj/pdf/102/1/44.pdf, http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12679971) 40. (Lund, Reider, Whiting, & Prichard, Sleep Patterns and Predictors of Disturbed Sleep in a Large Population of College Students (Feb. 2010) 46 J. Adolesc. Health 2, 124-132, http://www.nechaonline.org/attachments/File/2010_Handouts/Keynote_Carskadon.pdf ) A study of 1,125 college students found the majority reported chronically restricted sleep. Mean total sleep time was 7.02 hours. (Ibid.) 41. (Owens, Belon, & Moss, Impact of Delaying School Start Time on Adolescent Sleep, Mood, and Behavior (Jul. 2010) 164 Arch. Pediatr. Adolesc. Med. 7, 608-614, http://archpedi.ama-assn.org/cgi/content/abstract/164/7/608,
http://teensneedsleep.files.wordpress.com/2011/03/owens-belon-moss-impact-of-delaying-school-start-time-on-adolescent-sleep-mood-and-behavior-archives-of-pediatrics-

; see also, Indiana University, Later Classes, More Alert Teens (Nov. 28, 2010) Sound Med., http://www.soundmedicine.iu.edu/segment/2661/Later-Classes--More-Alert-Teens [interview with Dr. Judith Owens]; The Madeline Brand Show, Parenting on the Edge: schools adjust to teens who like to stay up late and sleep in (Aug. 15, 2011) KPCC, http://66.226.4.226/programs/madeleine-brand/2011/08/15/20279/parenting-on-the-edge-why-school-should-start-late [includes link to audio interview with John Cline, Ph.D., Assistant Clinical Professor of Psychiatry, Yale School of Medicine]; Morning Edition, Survey: Teenagers Are Sleep Deprived (Sept. 6, 2010) NPR, http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=129677180 [Dr. Jason Eberhart-Phillips, Kansas former state health officer, asserts the state should push back the starting time for teenagers classes]; Weintraub, Its time to wake up! (Sept. 6, 2011) sheboyganpress.com, http://www.sheboyganpress.com/article/20110907/SHE04/109070347/It-s-time-wake-up?odyssey=mod%7Cnewswell%7Ctext%7CFRONTPAGE%7Cp)
adolescent-medicine-july-20103.pdf

42. (Am. Acad. Sleep Med. (Jun. 9, 2008) Students with a Delayed School Start Time Sleep Longer, Report Less Daytime Sleepiness, http://www.aasmnet.org/articles.aspx?id=869) 43. (Emsellem & Whiteley, supra, Snooze... or Lose!: 10 No-War Ways to Improve Your Teens Sleep Habits, p. 210, http://books.nap.edu/openbook.php?record_id=11633&page=210) 44. (Edwards, Working Paper, Early to Rise: The Effect of Daily Start Times on Academic Performance, (Mar. 2011) University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, http://teensneedsleep.files.wordpress.com/2011/03/edwards-early-to-rise-mar-2011-theeffect-of-daily-start-times-on-academic-performance.pdf, http://www.finleyedwards.com/EdwardsStartTimes.pdf?attredirects=0)

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45. (Lamberg, High Schools Find Later Start Time Helps Students Health and Performance (2009) 301 JAMA 21, 2200-2201, http://jama.ama-assn.org/content/301/21/2200.extract, http://www.slrsd.org/pdf/SchoolStartTimeJAMA0906031.pdf [[T]rend lines show grades rise when schools open later. We never see trend lines suggesting grades go down.].) 46. (Vorona, Szklo-Coxe, Wu, Dubik, Zhao, & Ware, Dissimilar Teen Crash Rates in Two Neighboring Southeastern Virginia Cities with Different High School Start Times (Apr. 2011) 7 J. Clin. Sleep Med. 2, 145151, http://www.sleepeducation.com/resources/lessons/teensdrowsydriving/teencrashrates.pdf, http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21509328; see also, Pizza, Contardi, Antognini, Zagoraiou, Borrotti, Mostacci, Mondini, & Cirignotta, Sleep Quality and Motor Vehicle Crashes in Adolescents (Feb. 15, 2010) 6 J. Clin. Sleep Med. 1, 41-45, http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2823274/) 47. (Emsellem & Whiteley, supra, Snooze... or Lose!: 10 No-War Ways to Improve Your Teens Sleep Habits, p. 214, http://books.nap.edu/openbook.php?record_id=11633&page=214) 48. (Trudeau, High Schools Starting Later to Help Sleepy Teens (Jan. 18, 2007) NPR, http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=6896471; see also, NSF, Changing School Start Times: Jessamine County, Kentucky (2005) Sleep for Teens, http://www.sleepinfairfax.org/docs/CS.Jessamine.pdf) 49. (Jacob & Rockoff, Organizing Schools to Improve Student Achievement: Start Times, Grade Configurations, and Teacher Assignments (Sept. 2011) The Hamilton Project, Brookings Inst., http://www.brookings.edu/~/media/Files/rc/papers/2011/09_organize_jacob_rockoff/092011_organize_jacob_rockoff_paper.pdf ) 50. (H.Res. No. 296, 105th Cong., 2nd Sess. (1998), http://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/BILLS-105hconres296ih, http://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/BILLS-105hconres296ih/pdf/BILLS-105hconres296ih.pdf) In 1998, Congresswoman Zoe Lofgren introduced a House Concurrent Resolution expressing the sense of Congress that secondary schools should begin after 9 a.m. (Ibid.) When the Resolution failed, Lofgren introduced a bill the following year to provide school districts with $25,000 in federal grants to help cover the administrative costs of adjusting secondary school start times to 9 a.m. (H.Res. No. 1267, 106th Cong., 1st Sess. (1999), http://www.govtrack.us/congress/bill.xpd?bill=h106-1267,
http://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/search/pagedetails.action?na=&se=&sm=&flr=&ercode=&dateBrowse=&collection=&historical=false&st=1267+106+1999&=1267&psh=&sbh=&tf

; see also, Fernandez, Politician Hopes to Reawaken Sleep Legislation (Mar. 25, 1999) SFGate.com, http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?f=/c/a/1999/03/25/MN81895.DTL) When that effort failed, in 2003, Lofgren modified the Resolution to offer the sense of Congress that high schools should begin no earlier than 8:30 a.m., again without success. (H.Res. No. 135, 108th Cong., 1st Sess. (2003), http://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/BILLS-108hconres135ih/pdf/BILLS-108hconres135ih.pdf, http://teensneedsleep.files.wordpress.com/2011/04/bills-108hconres135ih-lofgren-start-times.pdf,
h=&originalSearch=&sb=re&sb=re&ps=10&ps=10&granuleId=HOB-1999-hr1267&packageId=HOB-1999 http://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/search/pagedetails.action?na=&se=&sm=&flr=&ercode=&dateBrowse=&collection=&historical=false&st=H.+Con.+Res.+135+%28ih%29+8%3A3

; see also, Rep. Lofgren Webpage, Congresswoman Lofgren Urges Congress to Wake-Up to the Problems of Adolescents Not Getting Enough [Sleep], http://lofgren.house.gov/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=122&Itemid=130)
0&=H.+Con.+Res.+135+%28ih%29&psh=&sbh=&tfh=&originalSearch=&sb=re&sb=re&ps=10&ps=10&granuleId=&packageId=BILLS-108hconres135ih

51. (Cal. Assn. Student Councils (2004) Cal. Student Advisory Bd. Leg. Ed., School Starting Time, pp. 1011, http://www.casc.net/wordpress/wp-content/uploads/2010/07/sable2004.pdf) 52. (CDC Online Newsroom (Sept. 26, 2011) Insufficient sleep among high school students associated with a variety of health-risk behaviors, http://www.cdc.gov/media/releases/2011/a0926_insufficient_sleep.html) 53. McKnight-Eily, Eaton, Lowry, Croft, Presley-Cantrell, & Perry, Relationships between hours of sleep and health-risk behaviors in US adolescent students (Aug. 5, 2011) Prev. Med., http://teensneedsleep.files.wordpress.com/2011/05/relationships-between-hours-of-sleep-and-health-risk-behaviors-in-us-adolescent-students.pdf)

45

54. (Notices (Jun. 7, 2010) 75 Fed. Reg. 108, 32190, http://edocket.access.gpo.gov/2010/pdf/2010-13519.pdf; see also, Mayo Clinic Staff, Teen Sleep: Why is your teen so tired?, http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/teens-health/CC00019) 55. (Nat. Cent. on Sleep Disorders Research, Working Group on Problem Sleepiness (Aug. 1997) NIH, http://www.nhlbi.nih.gov/health/prof/sleep/pslp_wg.pdf ) 56. (NIH (Sept. 1997) Problem Sleepiness, No. 97-4071, http://www.nhlbi.nih.gov/health/public/sleep/pslp_fs.pdf) 57. (NIH (Sept. 1998) Educating Youth About Sleep and Drowsy Driving, http://www.nhlbi.nih.gov/health/prof/sleep/dwydrv_y.pdf) 58. (Wahlstrom, The Prickly Politics Of School Starting Times (Jan. 1999) 80 Phi Delta Kappan 5, pp. 344-347, http://www.nksd.net/parents/StartTimes/The%20Prickly%20Politics%20of%20School%20Start%20Times.pdf ) Dr. Wahlstrom suggests that school districts may wish to consider the wisdom of offering zero period options. [Z]ero hour classes negate for participants the beneficial effects of a later school starting time. (Id., p. 347.) I. The Prevalence of Restricted Weeknight Sleep Among Adolescents

99. (Amodei, Powering up your teens brain (Feb. 26, 2008) ParentMap, http://www.parentmap.com/article/powering-up-yourteens-brain) 100. (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), Youth Risk Behavior Surveillance--United States, 2007 (Jun. 6, 2008) 57 Morbidity & Mortality Weekly Rep. SS04, pp. 1-131, http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/ss5704a1.htm) 101. (Brown University (Mar. 2006) Teens and Sleep Poll a Wake-Up Call, Pediatric Sleep Experts Say, http://brown.edu/Administration/News_Bureau/2005-06/05-100.html) 102. (Interview with Mary Carskadon (2002) Frontline: Inside the Teenage Brain, http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/teenbrain/interviews/carskadon.html; see also, From Zzzzs to As (Jan. 31, 2002) Frontline: Inside the Teenage Brain [video], http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/video/flv/generic.html?s=frol02sfacq392&continuous=1; id., Interview with Carlyle Smith [transcript], http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/teenbrain/interviews/smith.html; id., Adolescents and Sleep, Frontline Producer Sarah Spinks, http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/teenbrain/from/sleep.html) 103. (Hagenauer, Perryman, Lee, & Carskadon, Adolescent Changes in the Homeostatic and Circadian Regulation of Sleep (Jun. 2009) 31 Dev. Neurosci. 4, 276-284, http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2820578/) Phase delay begins one year earlier in girls than in boys. Adolescence also concludes one year earlier in girls (19.5 years) than in boys (20.9 years). (Id., p. 276.) 104. (Sadeh, Maturation of Normal Sleep Patterns Childhood through Adolescence, publish. in., Sleep and Breathing in Children: A Developmental Approach (Loughlin, Carroll, & Marcus, edits., Informa Healthcare 2000), http://sleep.tau.ac.il/normal%20dev.PDF) 105. (Calamaro, Mason, & Ratcliffe, Adolescents Living the 24/7 Lifestyle: Effects of Caffeine and Technology on Sleep Duration and Daytime Functioning (Jun. 2009) 123 Pediatr. 6, e1005-e1010, http://pediatrics.aappublications.org/cgi/reprint/123/6/e1005.pdf ; Rideout, Foehr, & Roberts, Generation M2: Media in the Lives of 8- to 18-Year-Olds (Jan. 2010) Kaiser Foundation, http://www.kff.org/entmedia/upload/8010.pdf; Am. Acad. Sleep Med. (May 14, 2008) Excessive Mobile Phone Use Affects Sleep in Teens, http://www.aasmnet.org/articles.aspx?id=870) 106. (Graham, edit., Sleep Needs, Patterns and Difficulties of Adolescents: Summary of a Workshop, supra, p. 18, http://www.nap.edu/openbook.php?record_id=9941&page=18)

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107. (Dornbusch, Sleep and Adolescence: A Social Psychologists Perspective, publish. in, Adolescent Sleep Patterns, Biological, Social, and Psychological Influences (Carskadon, edit., Cambridge Univ. Press 2002) pp. 1-3, http://assets.cambridge.org/97805216/42910/sample/9780521642910ws.pdf) 108. (AFP, Video gaming teens sleep less: Study (Jun. 20, 2011) The Vancouver Sun, http://www.vancouversun.com/health/Video+gaming+teens+sleep+less+Study/4797099/story.html ) 109. (Sleep In America Poll: Summary of Findings (2006) NSF, http://www.sleepfoundation.org/sites/default/files/2006_summary_of_findings.pdf ; see also, Sleep in America Poll: Highlights and Key Findings (2006) NSF, http://www.sleepfoundation.org/sites/default/files/Highlights_facts_06.pdf) Ironically, the 2006 NSF poll showed 90% of parents believed their teenage children were getting enough sleep. (N. 109, p. 26.) 110. (Carskadon & Acebo, Regulation of Sleepiness in Adolescents: Update, Insights, and Speculation (2002) 25 Sleep 6, 606-614, http://www.sleepforscience.org/stuff/contentmgr/files/5902f7acc5b3ecffd97939c19c98bf3d/pdf/sleep_2002_carskadon.pdf) 111. (Graham, supra, Sleep Needs, Patterns and Difficulties of Adolescents: Summary of a Workshop (Nat. Acad. Press 2000) pp. 14-16, http://www.nap.edu/openbook.php?record_id=9941&page=14; see also, Nilsson, Sderstrm, Karlsson, Lekander, Akerstedt, Lindroth, & Axellson, Less effective executive functioning after one nights sleep deprivation (2005) 14 J. Sleep Research, 1-6, http://www.sciencesleep.org/ziliao/Less%20effective%20executive%20functioning%20after%20one%20night%E2%80%99s%20sleep%20deprivation.pdf) 112. (Ng, Ng, & Chan, Sleep duration, wake/sleep symptoms, and academic performance in Hong Kong Secondary School Children (Nov. 2009) 13 Sleep Breath. 4, 357-367, http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19377905) 113. (Kopasz, Loessl, Hornyak, Riemann, Nissen, Piosczyk, & Voderholzer, Sleep and memory in healthy children and adolescents - a critical review (Jun. 2010) 14 Sleep Med Rev. 3, 167-177, http://teensneedsleep.files.wordpress.com/2011/03/sleep-and-memory-in-healthy-children-and-adolescents-a-critical-review.pdf; Harvard Med. School, Div. Sleep Med. (Dec. 2007) Sleep, Learning, and Memory, http://healthysleep.med.harvard.edu/healthy/matters/benefits-ofsleep/learning-memory) 114. (Wilhelm, Diekelmann, & Born, Sleep in children improves memory performance on declarative but not procedural tasks (2008) 15 Learn. Mem., 373-377, http://learnmem.cshlp.org/content/15/5/373.full) 115. (Curcio, Ferrara, & De Gennaro, Sleep loss, learning capacity and academic performance (Oct. 2006) 10 Sleep Med. Rev. 5, 323-337, http://teensneedsleep.files.wordpress.com/2011/03/sleep-loss-learning-capacity-and-academic-performance1.pdf) 116. (Taras, Potts-Datema, Sleep and student performance at school (Sept. 2005) 75 J. Sch. Health 7, 248-254, http://teensneedsleep.files.wordpress.com/2011/03/sleep-and-student-performance-at-school.pdf) 117. (Emsellem & Whiteley, supra, Snooze... or Lose!: 10 No-War Ways to Improve Your Teens Sleep Habits, pp. 63-76, http://books.nap.edu/openbook.php?record_id=11633&page=63) 118. (Fuligini & Hardway, Daily Variation in Adolescents Sleep, Activities, and Psychological Well-Being (2005) 16 J. Research Adolesc. 3, 353-378, http://warrior.merrimack.edu/academics/liberal_arts/Psychology/MeetFacultyStaff/Documents/Fuligini_Hardway%20Adolescent%20Sleep.pdf; see also, Emsellem & Whiteley, supra, Snooze... or Lose!: 10 No-War Ways to Improve Your Teens Sleep Habits, pp. 36, 187-190, 192, http://www.nap.edu/openbook.php?record_id=11633&page=187; Alfano, Zakem, Costa, Taylor, & Weems, Sleep problems and their relation to cognitive factors, anxiety, and depressive symptoms in children and adolescents (Dec. 2008) 26 Depression and Anxiety 6, 503-512, http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19067319?ordinalpos=1&itool=PPMCLayout.PPMCAppController.PPMCArticlePage.PPMCPubmedRA&linkpos=1 )

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119. (Chorney, Detweiler, Morris, & Kuhn, The Interplay of Sleep Disturbance, Anxiety, and Depression in Children (May 2008) 33 J. Pediatr. Psych. 4, 339-348, http://jpepsy.oxfordjournals.org/content/33/4/339.full) 120. (Lui, Sleep and Adolescent Suicidal Behavior (2004) 27 Sleep 7, 1351-1358, http://www.journalsleep.org/Articles/270711.pdf) The finding that adolescents who present with complaints of frequent nightmares and sleeping less than 8 hours a night were at higher risk for suicidal behavior highlights the crucial role of sleep in adolescent suicidal behavior. (Id., p. 1356.) 121. (Gangwisch, Babiss, Malaspina, Turner, Zammit, & Posner, Earlier Parental Set Bedtimes as a Protective Factor Against Depression and Suicidal Ideation (Jan. 1, 2010) 33 Sleep 1, 97-106, http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2802254/?tool=pubmed ; Late-night teens face greater depression risk (Jan. 2, 2010) BBC News, http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/health/8435955.stm) 122. (Hale, Bedtimes and the Blues: Evidence in Support of Improving Adolescent Sleep (Jan. 1, 2010) 33 Sleep 1, 17-18, http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2802243/; Emsellem & Whiteley, supra, Snooze... or Lose!: 10 No-War Ways to Improve Your Teens Sleep Habits, pp. 190-191, http://www.nap.edu/openbook.php?record_id=11633&page=190) 123. (Goldstein, Bridge, & Brent, Sleep disturbance preceding completed suicide in adolescents (Feb. 2008) 76 J. Consult. Clin. Psych. 1, 84-91, http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2823295/; see also, Hutchison, Dimensions of Human Behavior: The changing life course (Sage Publications, 3rd ed. 2008) p. 236.) 124. (Liu & Buysse, Sleep and youth suicidal behavior: a neglected field (May 2006) 19 Current Opn. Psychiatr. 3, 288-293, http://teensneedsleep.files.wordpress.com/2011/03/sleep-and-youth-suicidal-behavior-a-neglected-field.pdf) 125. (Walker & Stickgold, Its Practice, with Sleep, that Makes Perfect: Implications of Sleep-Dependent Learning and Plasticity for Skill Performance (2005) 24 Clin. Sports. Med., 301-317, http://walkerlab.berkeley.edu/reprints/Walker_ClinSportsMed_05.pdf) 126. (Science Daily (May 11, 2005) Lack Of Sleep Can Affect Athletic Performance In Teens, http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2005/05/050511072041.htm) 127. (Beebe, Lewin, Zeller, McCabe, MacLeod, Daniels, & Amin, Sleep in Overweight Adolescents: Shorter Sleep, Poorer Sleep Quality, Sleepiness, and Sleep-Disordered Breathing (Feb. 8, 2006) 32 J. Pediatr. Psych. 1, 6979, http://jpepsy.oxfordjournals.org/content/32/1/69.full) Compensating for the weekday sleep debt with additional sleep on weekends and holidays may partly ameliorate the problem of childhood obesity/weight gain. (Wing, Li, Li, Zhang, & Kong, The Effect of Weekend and Holiday Sleep Compensation on Childhood Overweight and Obesity (Nov. 2009) 124 Pediatr. 5, e994-e1000, http://pediatrics.aappublications.org/cgi/content/full/124/5/e994) 128. (Liu, Forbes, Ryan, Rofey, Hannon, & Dahl, Rapid Eye Movement Sleep in Relation to Overweight in Children and Adolescents (2008) 65 Arch. Gen. Psychiatr. 8, 924-932, http://archpsyc.ama-assn.org/cgi/content/full/65/8/924; see also, Expert Sources & Comm., Sleep High Quality and Enough of It Is Essential for Child Health (Jun. 10, 2010) Brown University, http://news.brown.edu/pressreleases/2010/06/sleep) 129. (Am. Acad. Sleep Med. (Aug. 23, 2010) Less is More: Study Shows that Teens Who Sleep Less Eat More Fatty Foods and Snacks, http://www.aasmnet.org/articles.aspx?id=1857; see also, Emsellem & Whiteley, supra, Snooze... or Lose!: 10 No-War Ways to Improve Your Teens Sleep Habits, p. 35, http://books.nap.edu/openbook.php?record_id=11633&page=35) 130. (Press Release, Less sleep may add up to more pounds in adolescents (May 4, 2010) Pediatr. Acad. Soc., http://www.pas-meeting.org/2010Vancouver/Press/Press%20Releases/Tuesday/Lytle%204325.7.pdf ; Lytle, Pasch, & Farbaksh, Is Sleep Related to Obesity in Young Adolescents? (May 4, 2010) Pediatr. Acad. Soc., http://www.abstracts2view.com/pas/view.php?nu=PAS10L1_588;

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Fulton, Some Teens Who Sleep Less Gain More Weight (May 4, 2010) NPR, http://www.npr.org/blogs/health/2010/05/some_teens_who_sleep_less_gain.html ; see also, Vgontzas, Mastorakos, Bixler, Kales, Gold, & Chrousos, Sleep deprivation effects on the activity of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal and growth axes: potential clinical implications (Aug. 1999) 51 Clin. Endocrinol. (Oxf.) 2, 205-215, http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10468992; Calhoun, Vgontzas, Fernandez-Mendoza, Mayes, Tsaoussoglou, Basta, & Bixler, Prevalence and Risk Factors of Excessive Daytime Sleepiness in a Community Sample of Young Children: The Role of Obesity, Asthma, Anxiety/Depression, and Sleep (May 2011) 34 Sleep 4, http://www.journalsleep.org/viewabstract.aspx?pid=28093, discussed here, Sleepiness in children linked to obesity, asthma (May 18, 2011) Penn. State Hershey College of Med., http://med.psu.edu/web/mdphd/home/news/-/newsevents/News/10100/2854616) 131. (OBrien & Mindell, Sleep and Risk-Taking Behavior in Adolescents (2005) 3 Behav. Sleep Med. 3, 113133, http://psychology.sju.edu/downloads/mindell2.pdf) Risk-taking refers to those behaviors that increase the risk of morbidity and/or mortality. (Id., p. 115, citation omitted.) 132. (Mednick, Christakis, & Fowler, The Spread of Sleep Loss Influences Drug Use in Adolescent Social Networks (Mar. 2010) 5 Plos One 3, e9775, http://www.plosone.org/article/info%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0009775;jsessionid=53330859090783EBB3298D26A4DF42A5.ambra02) 133. (Clinkinbeard, Simi, Evans, & Anderson, Sleep and Delinquency: Does the Amount of Sleep Matter? (Jul. 2011) J. Youth & Adolesc., http://www.unomaha.edu/enotes/2010/img/sleep.pdf, http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20936500, http://teensneedsleep.files.wordpress.com/2011/05/clinkinbeard-et-al-sleep-and-delinquency-does-the-amount-of-sleep-matter.pdf; McKay-Corkum, The implications of teen sleep deficits (Jul. 19, 2011) Daily Hampshire Gazette, http://ns.gazettenet.com/print/327057?SESS02baae38b543cf2dca5b5a9023b11691=gnews) 134. (Moore, Kirchner, Drotar, Johnson, Rosen, Ancoli-Israel, & Redline (Jun. 2009) Relationships Among Sleepiness, Sleep Time, and Psychological Functioning in Adolescents, J. Pediatr. Psych., 1-9, http://jpepsy.oxfordjournals.org/content/early/2009/06/03/jpepsy.jsp039.full; see also, Bailly, Bailly-Lambin, Querleu, Beuscart, & Collinet, Sleep in adolescents and its disorders. A survey in schools (Jul./Aug. 2004) 30 Encephale 4, 352-359, http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15538310) 135. (Emsellem & Whiteley, supra, Snooze... or Lose!: 10 No-War Ways to Improve Your Teens Sleep Habits, pp. 25-26, http://books.nap.edu/openbook.php?record_id=11633&page=25) 136. (Glozier, Martiniuk, Patton, Ivers, Li, Hickie, Senserrick, Woodward, Norton, & Stevenson, Short Sleep Duration in Prevalent and Persistent Psychological Distress in Young Adults: The DRIVE Study (2010) 33 Sleep 9, 1139-1145, http://www.journalsleep.org/ViewAbstract.aspx?pid=27892, discussed in n. 140.) Modifying, or ameliorating the impact of, modern lifestyles that promote sleep deprivation in young people, such as starting school later and restricting late night internet access and other bedtime prolonging activities is a challenging task. (N. 136, p. 1144.) 137. (Javaheri, Storfer-Isser, Rosen, & Redline, Sleep Quality and Elevated Blood Pressure in Adolescents (Aug. 2008) 118 Circulation, J. Am. Heart Assn., 1034-1040, http://circ.ahajournals.org/cgi/reprint/118/10/1034.pdf) 138. (Gibson, Powles, Thabane, OBrien, Molnar, Trajanovic, Ogilvie, Shapiro, Yan, & Chilcott-Tanser, Sleepiness is serious in adolescence: Two surveys of 3235 Canadian students (May 2006) 6 BMC Pub. Health 116, http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1464124/pdf/1471-2458-6-116.pdf; see also, Seugnet, Suzuki, Donlea, Gottschalk, & Shaw, Sleep Deprivation During Early-Adult Development Results in Long-Lasting Learning Deficits in Adult Drosophila (Feb. 2011) 34 J. Sleep 2, http://www.journalsleep.org/ViewAbstract.aspx?pid=28020) Dills & Hernandez-Julian, Course Scheduling and Academic Performance (Dec. 2008) 27 Econ. Education Rev. 6, 646-654, http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=756847&) Researchers studying the effects of later class times on Clemson University undergraduates found students grades are higher in courses taken later in the day. Early morning classes are particularly bad for students grades. Classes that meet more often during the week 49

also tend to have higher grades. (Ibid.) Canadian researchers have suggested later start times for undergraduates may also be appropriate. (N. 138.) In the U.S., Duke University no longer schedules any 8 a.m. classes. (Campus Observer, A Nap A Day (Jan./Feb. 2008) 94 Duke Mag. 1, http://www.dukemagazine.duke.edu/dukemag/issues/010208/depobs.html; see also, Lima, Medeiros, & Araujo, Sleep-wake pattern of medical students: early versus late class starting time (Nov. 2002) 35 Braz. J. Med. Biol. Res. 11, 1373-1377, http://www.scielo.br/scielo.php?pid=s0100-879x2002001100016&script=sci_arttext) A recent study, however, found later starting times associated with increased drinking and lower grades among college students. (Am. Acad. Sleep Med. (Jun. 08, 2011) College students sleep longer but drink more and get lower grades when classes start later, http://www.aasmnet.org/articles.aspx?id=2327) 139. (Bronson, Snooze or Lose (Oct. 7, 2007) New York Mag., web p. 2, http://nymag.com/news/features/38951/index1.html) 140. (Am. Acad. Sleep Med. (Aug. 30, 2010) Study Links Shorter Sleep Durations with Greater Risks of Mental Distress in Young Adults, http://www.aasmnet.org/articles.aspx?id=1867&cid=47) 141. (Schutte-Rodin, Teens and School Start Times (Dec. 2009) Am. Acad. Sleep Med., http://yoursleep.aasmnet.org/topic.aspx?id=42) II. The Basics of Adolescent Sleep Biology

179. (Grabbe, Amherst considers impact of starting school later for secondary students (Jan. 6, 2012) Amherst Bulletin, http://www.gazettenet.com/2012/01/06/wake-up-call-is-it-too-early-for-amherst-high-school-students-some-think-so) 180. (Feyer, Fatigue: time to recognise and deal with an old problem (Apr. 7, 2001) 322 Brit. Med. J. 7290, 808 809, http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1119993/) Lack of sleep needs to stop being regarded as a badge of honour and seen for the serious hazard that it actually is. (Id., p. 809; see also, Kim, Cranor, & Ryu, Fatigue: Working Under the Influence, publish. in, Proceedings of the XXIst International Occupational Ergonomics and Safety Conference (Jun. 2009) pp. 317-322, http://uweb.txstate.edu/~yr12/Papers/8_kim.pdf; Rosekind, Gander, Gregory, Smith, Miller, Oyung, Webbon, & Johnson, Managing Fatigue in Operational Settings I: Physiological Considerations and Countermeasures (1996) 21 J. Behav. Med., 157-165, http://humanfactors.arc.nasa.gov/zteam/PDF_pubs/ops1.pdf) 181. (Miller, Shattuck, Matsangas, & Dyche, Sleep and Academic Performance in U.S. Military Training and Education Programs (2008) 2 Mind, Brain, & Ed. 1, 29-33, http://faculty.nps.edu/nlmiller/docs/Sleep_and_academic_performance.pdf) 182. (Miller, Shattuck, & Matsangas, Sleep Patterns in Military Personnel: Longitudinal Study of Sleep Patterns of United States Military Academy Cadets (2010) 33 Sleep 12, 1623-1631, http://faculty.nps.edu/nlmiller/docs/SLEEP_Article_2010.pdf ) 183. (Hosek, Kavanaugh, & Miller, How Deployments Affect Service Members (Rand Corp. 2006), http://www.rand.org/content/dam/rand/pubs/monographs/2005/RAND_MG432.pdf ) 184. (Fernandez, Politician Hopes to Reawaken Sleep Legislation (Mar. 25, 1999) SFGate.com, http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?f=/c/a/1999/03/25/MN81895.DTL) 185. Commerce Dept., Bureau of Census (2010) American Community Survey, http://www.census.gov/acs/www/data_documentation/2010_release/) 186. (Pan, Schernhammer, Sun, Hu, Rotating Night Shift Work and Risk of Type 2 Diabetes: Two Prospective Cohort Studies in Women (Dec. 6, 2011) 8 Plos Med. 12, e1001141,
http://www.plosmedicine.org/article/info%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pmed.1001141?utm_source=feedburner&utm_medium=feed&utm_campaign=Feed%3A+plosmedic ine%2FNewArticles+(Ambra+-+Medicine+New+Articles

; see also, Crepeau, Bullough, Figueiro, Porter, & Rea, Lighting as a

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circadian rhythm-entraining and alertness enhancing stimulus in the submarine environment, Presented at the 2006 Undersea Human Systems Integration Symposium, Mystic, Connecticut, June 6-8. Newport, Rhode Island, Naval Undersea Warfare Center, http://cogprints.org/6574/1/059-uhsis06.pdf) 187. (Most Night Shift Workers Dont Adapt To The Hours (Apr. 23, 2011) NPR, http://www.npr.org/2011/04/21/135594251/sleep-deprivation-study) 188. (Phillips, Circadian rhythms: Of owls, larks and alarm clocks (2009) Nature 458, pp. 142-144, http://www.nature.com/news/2009/090311/full/458142a.html#B3) 189. (Sleep, Sleep Disorders, and Biological Rhythms Teachers Guide, NIH, http://science.education.nih.gov/supplements/nih3/sleep/guide/info-sleep.htm) 190. (Nat. Inst. of Neurological Disorders and Stroke, Brain Basics: Understanding Sleep, NIH, http://www.ninds.nih.gov/disorders/brain_basics/understanding_sleep.htm; Virginia Acad. Sleep Med. (Jan. 2011) Sleep is Important to Your Childs Health, http://www.vasleepmedicine.org/pdf/SLEEP_IS_IMPORTANT_TO_YOUR_CHILD.pdf) 191. (Crowley, Acebo, & Carskadon, Sleep, circadian rhythms, and delayed phase in adolescence (2007) 8 Sleep Med., 602-612, http://www.sleepforscience.org/stuff/contentmgr/files/6033aedfc83ddcdaeb659ca3a6b64849/pdf/crowley_et_al_sleep_med_2007.pdf) Studies have confirmed that more mature and older adolescents prefer later timing of activities than younger, less mature adolescents. (Ibid.) 192. (Emsellem & Whiteley, supra, Snooze... or Lose!: 10 No-War Ways to Improve Your Teens Sleep Habits, pp. 23-45, http://books.nap.edu/openbook.php?record_id=11633&page=23) A. Sleep Needs/Sleep Loss as a Stressor 219. (Turcios, Sleep is as vital to well-being as air, food, and water (Oct. 25, 2011) myCentralJersey.com, http://www.mycentraljersey.com/article/20111025/NJNEWS/310250019/Why-teenagers-need-sleep-it-s-good-for-you [link appears to have expired, but this may work -- http://www.mspaintart.com/teenagers-need-sleep/]) 220. (Dahl, The Consequences of Insufficient Sleep for Adolescents: Links Between Sleep and Emotional Regulation (Jan. 1999) 80 Phi Delta Kappan 5, 354-359, http://www.nksd.net/parents/StartTimes/The%20Consequences%20of%20Insufficient%20Sleep%20for%20Adolescents.pdf ) 221. (Rettner, Lack of Sleep in Teen Boys Linked to Obesity (May 4, 2010) LiveScience, http://www.livescience.com/6425lack-sleep-teen-boys-linked-obesity.html) 222. (Emsellem & Whiteley, supra, Snooze... or Lose!: 10 No-War Ways to Improve Your Teens Sleep Habits, p. 24, http://books.nap.edu/openbook.php?record_id=11633&page=24) 223. (Chrousos, Stress and disorders of the stress system (Jul. 2009) 5 Nature Rev. Endocrinology, p. 377, http://www.nature.com/nrendo/journal/v5/n7/full/nrendo.2009.106.html ) B. Adolescent Circadian Timing 248. (Webpage of Russell Foster, Ph.D., F.R.S., Chair of Circadian Neuroscience, Oxford University, as of Aug. 12, 2011, http://www.neuroscience.ox.ac.uk/directory/russell-foster; see also, Science Weekly Podcast, The science of sleep and circadian rhythms (Jul. 21, 2011) [interview with Professor Russell Foster], http://www.podcastdirectory.com/podshows/10369279; Foster, Bring back the night - your health and wellbeing depend on it (Jul. 13, 2011) Guardian UK, http://www.guardian.co.uk/science/2011/jul/13/neuroscience-biology; see also, Hegarty, The myth of the

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eight-hour sleep (Feb. 22, 2012) BBC, News Mag [discussing bi-modal or segmented sleep], http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/magazine-16964783) 249. (Carel & Lger, Precocious Puberty (2008) 358 N. Engl. J. Med. 22, p. 2366, http://www.scribd.com/gabbs328/d/47995583-Precocious-puberty-NEJM) 250. (Rogol, Clark, & Roemmich, Growth and pubertal development in children and adolescents: effects of diet and physical activity (Aug. 2000) 72 Am. J. Clin. Nutrition 2, p. 523S, http://www.ajcn.org/content/72/2/521S.full) 251. (Chung & Cheung, Sleep-Wake Patterns and Sleep Disturbance among Hong Kong Chinese Adolescents (2008) 31 Sleep 2, http://www.journalsleep.org/Articles/310204.pdf) 252. (Yang, Kim, Patel, & Lee, Age-Related Changes in Sleep/Wake Patterns Among Korean Teenagers (Jan. 2005) 115 Pediatr. 1, 250-256, http://canonfodder.riotforge.com/Psych%20Essay%20stuff/AgeRelated%20Changes%20in%20Sleep:Wake%20Patterns%20Among%20Korean%20Teenages.pdf) 253. (Rhie, Lee, & Chae, Sleep patterns and school performance of Korean adolescents assessed using a Korean version of the pediatric daytime sleepiness scale (2011) 54 Korean J. Pediatr. 1, 29-35, http://synapse.koreamed.org/Synapse/Data/PDFData/0052KJP/kjp-54-29.pdf ) 254. (Gupta, Bhatia, Chhabra, Sharma, Dahiya, Semalti, Sapra, & Dua, Sleep Patterns of Urban School-going Adolescents (Mar. 17, 2008) 45 Indian Pediatr., 183-189, http://www.indianpediatrics.net/mar2008/183.pdf) 255. (Hoecker, Adolescent Sleep Deprivation (Mar. 17, 2008) 45 Indian Pediatr., 181-182, http://medind.nic.in/ibv/t08/i3/ibvt08i3p181.pdf) 256. (Reid, Maldonado, & Baker, Sleep Behavior of South African Adolescents (Jun. 15, 2002) 25 Sleep 4, 423427, http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12071543) 257. (Ghanizadeh, Kianpoor, Rezaei, Rezaei, Moini, Aghakhani, Ahmadi, & Moeini, Sleep patterns and habits in high school students in Iran (Mar. 2008) 7 Ann. Gen. Psychiatr. 5, http://ukpmc.ac.uk/articles/PMC2292723/reload=0;jsessionid=03AA47986E7672420DFA4922F713911A.jvm1) Light/Technology Exposure 280. (Boivin, Duffy, Kronauer & Czeisler, Dose-response relationships for resetting of human circadian clock by light (Feb. 8, 1996) 379 Nature, 540-546, http://teensneedsleep.files.wordpress.com/2011/03/dose-response-relationships-for-resetting-of-humancircadian-clock-by-light.pdf) 281. (Figueiro & Rea, Lack of short-wavelength light during the school day delays dim light melatonin onset (DLMO) in middle school students (2010) 31 NeuroEndocrinology Letters 1, http://teensneedsleep.files.wordpress.com/2011/03/figueiro-and-rea.pdf, http://www.innovativedesign.net/files/Download/1_RPI_2010.pdf; see also, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, Quantifying Impact of Lighting on K-12 Students Performance and WellBeing, http://www.lrc.rpi.edu/resources/newsroom/pdf/2009/quantifyingUSGBC8511.pdf; Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, Lighting Research Center, Daylighting, http://www.lrc.rpi.edu/researchAreas/daylighting.asp) 282. (Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, Lack of Morning Light Keeping Teenagers Up at Night (Feb. 16, 2010) Physorg.com, http://www.physorg.com/pdf185548024.pdf, http://news.rpi.edu/update.do?artcenterkey=2686, http://www.eurekalert.org/pub_releases/201002/rpi-lom021610.php) 283. (Heschong Mahone Group, Daylighting in Schools: An Investigation into the Relationship Between Daylighting and Human Performance (Aug. 20, 1999) California Board for Energy Efficiency, 52

[positively associating increased daylighting from large windows/skylights with improved academic performance among elementary school students in three school districts]; see also, Sprinkle, 5 Surprisingly Easy Ways to Make Kids Smarter (Jun. 18, 2011) Cracked.com, http://www.cracked.com/article_19254_5-surprisingly-easy-ways-to-make-kids-smarter.html)
http://www.coe.uga.edu/sdpl/research/daylightingstudy.pdf

284. (Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, Lighting Research Center, Researchers Investigate Daylight and Electric Light on K-12 Students Well-being and Performance, http://www.lrc.rpi.edu/programs/lightHealth/projects/K12light.asp; see also, Buhr, Yoo, & Takahashi, Temperature as a Universal Resetting Cue for Mammalian Circadian Oscillators (Oct. 15, 2010) 330 Science 6002, 379-385, http://www.sciencemag.org/content/330/6002/379.short; Temperature Rhythms Keep Body Clocks in Sync (Oct. 15, 2010) Science Daily, http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2010/10/101014144314.htm) III. The Intersection of School Start Times and Adolescent Health/Academic Performance

310. (Emsellem & Whiteley, supra, Snooze... or Lose!: 10 No-War Ways to Improve Your Teens Sleep Habits, p. 211, http://books.nap.edu/openbook.php?record_id=11633&page=211) 311. (Wolfson, Carskadon, Acebo, Seifer, Fallone, Labyak, & Martin, Evidence for the Validity of a Sleep Habits Survey for Adolescents (2003) 26 Sleep 2, www.journalsleep.org/Articles/260214.pdf) 312. (Sadeh, McGuire, Sachs, Seifer, Tremblay, Civita, & Hayden, Sleep and psychological characteristics of children on a psychiatric inpatient unit (1995) 34 J. Am. Acad. Child & Adolesc. Psychiatr. 6, 813-819, http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/7608056) 313. (Ming, Koransky, Kang, Buchman, Sarris, & Wagner, Sleep Insufficiency, Sleep Health Problems and Performance in High School Students (Oct. 20, 2011) 2011 Clin. Med. Insights: Circulatory, Respiratory and Pulmonary Med. 5, pp. 71-79, http://teensneedsleep.files.wordpress.com/2011/05/f_2879-ccrpm-sleep-insufficiency-sleep-health-problems-andperformance-in-high-sch_3860.pdf) 314. (Start Later for Excellence in Education Proposal (SLEEP), Healthy school start times mean better performance, www.sleepinfairfax.org/docs/SLEEP_Factsheet_02-10-2009.pdf ) Advocates for delaying start times in Fairfax, Virginia, claim their efforts have been rebuffed for at least 10 years. (SLEEP, http://www.sleepinfairfax.org/index.htm; see, Chandler, Board Rejects Change of High School Bell Times (Mar. 20, 2009) Wash. Post, http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2009/03/19/AR2009031903043.html) A recent survey undertaken by county officials shows the majority of Fairfax County teens are sleep-deprived. (Fairfax County Youth Survey (2009) Fairfax County, VA, http://www.fairfaxcounty.gov/demogrph/youthpdf.htm) 315. (Epstein, Chillag, & Lavie, Starting times of school: effects on daytime functioning of fifth-grade children in Israel (May 1998) 21 Sleep 3, 250-256, http://teensneedsleep.files.wordpress.com/2011/05/lavie-chillag-start-times-5th-graders.pdf, http://www.journalsleep.org/ViewAbstract.aspx?pid=23991) 316. (Bronson & Merryman, Nurture Shock: New Thinking About Children (Twelve Books 2009), http://www.progresivno.org/download/attachments/2162934/Nurture+shock.PDF?version=1&modificationDate=1297352858000 ) [S]chools are scheduled early for adult convenience: theres no educational reason we start schools as early as we do. (Id., p. 37, citing Professor Mark Mahowald.) Its about adult convenience, its not about learning. (N. 242, quoting Mel Riddile, M.Ed., Ed.D.) 317. (Graham, edit., supra, Sleep Needs, Patterns and Difficulties of Adolescents: Summary of a Workshop, p. 16, http://www.nap.edu/openbook.php?record_id=9941&page=16) 318. (Bergin & Bergin, Sleep The EZZZ Intervention (Dec. 2009/Jan. 2010) 67 Ed. Leadership 4, http://www.ascd.org/publications/educational_leadership/dec09/vol67/num04/Sleep%40_The_E-ZZZ_Intervention.aspx)

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319. (Graham, edit., supra, Sleep Needs, Patterns and Difficulties of Adolescents: Summary of a Workshop, pp. 15, http://www.nap.edu/openbook.php?record_id=9941&page=15) 320. (Cortes, Bricker, & Rohlfs, The Role of Specific Subjects in Education Production Functions: Evidence from Morning Classes in Chicago Public High Schools (2009) http://www.federalreserve.gov/pubs/feds/2010/201033/201033pap.pdf) A. Academic Performance 340. (Dewald, Meijer, Oort, Kerkhof, & Bgels, The inuence of sleep quality, sleep duration and sleepiness on school performance in children and adolescents: A meta-analytic review (2010) Sleep Med. Rev. 14, pp. 179189, http://www.bat.uoi.gr/files/animal_physiology/2011_list_projects/18.pdf) 341. (Kalish, Early Bird Gets the Bad Grade (Jan. 14, 2008) N.Y. Times, http://www.nytimes.com/2008/01/14/opinion/14kalish.html; see also, Chen, Why Starting School at 8:30 May Benefit Public High School Students (Jan. 14, 2010) Public School Rev., http://www.publicschoolreview.com/articles/186) 342. (The Center for Applied Research and Educational Improvement (CAREI), School Start Time Study, University of Minnesota, http://www.cehd.umn.edu/CAREI/Reports/docs/SST-1998VI.pdf; CAREI, School Start Time Study, Technical Rep., Vol. II: Analysis of Student Survey Data, http://www.cehd.umn.edu/CAREI/Reports/docs/SST-1998VII.pdf; additional CAREI Reports available here, http://www.cehd.umn.edu/CAREI/Reports/summary.html#SchoolStart; see also, Wahlstrom, School start time & teen sleep (May 2000) 7 High School Mag. 9, 40-41, www.fcps.edu/fts/taskforce07/documents/nasspstarttimes.pdf; Kubow, Wahlstrom, & Bemis, Starting Time and School Life: Reflections from Educators and Students (Jan. 1999) 80 Phi Delta Kappan 5, 366-371, http://www.fcps.edu/fts/taskforce07/documents/starttimeschoollife.pdf) 343. (Quan, Podcast Transcript (Apr. 2011) 7 J. Clin. Sleep Med. 2, pp. 1-2, http://www.aasmnet.org/jcsm/rss/transcripts/0702.pdf) 344. (Vedaa, Saxvig, Wilhelmsen-Langeland, Bjorvatn & Pallesen, School start time, sleepiness and functioning in Norwegian adolescents (Feb. 2012) Scandinavian J. Ed. Res., pp. 55-67, http://teensneedsleep.files.wordpress.com/2011/05/school-start-time-sleepiness-and-functioning-in-norwegian-adolescents.pdf) 345. (Hinrichs, When the Bell Tolls: The Effects of School Starting Times on Academic Achievement (2011) 6 Education Finance & Policy 4, 1-22, http://www9.georgetown.edu/faculty/plh24/Hinrichs_schoolstarttimes_072310.pdf, http://www9.georgetown.edu/faculty/plh24/) A study of Chicago Public Schools (relying upon students self-reported grade point averages) found the amount of time spent on homework to be the best predictor of academic performance rather than total sleep time. Notably, 80% of the students believed they were not getting adequate sleep. (Eliasson, Gould, King, Eliasson, & Eliasson, Association of Sleep and Academic Performance (2002) 6 Sleep and Breathing 1, 45-48, http://web.mit.edu/writing/2010/July/EliassonEtAl2002.pdf) An earlier study, however, found that high school students who sleep less than six hours a night generally have poorer grades even when they report studying the same number of hours as higher-achieving students. (N. 35; see also, n. 320 [students in Chicago Public Schools receive lower grades and are more likely to be absent in first period classes compared to other classes]; Dewald, Meijer, Oort, Kerkhof, & Bogels, The influence of sleep quality, sleep duration and sleepiness on school performance in children and adolescents: A meta-analytic review (2010) 14 Sleep Med. Rev., 179-189, www.bat.uoi.gr/files/animal_physiology/2011_list_projects/18.pdf; Pagel & Kwiatkowski, Sleep complaints affecting school performance at different educational levels (2010) Front. Neur. 1:125 doi:10.3389/fneur.2010.00125, http://www.frontiersin.org/sleep_and_chronobiology/10.3389/fneur.2010.00125/full; Yan & Slagle, What Has Research Told Us About School Schedule, Sleep Time, and Student Achievement? (Apr. 2007) Teachers College Record, http://www.tcrecord.org/Content.asp?ContentID=14030, or pre-publication here, http://sites.google.com/site/wakefairfax/starttimeachievement.pdf [questioning, inter alia, the accuracy of self-reported grades]; Howell, Jahrig, & Powell, Sleep quality, sleep propensity and academic performance (Oct. 2004) 99 Percept. Mot. Skills 2, 525-535, http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15560340 [full-time students in an introductory psychology 54

course reporting poor sleep quality performed less well on academic measures than those reporting a better quality of sleep; neither sleep propensity nor sleep quality impacted the performance of part-time students].) As noted in the main text, a survey of 6,632 students from 349 secondary schools across Italy found an association between increased complaints of daytime sleepiness and poor academic achievement, greater use of caffeine, alcohol, and tobacco, sleep problems, evening phase preference, anxiety, and depressive mood. (Gianotti & Cortesi, Sleep Patterns and Daytime Function in Adolescents: An Epidemiological Survey of an Italian High School Student Sample, publish. in, Adolescent Sleep Patterns: Biological, Social, and Psychological Influences, supra, pp. 132-147; cf., Perez-Chada, PerezLloret, Videla, Cardinali, Bergna, Fernndez-Acquier, Larrateguy, Zabert, & Drake, Sleep Disordered Breathing And Daytime Sleepiness Are Associated With Poor Academic Performance In Teenagers. A Study Using The Pediatric Daytime Sleepiness Scale (PDSS) (Dec. 1, 2007) 30 Sleep 12, 16981703, http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2276125/; Gray & Watson, General and specific traits of personality and their relation to sleep and academic performance (Apr. 2002) 70 J. Pers. 2, 177-206, http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11908845) 346. (Hanushek, Valuing Teachers (Summer 2011) 11 Education Next 3, http://educationnext.org/valuingteachers/; see also, Pittman, Can an Hour a Day Keep the Fs Away? (Aug. 8, 2011) SparkAction, http://sparkaction.org/content/can-hour-day-keep-f%E2%80%99s-away) B. Depression, Anxiety, and Fatigue 380. (University of Louisville, Depression in Children and Adolescents, https://louisville.edu/depression/understanding/childrenadolescents.html) 381. (Graham, edit., supra, Sleep Needs, Patterns and Difficulties of Adolescents: Summary of a Workshop, p. 20, http://www.nap.edu/openbook.php?record_id=9941&page=20) 382. (Ang & Huan, Relationship between Academic Stress and Suicidal Ideation: Testing for Depression as a Mediator Using Multiple Regression (2006) 37 Child Psychiatr. Hum. Dev., 133143, http://mres.gmu.edu/pmwiki/uploads/Main/schoolMED2010.pdf ) 383. (University of Michigan Depression Center (Oct. 2007) Facts about Depression in Children and Adolescents, http://www.med.umich.edu/depression/caph.htm) C. Risk of Suicidal Ideation and Completed Suicide 400. (Wong, Brower, & Zucker, Sleep problems, suicidal ideation, and self-harm behaviors in adolescence (Apr. 2010) 45 J. Psychiatr. Res. 4, 505-511, http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20889165) 401. (Petersen, Kids Who Dont Sleep Enough Are at Greater Risk for Depression, Anxiety Later (Jan. 18, 2011) Wall St. J., http://online.wsj.com/article/SB10001424052748704029704576087943126802036.html; Sleep Experts Concerned About St. Paul Start Time Change (Jun. 3, 2011) CBS, http://minnesota.cbslocal.com/2011/06/03/sleep-experts-concerned-about-st-paul-start-time-change/) 402. (CDC, Mortality Among Teenagers Aged 12-19 Years: United States, 1999-2006 (May 2010) NCHS Data Brief, http://www.cdc.gov/nchs/data/databriefs/db37.htm; Statistics-Top 10 Causes (Mar. 7, 2005) Death Statistics, http://www.statisticstop10.com/Causes_of_Death_Older_Teens.html) 403. (CDC Nat. Vital Stat. Syst., Mortality Tables, http://www.cdc.gov/nchs/nvss/mortality/lcwk2.htm; see also, Maris, Suicide (Jul. 27, 2002) 359 Lancet 9329, 319-326.) 404. (Minio, Xu, & Kochanek, Deaths: Preliminary Data for 2008 (Dec. 9, 2010) 59 Nat. Vital Stat. Rep. 2, http://www.cdc.gov/nchs/data/nvsr/nvsr59/nvsr59_02.pdf)

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405. (Dearden, De La Cruz, Crookston, Novilla, & Clark, Adolescents at Risk: Depression, Low Academic Performance, Violence, and Alcohol Increase Bolivian Teenagers Risk of Attempted Suicide (2005) 8 Internat. Electronic J. Health Ed., 104-119, http://www.bvsde.paho.org/bvsacd/cd42/dearden.pdf; see also, Richardson, Bergen, Martin, Roeger, & Allison, Perceived academic performance as an indicator of risk of attempted suicide in young adolescents (2005) 9 Archives Suicide Res. 2, 163-176, http://espace.library.uq.edu.au/eserv.php?pid=UQ:8494&dsID=gm1.pdf ; Martin, Richardson, Bergen, Roeger, & Allison, Perceived academic performance, self-esteem and locus of control as indicators of need for assessment of adolescent suicide risk: implications for teachers (Feb. 2005) 28 J. Adolesc. 1, 75-87, http://www.hawaii.edu/hivandaids/Perceived_Academic_Performance,_SelfEsteem__Implications_for_Teachers.pdf; Swedo, Rettew, Kuppenheimer, Lum, Dolan, & Goldberger, Can Adolescent Suicide Attempters Be Distinguished From At-Risk Adolescents? (Sept. 1991) 88 Pediatr., 620-629 [school failure among environmental stressors distinguishing suicide attempters from control group], http://pediatrics.aappublications.org/cgi/content/abstract/88/3/620) D. Psychomotor Impairment/Automobile Accidents 420. (Durmer & Dinges, Neurocognitive Consequences of Sleep Deprivation (2005) 25 Semin. Neurol. 1, 117129, http://www.med.upenn.edu/uep/user_documents/DurmerandDinges--NeurocognitiveConsequences--SEM.NEUROL.2005.pdf) [R]ecent experiments reveal that following days of chronic sleep restriction, significant daytime cognitive dysfunction accumulates to levels comparable to that found after severe acute total sleep deprivation. (Id., p. 125.) 421. (Am. Acad. Sleep Med. (May 12, 2010) Teen Automobile Crash Rates are Higher When School Starts Earlier, http://www.aasmnet.org/Articles.aspx?id=1685) 422. (Am. Acad. Sleep Med. (Apr. 12, 2011) Crash rates may be higher for teen drivers who start school earlier, http://www.aasmnet.org/articles.aspx?id=2208) 423. (Cline, Do Later School Start Times Really Help High School Students? (Feb. 27, 2011) Psychology Today, http://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/sleepless-in-america/201102/do-later-school-start-times-really-help-high-school-students) 424. (Ohio Department of Transportation (Aug. 23, 2011) Crashes Involving Teens Triple During Back-toSchool, http://www.dot.state.oh.us/news/Pages/Crashes-Involving-Teens-Triple-During-Back-to-School.aspx) 425. (Graham, edit., supra, Sleep Needs, Patterns and Difficulties of Adolescents: Summary of a Workshop, p. 17, http://www.nap.edu/openbook.php?record_id=9941&page=17) 426. (Mahowald & Bornemann, Drowsiness & Driving A Dangerous Duo (May 2006) Minnesota Med., http://www.minnesotamedicine.com/PastIssues/PastIssues2006/May2006/CommentaryMahowaldMay2006/tabid/2466/Default.aspx ) [I]ts part of our 24/7 culture that we think that we should be able to burn the candle at both ends without suffering any consequences, and at some point, the brain seizes control and we involuntarily make the transition from wakefulness to sleep, even at very inappropriate circumstances. (Most Night Shift Workers Dont Adapt To The Hours (Apr. 23, 2011) NPR, http://www.npr.org/2011/04/21/135594251/sleep-deprivation-study) 427. (Williamson & Feyer, Moderate sleep deprivation produces impairments in cognitive and motor performance equivalent to legally prescribed levels of alcohol intoxication (2000) 57 Occup. & Environ. Med., 659-655, http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1739867/pdf/v057p00649.pdf ) 428. (NSF, Teens and Sleep,
http://www.sleepfoundation.org/article/sleep-topics/teens-and-sleep

429. (CDC, Injury Prevention & Control: Motor Vehicle Safety, Teen Drivers: Fact Sheet, http://www.cdc.gov/MotorVehicleSafety/Teen_Drivers/teendrivers_factsheet.html )

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E. Athletic Performance 440. (Sleivert, Performance Point, Canadian Sport Centre,

http://www.cscpacific.ca/Images/PerfPoints/PP_Sleep(GSleivert).pdf

441. (Aubrey, Want to Get Faster, Smarter? Sleep 10 Hours (Jun. 7, 2010) NPR, http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=127478147) 442. (Science Daily (Jun. 10, 2009) Sleep Extension Improves Athletic Performance And Mood, http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2009/06/090608071939.htm) 443. (Am. Acad. Sleep Med. (Jun. 4, 2008) Ongoing Study Continues to Show that Extra Sleep Improves Athletic Performance, http://www.aasmnet.org/Articles.aspx?id=954) 444. (Science Daily (Jun. 14, 2007) Extra Sleep Improves Athletes Performance, http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2007/06/070613071054.htm) 445. (Lamberg, Sleep May Be Athletes Best Performance Booster (Aug. 19, 2005) Psychiatr. News, Vol. 40, No. 16, p. 21, http://pn.psychiatryonline.org/content/40/16/21.1.full) 446. (Christensen, Teens, sleep and new Seattle school starting times (Sept. 2, 2009) examiner.com, http://www.examiner.com/teen-issues-in-seattle/teens-sleep-and-new-seattle-school-starting-times?cid=parsely#parsely) 447. (Brewer, Can Improved Sleep Enhance Your Athletic Performance? active.com, http://www.active.com/fitness/Articles/Can-Improved-Sleep-Enhance-Your-Athletic-Performance.htm) 448. (Am. Acad. Sleep Med. (May 29, 2009) Study Shows Sleep Extension Improves Athletic Performance and Mood, http://www.aasmnet.org/articles.aspx?id=1291) 449. (Emsellem & Whiteley, supra, Snooze... or Lose!: 10 No-War Ways to Improve Your Teens Sleep Habits, p. 34, http://books.nap.edu/openbook.php?record_id=11633&page=34) 450. (Am. Acad. Sleep Med. (May 27, 2010) Getting Extra Sleep Improves the Athletic Performance of Collegiate Football Players, http://www.aasmnet.org/articles.aspx?id=1731) 451. (Transcript of Interview with Sleep Researcher Cheri Mah, sleepbetter.org, http://sleepbetter.org/home/transcript-superbowl-sleep-chari-mah/#) 452. (Brandt, Snooze you win? Its true for achieving hoop dreams, says study (Jul. 1, 2011) Stanford School of Medicine, http://med.stanford.edu/ism/2011/july/sleep.html) F. Excessive Weight Gain

470. (Weiss, Xu, Storfer-Isser, Thomas, Ievers-Landis, & Redline, The Association of Sleep Duration with Adolescents Fat and Carbohydrate Consumption (Sept. 2010) 33 Sleep 9, http://www.journalsleep.org/ViewAbstract.aspx?pid=27900) 471. (Rettner, Sleep-deprived teens may eat more fatty foods (Sept. 1, 2010) MSNBC, http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/38952059/ns/health-diet_and_nutrition/; Am. Acad. Sleep Med. (Jun. 14, 2011) Daytime sleepiness is associated with an increased craving for carbs among teens, http://www.aasmnet.org/articles.aspx?id=2323) 472. (Ogden, Carroll, Curtin, Lamb, & Flegal, Prevalence of High Body Mass Index in US Children and Adolescents, 2007-2008 (Jan. 2010) 303 JAMA 3, 242-249, http://jama.ama-assn.org/cgi/content/full/2009.2012) 57

473. (Sung, Beebe, VanDyke, Fenchel, Crimmins, Kirk, Hiscock, Amin, & Wake, Does Sleep Duration Predict Metabolic Risk in Obese Adolescents Attending Tertiary Services? A Cross-Sectional Study (Jul. 2011) 34 Sleep 7, 891-898, http://www.journalsleep.org/ViewAbstract.aspx?pid=28189, http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21731139) 474. (Lumeng, Somashekar, Appugliese, Kaciroti, Corwyn, & Bradley, Shorter Sleep Duration Is Associated With Increased Risk for Being Overweight at Ages 9 to 12 Years (Nov. 2007) 120 Pediatr. 5, 1020-1029, http://pediatrics.aappublications.org/cgi/content/full/120/5/1020) 475. (Lytle, Pasch, & Farbaksh, The relationship between sleep and weight in a sample of adolescents (Feb. 2011) 19 Obesity 2, 324-331, http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3099473/?tool=pubmed; see also, Park, Association Between Short Sleep Duration and Obesity Among South Korean Adolescents (Aug. 2010) West. J. Nurs. Res., http://wjn.sagepub.com/content/early/2010/08/23/0193945910371317.abstract) Risk-Taking & Delinquent Behavior 490. (Roper v. Simmons (2005) 543 U.S. 551, 569, citations omitted, italics in original, http://www.law.cornell.edu/supct/html/03-633.ZO.html) 491. (Pollak & Bright, Caffeine Consumption and Weekly Sleep Patterns in US Seventh-, Eighth-, and NinthGraders (Jan. 2003) 111 Pediatr. 1, 42-46, http://pediatrics.aappublications.org/cgi/reprint/111/1/42.pdf) 492. (Seifert, Schaechter, Hershorin, & Lipshultz, Health Effects of Energy Drinks on Children, Adolescents and Young Adults (Feb. 2011) 127 Pediatr. 3, 511-528, http://pediatrics.aappublications.org/cgi/reprint/peds.2009-3592v1.pdf; see also, Committee on Nutrition & Council on Sports Med. and Fitness, Clinical ReportSports Drinks and Energy Drinks for Children and Adolescents: Are They Appropriate? (May 2011) Pediatrics, 1182-1189, http://pediatrics.aappublications.org/content/early/2011/05/25/peds.2011-0965.full.pdf+html) 493. (HarvardScience, Early marijuana use a bigger problem (Nov. 2010) Harvardgazette, http://news.harvard.edu/gazette/story/2010/11/marijuana-study/) G. Physical, Psychological, or Social Difficulties 510. (Emsellem & Whiteley, supra, Snooze... or Lose!: 10 No-War Ways to Improve Your Teens Sleep Habits, p. 26, http://books.nap.edu/openbook.php?record_id=11633&page=26) 511. (Brouillette, review of, Sleep and Psychiatric Disorders in Children and Adolescents (Dec. 11, 2008) 359 N. Engl. J. Med. 24, p. 2623, http://www.nejm.org/doi/pdf/10.1056/NEJMbkrev0805099) 512. (Cleveland Clinic (2009) Sleep Disorders in the Older Child and Teen, http://my.clevelandclinic.org/Documents/Sleep_Disorders_Center/09_Adolescent_factsheet.pdf ) 513. (Shatkin, The Parent Letter (Jan. 2007) 5 New York University Child Study Center 5, http://www.aboutourkids.org/files/articles/english_parent_letter_january_07.pdf ; see also, Am. Acad. Sleep Med. (Jun. 12, 2007) Sleep Restriction Affects Childrens Speech, http://www.aasmnet.org/articles.aspx?id=464 [research suggests that even mild sleep loss produces marked deficits in cognitive development and functioning in school-age children].) IV. Delaying School Start Times 539. (Venkateshiah, Teenagers and Sleep (Nov. 10, 2011) Am. Coll. Chest Physicians, Chest Physician Article, http://www.chestnet.org/accp/article/chest-physician/teenagers-and-sleep)

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540. (NSF, Eight Major Obstacles to Changing School Start Times, http://www.sleepfoundation.org/article/hot-topics/eight-majorobstacles-delaying-school-start-times) Where the NSF proposed solution of flipping bus schedules is employed, care must be taken to ensure young children get the sleep they need to perform academically. (See, Science Daily (Sept. 13, 2011) Primary Schoolchildren That Sleep Less Than 9 Hours Do Not Perform as Well Academically, Study Suggests, http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2011/09/110913103110.htm#.TnEyIqu-0MI.email; see also, Sadeh, Raviv, & Gruber, Sleep Patterns and Sleep Disruptions in School-Age Children (2000) 36 Dev. Psychol. 3, 291301, http://www.apa.org/pubs/journals/releases/dev-363291.pdf) As to transportation costs, neither the suburban school district of Edina, nor the urban district of Minneapolis, found that the change to a later start increased transportation costs. The same buses and routes were used, the only changes made were the times the buses used the routes. (N. 37, p. 19.) The change to delayed start times in Wilton, Connecticut, also had no impact on transportation costs. (N. 645.) The West Des Moines School District in Iowa was able to actually reduce the number of buses needed by changing the start times of all three tiers of their school system. Kay Rosene, Director of Community relations at the West Des Moines School District, says the switch gave the district a windfall of about $700,000 annually. According to Ms. Rosene, the savings meant that other potential cuts in programming or curriculum offerings would not occur. (N. 48.) Similarly, three Moore County, North Carolina high schools will delay start times to 9 a.m. from 8:15 a.m., saving $600,000 in transportation costs. (Sharpe, School Start Times to Change (Jun. 9, 2011) The Pilot, http://www.thepilot.com/news/2011/jun/10/school-start-times-change/) On the other hand, the Issaquah, Washington, school district found adjusting to ideal start times cost prohibitive at over five million dollars. (Issaquah School Dist. Bell Time Study Committee, Presentation of 2005 Final Committee Report, www.issaquah.wednet.edu/documents/bell/bellpresentation.pdf) In one St. Louis school district, the costs related to the addition of one bus. (Start Times & Length of School Day (Nov. 1, 2010) Parkway School Dist. Task Force Rep., http://www.pkwy.k12.mo.us/projectParkway/file/Start%20Time%20and%20Length%20of%20Day%20Task%20Force%20FINAL%20REPORTpdf.pdf ) The Quakertown Community School District was unable to afford the $400,000 in transportation costs required to adjust middle school start times from 7:10 a.m. to 7:40 a.m. (Rizzo, Final Quakertown budget closes Haycock ES (Jun. 10, 2011) The Morning Call, http://www.mcall.com/news/breaking/mc-quakertown-school-budget20110610,0,5483327.story) In Utah, the Salt Lake City School District spent a year studying possible ways to delay high school start times, but scrapped the idea in 2000 after an estimate set the transportation cost at $2.1 million the first year and $727,000 every year after. Still, a task force found that there would be no additional busing cost to delay by 30 minutes the start times of all elementary, middle and high schools. (Winters, High school start times can make it tough to get both As and Zzzs (Mar. 24, 2011) Salt Lake Tribune, http://www.sltrib.com/sltrib/news/51389893-78/sleep-start-wake-later.html.csp) 541. (Creel, Get up! Sleepy teens roam school halls while debate goes on about changing start times (Aug. 21, 2010), Buffalo News.com, http://www.buffalonews.com/incoming/article42139.ece; see also, Kurek, High schools can change start times (May 2011) insideHALTON.com, http://www.insidehalton.com/community/education/article/1012961--high-schools-can-change-start-times) 542. (W.A.K.E., Worried About Keeping Extra-curriculars, http://sites.google.com/site/wakefairfax/home; YouTube, Marquette Senior High School Start Time Parody, http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OVnN0SZ8sHU&feature=related) 543. (Fairfax Underground (2009) FCPS Do Not Push School Start Times Back, http://www.fairfaxunderground.com/forum/read/2/152102/154088.html , http://www.facebook.com/group.php?gid=51167851005) 544. (Tanner, Study Shows Teens Benefit from Later School Day (Jul. 5, 2010) Assoc. Press, http://www.boston.com/news/education/k_12/articles/2010/07/05/study_shows_teens_benefit_from_later_school_day/ ) The results were stunning. Theres no other word to use, said Patricia Moss, M.A., Ph.D., Assistant Head of School and Head of the Latin Department at St. Georges School, the Rhode Island boarding school where the study was done. We didnt think wed get that much bang for the buck. (Ibid.) 545. (Am. Acad. Sleep Med. (2010) Sleep Hygiene - The Healthy Habits of Good Sleep, http://yoursleep.aasmnet.org/Hygiene.aspx; University of Maryland Med. Center (Aug. 3, 2010) Sleep Hygiene: Helpful Hints to Help You Sleep, http://www.umm.edu/sleep/sleep_hyg.htm)

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546. (Kirby, Maggi, & DAngiulli, School Start Times and the SleepWake Cycle of Adolescents: A Review and Critical Evaluation of Available Evidence (Mar. 2011) 40 Educational Res. 2, 56-61, http://www.aera.net/uploadedFiles/Publications/Journals/Educational_Researcher/4002/56-61_03EdR11.pdf) 547. (Squires, Students miss class time for sports, GPAs still up (Dec. 7, 2011) Winona Post, http://www.winonapost.com/stock/functions/VDG_Pub/detail.php?choice=45317&home_page=1&archives=) 548. (Din, Sport Activities Versus Academic Achievement For Rural High School Students (2005-2006) 19 National Forum Applied Ed. Res. J. 3E, pp. 1-11, http://teensneedsleep.files.wordpress.com/2011/05/din-feng-s-sport-activities-versusacademic-achievement-for-rural-high-school-students1.pdf) 548. (Cerve, Early high school start times affect teens ability to learn, studies find (Aug. 2010) islandpacket.com, http://www.islandpacket.com/2010/08/21/1345747/early-high-school-start-times.html) A Battery Creek school nurse suggested that students need to adapt and find ways to make the schedule work for them, such as laying out clothes at night to save a few minutes in the morning. (Ibid.) 549. (Calhoun, Dissent Doesnt Defer Changes in Parkway Schools Start Times (Sept. 22, 2011) CBS St. Louis, http://stlouis.cbslocal.com/2011/09/22/dissent-doesnt-defer-changes-in-parkway-schools-start-times/) 550. (Wahlstrom, School Start Times and Sleepy Teens (Jul. 2010) 164 Arch. Pediatr. Adolesc. Med. 7, 676677, http://teensneedsleep.files.wordpress.com/2011/05/editorial-school-start-time-and-sleepy-teens-archives-of-pediatrics-adolescent-medicine-july-2010.pdf, http://archpedi.ama-assn.org/cgi/content/extract/164/7/676) Thus, pairing the growing body of medical research with the educational outcomes seems to be the logical path to argue for changing to later start times. The difficulty then and now is the tendency of those opposed to making changes to not use the known facts as a starting point for the local discussion. When districts begin the conversation by asking, Do you think we should change the start time of our high school? given what we already know about natural resistance to change, the discussion will almost certainly begin on a negative footing and will likely polarize the community. A better approach would be to begin by sharing what we currently know to be true about the biological imperatives of adolescent development and sleep, along with the social/emotional and educational outcomes for more- and less well-rested teenagers. Incorrect assumptions, the use of only partial facts, and hasty implementation are frequent reasons that cause the defeat or demise of a local decision to change the start time. Transportation costs are the other main stumbling block to such a change. They can be a truly legitimate reason for no change if a transportation study is impartially conducted, assessing the logistics and financial impact. Interestingly, both the Edina and Minneapolis school districts were able to implement the change to a later high school start time with zero impact on their transportation budgets, so it can be accomplished at no additional cost. In the end, having comprehensive information and impartial presentation of what is known, and not assumed, is needed to really begin the local dialogue. Given what has been discovered thus far, changing the starting time of schools is a seemingly simple issue with incredibly sticky political dimensions. A final caveat is to be mindful that one solution does not fit all. It is through the development of shared knowledge of the facts and the concerns that a reasonable, local decision is reached. And the decision may ultimately be that a change is not feasible. So be it. The community at large is, after all, the final arbiter, as all must truly live with the consequences. Our teenagers need and deserve our best informed thinking about all of this; having the facts in hand is the best place to start. (Id., p. 677.) 560. (Wolfson, Bridging the Gap Between Research and Practice: What Will the 21 st Century Look Like? publish. in, Adolescent Sleep Patterns: Biological, Social, and Psychological Influences, supra, pp. 198-219, http://www.sleepforscience.org/stuff/contentmgr/files/ccd8eb9fd3a8ec7d7b5c62db5181ace5/pdf/wolfson_asp_ch12.pdf ) According to psychologists, sociologists, and educators, as well as anecdotal reports and stories from parents and teachers, adolescents growing up in the United States are portrayed as stormy, moody, persistent, entitled, self-centered, independent, and emotional. Sleep researchers, parents, and teachers 60

have added that adolescents are frequently sleepy and exhausted. This intense developmental stage is marked by physiological, cognitive, emotional, and psychosocial changes. Among the host of changes that accompany adolescence, quality, quantity, and timing of sleep are influenced by changing academic demands, new social pressures, altered parent-child relationships, and increased time spent in part-time jobs, extracurricular activities, and sports. Likewise, the way adolescents sleep critically influences their ability to think, behave, and feel through adolescence. Researchers have demonstrated that adolescents growing up in the late 1990s and early part of this decade are not getting enough sleep; however, countermeasures have not been developed to reverse this trend. Although sleep consumes approximately one-third of our lives (50% at early school age), it is often ignored by developmental psychologists, pediatricians, educators, and others who devote their lives to working with children and adolescents. For example, sleep is rarely mentioned in textbooks on adolescent development, child-adolescent sleep topics are infrequently presented at the Society for Research on Child Development meetings (.3% of presentations at the 1995 biennial SRCD meeting), and pediatricians get very little training in sleep medicine. This chapter examines current knowledge of the factors that influence adolescents sleep-wake patterns and discusses how adolescent sleep researchers, school administrators, health care providers, and policy makers must bridge the research-practice gap so that adolescents can be alert (not sleep-deprived) and successful in school. Philosophers, psychologists, and other theorists throughout history, such as Aristotle, John Locke, G. Stanley Hall, and Carol Gilligan (Brown & Gilligan, 1992), have viewed the transition or crossroads from childhood to adulthood as a time of vulnerability as well as an opportunity for developing a life-style that promotes health, physical and psychological well-being, and empathy. They argued that special attention should be given to helping and supporting adolescents through this period so that they can become healthy and successful adults. Unfortunately, over the past several decades adolescents have been viewed with disrespect, disregard, and antagonism. More than 30 years ago, U.S. teenagers were seen as idealistic. In contrast, currently they are viewed as one of the main roots of our nations social ills (e.g., drug abuse, juvenile crime, teen pregnancy, gangs, violence). This chapter argues that one explanation for adolescents academic difficulties, behavior problems, and disengagement from school relates to societys reinforcement of irregular and short sleep-wake schedules through early morning school start times and pressure to work long hours after school. Data suggest that adolescents are starting school at increasingly earlier times, working increasingly longer hours after school, and sleeping fewer hours than in the past. If this trend continues, teenagers will have difficulty successfully negotiating the transition into adulthood. We must focus on how to make things more manageable for adolescents as opposed to setting up systems that are likely to promote failure. (Id., pp. 198-199.) 561. (Riddile, Time Shift: Is your school jet-lagged? (Mar. 14, 2011) NASSP, The Principal Difference, http://nasspblogs.org/principaldifference/2011/03/time_shift_is_your_school_jetl.html ; see also, Walker, Impact of Starting Time on High School Students (Jul. 26, 2010) The Principals Partnership, http://teensneedsleep.files.wordpress.com/2011/03/high-schoolstartingtimes1.pdf) 562. (Shaddox, Delaying School Start Times Causes Alarm (Oct. 25, 2010) Miller-McCune, http://www.millermccune.com/education/delaying-school-start-times-causes-alarm-24662/; Bogan, School Start Time Change in Wilton, CT, http://www.duxbury.k12.ma.us/sleep/LBogan-Wilton.pdf [this URL may have expired].) 563. (Edina Public Schools, Edina High School Start Time Decision Process, District News, http://www.edina.k12.mn.us/news/reports/laterstart/decisionprocess.html ) 564. (NSF Adolesc. Sleep Initiative, Changing School Start Times: Wilton, Conn. (2005) Sleep for Teens, http://www.sleepinfairfax.org/docs/CS.Wilton.pdf ) 565. (Wilton League of Women Voters (Jun. 2002) School Start Time Study Report, http://www.wiltonlwv.org/images/stories/MiscPDFs/study-schoolstartjune2002.pdf)

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566. (League of Women Voters of New Canaan (2006) Sleep Study Information, http://www.lwvnewcanaan.org/index.php/sleep-study-info/) 567. (Louzada, Teixeira da Silva, Peixoto, & Menna-Barreto, The Adolescence Sleep Phase Delay: Causes, Consequences and Possible Interventions (Jul. 2008) 1 Sleep Science, 49-53, http://www.sleepscience.com.br/pdf/SleepScience_no1_09.pdf) 568. (Wrobel, The Impact of School Starting Time on Family Life (1999) 80 Phi Delta Kappan 5, 360-364, http://www.fcps.edu/fts/taskforce07/documents/impactfamilylife.pdf ; see also, Downs, On My Own Time: The Conflict Between Adolescent Sleep Needs and High School Start Times (2001) Center for Research and Evaluation, http://libraries.maine.edu/cre/38/No38.htm) 569. (Taboh, American Teenagers Dangerously Sleep Deprived: Tired teens physically, mentally, emotionally compromised (Sept. 9, 2010) VOA News, http://www.voanews.com/english/news/usa/American-Teenagers-Dangerously-Sleep-Deprived102523339.html [includes link to brief audio interviews with sleep expert, Michael Breus, Ph.D., and St. Georges School headmaster, Eric Peterson, J.D.].) 570. (School Start Time and Sleep, NSF, http://www.sleepfoundation.org/article/sleep-topics/school-start-time-and-sleep; see also, Ithaca City School District (2005) School Start Time Changes, http://www.icsd.k12.ny.us/redistricting/startend/StartTimeChanges-v3.pdf) Although the Los Angeles Times reported in August 2010 that no school districts have made the change to later start times and then switched back (Sohn, Later School Start Times and Zzzs to As (Aug. 23, 2010) L.A. Times, web p. 5, http://articles.latimes.com/2010/aug/23/health/la-he-school-time-20100823/5), that does not appear to be correct. It appears many districts advance start times as needed to address budgetary/transportation concerns, without regard to sleep. (N. 5.) As previously noted, The tail of transportation wags the dog of the educational system. (N. 541; see, n. 12; see also, Appendix, Schools Recently Advancing Start Times, etc., infra; Esack, Allentown schools may change start and end times (Jun. 10, 2011) The Morning Call, http://www.mcall.com/news/local/mc-allentown-schools-new-schedule-20110610,0,5443077.story; Shelosky, Local District Changes School Start Times (Jun. 23, 2011) wfmz.com, http://www.wfmz.com/lehighvalleynews/28341316/detail.html; Huey, Yelm schools alter start times in fall (Jun. 10, 2011) Nisqually Valley News, http://www.yelmonline.com/articles/2011/06/10/local_news/doc4df29fb30cc4d363849803.txt; Vezner, St. Paul schools shake up the class day (Jun. 3, 2011) TwinCities.com, http://teensneedsleep.files.wordpress.com/2011/03/st-paul-schools.pdf; cf. Mellon, HISD wont be tinkering with kids wake-up times (Jun. 9, 2011) Houston Chronicle, http://www.chron.com/disp/story.mpl/metropolitan/7604037.html; Mellon, HISD students might pay for budget woes with less sleep (Jun. 1, 2011) Houston Chronicle, http://www.chron.com/disp/story.mpl/chronicle/7591387.html#ixzz1P4slgr1G) Delays in start times are often, though not always, predicated upon science. (See Appendix, Schools Recently Delaying Start Times, etc., infra; see also, Cone, New school start time is OKd for BUHS (Jun. 11, 2011) Brattleboro Reformer, http://www.reformer.com/ci_18252042?source=most_viewed; Sharpe, School Start Times to Change (Jun. 9, 2011) The Pilot, http://www.thepilot.com/news/2011/jun/10/school-start-times-change/; Roth, New start times for C-FB schools (Jun. 8, 2011) Star Local News, http://www.scntx.com/articles/2011/06/08/news_update/311.txt; Van der Kleut, School Will Start 30 Minutes Later Next Year at Gunn (Jun. 7, 2011) Palo Alto Patch, http://paloalto.patch.com/articles/gunn-high-school-announces-school-will-start-30minutes-later-next-year) Moreover, at least two school districts have delayed start times, then changed back in relatively short order. In Orange County, Florida, the start time change was undertaken to save money on transportation costs (wpbf.com (2009) Parents: Change Back School Start Times, http://www.wpbf.com/education/17996116/detail.html), but was rescinded within the first semester of implementation. (Washington, School Board Votes To Reverse Start Times (Dec. 9, 2008) WESH.COM, http://www.wesh.com/r/18233580/detail.html) The plan appears to have been fundamentally flawed at least insofar as it left middle school students beginning classes at 7:30 a.m. (WESH.COM (Jul. 30, 2008) Orange Co. Schools OK Start Time Change, http://www.wesh.com/education/17035396/detail.html), despite evidence showing negative outcomes associated with early start times for this population. (Ns. 22, 23, 30; cf., ns. 13, 44.) Parents complained middle schoolers waited for buses in darkness and high school students (whose morning classes were delayed until 9:30 a.m.) were getting out of school too late in the day (4:30 p.m.). (Cichanowski, School Start Times Flip and Flop (Jul. 30, 2009) Insight Mag., http://insighteastorlando.com/index.php/rollingfeatured/school-start-times-flip-and62

) In a 4-3 vote, a newly constituted school board restored high school start times to 7:20 a.m. and middle schools to 9:30 a.m. (Washington, School Board Votes To Reverse Start Times (Dec. 9, 2008) WESH.COM, http://www.wesh.com/r/18233580/detail.html) As previously noted, CAREI Director Kyla Wahlstrom cautions, Incorrect assumptions, the use of only partial facts, and hasty implementation are frequent reasons that cause the defeat or demise of a local decision to change the start time. (N. 549.) There is no indication pertinent student health/performance factors (e.g., amount of sleep gained or lost, academic performance, automobile crash rates, graduation rates, student mood, fatigue, depression, etc.) were assessed in Orange County. (Cf., Wells, School-schedule flip has paid off (Dec. 9, 2008) Orlando Sentinel, http://articles.orlandosentinel.com/2008-12-09/news/myword09wells_1_school-students-fifth-grade-middle-schooler) In Pike County, Kentucky, start times were adjusted from 8 a.m. to 8:30 a.m., then back again after finding no change in student attendance over a 3-year period. The start time shift was not 7 a.m. to 8:30 a.m. as reported by Mr. Diconsiglio. (Diconsiglio, Let me sleep! (Feb. 11, 2002) N.Y. Times Upfront, http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m0BUE/is_9_134/ai_n18613276/) In early 2011, Bill Dotson, Director of Pupil Personnel for Pike County, Kentucky (Pike County Schools, http://www.pike.k12.ky.us/), was contacted by Dennis Nolan. Mr. Dotson indicated Pike County has never had a start time earlier than 7:55 a.m. and that the district rigorously enforces attendance requirements through the courts. As in Orange County, Florida, no other factors (e.g., quantity of sleep gained or lost, academic performance, automobile accidents, student mood, affect, etc.) were assessed. The Pike County attendance results appear to be anomalous. In Fayette County, Kentucky, for example, school tardiness went down and attendance went up when start times were pushed back by one hour to 8:30 a.m. (N. 47; see, n. 2, p. 89.) In nearby Jessamine County, Kentucky, school start times were delayed 50 minutes to 8:40 a.m. for high schools. School District Supervisor, Lu Young, says the change has had a big impact. We found that our students were more on time and in better attendance first period than they had been in the past. (N. 48.) As noted previously, students attending an early starting New England middle school (7:15 a.m.) were nearly four times as likely to be tardy as students attending a later (8:37 a.m.) starting school (n. 30), and when morning classes were delayed by 30 minutes to 8:30 a.m., tardy/absence rates declined by 45% in Middletown, Rhode Island. (N. 41.) In addition, Nathan Hale High School in the Seattle School District increased attendance, increased achievement and created a better learning environment by pushing back start times to 8:30 a.m. (Amodei, Powering up your teens brain, supra, ParentMap, http://www.parentmap.com/article/poweringup-your-teens-brain)
flop

571. (Bronson, Snooze or Lose (Oct. 7, 2007) New York Mag., web p. 3, http:nymag.com/news/features/38951/index2.html) A. The Students Perspective 590. (Souronis, Teens vs. Sleep (Nov. 30, 2011) The Howl Online,
http://my.hsj.org/Schools/Newspaper/tabid/100/view/frontpage/articleid/477965/newspaperid/2075/Teens_VS_Sleep.aspx

; Ogram & Furgeson, [the

Teenagers Do Not Get Enough Sleep (Oct. 13, 2011) my.hsj.org,

http://my.hsj.org/Schools/Newspaper/tabid/100/view/frontpage/schoolid/4508/articleid/461359/newspaperid/4789/Teenagers_Do_Not_Get_Enough_Sleep.aspx

link to this article appears to have expired].) 591. (Dick, To sleep or not to sleep (Oct. 7, 2011) Panther Pride,
http://my.hsj.org/Schools/Newspaper/tabid/100/view/frontpage/articleid/459308/newspaperid/605/To_sleep_or_not_to_sleep.aspx

; Snow, Its Still Dark )

Out, Time for School! (Nov. 29, 2011) The Pentucket Profile,
http://my.hsj.org/Schools/Newspaper/tabid/100/view/frontpage/articleid/477156/newspaperid/4363/Its_Still_Dark_Out_Time_for_School.aspx

592. (Abkin, Solution: Start School Later (Nov. 26, 2011) Edhat: Teen Voice, http://www.edhat.com/site/tidbit.cfm?nid=75162) 593. (Dietz, Teens sleep needs dictate later school start time (Dec. 3, 2011) Daily Hampshire Gazette, http://www.gazettenet.com/print/346757?SESS807a85586d8a3e1d6a3e4c26c4428f6e=gnews)

63

594. (Mohr, Whats Your Issue? Need More Sleep! (Apr. 13, 2010) SchoolTube.com, http://www.schooltube.com/video/5cc94c9192ef79d46f68/Whats-Your-Issue-Need-More-Sleep) 595. (Shultz, TEMECULA: High school students seek later start (Oct. 31, 2011) The Californian, http://www.nctimes.com/news/local/temecula/article_a3927676-6700-54b8-a24a-57ca6e48ad62.html) 596. (Mantikas, Reasons behind students drowsiness (Oct. 27, 2011) The Charles Street Times, ; see also, Martinez, Cole & Avitia, Students Prefer Late Start Tuesdays (Oct. 17, 2011) Monthly Mortonian, http://my.hsj.org/Schools/Newspaper/tabid/100/view/frontpage/articleid/462409/newspaperid/4166/Students_Prefer_Late_Start_Tuesdays.aspx)
http://my.hsj.org/Schools/Newspaper/tabid/100/view/frontpage/articleid/466720/newspaperid/786/Reasons_behind_students_drowsiness.aspx

597. (von Thaden, Start Time Change (Nov. 2, 2011) Nauset Horizons,
http://my.hsj.org/Schools/Newspaper/tabid/100/view/frontpage/articleid/468794/newspaperid/3411/Start_Time_Change.aspx

598. (Sanchez, Late-Start (Nov. 16, 2011) The Express,

http://my.hsj.org/Schools/Newspaper/tabid/100/view/frontpage/articleid/473821/newspaperid/4027/LateStart.aspx

599. (Start School Later in the Morning, Say Sleepy Teens (May 20, 2007) Am. Thoracic Soc., http://wwwarchive.thoracic.org/sections/publications/press-releases/conference/articles/2007/press-releases/start-school-later-in-the-morning,-say-sleepy-teens.html) 600. (Delayed School Start Time Associated with Improvements in Adolescent Behaviors (Jul. 5, 2010) JAMA Press Rel., http://pubs.ama-assn.org/media/2010a/0705.dtl#1) 601. (Gardner, Later Start Times May Foster Better Students (Jul. 6, 2010) Bloomberg Business Week, http://www.businessweek.com/lifestyle/content/healthday/640822.html) B. The National Institutes of Health on Problem Sleepiness 620. (Wolfson, Adolescents and Emerging Adults Sleep Patterns: New Developments (Feb. 2010) 46 J. Adolesc. Health 2, 97-99, http://www.jahonline.org/article/PIIS1054139X0900634X/fulltext [children and adolescents sleep increasingly later until the age of approximately 20, when there is an abrupt shift in sleep schedules and mid-point times became increasingly earlier again], citation omitted.) C. Sleep Scientists on the Timing of Education Start Time Recommendations, etc. 630. (Deitz, Childrens Sleep: Time For A Wake-Up Call (Dec. 11, 2011) Huffpost: Healthy Living, http://www.huffingtonpost.com/jeff-deitz-md/children-sleep_b_1132517.html) 631. (Arja, Classes too early for teens? (Jul. 18, 2011) My Fox Tampa Bay, http://www.myfoxtampabay.com/dpp/news/local/hillsborough/classes-too-early-for-teens-07182011) 632. (Lim, Maas Pushes for Later Start Time at Schools (Feb. 26, 2009) The Cornell Daily Sun.) 633. (Critchley, Sleepy teens want later start (May 4, 2007) Herald Sun, http://www.heraldsun.com.au/news/victoria/sleepy-teenswant-later-start/story-e6frf7kx-1111113464985) D. Medical Intervention: Minnesota, Connecticut, Rhode Island

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645. (Emsellem & Whiteley, supra, Snooze... or Lose!: 10 No-War Ways to Improve Your Teens Sleep Habits, p. 213, http://books.nap.edu/openbook.php?record_id=11633&page=213) Edina & Minneapolis, Minnesota 650. (NSF (2000) Adolescent Sleep Needs and Patterns, http://www.slrsd.org/slrhs/information/pdf/sleep_and_teens_report.pdf) Wilton, Connecticut Middletown, Rhode Island 660. (Freyer, Study at R.I. boarding school finds more sleep for teens equals better performance (Jul. 7, 2010) Providence J., http://teensneedsleep.files.wordpress.com/2011/04/the-providence-journal-owens-study.pdf) E. Will Students Squander the Opportunity for Extra Sleep? 665. (Sklarew, Getting As with More Zs: The fight for later school starts has backing from doctors and statistics (Nov. 2011) Northern Virginia Mag., http://www.northernvirginiamag.com/family/family-features/2011/11/23/getting-as-with-more-zs/) Closing Observations 670. (Lamberg, Teens arent lying -- they really need to sleep later (Dec. 5, 1994) Am. Med. News, p. 24, http://teensneedsleep.files.wordpress.com/2011/06/teens-arent-lying-they-really-need-to-sleep-later-p-1.pdf, id., p. 25, http://teensneedsleep.files.wordpress.com/2011/03/lamberg-amnews94bteens.pdf) 671. (Large, Shedding light on the teen brain (Jun. 8, 2009) The Seattle Times, http://seattletimes.nwsource.com/html/jerrylarge/2009312466_jdl08.html)

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Appendix Sample Advocacy Letter -- available here (docx format)

Books cited in the main text (for which pinpoint hyperlinks may not be available): Adolescent Sleep Patterns, Biological, Social, and Psychological Influences (Carskadon, edit., Cambridge Univ. Press 2002) Attention Deficit Disorder: Practical Coping Mechanisms (Informa Healthcare, Fisher, edit., 2nd ed. 2007) Mindell & Owens, Clinical Guide to Pediatric Sleep: Diagnosis and Management of Sleep Problems (Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, 2nd ed. 2010) Guidelines for Adolescent Nutrition Services (Stang & Story, edits., Univ. Minn. 2005) Wise, Hopkin, & Garland, Handbook of Aviation Human Factors (CRC Press 2nd ed. 2009) Coch, Fischer, & Dawson, Human Behavior, Learning, and the Developing Brain: Typical Development (Informa Healthcare 2010) Sleep: A Comprehensive Handbook (Lee-Chiong, edit., Wiley-Liss 2006) Sleep and Development (Oxford Univ. Press., El Sheikh edit. 2011) Sleep and Psychiatric Disorders in Children and Adolescents (Informa Healthcare 2008, Ivanenko edit.)** Sleep in Children: Developmental Changes in Sleep Patterns (Marcus, Carroll, & Donnelly edits., Informa Healthcare, 2nd ed. 2008) Abaci, Take Charge of Your Chronic Pain: The Latest Research, Cutting-Edge Tools (Globe Pequot Press 2010) The Educated Brain: Essays in Neuroeducation (Battro, Fischer, & Lna, edit., Cambridge Univ. Press 2008)

**

Links to two of this books chapters are available via notes 107 & 560. The chapter authored by OMalley and OMalley is available at note 2. 66

Start Time Recommendations, etc. High school should start at 8:45 a.m., or better at 9 oclock.---Jeffrey Deitz, M.D. (Deitz, Childrens Sleep: Time For A Wake-Up Call (Dec. 11, 2011) Huffpost: Healthy Living.) Brookings Institute economists conservatively estimate that moving middle and high school start times back by 60 minutes, from roughly 8 a.m. to 9 a.m.[,] will increase academic achievement by 0.175 standard deviations, with a corresponding increase in student future earnings of approximately $17,500 annually, at little or no cost to schools; i.e., a 9 to 1 benefits to costs ratio. (Jacob & Rockoff, Organizing Schools to Improve Student Achievement: Start Times, Grade Configurations, and Teacher Assignments (Sept. 2011) The Hamilton Project, Brookings Inst., pp. 5-11, 21, n. 7.) The study strongly recommends that middle schools should consider delaying the school starting time by at least one hour. Such a change could enhance students cognitive performance by improving their attention level, increasing rate of performance, as well as reducing their mistakes and impulsivity.--Dubi Lufi, Ph.D., Emek Yezreel College, Emek Yezreel, Israel, Orna Tzischinsky, Ph.D., Emek Yezreel College, Emek Yezreel, Israel, Sleep Laboratory, Faculty of Medicine, Technion-Israel Institute of Technology, Haifa, Israel, Stav Hadar, M.A., Emek Yezreel College, Emek Yezreel, Israel. (Lufi, Tzischinsky, & Hadar, Delaying School Starting Time by One Hour: Some Effects on Attention Levels in Adolescents (Apr. 2011) 7 J. Clin. Sleep Med. 2, p. 137, italics added [study shifted start times from 7:30 a.m. to 8:30 a.m.].) Martin Ralph, Ph.D., Professor of Psychology at the University of Toronto, recommends that high school classes begin at 11 a.m. (Kruszelnicki, Teenage Sleep (May 3, 2007) ABC Science), perhaps based on a Harvard study showing the teen brain doesnt fully awaken until 11 a.m. (Lim, Maas Pushes for Later Start Time at Schools (Feb. 26, 2009) The Cornell Daily Sun.) A long-term solution to chronic sleep deprivation in adolescents that others conducting research on adolescent sleep behaviors support may mean that high school start times should be no earlier than 8:30 A.M. The change in high school start times will need to occur at the state level so that school sports and social events can be coordinated among schools.---Heather Noland, M.Ed., James Price, Ph.D., M.P.H., Professor, Department of Health and Rehabilitative Services, University of Toledo, Joseph Dake, Associate Professor, Department of Health and Rehabilitative Services, University of Toledo, & Susan Telljohann, Professor, Department of Health and Rehabilitative Services, University of Toledo. (Noland, Price, Dake, & Telljohann, Adolescents Sleep Behaviors and Perceptions of Sleep (2009) 79 J. School Health 5, p. 230, fns. omitted.) The often serious impact of this chronic under-sleeping is now evident in both high school and middle school students. [] For all students one of the most salientand correctablesocial factors contributing to student sleep deprivation, is school start times. [] In brief, there are two features of the circadian rhythm especially important to understand regarding sleep in teenagers: (1) the drowsy signal that cues bedtime is dependent on the dampening of circadian-dependent alertness; and (2) the physiology of puberty causes a shift in the circadian rhythm which delays the timing of this biological bedtime by about an hour. These two biological factors underlie the main difficulties faced by adolescents attending school before 9:00 a.m.: the general problem that one cannot easily fall asleep before their biological bedtime, and the additional problem that puberty creates a tendency for even later bedtimes. [] Though research has not yet identified an ideal school schedule, the wealth of evidence reviewed in this chapter and elsewhere strongly suggests that students have a better opportunity to be rested and ready to learn by delaying school start time to 8:30 a.m. or later.---Edward OMalley, Ph.D., Mary OMalley, M.D., Ph.D., Director of the Developing Fellowship Program, Norwalk Hospital. (OMalley & OMalley, School Start Time and Its Impact on Learning and Behavior, publish. in, Sleep and Psychiatric Disorders in Children and Adolescents (Ivanenko edit., Informa Healthcare 2008) pp. 79, 83-84, 89.) 67

Right now, high schools usually start earlier in the morning than elementary schools. But if school start times were based on sleep cycles, elementary schools should start at 7:30 and high schools at 8:30 or 8:45right now its the reverse. School systems should be thinking about changing their start times. It would not be easythey would have to change the busing systembut it would increase their students sleep time and likely improve their school performance.---Richard Schwab, M.D., Associate Professor of Pulmonary Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Co-Director, Penn Sleep Center. (Start School Later in the Morning, Say Sleepy Teens (May 20, 2007) Am. Thoracic Soc.; cf. Epstein, Chillag, & Lavie, Starting times of school: effects on daytime functioning of fifth-grade children in Israel (May 1998) 21 Sleep 3, 250-256; see also, Scott, The Squeeze on Zs, Part 2: Teens Struggle with Sleep Time (Feb. 6, 2012) Maryland Heights Patch [It really makes sense for elementary school students to go to school first.---John Spivey, M.D., board certified specialist, pediatric sleep medicine, pediatric pulmonology].) Overall, many adolescents confront a major challenge if schools begin earlier than 8:30 a.m.; many schools start too early in the morning for adolescents to get adequate sleep, whether in the United States or in other countries such as Canada, Israel, Brazil, or Italy (Andrade & Menna-Barreto, 2002; Carskadon & Acebo, 1997; Epstein et al., 1998; Giannotti & Cortesi, 2002). [] [S]chool administrators are being urged to acknowledge the evidence and to adjust school schedules accordingly (e.g., delay high school start times).---Amy Wolfson, Ph.D., Professor of Psychology, College of the Holy Cross, Mary Carskadon, Ph.D., Professor of Psychiatry, Brown University School of Medicine, Director of Chronobiology and Sleep Research, Bradley Hospital. (Wolfson & Carskadon, A Survey of Factors Influencing High School Start Times (Mar. 2005) 89 NASSP Bulletin 642, pp. 49, 50.) Schools with start times before 8:30 a.m. place students at a disadvantage in terms of arousal and alertness, not only for early morning classes but also throughout the day because adolescents biological rhythms are out of sync with typical school routines.---Peg Dawson, Ed.D., N.C.S.P., Staff Psychologist, Center for Learning and Attention Disorders, Seacoast Mental Health Center, past president of the New Hampshire Association of School Psychologists, the National Association of School Psychologists, and the International School Psychology Association. (Dawson, Sleep and Adolescents (Jan. 2005) Counseling 101, p. 12; see also, Sleep and Sleep Disorders in Children and Adolescents: Information for Parents and Educators (2004) National Association of School Psychologist Resources.) Citing research to support their position, the California Student Advisory Board on Legislation in Education recommended delaying start times throughout the state to 8:40 a.m. The student board noted the detrimental effects of early start times on attendance, academic performance, and behavior. The boards fiscal analysis predicted that delaying start times would increase attendance resulting in more ADA money for schools and test scores will rise. Higher test scores (API) will insure greater levels of federal funding. The students concluded, even with the implementation of state-sponsored pilot programs, the costs will be far outweighed by the benefits of the program. (Cal. Assn. Student Councils (2004) Cal. Student Advisory Bd. Leg. Ed., School Starting Time, pp. 10-11.) Although providing a home environment to promote healthy sleep is the first step to eliminating sleep deprivation in adolescents, increased public awareness of the impact of sleep on learning and behavior is important. For this to occur legislation to ensure that high school start times not begin before 9:00 a.m. may help in reducing sleep deprivation leading to improved academic performance and behavior[.]--Georgios Mitru, M.Ed., Daniel Millrood, M.Ed., M.S.P.T., New York Medical College faculty, Jason H. Mateika, Ph.D., Professor of Physiology, Wayne State University. (Mitru, Millrood, & Mateika, The Impact of Sleep on Learning and Behavior in Adolescents (Jun. 2002) 104 Teachers College Record 4, p. 721.)

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Less Specific Recommendations Sleep medicine and pulmonary specialist Dr. Robert Geck suggests high schools begin classes between 9 a.m. and 10 a.m. (Arja, Classes too early for teens? (Jul. 18, 2011) My Fox Tampa Bay.) The single most profound difference we could make [i]n education would be to let teens sleep on natures schedule (midnight to 9 a.m. or later).---JoAnn Deak, Ph.D., Educator and Psychologist. (Large, Shedding light on the teen brain (Jun. 8, 2009) The Seattle Times.) Russell Foster, Ph.D., F.R.S., Chair of Circadian Neuroscience at Oxford University, says teenagers are biologically wired to stay up late and wake late, making a 9 a.m. start too early. (Critchley, Sleepy teens want later start (May 4, 2007) Herald Sun.) Professor Foster suggests classes not begin until the afternoon because teens body clocks can be delayed between two and four hours. (Making teens start school in the morning is cruel, brain doctor claims (Dec. 1, 2007) London Evening Standard.) Implicit Recommendations In January 2012, Brown University Professor of Medicine Richard Millman encouraged a one hour delay in morning classes at Barrington High School. (Rupp, Barrington Studies Later School Start Time For Teens (Jan. 27, 2012) East Greenwich Patch.) The present start time is 7:40 a.m. (Rupp, Moving School Start Time Gets Push (Oct. 21, 2011) Barrington Patch; the district will post a video of Professor Millmans presentation here.) In 2009, Dr. Judith Owens presented the biological evidence that supported a later start to St. Georges School staff, resulting in a start time delay from 8 a.m. to 8:30 a.m. (Comer, Owens 80 advocates later start for more sleep (Sept. 27, 2010.) The Brown Daily Herald.) Owens characterized the outcomes as striking and broad in scope, but still far short of ideal[.] (Owens, Belon, & Moss, Impact of Delaying School Start Time on Adolescent Sleep, Mood, and Behavior (Jul. 2010) Arch. Pediatr. Adolesc. 164 Med. 7, p. 613.) Of all the arguments Ive heard over school start-times, not one person has argued that children learn more at 7:15 a.m. than at 8:30.---Mark Mahowald, M.D., University of Minnesota, Neurology Department, Professor and Chair, Hennepin County Medical Center, Director, Minnesota Regional Sleep Disorders Center. (Bronson, Snooze or Lose (Oct. 7, 2007) New York Mag., web p. 3.) In 2008, following a presentation by Cornell University Professor of Psychology James Maas concerning the conflict between academic clocks and teenagers body clocks, Deerfield Academy delayed start times from 7:55 a.m. to 8:30 a.m. (Lim, Maas Pushes for Later Start Time at Schools, supra, The Cornell Daily Sun.) There is a tide in the affairs of men, Which, taken at the flood, leads on to fortune; Omitted, all the voyage of their life Is bound in the shallows and in miseries. On such a full sea are we now afloat; And we must take the current when it serves, Or lose our ventures.---William Shakespeare, Julius Caesar (1599) Act IV, Scene III [Marcus Brutus to Cassius; interpretation: timing is everything].

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Middle School Studies, etc.: The present study adds to the eld by demonstrating that middle school students are also at an advantage when school start times are delayed. [] In addition to the sleep deficit, school records indicated that students at the earlier starting school were tardy four times more frequently, and eighth graders at the earlier starting school obtained significantly worse average grades than the eighth graders at the comparison, later starting school. [] Students at later starting middle and high schools obtain more sleep due to later wake times and, in turn, function more effectively in school. (Wolfson, Spaulding, Dandrow, & Baroni, Middle School Start Times: The Importance of a Good Nights Sleep for Young Adolescents (Aug. 15, 2007) 5 Behav. Sleep Med. 3, pp. 204, 205; see also, Wolfson, Adolescent Sleep Update: Narrowing the Gap between Research and Practice (Mar./Apr. 2007) Sleep Review: The Journal for Sleep Specialists.) The biological preference for later sleep/wake patterns commences with puberty (OMalley & OMalley, School Start Time and Its Impact on Learning and Behavior, publish. in, Sleep and Psychiatric Disorders in Children and Adolescents (Ivanenko edit., Informa Healthcare 2008) pp. 79-81, 83-84), although a recent longitudinal study demonstrated that adolescent changes in sleep (delayed sleep phase and disrupted sleep) are evident prior to the bodily changes associated with puberty. (Wolfson & Richards, Young Adolescents: Struggles with Insufficient Sleep, publish. in, Sleep and Development (Oxford Univ. Press., El Sheikh edit. 2011) p. 268, citing, Sadeh, Dahl, Shahar, & Rosenblat-Stein, Sleep and the Transition to Adolescence: A Longitudinal Study (2009) 32 Sleep 12, pp. 1602-1609.) Middle school populations may be substantially composed of post-pubescent children. The normal age range of pubertal onset (Tanner stage 2) is between 8 and 13 years in girls and between 9 years 6 months and 13 years, 6 months in boys. (Carel & Lger, Precocious Puberty (2008) 358 N. Engl. J. Med. 22, p. 2366; see also, Stang & Story, Adolescent Growth and Development, publish. in, Guidelines for Adolescent Nutrition Services (Stang & Story, edits., Univ. Minn. 2005) p. 1.) Since at least 2004, sleep scientists have specifically identified middle school students as benefiting from later school schedules. Where possible, efforts should be made to encourage lighter homework loads and later school start times, so that adolescents can go to bed and wake up at times that are more suited to their bodily rhythms. (Fredriksen, Rhodes, Reddy, & Way, Sleepless in Chicago: Tracking the Effects of Adolescent Sleep Loss During the Middle School Years (Jan./Feb. 2004) 75 Child Dev. 1, p. 94.) The often serious impact of this chronic under-sleeping is now evident in both high school and middle school students. [] For all students one of the most salientand correctablesocial factors contributing to student sleep deprivation, is school start times. [] In brief, there are two features of the circadian rhythm especially important to understand regarding sleep in teenagers: (1) the drowsy signal that cues bedtime is dependent on the dampening of circadian-dependent alertness; and (2) the physiology of puberty causes a shift in the circadian rhythm which delays the timing of this biological bedtime by about an hour. These two biological factors underlie the main difficulties faced by adolescents attending school before 9:00 a.m.: the general problem that one cannot easily fall asleep before their biological bedtime, and the additional problem that puberty creates a tendency for even later bedtimes. [] Though research has not yet identified an ideal school schedule, the wealth of evidence reviewed in this chapter and elsewhere strongly suggests that students have a better opportunity to be rested and ready to learn by delaying school start time to 8:30 a.m. or later. (OMalley & OMalley, School Start Time and Its Impact on Learning and Behavior, publish. in, Sleep and Psychiatric Disorders in Children and Adolescents, supra, pp. 79, 83-84, 89.) Finley Edwardss 10-year study of North Carolina middle school children found delaying start times by one hour (from 7:30 a.m.) lead to a 3 percentile point gain in standardized math and reading test scores for the average middle school student. (Edwards, Working Paper, Early to Rise: The Effect of Daily Start Times on Academic Performance (Mar. 9, 2011) University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, p. 70

20.) Edwards also found later start times associated with decreased absences, less time spent watching television and a greater amount of time spent on homework, indicating that these factors may help explain why later starting students have higher test scores. (Id., pp. 1, 18-19.) A study of Israeli middle school children published in April 2011 strongly recommends that middle schools should consider delaying the school starting time by at least one hour. Such a change could enhance students cognitive performance by improving their attention level, increasing rate of performance, as well as reducing their mistakes and impulsivity. The study delayed start times to 8:30 a.m. (Lufi, Tzischinsky, & Hadar, Delaying School Starting Time by One Hour: Some Effects on Attention Levels in Adolescents (Apr. 2011) 7 J. Clin. Sleep Med. 2, pp. 137-143.) Brookings Institute economists conservatively estimate that moving middle and high school start times back by 60 minutes, from roughly 8 a.m. to 9 a.m.[,] will increase academic achievement by 0.175 standard deviations, with a corresponding increase in student future earnings of approximately $17,500 annually, at little or no cost to schools; i.e., a 9 to 1 benefits to costs ratio. (Jacob & Rockoff, Organizing Schools to Improve Student Achievement: Start Times, Grade Configurations, and Teacher Assignments (Sept. 2011) The Hamilton Project, Brookings Inst., pp. 5-11, 21, n. 7.) For policy makers, teachers and parents, these results provide a clear mandate. The effects of sleep deprivation on grades, car accident risk, and mood are indisputable. A number of school districts have moved middle and high school start times later with the goal of decreasing teenage sleep deprivation. We support this approach, as results indicate that later school start times lead to decreased truancy and dropout rates. (Hagenauer, Perryman, Lee, & Carskadon, Adolescent Changes in the Homeostatic and Circadian Regulation of Sleep (2009) 31 Dev. Neurosci. 4, p. 282.)

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Schools Recently Delaying Start Times, etc. Delaying school start times is a demonstrated strategy to promote sufficient sleep among adolescents. -- Danice K. Eaton, Ph.D., Division of Adolescent and School Health, National Center for Chronic Disease Prevention and Health Promotion, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), Lela R. McKnightEily, Ph.D., Division of Adult and Community Health, CDC, Richard Lowry, M.D., Adolescent and School Health, CDC, Geraldine S. Perry, Dr.P.H., Division of Adult and Community Health, CDC, Letitia Presley-Cantrell, Ph.D., Division of Adult and Community Health, CDC, and, Janet B. Croft, Ph.D., Division of Adult and Community Health, CDC. (Eaton, McKnight-Eily, Lowry, Croft, Presley-Cantrell, & Perry, Prevalence of Insufficient, Borderline, and Optimal Hours of Sleep Among High School Students United States, 2007 (2010) J. Adolesc. Health, p. 3.) Alaska -- The Kenai Peninsula Borough School District is considering transitioning from one- to twotiered busing in order to address a $750,000 budget shortfall. The proposed schedule would delay start times for Chapman (K-8), from 8:40 a.m. to 9 a.m., while advancing, into the 7 oclock hour, secondary school schedules and all other middle school schedules. Elementary schools other than Ninilchik (K-12) would delay start times. (Paul Banks (PS-2), from 8:30 a.m. to 8:45 a.m.; West Homer (3-6), from 8:25 a.m. to 8:55 a.m.; McNeil Canyon (K-6), from 7:50 a.m. to 9 a.m.) (Jackinsky, Area school times may change to reduce transportation costs (Feb. 22, 2012) HomerNews.com.) Arkansas -- The Pulaski County Special School District is considering a plan to flip elementary school start times with middle and high school start times. The plan would save the district money in transportation expenses and recognize research which shows that perhaps allowing high school students more sleep in the morning helps them perform better in the classroom. The 2011-2012 bell schedule reflects that middle and high school classes now begin as early as 7:30 a.m. The 2012-2013 plan would have the Learning Academy (high school) and Robinson Middle School beginning at 8:10 a.m., all other middle and high schools would start between 8:20 a.m. and 8:35 a.m. (Adkins Pre-K would retain its 7:20 a.m. start time and elementary schools would start between 7:45 a.m. and 8:30 a.m.) The board of education was dismissed after the district went into fiscal distress. Arkansas Department of Education Commissioner Tom Kimbrell, Ed.D., now acts in place of the board. (Johnson, PCCSD proposes changes to start times for next year (Jan. 11, 2012) Todays THV.) Australia -- Russell Foster, Ph.D., F.R.S., Chair of Circadian Neuroscience at Oxford University, says teenagers are biologically wired to stay up late and wake late, making a 9 a.m. start too early. Two Victorian schools have put their starting times back and are happy with the results. Berengarra School in Glen Waverley operates from 9:45 a.m.-3 p.m. with shortened breaks and the Victorian P-12 College of Koorie Education in Mildura operates from 10 a.m.-3:40 p.m. Both school principals say sleep was a factor, and the change has helped alertness. A local psychologist, Michael Carr-Gregg, notes performance and enjoyment would improve if school better fit teenagers body rhythm. Eighty per cent of year 10 students are not getting enough sleep. The single most important study tool going around is a good nights sleep. (Critchley, Sleepy teens want later start (May 4, 2007) Herald Sun.) California - Rio Americano High School teachers voted against a proposal (57% to 43%) to delay start times from 7:50 a.m. (zero period begins at 6:50 a.m.) to 8:20 a.m. The schools (now expired) Later Start Times Information page noted the teachers assent was needed by contract to any change of five minutes or more[.] A straw poll taken in December 2011 found over 60% of faculty favored the change. Parent group STEPS (Support to Engage Parents and Students) had pressed for later start times since February 2011. In the weeks following the straw poll, teachers opposed to the change attacked the research proffered by STEPS. Computer Sciences teacher Tom Sullivan focused on another problem, stating, I have to commute a lot to get here, and Id just be sitting in traffic longer. Physical Education teacher Brian Davis, on the other hand, commented, Whatever is best for the kids. Physics teacher Dean Baird, who compiles the schools Later School Start Time Resource Page, notes the status quo is [m]uch more 72

powerful than academic and medical research. (Baird, What time should high school start? (Jan. 29, 2012) The Blog of Phyz.) Math instructor Darren questions why only teachers got a vote on this, and not our administrative, clerical, custodial, or food service staffs. (Darren, The Furor Over Start Time (Jan. 29, 2012) Right on the Left Coast: Views From a Conservative Teacher.) A survey found overwhelming opposition among parents. Students also generally favored retaining the 7:50 a.m. start time. (Hartman, Proposal to Change School Start Time (Jan. 27, 2012) The Mirada.) This outcome appears consistent with literature noting teachers often oppose later start times due to concerns they may have to commute during peak traffic (Bronson & Merryman, Nurture Shock: New Thinking About Children (Twelve Books 2009) p. 37), or may have less time with their families. (National Sleep Foundation, Eight Major Obstacles to Changing School Start Times; In addition, vehement opposition from parents prior to the change (see, Carrell, Maghakian, & West, As from Zzzzs? The Causal Effect of School Start Time on the Academic Performance of Adolescents (Aug. 2011) 3 AEJ: Economic Policy 3, p. 62), has been followed by overwhelming approval after implementation. (See, Later Start Times for High School Students (Jun. 2002) University of Minn. [92% parental approval after more than 50,000 children changed start times in Minneapolis and Edina].) Similarly, students often oppose later start times prior to making the change, but approve the later start following implementation (discussed here). Middle schools in the San Juan Unified School District begin as early as 7:23 a.m.; other high schools as early as 7:45 a.m., zero period, 6:50 a.m. Notably, the Rio Americano Later School Start Time Resource Page lists Delayed Sleep Phase Syndrome (DSPS) as a con with respect to delaying start times. In fact, DSPS is a circadian rhythm disorder quite apart from the phase shift typically experienced by adolescents at pubertys onset. (Crowley, Acebo, & Carskadon, Sleep, circadian rhythms, and delayed phase in adolescence (2007) 8 Sleep Med., pp. 607-609.) DSPS affects an estimated 7% of the adolescent population. (Dawson, Sleep and Adolescents (Jan. 2005) Counseling 101, p. 12.) Moreover, it would be more accurate characterize any difficulties in delaying start times as obstacles, rather than cons. (See, National Sleep Foundation (2011) Eight Major Obstacles to Changing School Start Times; Kirby, Maggi, & DAngiulli, School Start Times and the Sleep-Wake Cycle of Adolescents: A Review and Critical Evaluation of Available Evidence (Mar. 2011) 40 Educational Res. 2, pp. 56-61.) Rancho Santa Fe School District Trustee Todd Frank would like to explore the possibility of pushing the current Tuesday through Friday 8 a.m. start time back to 9:15 a.m., the current Monday start time, five days a week for all kindergarten through 8th grade students. Frank stated that his own children had to rise at 5:45 a.m. to make their morning extracurricular activities and they are tired, but on Mondays they feel much better. Frank indicated parents had approached him asking about later start times. Superintendent Linda Delaney responded, Weve tried things. The current schedule works the best, our kids do a lot. The board decided to table the issue until another meeting and determine whether they should do a parent survey about this and other issues. On February 2, 2012, the board decided to leave the schedule without undertaking the survey. The superintendent reported that Mr. Frank agreed start times should remain as they are. Mr. Frank, however, abstained from the vote confirming the schedule. (McCormac, Board decides school start times will remain (Feb. 6, 2012) The Coast News; McCormac, School board to examine start times (Jan. 23, 2012) The Coast News; Billing, Trustee proposes later start time for Rancho Santa Fe School (Dec. 16, 2011) Ranch Santa Fe Rev.) Students attending Early College High School in Costa Mesa have the opportunity to earn an A.A. degree from Coastline Community College along with their high school diploma. Most students earn the degree in the optional fifth year, the remainder go on to four-year colleges. Classes begin at 9:15 a.m. MondayThursday, 10 a.m. on Fridays. The schedule is based on research that suggests too many teens come to school sleepy. Students must apply for admission and there are no sports teams. The Orange County Register ranks Early College High School number five academically in Orange County. Similarly structured Middle College High School in Santa Ana is ranked number two. (Martindale, Early College High keeps kids college-focused (Dec. 15, 2011) OC Register.)

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Temecula Valley High School students have formed a Sleep Club. The clubs purpose is to advocate for later start times at all Temecula Valley Unified School District high schools. Temecula Valley Unified high school students presently begin classes at 7:30 a.m. four day a week and 8:30 a.m. one day. The Sleep Club plans to present its proposal for a daily 8:30 a.m. start time to the school board by the spring. Teachers and students say its a common occurrence for students to nod off in class. One [additional] hour of sleep does so much for the body, said club President Jason Luque. It doesnt just affect school, it affects our entire attitude. You see students every day looking to see when they can take a nap. We want to change that where theres no more sleepy period. Faculty advisor Cara Ramsay notes, A lot of kids came initially because they thought they could nap in here, which in and of itself says something. The number one obstacle [to implementing later start times] is the logistics of getting kids to school. In a time when were worried about kids in California not having the necessary skills to compete, we make it harder on them. Why? Because we cant change bus schedules? Its counterproductive to what were doing in education. Club secretary Maile Schoonover, a senior, recognizes that any change in the school schedule will take place after she graduates. My brother is a junior, she said. Id like to leave school knowing hell be able to score higher on tests and be more prepared for college. (Shultz, TEMECULA: High school students seek later start (Oct. 31, 2011) The Californian; see also, Surowski, Students Push for More Sleep (Dec. 20, 2011) Temecula Patch; Kabany, Sleepy teens need relief (Nov. 6, 2011) North County Times.) In order to improve academic performance and promote additional sleep among students, Polytechnic School will push back start times for morning classes from 7:50 a.m. to 8:50 a.m. (School for Sleepyheads, ArkLaTex.com; Starting School Later for Better Academic Performance (Aug. 29, 2011) Fox 47 News.) Relying upon literature evidencing the scientific basis for delayed sleep patterns among adolescents, Campbell Hall secondary school administrators pushed back morning classes to 8:50 a.m. four days per week, and 9:30 a.m. one day. (Campbell Hall (Jul. 15, 2011) Upper School Academic Calendar; Campbell Hall Schedule.) Gunn High School will delay start times from 7:55 a.m. to 8:25 a.m. in order to improve student health. (Van der Kleut, School Will Start 30 Minutes Later Next Year at Gunn (Jun. 7, 2011) Palo Alto Patch.) In 2009, the Menlo-Atherton High School Teen Sleep Project received a Golden Bell Award from the California School Boards Association for its work in teaching freshman the biology and importance of good sleep hygiene. Former clinical nurse Eileen Van Rheenen helped organize the project, bringing in fatigue expert Mark Rosekind and Stanford Professor William Dement to design the program. Students from Professor Dements Sleep and Dreams course teach basic sleep principles to Menlo-Atherton students. Menlo-Atherton students are recruited to serve as sleep ambassadors to preach the gospel of adequate sleep to their classmates. The experts presented the latest sleep research and successful schoolbased reforms to the Sequoia Union High School District school board and other members of the education community. In January 2010, the school board directed the districts four high schools to delay morning classes until 8:30 a.m., or later, for at least 60% of each schools population (i.e., students carrying six rather than seven classes), by the Fall of 2010. Classes at Menlo-Atherton previously began at 7:50 a.m. The 2011-2012 Menlo-Atherton bell schedule reflects an 8:45 a.m. first period on Monday, Tuesday, and Friday; Wednesday, 9:25 a.m.; Thursday, 9:40 a.m. After later start times were implemented at Woodside High School, Principal David Reilly reported, When the students first class is at 9:05, theyre on time, theyre coming ready to work. Theyre not sitting there with a cup of coffee, with their heads down, half asleep. The Woodside 2011-2012 bell schedule reflects zero period begins at 7 a.m., first period at 8 a.m., and second period (when 60% of students begin) at 9 a.m. Carlmont and Sequoia high schools each requested and received a one-year extension, implementing later schedules in the Fall of 2011. According to the Carlmont 2011-2012 bell schedule, first period begins at 8 a.m. four days a week, and at 8:53 a.m. on Wednesdays (for students carrying seven classes). Second period begins at 8:57 a.m. four days a week, and at 9:43 a.m. on Wednesdays (for students carrying six classes). The 2011-2012 74

Sequoia High School bell schedule reflects an 8:30 a.m. start time for all students. Stanfords Rafael Pelayo advises that getting enough sleep is as beneficial as proper nutrition and exercise. Its good for your health. Teens need more sleep; we already knew this. But we try and treat them like mini-adults. We cannot treat them the same way as an adult, though; they need more sleep and we adults need to acknowledge that. (Diener, Sand, & Ortega, Students dreams of sleeping in come true next fall (Feb. 2, 2011) IV Raven Report 5, pp. 1-2; Getting Smart about Sleep (Feb. 2011) 58 Tri Vocis 5, p. 17; Brydolf, Class acts: Sleep Project helps high-schoolers shore up on shut-eye (Sept. 30, 2010) Cal. School Boards Assoc., Cal. School Mag.; James, Districts pushing back bells for the sake of teens sleep (Aug. 12, 2010) SCOPE; Staff Rep., Back to school, and sleeping in (Aug. 10, 2010) The Examiner; Yeh, Carlmont start time to be pushed back (Feb. 2010) The Highlander, pp. 1, 10; Bishop, Students in Sequoia Union High School District may get more time to snooze (Jan. 5, 2010) Mercury News.) Canada -- The Regina Catholic Schools Division will delay high school start times to 9 a.m. from an unstated earlier time beginning in September 2012. The division cited its continued focus on the priority of improved student learning as the reason behind the change. In addition, the division notes the new start time will more closely align with elementary schools in the Catholic system, and educational research supports a later-morning start time as being beneficial to adolescents[.] Lunch breaks will be shorter to ensure students remain focused throughout the day. [E]arly bird classes for band and choral students will be delayed from 7:30 a.m. to 7:55 a.m. The affected schools include Archbishop M.C. ONeill, Michael A. Riffel, Dr. Martin LeBoldus, and Miller Comprehensive. (Granley, Regina Catholic high schools to start later (Feb. 7, 2012) Leader-Post.) The Waterloo Catholic District School Board considered and then rejected a plan to align bell times and bus schedules with the Waterloo Region District School Board for 2012-2013. High school start times would have been delayed from 8:15 a.m. 8:45 a.m. to sometime between 9:15 a.m. and 9:45 a.m. The plan was expected to save $1 million in transportation costs. Nearly 7,000 parents raised objections to the proposal as it would have started some primary school students before 8 a.m., concerning many that young students might have to walk to school in the dark during winter months. Parents also complained older children would be unable to watch younger siblings after school if elementary school ended first. Many students also voiced opposition to the proposal, noting the proposed schedule would interfere with work or extracurricular activities. (Rutledge, No changes to bell times at Catholic school board (Feb. 13, 2012) Cambridge Times; Youth Editorial Board, Should school bell times change? (Feb. 11, 2012) The Record; Board seeks input on bell time changes (Jan. 5, 2012) Cambridge Times; Hicks, Catholic board looks to align bell times with public school board (Jan. 4, 2012) The Record.) The Thames Valley District School Board has received a feasibility study proposing that start times be delayed until 10 a.m. for secondary school students. Twenty-eight Thames Valley high schools presently begin morning classes between 8:10 a.m. and 9 a.m. The circadian rhythms of adolescents, ensuring adequate sleep among students, and the success of later start times at the Eastern Commerce Collegiate Institute were cited among the reasons for making the change. (Clarkson, School board looks at late start times for high schools (Dec. 8, 2011) London Comm. News.) On February 13, 2012, following the decision by the Waterloo Catholic District School Board not to delay start times, the Waterloo Region District School Board decided 6-5 against pushing back high school start times to sometime between 9:15 a.m. and 9:45 a.m. Waterloo Region District high schools presently begin between 8:15 a.m. and 8:45 a.m. Prior to the decision rejecting the plan, a district spokesperson commented, There is research that supports later start times for adolescents. Ask any educator. In the morning, kids arent necessarily at their most spry. The plan was expected to save the district as much as $1.3 million in transportation costs. Cameron Heights high school student, Abigail McLellan, told the committee that her survey of 200 schoolmates showed strong support for later bell times. Elementary school start times would have been advanced to as early as 8 a.m. (Hicks, Bell tolls for plan to change school start times (Feb. 13, 2012) The Record; Youth Editorial Board, Should school bell times change? (Feb. 11, 2012) 75

The Record; Hazzard, Proposed school bell times will hurt co-op students (Jan. 25, 2012) The Record; Hicks, Public board puts off issue of later start times at high school (Jan. 23, 2012) The Record; Rutledge, School bell time study could see later start for teenagers (Dec. 8, 2011) Cambridge Times; Hicks, Later starts for high school students under study (Dec. 1, 2011) The Record; see also, DAmato, Walking zombies will benefit from later high school start times (Dec. 2, 2011) The Record.) Eastern Commerce Collegiate Institute high school in Toronto is in its second year of beginning classes at 10 a.m. with students showing improved academic outcomes. (Crawford, Toronto school starts an hour later and grades improve (Jan. 18, 2011) parentcentral.ca; Macleans.ca, Why you should let your teenager sleep in (Feb. 11, 2011) On Campus.) Since the start time was pushed back from 9 a.m., data shows lower absenteeism, improved grades on most (but not all) fronts, and students having 30 minutes more sleep each night, on average, than those in a control group. (Harris, Grades improve if classes start later, study finds (Aug. 16, 2011) The Gazette.) Colorado -- As part of a plan to improve transportation efficiency, Pueblo City middle schools will begin morning classes at 8:30 a.m., one hour later than in 2010. High school start times will remain at 7:30 a.m. (Perez, Some to pay more for school lunches: Both Pueblo districts also alter class times for efficiency (Aug. 2, 2011) The Pueblo Chieftain) In February of 2011, Fairview High School in the Boulder Valley School District considered pushing back start times 40-45 minutes from 7:35 a.m. to provide students with additional sleep time, but implemented an 8:05 a.m. start time instead, according to the bell schedule. The same schedule shows other district high schools begin as early as 7:30 a.m. (Padorr, Boulder high school considers later school start time (Feb. 28, 2011) Fox 31 Denver [the link to this article appears to have expired].) Connecticut -- Following Academic Dean Jon Willsons research into the benefits of later start times for adolescents, Headmaster Willy MacMullen pushed back Taft School start times from 7:50 a.m. to 8:15 a.m., a move strongly endorsed by faculty. (Sleep Time: A later start to the academic day (Jul. 6, 2011) Taft News.) In June 2011, parent and Professor of Chemical Engineering, Carol Steiner, addressed the Amity Regional School District # 5 School Board, explaining that the current 7:25 a.m. high school start time conflicts with adolescent sleep/wake patterns and studies have shown teens benefit from later class schedules. (Thiel, Mom appeals to board: School starts too early (Jun. 15, 2011) AmityObserver.com [the link to this article appears to have expired]; see also, Schaefer, Is Your Teen Sleep Deprived? (Jan. 28, 2012) Buffalo Grove Patch [Connecticut and Illinois certified teacher and academic coach Sue Schaefer urges a delay in start times].) Minutes from the August 2011 Board of Education meeting reflect the adoption of a later high school schedule was rejected in part due to a study reviewed by the superintendent that found such a change for motivated and committed students has not shown improvements in attendance or grades. While this description appears rather hyperbolic (since no start time study has ever attempted to discern intrinsic levels of student motivation or commitment), it likely alludes to the recent study by economist Peter Hinrichs (discussed here and briefly here). Bell schedules for the districts two middle schools reflect a 7:47 a.m. start time. England -- Monkseaton High School pushed back start times to 10 a.m. in October of 2009, raising exam scores by 20 to 30% and reducing persistent absenteeism by 27%. In addition, the because research said the natural alertness of the human being is better in natural light above a specific intensity, [Headmaster] Kelley installed a huge skylight made of nano-gel in the roof of the school -- this diffuses natural light and allows it into the work environment. (Quinlan, Body clock is to blame for tired teens (Oct. 31, 2011) Independent; Ryan, Lie in for teenagers has positive results (Mar. 22, 2010) BBC News; see also, Head urges lie-ins for teenagers (Mar. 9, 2009) BBC News; see also, Head urges lie-ins for teenagers (Mar. 9, 2009) BBC

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News [includes hyperlink to brief audio interview with Russell Foster, Ph.D., F.R.S., Chair of Circadian Neuroscience, Oxford University].) Florida -- On June 12, 2011, by a 5-2 vote, $573,000 in additional transportation costs was cited by the Pinellas County Schools School Board as a reason not to retain a 7:20 a.m. start time in favor of the new 9:30 a.m. start time at Thurgood Marshall Fundamental Middle School. The bell schedule indicates most other district middle schools begin at 9:30 a.m., except that Clearwater Fundamental begins at 8:15 a.m., Madeira Beach Fundamental at 7:45 a.m., and three K-12 schools, Calvin Hunsinger, Hamilton Disston, Richard L. Sanders, at 7:05 a.m. Most district high schools begin at 7:05 a.m., with the exception of Pinellas Secondary School which begins at 9:30 a.m. On January 10, 2012, Superintendent John Stewart, Ed.D., recommended the current bell schedule remain in place for 2012-13, a point which continues to distress many Thurgood Marshall parents. The board voted unanimously to approve the recommendation. (Catalanello, Stewart could remain as Pinellas school chief through 2012-13 school year (Jan. 11, 2012) Tamba Bay Times; Pinellas promises meeting with Thurgood parents over start times (Jan. 7, 2012) Tampa Bay Times; Thurgood parents rallying again over start time (Jan. 6, 2012) Tampa Bay Times; Catalanello, No Go on earlier start times for Thurgood Marshall (Jun. 15, 2011) tampabay.com.) On January 10, 2011, pediatrician Lynn Keefe made a presentation to the Okaloosa County School District School Board requesting a delay in high school start times to 9 a.m. from the current 7 a.m. start. On November 14, 2011, Dr. Keefe, together with physicians Eleanor McCain and Deb Simkin, addressed the school board a second time. Dr. McCain asked, Why am I still here talking to you about this problem? The only conclusion I can (draw) is that you dont believe the medical data. Dr. McCain noted it has historically been difficult for society to accept new knowledge that challenges traditional beliefs, but the changes, once made, have always been for the better. Worldview and beliefs do evolve over time as our knowledge expands. To illustrate her point, Dr. Simkin, a local psychiatrist, touched on all the innovations in science that have allowed doctors and scientists to study the human brain and how it works. Dr. Simkin explained that research has shown, time and time again, that most teenagers cannot get enough sleep with early school start times because their bodies typically dont allow them to go to bed earlier than 10:30 p.m. Starting school around 7 a.m. contributes to a whole host of preventable physical and mental problems from obesity to depression to substance abuse problems. Simkin noted medications exist to correct all these problems, but an easier and healthier remedy exists. The only way to fix the problem, whether you go to sleep earlier or not, is to have later start times. (Tammen, Area doctors press for later start for high schools (Nov. 15, 2011) NewsHerald.com; Tammen, Pediatrican addresses school board over start times (Jan. 11, 2011) NewsHerald.com) The Hillsborough County School Board was reported to be reconsidering its present 7:20 a.m. to 7:40 a.m. high school start times over concerns they may be too early for teens. Sleep medicine and pulmonary specialist Dr. Robert Geck proposes high schools begin between 9 a.m. and 10 a.m. In the end, however, the board implemented a 7:27 a.m. start time. Deputy Superintendent Ken Otero noted budget and transportation issues forced the outcome, together with concerns that elementary or middle school students would have to wait for buses in the dark, after-school activities would be interrupted, and the magnet schools lacked the ability to change start times. The district bell schedule appears to reflect that high school start times remain between 7:20 a.m. and 7:40 a.m.; most middle schools begin at 9 a.m., though several begin as early as 7:35 a.m. (Arja, Classes too early for teens? (Jul. 18, 2011) My Fox Tampa Bay; Ackerman, Adult ed no longer free; Hillsborough seeks donations (Jul. 18, 2011) Tampa Bay Online; Ackerman, Later school day helping some teens succeed (Jul. 16, 2011) Tampa Bay Online.) The Pasco County Schools School Board is considering delaying high school start times to better serve students. Currently most district high schools begin at 7:30 a.m., although two schools, J.W. Mitchell High (8:40 a.m.) and Ridgewood High (8:30 a.m.), begin later. Data from one later starting school, J.W. Mitchell High, show 3.6 tardies daily, whereas Land OLakes High, which begins at 7:30 a.m., averages 5.18 tardies daily. (Blair, Pasco taking another look at high school start times (Jul. 10, 2011) Tampa Bay Online; 77

Pasco County Schools, School Hours; Gulf Middle School advanced its start time in 2009, from 8:37 a.m. to 7:40 a.m.) Georgia -- In order to accommodate transportation requirements for the opening of a new school, the City Schools of Decatur school board adopted a schedule delaying the Renfroe Middle School start time to 8:45 a.m. from 8:30 a.m. (Loupe, Decatur High School Principal Defends Earlier Start Time (Apr. 12, 2011) DecaturAvondale Estates Patch; Valdes, Decatur Schools Bell Schedule to be Discussed at Board Meeting Tuesday (May 10, 2011) Decatur-Avondale Estates Patch; John Ahmanns Plan For Tonights School Board Meeting (Jun. 14, 2011) Decatur Metro; City Schools of Decatur, School Hours [the plan resulted in earlier high school start times].) Idaho -- Beginning January 23, 2012, the Meridian School District will push back high school start times from 7:58 a.m. to 8:15 a.m. to allow teachers additional prep time. Bus schedules remain unchanged. (Evans, Meridian rearranging schedule for high schools (Jan. 12, 2012) KTVB.COM.) Illinois -- On February 21, 2012, the Belvidere School District again voted down a plan to delay start times for all students as follows: primary, from 7:40 a.m. to 8:05 a.m.; middle, from 8:38 a.m. to 8:58 a.m.; secondary, from 7:55 a.m. to 8 a.m. Many parents expressed concerns about elementary school children boarding buses as early as 6:30 a.m. Other parents indicated later start times would preclude them from getting their kids to school before work. (Kravets, UPDATE: No Change to Belvidere School Start Times (Feb. 21, 2012) WIFR.COM; Kravets, Belvidere Schools Eye Start Time Change (Feb. 21, 2012) WIFR.COM.) Indiana -- The Marion Independent School District has announced new start times for 2012-2013. Francis Marion Intermediate will delay from 8 a.m. to 8:30 a.m. and Marion High School would keep M Black starting at 7:45 a.m. and all other classes starting at 8:20 a.m. (Munson, MISD may move Emerson students to Kirkwood facility (Feb. 17, 2012) Marion Times [Vernon Middle School will advance its start time].) Recognizing that delaying start times improves student achievement, Cathedral High School will delay the morning bell from 7:34 a.m. to 8:10 a.m. beginning in 2012-2013. Lawrence Township and Marion Community Schools have already made similar changes to their schedules. The websites for Lawrence Central High School, Lawrence North High School, and Marion High School each reflect an 8:50 a.m. start time. (Broaddus, School shifting start time, aiming for better student performance (Feb. 9, 2012) WISHTV.com; Schools changing start, end times (Feb. 9, 2012) YouTube.) Recognizing the adolescent brain does not fully perform until almost 10 a.m., Indianapolis Public School Manual High will push back start times to 8:50 a.m. in an effort to improve academic outcomes. The school is presently on academic probation and is slated for state intervention. (Struggling School Pushes Back Start Time (Aug. 8, 2011) TheIndyChannel.com.) Kansas -- As part of a plan to lengthen the school day and shorten the calendar, Emporia Public Schools has delayed start times for Emporia Middle School from 7:50 a.m. to 8:50 a.m. (Emporia Public Schools, 2011-2012 Start & Dismissal Times [high school start times have been advanced]; Springer, School board votes on calendar for 2012-13 (Apr. 14, 2011) The Emporia Gazette; Giffin, Changes in bus routes, scheduling planned for 2012-13 school year (Aug. 25, 2011) The Emporia Gazette.) Maine -- On March 12, 2012, the Regional School Unit 3 school board will vote on whether to reduce the busing schedule from two tiers to one. The plan would have all schools beginning at 8 a.m., 30 minutes later than the present middle and high school start times, one hour earlier for the elementary schools. Superintendent Heather Perry projected educational benefits for adolescent students and $140,000 in annual savings. Some middle and high school students presently board buses as early as 5:45 a.m. (Staples, RSU 3 board to vote on combining bus runs (Mar. 6, 2012) Morning Sentinel.)

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Massachusetts -- The superintendent of Middleborough Public Schools is considering a plan to put middle and high school students on the same buses, potentially saving money and enabling the high school students to begin 30 minutes later, which all the research says (is better.) The 2011-2012 bell schedule reflects a 7:20 a.m. high school start time, 7:55 a.m. middle school start, and 8:50 a.m. for the elementary schools. (Dow, School bus plan would allow later opening at MHS (Mar. 1, 2012) SouthCoastToday.com.) Beginning with the 2011-2012 school year, Nauset Regional High School delayed its start time from 7:25 a.m. to 8:35 a.m. In the first two months of the school year, data show a 53 percent drop in the number of failing grades, from 221 last September and October to 104 in the same time period this year. The number of Ds and Fs also dropped, from 597 to 368, a 38 percent decline. The number of days students were suspended for disciplinary reasons fell from 166 in the first two months last year to 19 days in September and October of this year. School principal Tom Conrad stated, I think the tone of the day has changed dramatically. Thats reflected in the overall (mood) of the student body. Its very clear to me its a more relaxed opening of school than with the 7:25 a.m. start time. Students seem to be more alert and they dont seem to be rushing to get to class within seconds of getting to school. For years, Conrad had advocated later start times based on studies showing improved academic outcomes and positive effects on student health and well-being. (Editorial, Let teens hit the snooze (Jan. 23, 2012) Bangor Daily News; Fraser, Later start time lauded at Nauset High (Jan. 10, 2012) Cape Cod Times [middle school start times have been advanced].) The superintendent of Canton Public Schools is forming a committee to consider the feasibility of delaying high school start times. Canton High School presently begins morning classes at 7:18 a.m. Superintendent Jeffrey Granatino noted that whether the district will be able to make the change will depend in part upon economic feasibility; i.e., busing costs. (Berger, School super to convene group to review start times (Nov. 19, 2011) Canton Citizen; Melanson, Schools consider a later start for Canton High School students (Nov. 14, 2011) Wicked Local Canton [Galvin Middle School begins morning classes at 7:45 a.m.].) In 2008, a group of teachers and parents appointed by the Northampton Public Schools School Committee to explore a later start time for Northampton High School students recommended a one hour delay from the current 7:30 a.m. start time. In 2010, the principal presented a plan to begin classes at 8 a.m. Budget issues and complex scheduling problems have sidelined implementation of any new school schedule. When the issue was addressed at a November 10, 2011 School Committee meeting, Brian Salzer, Ed.S., the Committees unanimous June 2011 selection as new superintendent from a field of 23 applicants, did not mince words when he told committee members that changing the start time at the high school is not a top priority of the administrative team and it is not a top priority on my list. If you would like it to be, you will have to give me direction. Committee member Howard Moore noted the reason for the current 7:30 a.m. high school start time is the bus schedule, not because its whats good for education. Committee Vice Chairwoman Stephanie Pick said she had never heard a single teacher at the high school lobby for a change in the start time. The matter was tabled until January of 2012, at which time it was further delayed until 2013, much to the chagrin of many community members, and one teacher. More than 200 citizens signed a letter sent to Mayor David Narkewicz and the School Committee urging a high school start time of 8:20 a.m. or 8:30 a.m. The district website notes a 7:55 a.m. start time for JFK Middle School. (Editorial: Dithering on school start (Jan. 21, 2012) Daily Hampshire Gazette; Northampton High School start time remains 7:30 a.m., pending further study (Jan. 13, 2012) Daily Hampshire Gazette; Solow, Northampton School Committee delays vote on high school start time (Nov. 11, 2011) Daily Hampshire Gazette; Superintendent Blog, Brian Salzer named new Northampton school superintendent (Jul. 13, 2011) Northampton Public Schools; Solow, Issue Tracker: Slow going for advocates of later high school start time (May 9, 2011) Daily Hampshire Gazette; see also, Hanauer, Research plentiful on later school start times (Dec. 22, 2011) Daily Hampshire Gazette [letter to the editor responding to piece by Ms. Mangione]; Mangione, New start needed on old debate (Dec. 14, 2011) Daily Hampshire Gazette [op-ed piece from 79

parent criticizing a perceived lack of transparency in the start time change process and questioning the need to change]; Dietz, Teens sleep needs dictate later school start time (Dec. 3, 2011) Gazettenet.com [letter to the editor from Northampton student urging later start times]; Hanauer, Good evidence, but no action (Nov. 15, 2011) Daily Hampshire Gazett; Herrell, Sound reasons for later start (Jul. 7, 2011) Daily Hampshire Gazette [op-ed by Steve Herrell responding to student editorial]; Schumacher & MossHorwitz, Shifting NHS hours a non-starter (Jun. 14, 2011) Daily Hampshire Gazette [student editorial opposing later start times].) The Easton School Committee has decided to appoint an exploratory committee to consider the feasibility of changing start times for Easton Public Schools. Currently, Oliver Ames High School and Easton Middle School have the earliest start times in the district, beginning at 7:30 a.m. and 7:35 a.m. respectively. School Committee members noted that the decision to form an exploratory committee stems from concerns that high-school aged children and adolescents may not be getting enough sleep, which therefore affects their learning abilities. Committee member Colleen Less observed, Anybody who has kids can see how they get up when theyre younger earlier in the day and by the time theyre in middle school youre pulling them out of the bed with their feet. If it were a function of changing bedtimes, we all would have done it. Its not that theyre staying up too late. Literally, their bodys timing is such at this stage in their development that they find it difficult to go to bed. School Committee Chairwoman Jane Martin advised that since evaluating the change will require a significant period of education, it will not happen next year. (Graeber, Easton schools looking at later high school start time (Dec. 21, 2011) Enterprise News; Maguire, Exploratory Committee to Address School Start Times (Nov. 4, 2011) Easton Patch.) In order to improve student sleep benefits, Amherst Regional Public Schools is considering various options to delay start times for middle and high school students. Three proposals are being considered: (a) delay middle and high schools from 7:45 a.m. to 9 a.m., advance elementary schools from 8:40 a.m. to 8:15 a.m.; (b) delay all start times by 30 minutes; (c) start all three schools at the same time. At a January 25, 2012, school committee meeting, parents expressed views both for and against the proposals. Additional public forums have been planned for February 2012. (Grabbe, Parents express mixed views on shifting school start times in Amherst (Jan. 26, 2012) Daily Hampshire Gazette; Grabbe, Amherst considers impact of starting school later for secondary students (Jan. 6, 2012) Amherst Bulletin; Grabbe, Amherst Regional eyes later school start time (Dec. 9, 2011) Daily Hampshire Gazette; Lederman, Amherst considering change in school starting times (May 12, 2011) masslive.com; Report of the Later Start Times Task Force (Apr. 15, 2011) Amherst Regional Public Schools; see also, Van Peski, Later school start wrong remedy (Mar. 1, 2012) Daily Hampshire Gazette.) In 2010, North Andover Public Schools began looking into the possibility of delaying middle and high school start times. A School Start Time Advisory Committee was formed and Dr. Mary Carskadon made a power point presentation concerning adolescent sleep and development. As a result, for the 2011-2012 academic year, middle school start times were delayed from 7:45 a.m. to 7:55 a.m. and high school start times delayed from 7:15 a.m. to 7:45 a.m. (Superintendents Advisory Committee on School Start Times; Carskadons Power Point Presentation; Advisory Committee Final Rep.; School Committee Presentation on School Start Time Changes for 2011-12.) Notably, the earliest start time proposed by Carskadon (or any other expert) is 8:30 a.m. (Wolfson & Carskadon, A Survey of Factors Influencing High School Start Times (Mar. 2005) 89 NASSP Bulletin 642, p. 49.) In December of 2010, the Lexington Public Schools Committee held a discussion about delaying the current 7:45 a.m. high school start time after receiving letters from parents on the subject. Committee member Jessie Steigerwald noted that information from studies and students shows that even 30 more minutes of sleep makes a huge difference. Steigerwald also observed that local schools making the change had seen higher attendance records, fewer students sleeping through first period and little effect on sports. Two students expressed support for making the change. The Committee Chairman 80

commented it would be a large undertaking, but this is a year or two process before we can really examine this. We have an awful lot on our plate this year, my preference is add it to our list . Superintendent Paul Ash said examining different start times would be a lot of work for the committee, something members might not have time for in the coming months. Im convinced this would require a massive amount of work, and implementing the change would be huge. Im not aware there is any evidence that this produces a positive change in learning. It could have a positive effect, but is it worth the time? I think its not something we should look into right now. School representatives advise that Clarke and Diamond middle schools begin at 8 a.m. and 8:05 a.m., respectively, for the 2011-2012 year. (Pickering, School Committee Discusses High School Start Time (Dec. 15, 2010) Lexington Patch; Lexington High School, Schedule.) In 2009, the Silver Lake Regional School District formed a Sleep Needs Study Committee to evaluate the possibility of moving back start times for all district schools by 45 minutes. The Committee webpage notes the new start times would be 8:05 a.m. for the middle school, 8:15 a.m. for the high school, and 9 a.m./9:15 a.m. for the elementary schools. The Committee was said to be preparing a powerpoint presentation on the issue of adolescent sleep needs and the options the Silver Lake District may take with regard to this scientific data. The 2011-2012 bell schedule for Silver Lake Middle School notes a 7:35 a.m. start time, suggesting a 15 minute delay was undertaken. As of this writing, the only high school bell schedule posted notes a 7:30 a.m. start time, but the schedule is from the 2010-2011 academic year. Dennett Elementary similarly posts only a 2010-2011 schedule (in the school handbook), noting an 8:20 a.m. start time. The Halifax Elementary 2011-2012 parent-student handbook notes an 8:30 a.m. start time. In 2008, following a presentation by Cornell University Professor of Psychology James Maas concerning the conflict between academic clocks and teenagers body clocks, Deerfield Academy pushed back start times from 7:55 a.m. to 8:30 a.m. The change brought an increase in hot breakfasts served, a drastic reduction of unexcused absences, a record increase in grades and a 20-percent reduction in visits to the health center even though neighboring schools reported a higher number of flu cases than normal. Academic Dean Peter Warsaw noted that teachers were delighted that students were more attentive and engaged. Teachers of first-period classes reported that vibrant discussions now began at the opening bell instead of half-way through the class. (Lim, Maas Pushes for Later Start Time at Schools (Feb. 26, 2009) The Cornell Daily Sun.) Michigan -- In March 2011, Dearborn Public Schools considered a recommendation from the school start time committee to delay high school start times in order to improve student achievement. The proposal contemplated changing high school start times from 7:20 a.m. to 8:20 a.m., while advancing middle school start times from 8 a.m. to 7:30 a.m. School board members expressed skepticism the change would make a positive difference or that parents would support it. In February 2012, the district announced that next Fall it would permit students other than freshman to begin school at 8:20 a.m. To utilize the later start time, students may not participate in sports activities that practice right after school, they must provide their own transportation, and they cannot have a history of behavioral issues or be a credit short. Board members Aimee Blackburn and Pam Adam noted that the current schedule employs late starts frequently on Wednesdays and that their own children simply use the extra time to stay up later. (Hetrick, Dearborn high schools looking at more flexible start times (Feb. 28, 2012) Press & Guide; Tippen, 6 Need-to-Know Facts for Back to School in Dearborn (Aug. 25, 2011) Dearborn Patch; Tippen, School Start Times Under the Microscope (Mar. 4, 2011) Dearborn Patch.) The board members are apparently unaware that studies have repeatedly shown the great majority of students do utilize the extra time for sleep (discussed here) and that ensuring appropriate bedtimes is a parental function. (Short, Gradisar, Wright, Lack, Dohnt, & Carskadon, Time for Bed: Parent-Set Bedtimes Associated with Improved Sleep and Daytime Functioning in Adolescents (Jun. 2011) 34 Sleep 10, pp. 797-800.) The superintendents patently false assertion that -- the research has shown that later start times help students initially, but the benefit quickly fades over time -has earned a spot on our Incognizant Educators page.

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In August of 2011, Battle Creek Central High School was included among the states lowest achieving schools. In response, the Battle Creek Public Schools district has developed a plan to lengthen the school day by 50 minutes and delay start times from 7:45 a.m. to 8:15 a.m. (Editorial, Longer school day makes sense (Nov. 22, 2011) BattleCreekEnquirer.com.) Relying upon studies showing teenagers are better able to learn later in the morning, the Jackson Public Schools Board is considering a proposal which would give its high school students the option to begin morning classes at the present start time, 7:30 a.m., or 91 minutes later, at 9:01 a.m. (Wheaton, Students at Jackson high schools could choose to sleep in, start class later under proposal (Aug. 16, 2011) mlive.com.) The Marquette Area Public Schools board is considering delaying the 7:30 a.m. start time for Marquette Senior High School based upon studies showing the teen brain works better later in the day. Trustee Mark Smith stated he has read numerous studies and articles stating that later start times correlate to better grades, reduced tardiness, a more interested student body and fewer morning car accidents. Smith commented he did not want to make the change unless the new start time would be 8:30 a.m., or later. With busing as an impediment, the board is considering allowing juniors and seniors to take first period classes online. (Marquette to Study Later High School Start Time (Apr. 4, 2011) Ed. Rep.; Whitney, Later school start mulled by MAPS; (Mar. 31, 2011) The Mining Journal; Crystal, Later start to school days possible for Marquette Senior High School? (Mar. 30, 2011) Upper Michigans Source; Marquette Senior High School, bell schedule.) The proposal has prompted a mocking video response from one individual. (Marquette Senior High School Start Time Parody (Apr. 2011) YouTube.) Minnesota - St. Paul Public Schools District will delay River East Treatment K-12 start times from 7 a.m. to 8:30 a.m. in order to implement a tiered busing schedule and save $1.9 million in transportation costs. (River East Treatment elementary school students began at 8:05 a.m. in 2010-2011.) (Vezner, St. Paul schools shake up the class day (Jun. 3, 2011) TwinCities.com; Sleep Experts Concerned About St. Paul Start Time Change (Jun. 3, 2011) CBS) [article appears to incorrectly reference the St. Paul School District rather than the St. Paul Public Schools District]; St. Paul Public Schools, 2011-2012 Bell Schedule [the new busing schedule will require most district schools to advance start times for students in grades 6-12].) Missouri -- The Independence School District School Start Times Task Force will evaluate the feasibility of changing start times, using focus groups and community surveys. Recognizing that later starts are best for high school students, the district is considering scheduling elementary students for first tier busing and secondary school students for the third tier. Several considerations, including the impact of having younger students out in the dark will have to be assessed. For 2011-2012, high schools begin morning classes at 7:25 a.m., middle schools at 7:59 a.m. and 8:04 a.m. (Evenson, Independence discussing school start times (Feb. 16, 2012) Examiner.net.) Citing multiple studies concerning the sleep patterns of middle school students, the Parkway School Board moved middle school start times from 7:25 a.m. to 8:15 a.m. With bus schedules too close together, students have been arriving late to class. On September 21, 2011, the Parkway Board voted to delay schedules even further, to 8:20 a.m. (Calhoun, Dissent Doesnt Defer Changes in Parkway Schools Start Times (Sept. 22, 2011) CBS St. Louis; Biondo, School Bus Delays To Dictate 5-10 Minute Changes in Parkway School Day (Sept. 19, 2011) Chesterfield Patch; Biondo, Parkway Middle Schoolers Sleep In This Year (Aug. 12, 2011) Town & Country - Manchester Patch; Parkway Schools, School Hours [Parkway high school schedules have been advanced].) Nevada -- In 2010, the Washoe County School District organized a bell schedule committee to develop new school schedules with the idea of saving money on transportation costs. While researching class scheduling, however, it became apparent to committee members that middle school and high school adolescent minds perform best later in the morning. The committee is now tasked with developing a school schedule which provides the best learning opportunities for all children. The 82

district 2011-2012 bell schedule reflects that the earliest starting district middle and high schools begin at 7:23 a.m. and 7:40 a.m., respectively. (Washoe County School Dist., Washoe District Considers Changing School Start Times (Dec. 5, 2011) 2 News.) New Jersey -- Sparta Township Public Schools staggered middle and high school start times in order to reduce traffic caused by starting both schools at the same time. Middle school start times were delayed from 7:15 a.m. to 8:25 a.m. (District unveils plans to spend windfall (Jun. 29, 2011) The Sparta Independent [high school start times were advanced]; Sparta Township Public Schools, District Schools.) In order to add 20 minutes of instruction to the school day, Pemberton Township High School start times were delayed to 8:20 a.m. A district representative advises that during the 2010-2011 school year, high school students began classes at 7:35 a.m. (Zimmaro, Pembertons school schedule angers parents (Sept. 19, 2011) phillyBurbs.com [middle school start times were advanced].) New Mexico -- Middle and high school students attending Las Cruces Public Schools will begin morning classes at 9 a.m., 20 minutes later than in 2010, as part of a plan to manage a smaller budget. (Mata, As students head back to class, changes to be found (Aug. 14, 2011) Las Cruces Sun-News.) In March of 2010, Albuquerque Public Schools announced plans to adjust start times for high school students from 7:30 a.m. to 8:35 a.m. to comport with adolescent sleep patterns. Middle school start times vary from school to school and were to be set at 9:15 a.m. Elementary school start times, now set at 8:45 a.m. or 9:15 a.m., were to be advanced to 7:30 a.m. A decision on the plan has been postponed because time and energy needs to go toward dealing with a $43 million budget shortfall. (Albuquerque Public Schools, APS Postpones Decision on Changing School Start Times (Mar. 30, 2010) Press Release; APS Bell Schedules; APS Proposes New School Start Times (Mar. 8, 2010) KOAT Albuquerque.) New York -- On December 12, 2011, by a 5 to 4 vote, the Glens Falls City School District school board decided to retain its May 2011 plan to delay high school start times. In May, the board voted 5-4 to delay Glens Falls Senior High School start times from 7:45 a.m. to 8:30 a.m. following an extended study by a start time committee. Two of the boards previous yes votes came from members who have been replaced. The four no voting members remain on the board. The district has posted start time research and surveys at its website. (Aquije, Glens Falls schools keep later start time for 2012 (Dec. 12, 2011) PostStar.com; At Glens Falls, the high school start time remains an issue (Nov. 23, 2011) PostStar.com; Aquije, Glens Falls school board affirms move to later start in 2012 (May 10, 2011) PostStar.com; Aquije, Glens Falls High School considers later start time for teens (Dec. 5, 2010) PostStar.com.) The Bedford Central School District Board of Education decided against delaying start times until 9 a.m. or 9:15 a.m. for Fox Lane middle and high school students because the additional buses needed to make the change would cost about $1 million dollars or more. Presently, high school classes begin at 7:45 a.m. and middle school classes begin at 8:05 a.m. If other districts in the area were to make the change, it would be affordable for Bedford. One school board member stated, it is disappointing that this is where we get stuck in the conversation, noting that the start times issue deals with childrens well-being. (Auchterlonie, Bedford BOE Decides Against Flipping School Start Times (Sept. 23, 2011) Chappaqua-Mount Kisco Patch; Fox Lane High School, Bell Schedule.) North Carolina -- In June 2011, it was reported the Wake County Public School System might advance middle and high school start times by 5 minutes, to 7:25 a.m. and 7:20 a.m., respectively, in order to meet a new state minimum instructional time requirement. The district website reflects that for 2011-2012, middle schools begin between 7:30 a.m. and 8:20 a.m., and high schools between 7:25 a.m. and 8:05 a.m. In February 2012, the district announced it would address a budget shortfall by modifying busing schedules beginning in the Fall of 2012. According to the proposed 2012-2103 bell schedule, some middle schools, Daniels, Fuquay-Varina, and Lufkin Road, would delay start times from 7:30 a.m. to 8:15 a.m. 83

and 8:25 a.m. (Lufkin). (Hui, Fewer Wake County school times to shift (Feb. 22, 2012) newsobserver.com [noting that North Garner Middle school would shift from 7:30 a.m. to 8:30 a.m. rather than 8:40 a.m. as previously planned]; Hui, Wake County school board talking about school start times for high school students (Feb. 9, 2012) newsobserver.com; Hui & Goldsmith, Schools hours are in flux (Feb. 11, 2012) The Cary News [some high school start times would be advanced]; Hui, Wake may change school start and end times (Jun. 20, 2011) newsobserver.com; see also, Govan, Teens need sleep (Feb. 14, 2012) newsobserver.com.) The Brunswick County Schools Board of Education voted 3-2 to delay start times for middle and high school students to 8:50 a.m. and 8:55 a.m., respectively, utilizing 30 fewer buses and saving $525,000 in annual transportation costs. A district spokeswoman commented, Adolescence are just physiologically wired to do better later in the mornings and elementary, younger children, are alert and ready to learn very early on in the day. So we feel like it is a cost savings but at the same time it is actually in the best interest of the way children learn. (White, Brunswick County Schools prepares for staggered schedules (Aug. 12, 2011) News14Carolina; Harden, Staggered schedules mean a more balanced budget for Brunswick Co. Schools (May 11, 2011) WWAYNewsChannel.) To save money on transportation, the Charlotte-Mecklenburg Schools School Board approved a new bell schedule delaying the start time of Community House Middle school by 75 minutes to 9:15 a.m. (High school start times remain at 7:15 a.m.; some district middle schools begin at 8 a.m.) (SW Editor, New bell schedules begin as school year opens (Aug. 25, 2011) South Charlotte Weekly; Charlotte-Mecklenburg Schools, CMS Websites.) Three Moore County Schools high schools will delay start times to 9 a.m. from 8:15 a.m., improving student well-being and saving $600,000 in transportation costs. (Sharpe, School Start Times to Change (Jun. 9, 2011) The Pilot.) Ohio - After completing an English paper concerning adolescent sleep patterns, in February 2012, Bowling Green High School senior Josh Flick presented his findings to the school board, urging a delay in the schools 7:50 a.m. start time. Board President and former school principal Eric Myers agreed that late starts would benefit teenagers. Myers noted two obstacles: starting later would interfere with current athletic practice schedules; elementary parents would object because their children would be starting school earlier and getting out earlier, causing day care complications. A district representative advises that the middle school also begins at 7:50 a.m. (Collier, Waking up is hard to do (Feb. 29, 2012) FoxToledo.com; Dupont, Teens losing sleep over school (Feb. 27, 2012) Sentinel-Tribune.) On January 17, 2012, Beavercreek City Schools delayed the start time of Ferguson Middle School from 8:20 a.m. to 8:45 a.m. in response to budget cuts which reduced busing services. (Sedlak, Some lament Beavercreek school districts reduced bus service (Jan. 18, 2012) Dayton Daily News; Beavercreek Schools Transportation Changes [the high school start time has been advanced].) The superintendent of Perry Local Schools announced that start times at Edison Junior High School would be delayed to 8:40 a.m. from an unstated extremely early start time because research is showing that, educationally its better for them to start later. (Pustay, Whats new: Final touches being put on Perry High (Aug. 20, 2011) IndeOnline.com; the bell schedule appears to reflect a 7:35 a.m. high school start time].) The Warren Local School District Board of Education pushed back start times to 9:05 a.m. at Marietta High School in order to allow students additional travel time since school busing has been eliminated. (Bevins, Getting to School (Aug. 1, 2011) The Marietta Times.)

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Morning classes at Westlake High School will begin at 7:55 a.m. for 2011-2012, 30 minutes later than the previous year. The change was made possible by budget cuts which eliminated busing. The Community Advisory Committee had previously found advantages to later star times, but busing conflicts precluded the change. (Spirgen, Westlake High School to Start Half Hour Later This Year (Aug. 1, 2011) Westlake Patch.) To promote sleep sufficiency and better serve the learning needs of students, Perrysburg Schools will delay middle and high school classes by 20 minutes, to 7:45 a.m. and 8 a.m., respectively. (Ottney, Perrysburg, Maumee schools to adjust start times (Jul. 29, 2011) Toledo Free Press.) Oregon -- Following a one-year study by the Guiding Team for Instructional Time, the Corvallis School District will push back high school start times to 8:15 a.m. four days a week and 9:15 a.m. one day, in order to improve academic achievement and to allow students more sleep time. (Hampton, New school start time pushes sports practices late into evening (Jul. 25, 2011) Corvallis Gazette-Times.) The Lake Oswego School District will be closing two schools. Associated changes include starting high schools later and elementary schools earlier. The later start time could be better for high school students who naturally need more early morning sleep. Lake Oswego high schools presently begin morning classes at 7:35 a.m. (Randall, Next phase of school-closure plan begins (Oct. 20, 2011) Lake Oswego Review.) Pennsylvania - An ad-hoc committee of the Derry Township School District School Board has decided that the Hershey High 7:38 a.m. start time will not change to accommodate adolescent sleep cycles. The committee concluded the change would be too disruptive, cost more money and take too much time away from school for student-athletes and teacher-coaches. Dr. Michael Bruno, a Professor of Radiology and Medicine at Penn State Milton S. Hershey Medical Center and parent of a Hershey High student, was among those encouraging district officials to consider a start time change. (Shade, Derry Township School Board panel favors retaining Hershey High Schools start time (Sept. 25, 2011) pennlive.com.) In June 2011, it was reported the Quakertown Community School District was unable to afford the $400,000 in transportation costs required to adjust middle school start times from 7:10 a.m. to 7:40 a.m. Start times were advanced in 2009 to save about $300,000 in transportation costs. In January of 2012, despite parents complaints about the early start times, the district remained unable to make the change, now estimated to cost about $900,000 in busing expenses. The district website reflects a 7:15 a.m. middle school start time for 2011-2012; 8 a.m. for the district high school. (Rizzo, Early budget shows difficulty Quakertown facing (Jan. 6, 2012) The Morning Call; Rizzo, Final Quakertown budget closes Haycock ES (Jun. 10, 2011) The Morning Call.) Rhode Island - Barrington High School formed a committee to determine the feasibility of delaying morning classes from the present start time of 7:40 a.m. to at least 8 a.m., possibly 8:20 a.m. or 8:30 a.m., in order to benefit student achievement. Principal Joseph Hurley stated the data supporting the change is indisputable, but cautioned that implementing a new schedule would affect every student in the district. Transportation is perceived as the biggest hurdle. At a public forum held on January 26, 2012, the School Committee Chairman noted the committee had not made any decisions about changing start times. Seven possible start time plans are being considered. Featured speakers Richard Millman, Professor of Medicine at Brown University, and Lisa Bogan, a Connecticut League of Women Voters start time specialist, each gave presentations at the meeting. Professor Millman stated there are three age groups with varied sleep requirements and those from puberty until the mid 20s require 9 to 10 hours of sleep to be fully rested. High school kids get about 7 hours on average. When sleep deprived, performance goes down, moods are affected with more depression and substance abuse and driving can become dangerous. Lack of sleep also leads to a weakened immune system. Professor Millman advised that the only way to improve on these symptoms is for students to get more sleep. The professor cautioned, Changing start times is not a license to have kids go to bed later. (Studies show kids 85

generally heed this admonition.) Ms. Bogan told the gathering, You have to keep your eye on the prize. Remember the greater good when considering making changes to start times. This is about high school kids, not about you. The district will post a video of the forum here. A public workshop re start times is planned for a future date. Elizabeth Henderson has authored a (science-free) petition opposing the change. (Warren, School Start Times Discussed, Debated In Barrington (Jan. 28, 2012) EastBayRI.com; Duffy, Sleep On It Bhs Students Respond To A Possible Change In The School Start Time (Jan. 25, 2012) Barrington Time; Editorial, Academics Should Drive School Start Time Debate (Jan. 24, 2012) Barrington Times; The Barrington Public Schools Health and Wellness Committee, Changing School Start Times: A Good Idea for Barrington?; Rupp, Moving School Start Time Ramps Up (Dec. 1, 2011) Barrington Patch; Rupp, Moving School Start Time Gets Push (Oct. 21, 2011) Barrington Patch; Barrington Public Schools, Contact [a school representative advises that Barrington Middle School begins morning classes at 7:50 a.m.].) In 2009, sleep medicine specialist Dr. Judith Owens persuaded the headmaster of St. Georges School to push back start times from 8 a.m. to 8:30 a.m. Researchers characterized the outcomes as striking and broad in scope, but still far short of ideal[.] As in the Minnesota longitudinal studies, fewer depressive symptoms were reported among students following the change, a particularly noteworthy finding given the relationship between depression and suicidal ideation in adolescents. In addition, students reported feeling more motivated to participate in a variety of activities and were less likely to seek medical attention for fatigue-related concerns. Students got to bed 15 minutes earlier following the change to later start times, increasing their nightly sleep total by an average of 45 minutes. The percentage of students getting less than 7 hours of sleep decreased by 79.4%, and those reporting at least 8 hours of sleep increased from 16.4% to 54.7%. Students reported significantly more satisfaction with sleep. Alertness increased, daytime sleepiness and fatigue were reduced. Food services data showed a substantial increase in consumption of hot foods (i.e., eggs and breakfast meats) at breakfast (35 vs. 83 servings a month). Teacher-reported first class absences/tardies decreased by 45 percent. Grades rose slightly, but the differences were not statistically significant. Participation in after-school activities remained high. Despite considerable resistance from faculty and athletic coaches before the change, students and faculty voted overwhelmingly to retain the 8:30 a.m. start time. One faculty member wrote, I have found the 8:30 start to be the single most positive impact to my general quality of life at [the school] since I started 12 years ago. According to Dr. Owens, At the end of the experimental period, there was not a single faculty member, student or administrator who wanted to go back to the old start time. Patricia Moss, M.A., Ph.D., Assistant Head of School and Head of the Latin Department, stated, The results were stunning. Theres no other word to use. We didnt think wed get that much bang for the buck. (Owens, Belon, & Moss, Impact of Delaying School Start Time on Adolescent Sleep, Mood, and Behavior (Jul. 2010) Arch. Pediatr. Adolesc. 164 Med. 7, 608-614; see also, Comer, Owens 80 advocates later start for more sleep (Sept. 27, 2010) The Brown Daily Herald; Taboh, American Teenagers Dangerously Sleep Deprived: Tired teens physically, mentally, emotionally compromised (Sept. 9, 2010) VOA News; Freyer, Study at R.I. boarding school finds more sleep for teens equals better performance (Jul. 7, 2010) Providence J.; Gardner, Later Start Times May Foster Better Students (Jul. 6, 2010) Bloomberg Business Week; Tanner, Study Shows Teens Benefit from Later School Day (Jul. 5, 2010) Assoc. Press.) Tennessee - The superintendent of Kingsport City Schools made a presentation to the Board of Education detailing the benefits to students of delaying middle and high school start times. The current schedule has middle school students beginning classes at 7:45 a.m. and high school students at 7:30 a.m. and 7:45 a.m. In September, the tentative plan proposed delaying morning classes until sometime between 8:25 a.m. and 8:35 a.m. for the 2012-2013 school year. In October, the tentative plan was to begin middle school students at 8:30 a.m. and high school students at 8:30 a.m. and 8:45 a.m. (Wagner, Later start for Dobyns-Bennett students drawing support (Oct. 14, 2011) timesnews.net; Wagner, Kingsport BOE mulls later start time for middle schools, D-B (Sept. 16, 2011) timesnews.net; see also, Wagner, Kingsport BOE opposes state-mandated starting date (Nov. 3, 2011) timesnews.net [district may survey parents re flipping elementary school start time with middle/high school start times; many in attendance opposed the idea].)

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Howard School of Academics and Technology will retain its 9 a.m. start time after seeing improvements in attendance, graduation rates, and academic performance. The schools principal reported, Well, the nine oclock start afforded us the opportunity to have students actually awake during first block. Attendance has gone up ... just slightly, but grades and student achievement have been greatly affected, as well. Other middle schools and high schools in the district begin as early as 7:15 a.m. (Mitchell, Howard to Keep 9am Start Time & Stay With Goal of a Quality Education (Sept. 13, 2011) WDEF.com; The Howard School; Hamilton County Dept. of Education, 2011-2012 Bell Schedule.) In October of 2011 it was reported that the Cleveland City Schools Board favored delaying its current 7:25 a.m. middle and high school start time to the 8:30 a.m. range. Board member Tom Cloud was on the committee when the 7:25 a.m. start time was adopted, but he has since seen his sixth grade niece waiting for the bus at 6:05 a.m. The Director of Schools commented that was too early for children to be waiting for a bus. Six a.m. is just crazy. Board member Richard Shaw stated said research shows high school students get better results with more sleep. I used to see kids sleeping in the halls. It doesnt make any sense. On December 5, 2011, the school board adopted the following start times for the 2012-2013 academic year: high school, 8 a.m.; middle school, 7:50 a.m.; elementary schools, 8:40 a.m. (Higgins, Cleveland school day to start 30 minutes later in 2012 (Dec. 7, 2011) Chattanooga Times Free Press; Higgins, Cleveland, Tenn., schools to study start and stop times (Oct. 4, 2011) Chattanooga Times Free Press; Board Members Question Early Cleveland School Start Times (Oct. 3, 2011) Chattanoogan.com.) Texas -- For the 2011-2012 school year, the Houston Independent School District considered advancing high school start times to 7:45 a.m., at least 30 minutes earlier than most campuses now begin. Parent protests, informed by Marta Fiorotto, Ph.D., Associate Professor of Pediatrics at Baylor College of Medicine, may have caused the proposal to be defeated, 4-3. Nonetheless, five high schools -- Barbara Jordan, Law Enforcement and Criminal Justice, Davis, Furr and Sam Houston -- independently adopted the 7:45 a.m. start time for the benefit of students participating in extracurricular activities. More than 20 elementary and middle schools also voluntarily changed their schedules. A proposal to save $1.2 million in transportation costs for 2012-2013 would again modify start times, with high schools beginning at 8:45 a.m., middle schools at 7:45 a.m., and elementary schools at 7:30 a.m. or 8:30 a.m. Those schools which voluntarily modified their schedules for 2011-2012 may seek exemptions to avoid implementing the proposed new start times. (Mellon, HISD: See how your childs school schedule could change (Feb. 24, 2012) Houston Chronicle [the proposed schedule would advance most middle school start times]; HISD considers changing school start/end times (Feb. 23, 2012) ABC13; Mellon, Students, beware: School hours could change in HISD (Feb. 23, 2012) Houston Chronicle; Mellon, HISD wont be tinkering with kids wake-up times (Jun. 9, 2011) Houston Chronicle; Mellon, HISD students might pay for budget woes with less sleep (Jun. 1, 2011) Houston Chronicle [nearby Cypress-Fairbanks ISD begins morning classes at 7:25 a.m.]; Walsh, HISD moves to uniform start and end times for school days (Apr. 11, 2011) Texas Watchdog.) As part of a plan to cut $3.7 million from the budget, the Midway Independent School District is considering adopting a two-tiered busing schedule for 2012-2013. Plan A, favored by most parents, would advance middle and high school start times to an unstated hour. The 2011-2012 student handbook reflects a 7:50 a.m. middle school start time, and an 8 a.m. high school start time. The elementary school handbook reflects an 8 a.m. start time. (Skinner, Midway ISD makes more plans towards final budget cuts (Feb. 21, 2012) News25.) In early November 2011, the superintendent of College Station Independent School District (CSISD) announced a tentative plan to delay middle school start times to 8:45 a.m. in order to eliminate certain bus routes and reduce future bus purchases, saving approximately $200,000 annually and an estimated $1.1 million over the next 3 years. CSISD middle schools currently begin between 8:20 a.m. and 8:25 a.m. On November 15, 2011, the board announced its decision to retain the current schedule for 2012-2013. (CSISD, CSISD Board of Trustees Decides to Keep Current School Start Times (Nov. 15, 2011) KBTX.com; Falls,

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CSISD Mulls Changing School Start Times for Fall 2012 (Nov. 2, 2011) KBTX.com [the plan would have advanced high school start times to 7:25 a.m.]; Superintendents Monday Message (Nov. 7, 2011) CSISD.) To address budget cuts, the Ector County Independent School District will consolidate bus routes, delaying high school start times from 8:39 a.m. to 8:54 a.m. (New School Things (Aug. 21, 2011) OA online.) The Carrollton Farmers Branch Independent School District will push back high school start times from 7:30 a.m. to 8:20 a.m. to improve academic performance and benefit students. Elementary school students will begin at 7:40 a.m., middle school students at 9 a.m. Officials state that the start-time changes cost the district nothing. (Zeeble, Carrollton-Farmers Branch Shifts School Start Times (Aug. 18, 2011) KERA News; Roth, New Start Times for C-FB schools (Jun. 8, 2011) Star Local News.) Vermont -- Scientific research persuaded the Windham Southeast Supervisory Union to push back start times at Brattleboro Union High School by one hour, to 8:45 a.m. (Cone, New school start time is OKd for BUHS (Jun. 11, 2011) Brattleboro Reformer; Windham Southeast Supervisory Union; WSESU School Start Time Memo, 2011-2012.) Virginia -- In August of 2011, Fairfax County Public Schools launched an online survey in which votes favoring a delay in the current 7:20 a.m. high school start time garnered more responses than any other subject with 2,600 votes. A school representative, however, stated the survey was not secure, meaning nothing prevented individuals from voting more than once. The group Start Later for Excellence in Education Proposal (SLEEP) has been pressing for the change for many years. In response to the online survey, one school board member stated, Nothing is going to happen right now, but its not an issue thats going to go away. A school district spokesman noted that a 2009 survey of parents showed the majority disfavored later start times. SLEEP co-founder Phyllis Payne countered that the 2009 survey was flawed and that a 2008 survey showed only 15 percent of parents favored the current schedule. In addition, a 2009 county health youth survey showed 90 percent of Fairfax County secondary school students were not getting enough sleep. With half of the school boards 12 incumbents not seeking reelection, SLEEP is surveying board candidates as to their plans to address healthier start times. (Klimko, FCPS Says Schools Survey Lacks Credibility Because of Security Issue (Sept. 30, 2011) Fairfax City Patch; Klimko, SLEEP Pressures Candidates on School Starting Times (Sept. 19, 2011) Cenreville Patch; Klimko, Student Sleep Issue Keeps Resurfacing, Survey Shows (Aug. 12, 2011) Centreville Patch; Chandler, Board Rejects Change of High School Bell Times (Mar. 20, 2009) Wash. Post.) Washington - Castle Rock High School is delaying the starting bell until 8:50 a.m. Tuesday through Thursday to provide time before school for students to get help with homework. (Garrison, Earlier start times set to kick in for Longview schools (Aug. 13, 2011) The Daily News.) Relying upon clear and overwhelming evidence of sleep-deprived adolescents, Battle Ground Public Schools Superintendent Shonny Bria announced middle and high school students would begin school days 30 minutes later, at 8:15 a.m. and 8 a.m., respectively. (Njus, Battle Ground Schools to shift start time so students can get more sleep (Jul. 14, 2011) OregonLive.com.) Nathan Hale High School in the Seattle School District delayed its start time to 8:30 a.m. based on adolescent sleep research and feedback from parents who said it would be better for students. Dean of students, Mike Linett, describes the change as a rewarding experience for both teachers and students at the school. Students are more awake and teachers no longer adjust curricula for the first few hours of school. We have since increased attendance, increased achievement and created a better learning environment. (Amodei, Powering up your teens brain (Feb. 26, 2008) ParentMap.) Wisconsin - The Eau Claire Area School District Parent Advisory Council has proposed pushing back high school start times by an hour or two. Currently classes begin around 7:30 a.m. Superintendent Ron 88

Heilmann noted that the idea is to allow high school students time to sleep in so they can be more alert during school. The research is very clear about the adolescent brain, especially as they get into middle school and high school, that starting slightly later, there does seem to be pretty clear research evidence that there is a benefit. The superintendent noted the decision will be made by the board of education. (District looking into starting high school two hours later (Feb. 16, 2012) WEAU.com; Wiebold, Proposal could change start times for Eau Claire schools (Feb. 16, 2012) WQOW.com.) By 4 to 3 vote, the Witnall School District school board approved a measure to delay high school start times from 7:15 a.m. to 7:45 a.m. and middle school start times from 7:45 a.m. to 8 a.m. for 2012-2013. The director of special education and human resources noted the current high school start time is very early for teenagers to get up, be motivated and be listening. Superintendent Lowell Holtz, apparently unaware the earliest start time proposed for this population by any expert is 8:30 a.m., stated, Our sole purpose for doing this is not to inconvenience anybody, but to provide improved educational opportunities for our kids. Many parents expressed dissatisfaction the plan also provides for middle and high school start times to be delayed by an additional hour twice monthly. The late start days are intended to permit professional learning communities among teachers and administrators. (Cotey, Whitnall School Board Split on 2012-13 Calendar (Jan. 23, 2012) Greenfield Patch; School schedules may get a wake-up call (Jan. 17, 2012) Franklin Now; Cotey, Should Whitnall Change its School Start Times? (Dec. 13, 2011) Greenfield Patch.) The Menomonee Falls School District is considering a plan to delay the start time of North Middle School from 7:30 a.m. to 7:59 a.m. in an effort to ease transportation of students as the high school start time advances. (Engelking, Rise and Shine! School Could Start Earlier Next Year at MFHS (Nov. 28, 2011) Menomonee Falls Patch.) The School District of River Falls adopted a citizens group recommendation to [c]reate a more effective school start time for all students. A committee composed of staff members, parents, high school students, community members, and administrators researched the start time issue, finding, consequences to students for sleep deprivation associated with starting school at 7:30 AM. The consequences include: impairments of mood, attention, and memory; behavior control; lower academic performance and motivation to learn; and health-related effects, including weight gain, lack of exercise, use of stimulants, and more vehicle accidents. An October 2011 survey of parents found 7:45 a.m. to be the most preferred start time. On November 28, 2011, the board voted to delay both the middle and high school start times from 7:30 a.m. to 7:45 a.m. Board member Barb Kolpin was the only no vote. Kolpin believed the change did not go far enough. Its not a big enough step to meet the needs of our adolescents. Board members acknowledged the start time committee was constrained by the directive not to add to existing transportation costs. Board member Manny Kenny conceded the 15-minute later start was only incremental, but added that even such a baby step was going in the right direction. (Pfuehler, River Falls students gain more sleep-in time (Dec. 1, 2011) Pierce County Herald; Westerhaus, School District of River Falls; Your Schools: School districts parents should look for, complete sleep survey in October (Sept. 19, 2011) River Falls Journal; SDRF School Start Time Survey Report.) On May 10, 2011, following months of debate, the Greenfield School Board voted not to change the districts school start times, retaining the current 7:10 a.m. high school start time and 7:42 a.m. middle school start time. (District elementary schools begin at 8:45 a.m. and 9:15 a.m.) The plan calling for the high school to begin at 8:10 a.m., middle school at 8:25 a.m., and elementary schools at 7:30 a.m., received zero votes. The plan calling for the high school to begin at 7:45 a.m., middle school at 7:30 a.m., and the elementary schools at 8:45 a.m., received 2 votes. Reasons in opposition to changing start times include busing costs ($208,000), the concern that primary school children would wait for buses in the dark, and the impact on extra-curricular participation, after-school jobs, and families that rely on older students to watch younger sibling. (Cotey, Greenfield School District Decides to Keep School Start Times the Same (May 10, 2011) Greenfield Patch; School District of Greenfield.) 89

Although it appears this information has not been updated in some time, the National Sleep Foundation reports individual schools or districts in 19 states have pushed back their start times, and more than 100 school districts in an additional 17 states are considering delaying their start times. In 2005, Paula Long compiled a limited list of U.S. schools considering or actually making the change to later start times; available here.

Schools Recently Advancing Start Times, etc. This advance of the school day is in direct conflict with a putative pubertal/adolescent phase delay. --Mary Carskadon, Ph.D., Professor of Psychiatry, Brown University School of Medicine, Director of Chronobiology and Sleep Research at Bradley Hospital, Amy Wolfson, Ph.D., Professor of Psychology, College of the Holy Cross, Christine Acebo, Ph.D., Assistant Research Professor, Department of Psychiatry and Human Behavior, Brown University School of Medicine, Orna Tzischinsky, Ph.D., Emek Yezreel College, Emek Yezreel, Israel, Sleep Laboratory, Faculty of Medicine, Technion-Israel Institute of Technology, Haifa, Israel, and, Ronald Seifer, Ph.D., Professor of Psychiatry and Human Behavior, Brown University. (Carskadon, Wolfson, Acebo, Tzischinsky, & Seifer, Adolescent sleep patterns, circadian timing, and sleepiness at a transition to early school days (Dec. 15, 1998) 21 Sleep 8, p. 872.) Alabama -- Demopolis High School will advance start times by 3 minutes to 7:47 a.m. as part of a plan to add 6 minutes to the school day. (Smith, DHS school day now 6 minutes longer (Aug. 2, 2011) demopolistimes.com.) Alaska -- The Kenai Peninsula Borough School District is considering transitioning from one- to twotiered busing in order to address a $750,000 budget shortfall. The proposed schedule would advance Ninilchik (K-12), from 8:45 a.m. to 7:40 a.m., Homer High, from 8:30 a.m. to 7:40 a.m., and Homer Middle, from 8:35 a.m. to 7:50 a.m. Elementary schools, including Chapman (K-8), would delay start times. (Chapman (K-8), from 8:40 a.m. to 9 a.m.; Paul Banks (PS-2), from 8:30 a.m. to 8:45 a.m.; West Homer (36), from 8:25 a.m. to 8:55 a.m.; McNeil Canyon (K-6), from 7:50 a.m. to 9 a.m.) (Jackinsky, Area school times may change to reduce transportation costs (Feb. 22, 2012) HomerNews.com.) Arizona - On December 13, 2011, the governing board for the Lake Havasu Unified School District voted unanimously to advance the start time of Thunderbolt Middle School from 8:30 a.m. to 8 a.m. beginning in August 2012. This places Thunderbolt on the same schedule as the other seven schools in the district. The new schedule will allow for student medical appointments to be scheduled after school and will also allow school staff to arrive on time for district meetings. Seventy percent of parents favored the change. (Leatherman, Board approves measures for 2012-2013 school year (Dec. 14, 2011) Todays News-Herald.) Notably, the 2006 National Sleep Foundation poll showed 90% of parents believed their teenage children were getting enough sleep. (N. 109, p. 26.) The same poll found only 1 in 5 adolescents obtained the recommended amount of sleep (9 hours or more) on school nights. (Id., p. 7.) Sahuarita High School will advance start times to from 8:30 a.m. to 8:20 a.m. in order to reduce missed class time for student-athletes and to accommodate afternoon career education classes. Walden High School, which opened in 2011, also begins morning classes at 8:20 a.m. Zero period classes at Sahuarita will begin at 7:19 a.m. Walden High does not offer zero period classes. (Franchine, Classes start, end earlier for high schools (Jul. 19, 2011) Sahuarita Sun.) California -- Torrey Pines High School advanced a late start day from 8:55 a.m. to 7:40 a.m. in order to offer an extended lunch period as reward for increased statewide achievement scores. The school principal explained the earlier start was necessary to meet minimum instructional time requirements.

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One student commented the 75 minute advance was less a reward than a substitution. (Sutton, Education Matters: Sleeping through lunch (Nov. 3, 2011) Del Mar Times.) In 2010, Canyon Crest Academy advanced start times from 8:15 a.m. to 8 a.m. in order to address traffic congestion at the later hour. The time was advanced rather than delayed to accommodate sports schedules. (Sutton, Education Matters: Sleeping through lunch (Nov. 3, 2011) Del Mar Times.) Connecticut -- In order to save $500,000 in busing costs, reduce traffic congestion and early dismissals for student-athletes, and to limit fees paid to substitute teachers when teacher-coaches leave early for athletic contests, the Fairfield Public Schools Board of Education advanced high school start times from 7:50 a.m. and 7:40 a.m. to 7:30 a.m. Anne Pasco, President of the Fairfield Education Association, said the extra 20 minutes given to Warde High students, who started school at 7:50 a.m., and extra 10 minutes for Ludlowe High students, who started at 7:40 a.m., was an inequity between the schools and didnt mean students used that extra time to sleep. When those students go to bed is not within the control of the board, and, as they get older, is not within the control of parents, Pasco said. $500,000 is a lot of money to allocate to give a child an opportunity if he wants 10 minutes more of sleep a day or 20 minutes. Bruce Monte, a former school board member, spoke in support of leaving the high school start times in place, adding that more sleep had a positive effect on academic performance, athletic performance, obesity and depression, among other things. (Brophy, Board of Ed Approves $148.5m Budget for 2011-12 (Jan. 26, 2011) Fairfield Patch; Lang, Proposed Fairfield schools budget calls for 4.9 percent spending increase (Jan. 20, 2011) CTPost.) Joseph Salata and psychiatrist Jeffrey Deitz wrote op-ed pieces suggesting students would be better served by later start times. (Salata, Early school hours put kids at risk (Dec. 2, 2011) Fairfield Citizen; Deitz, Schools Start Too Soon for Good Health (Aug. 26, 2010) The Fairfield Daily.) Florida -- In 2009, Pasco County Schools advanced start times for Gulf Middle School students from 8:37 a.m. to 7:40 a.m. in order to save busing costs. When the school day began after 8 a.m., about 42 percent of students missed more than 10 days of school. Following the change, 71 percent of Gulf students miss more than 10 days of classes. Of those, 24 percent missed more than 20 days. The numbers have improved since the school began utilizing a guidance counselor, social worker, current and former teachers, and others to address each students attendance difficulties individually. The 2011-2012 school hours page shows most other middle schools begin at 8:40, except Raymond B. Stewart, which begins at 8:35 a.m., and Pasco and River Ridge, which begin at 7:30 a.m. (Solochek, Pasco schools fight widespread absenteeism among students (Nov. 13, 2011) tampabay.com; notably, the website for Gulf Middle School notes a 9:55 a.m. start time for 2011-2012, whereas the district website notes a 7:40 a.m. start; in July 2011 it was reported the district was considering delaying high school start times.) Georgia -- Following its designation as a low achieving school, Robert W. Groves High School will lengthen the school year by two weeks and lengthen the school day by 20 minutes, adding 5 minutes to the end of the day and starting school 15 minutes earlier; start times will advance from 7:45 a.m. to 7:30 a.m. (Tyus-Shaw, Earlier School Start for Groves High (Jun. 30, 2011) WSAV.com.) In an email message, the district superintendent acknowledged advancing start times would likely exacerbate rather than solve the problem of academic underachievement, but noted resistance from parents and staff precluded delaying start times. In order to accommodate transportation requirements for the opening of a new school, the City Schools of Decatur school board adopted a schedule advancing start times for Decatur High School from 8:35 a.m. to 8 a.m. for 2011-2012. The Decatur High School principal had requested a 7:45 a.m. start time and one board member proposed an 8:45 a.m. start. Parents cited the board to studies showing teens do not test well if they awaken too early and perform better academically with later start times. On February 7, 2012, a start time committee made three recommendations to the school board: start the schools between 8:15 and 8:45 a.m.; start the two schools within 15 minutes of each other; explore the sharing of buses for the two schools. (Ellis, Committee Recommends Changes In Decatur School Start Times (Feb. 7, 2012) Decatur91

Avondale Estates Patch; Loupe, Decatur High School Principal Defends Earlier Start Time (Apr. 12, 2011) Decatur-Avondale Estates Patch; Valdes, Decatur Schools Bell Schedule to be Discussed at Board Meeting Tuesday (May 10, 2011) Decatur-Avondale Estates Patch; John Ahmanns Plan For Tonights School Board Meeting (Jun. 14, 2011) Decatur Metro; City Schools of Decatur, School Hours [the plan resulted in later middle school start times].) Illinois -- The District 7 school board will advance the start times of two middle schools and Edwardsville High School by 15 minutes to 8 a.m. and 7:20 a.m., respectively. The district expects to save as much as $3 million in transportation costs. (Donald, Blame it on the buses: Kids will start the school day earlier in Edwardsville (Jun. 23, 2011) BND.com.) Plainfield School District 202 will advance start times for Plainfield East and South High Schools from 8:10 a.m. to 7:05 a.m. in order to save approximately $600,000 in busing costs. (Mullins, What You Need to Know Before the Kids Go Back (Aug. 2, 2011) Plainfield Patch; Manchir, D-202 families preparing for earlier school start times (Aug. 17, 2011) TribLocal.) Ball-Chatham Community Schools will adjust middle school start times in order to improve transportation efficiency. Glenwood Intermediate School will advance the morning bell from 8:10 a.m. to 7:50 a.m. (Reavy, Class times, bus schedules change in Ball-Chatham (Aug. 18, 2011) The State Journal Register.) Indiana -- The Marion Independent School District has announced new start times for 2012-2013, advancing the start time of Vernon Middle School from 7:55 a.m. to 8:05 a.m. (Munson, MISD may move Emerson students to Kirkwood facility (Feb. 17, 2012) Marion Times [Francis Marion Intermediate will delay its start time].) The principal of Warren Central High School announced start times will advance from 7:35 a.m. to 7:20 a.m. in response to our need to increase student achievement. The teachers union president questioned the wisdom of the earlier start time, noting research indicates that older students perform better when school starts later in the morning. (McCleery, Warren Central students to return to class Monday -- and with earlier start time (Jul. 28, 2011) INDYSTAR.COM.) As part of the East Allen County Schools redesign plan, transportation was overhauled resulting in high school start times advancing 15 minutes, to 7:45 a.m., with the exception of Woodlan High which advanced 10 minutes, to 7:50 a.m. (Hissong, With Big Changes, EACS Back to School (Aug. 17, 2011) wane.com.) Kansas -- Wichita Public Schools advanced the start times for one high school and four middle schools to 7 a.m. in order to address budget cuts. Rick Pappas, M.Ed., of Wichita State University noted, Obviously they didnt get enough sleep if theyre getting up that early. Pappas also observed that children without enough sleep could have a harder time focusing on school work and are more prone to experience anxiety and depression. (White, Students face early morning start times (Aug. 17, 2011) KWCH 12 Eyewitness News.) As part of a plan to lengthen the school day and shorten the calendar, Emporia Public Schools has advanced Emporia High School start times to 7:40 a.m. four days per week, and delayed classes until 9:30 a.m. one day. Previously, Emporia High School students began at 8 a.m. three days weekly, and 8:10 a.m. twice weekly. (Emporia Public Schools, 2011-2012 Start & Dismissal Times [middle school start times have been delayed]; Springer, School board votes on calendar for 2012-13 (Apr. 14, 2011) The Emporia Gazette; Giffin, Changes in bus routes, scheduling planned for 2012-13 school year (Aug. 25, 2011) The Emporia Gazette.)

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Maine - Effective October 11, 2011, Winthrop Middle School and Winthrop High School will advance start times by 10 minutes, to 7:40 a.m. and 7:30 a.m., respectively. The superintendent explained the change was made to ensure Winthrop primary school students are picked up on time and able to eat breakfast at school. (Adams, Winthrop students to start catching bus earlier (Oct. 10, 2011) Kennebec J.; Winthrop Public Schools.) Maryland - The Carroll County Public School System announced that in order to save approximately $1.2 million in transportation costs for the 2012-2013 school year, Liberty, South Carroll and Century high schools will begin 15 minutes earlier, advancing start times to 7:30 a.m., consistent with other district high schools. Two middles schools, Oklahoma Road Middle and Sykesville Middle, will advance start times by 10 minutes, to 8:25 a.m. (George, Carroll school system changes school start times for 2012-13 (Sept. 23, 2011) Carroll County Times; Bonk, Eldersburg, Mechanicsville Elementary See Greatest Change in New School Schedule (Sept. 23, 2011) Eldersburg Patch; Carroll County Public Schools, 2012-2013 bell schedule.) Massachusetts -- Beginning with the 2011-2012 school year, Nauset Regional Middle School advanced its start time from 9 a.m. to 8:30 a.m. There has been a substantial increase in tardiness and absenteeism among students since the change was made. (Fraser, Later start time lauded at Nauset High (Jan. 10, 2012) Cape Cod Times [high school start times have been delayed].) Michigan -- In order to improve transportation efficiency, the Huron Valley Schools has advanced the start times of Milford and Lakeland High Schools to 7:19 a.m.; middle schools advanced to 8:22 a.m. A district representative advises that for 2010-2011 school year, the high schools began at 7:21 a.m., and the middle schools at 8:27 a.m. (Huron Valley Schools, Contact Us; Meier, Need to Know: Huron Valley School District Alters School Times (Jun. 29, 2011) White Lake Patch.) The Port Huron Area School District will advance start time for its two high schools by two minutes, to 7:35 a.m., beginning October 24, 2011, in order to meet state requirements for instructional hours. The districts 3 middle schools currently begin morning classes at 7:35 a.m. (Garcia, Port Huron Area School District adds time to instruction (Oct. 20, 2011) thetimesherald.com.) Minnesota - The Winona Area Public Schools school board is considering advancing the current 9 a.m. start time at Winona Senior High School to reduce 5th period absences among student-athletes. Board member Steve Schild said he thought the decision to have the older students start after the elementary students was based on research suggesting that teens have a harder time getting going in the morning, and asked that the board look at all of the factors before making any major changes. Board member Michelle Langowski explained that she thought parents preferred to have older students home when elementary aged kids left for the bus because it was easier to find childcare after school than before. The high school principal stated that there was some evidence that when older students have a later start time, and parents arent home to get them on the bus, they are more likely to skip school. A study undertaken by an instructor at the school found no adverse impact on student-athletes academic performance, despite as many as 15.1 school periods missed to attend sports contests. The school board is considering flipping high school and elementary school start times. The board acknowledged that studies show teens perform better when they start later in the morning and get a bit more sleep. District elementary schools begin at 7:45 a.m., the middle school at 9 a.m. (Squires, Redistricting tops school board discussion (Feb. 29, 2012) Winona Post; Squires, Students miss class time for sports, GPAs still up (Dec. 7, 2011) Winona Post.) Central Middle School and Eden Prairie High School will both advance start times to 7:50 a.m. In 2010, middle school students began at 9 a.m., high school students began at 7:55 a.m. (Shaffer, Early to rise for CMS students this year (Aug. 31, 2011) Eden Prairie News; Eden Prairie Schools, School Hours, etc.)

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In order to save $220,000 in transportation costs, Lakeville Area Public Schools will start high school classes at 8:02 a.m. and some middle schools as early as 7:24 a.m. (Knoll, Lakeville Tweaks School Start Times to Save $220,000 (Jun. 14, 2011) kstp.com.) St. Paul Public Schools will advance the start times for most students in grades 6-12 to 7:30 a.m. in order to implement a tiered busing schedule and save $1.9 million in transportation costs. The difference from 2010-2011 ranges from 25 minutes to one hour and 50 minutes. (Vezner, St. Paul schools shake up the class day (Jun. 3, 2011) TwinCities.com; Sleep Experts Concerned About St. Paul Start Time Change (Jun. 3, 2011) CBS) [article appears to incorrectly reference the St. Paul School District rather than St. Paul Public Schools]; St. Paul Public Schools, 2011-2012 Bell Schedule [the new busing schedule will result in delayed start times for one school].) Missouri -- Kansas City Public Schools has swapped high school and elementary school start times; secondary students will begin classes at 7:25 a.m., elementary students at 8:35 a.m. (Oberholtz, Back-toSchool Hotline open to help families (Aug. 8, 2011) KCTV5News.) With bus schedules too close together, Parkway Schools students have been arriving late to class. On September 21, 2011, the Parkway Board of Education voted to advance high school schedules by 10 minutes, from 7:45 a.m. to 7:35 a.m. Parent Mark Dunlop observed, teachers are saying, already, that kids are sleeping in class. Some students cited case studies from other districts. Board member Bruce Major responded, I can Google right now, and come up with research that will say just about anything. This isnt an open debate. One student collected more than 538 signatures on a petition opposing the change and asking that the school start be moved to the second tier, at 8:20 a.m. One parent stated, Parkway has thrown our kids under the bus. Early start times lead to daytime sleepiness. We ask you to develop a plan that meets the real needs of students, not your financial constraints. (Shapiro, School schedule changes raise ire of Parkway parents (Sept. 26, 2011) stltoday.com; Calhoun, Dissent Doesnt Defer Changes in Parkway Schools Start Times (Sept. 22, 2011) CBS St. Louis; Whitney & Biondo, Parkway School Students: Prepare To Wake Up 5-10 Minutes Earlier (Sept. 21, 2011) Chesterfield Patch; Biondo, School Bus Delays To Dictate 5-10 Minute Changes in Parkway School Day (Sept. 19, 2011) Chesterfield Patch; Parkway Schools, School Hours [Parkway middle school schedules have been delayed].) New Jersey - The Business Administrator/Board Secretary for Pequannock Township Schools has proposed a plan to advance the start time of Pequannock Township High School from 7:50 a.m. to 7:35 a.m. in order to save up to $250,000 a year on transportation costs. The school board president gave the go ahead to explore implementation of the proposed plan in a viable way. (Janoski, Pequannock looking to alter school opening times to allow for bus tiering (Dec. 14, 2011) NorthJersey.com.) Following its designation as a persistently lowest-achieving school, Camden High School added 95 minutes to the school day, advancing start times from 8:20 a.m. to 7:45 a.m. Camden City Public Schools Assistant Superintendent Andrea Gonzalez-Kirwin commented, The students had a hard time adjusting to going in early. Gonzalez-Kirwin believes the new schedule results in student tardiness because parents are dropping off the younger siblings first. (Vargas, A new (and longer) day: Camden High School adjusts to its new academic schedule (Oct. 2, 2011) philly.com.) In order to add 20 minutes of instruction to the school day, Pemberton Township Schools middle school start times were advanced to 7:35 a.m. A call to the school reflects that during the 2010-2011 school year, middle schoolers began classes at 8:20 a.m. (Zimmaro, Pembertons school schedule angers parents (Sept. 19, 2011) phillyBurbs.com [high school start times were delayed].) Sparta Township Public Schools staggered middle and high school start times in order to reduce traffic caused by starting both schools at the same time. Sparta High School start times were advanced from 7:15 a.m. to 7:10 a.m. (District unveils plans to spend windfall (Jun. 29, 2011) The Sparta Independent [middle 94

school start times were delayed]; Sparta Township Public Schools, District Schools [both the newspaper and the district website report 7:15 a.m. as the present high school start time, but a school representative indicates 7:10 a.m. is the current start time].) New York -- Beginning with the 2012-2013 academic year, the Webster Central School District will advance high school start times from 7:30 a.m. to 7:25 a.m. and middle school start times from 8:25 a.m. to 7:40 a.m. and 7:30 a.m. The district website explains the reason for the change as follows: This change is in response to national and state efforts to implement more rigorous academic standards through the adoption of the Common Core State Standards (CCSS). CCSS provide guidance to schools across the state to help determine what students need to learn, know, and understand as they prepare for college and employment in the global marketplace. (Rosenberry, Start times for all Webster schools to change next year (Dec. 11, 2011) Democrat and Chronicle: Webster Blog.) The available research suggests the new schedules will undermine, rather than enhance, academic achievement, particularly for disadvantaged students. (Jacob & Rockoff, Organizing Schools to Improve Student Achievement: Start Times, Grade Configurations, and Teacher Assignments (Sept. 2011) pp. 5-11, 21, n. 7; Carrell, Maghakian, & West, As from Zzzzs? The Causal Effect of School Start Time on the Academic Performance of Adolescents (Aug. 2011) 3 AEJ: Econ. Policy 3, pp. 62-81; Edwards, Working Paper, Early to Rise: The Effect of Daily Start Times on Academic Performance (Mar. 2011) University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign, p. 20.) Integrated Arts and Technology High School students receive extra help from teachers before and after school, and even on Saturdays. The student handbook reflects an 8:30 a.m. school start time. The morning program begins about an hour earlier. (Lankes, City schools eye longer day for students (Feb. 7, 2012) Democrat and Chronicle.) North Carolina -- In June 2011, it was reported the Wake County Public School System might advance middle and high school start times by 5 minutes, to 7:25 a.m. and 7:20 a.m., respectively, in order to meet a new state minimum instructional time requirement. The district website reflects that for 2011-2012, middle schools begin between 7:30 a.m. and 8:20 a.m., and high schools between 7:25 a.m. and 8:05 a.m. In February 2012, the district announced it would address a budget shortfall by modifying busing schedules beginning in the Fall of 2012. According to the proposed 2012-2103 bell schedule, four high schools, Broughton, East Wake, Green Hope and Sanderson, may advance start times from 8:05 a.m. to 7:25 a.m. However, school board member John Tedesco is concerned about the proposed change, noting that research demonstrates later schedules best serve high school students academically. Board member Jim Martin, on the other hand, is persuaded that delaying high school start times would result in more teen driving accidents due to the increased traffic congestion at later hours. (Hui, Wake County school board talking about school start times for high school students (Feb. 9, 2012) newsobserver.com; Hui & Goldsmith, Schools hours are in flux (Feb. 11, 2012) The Cary News [some middle school start times would be delayed]; Hui, Wake may change school start and end times (Jun. 20, 2011) newsobserver.com; see also, Govan, Teens need sleep (Feb. 14, 2012) newsobserver.com.) The research does not support Mr. Martins contention. (Vorona, Szklo-Coxe, Wu, Dubik, Zhao, & Ware, Dissimilar Teen Crash Rates in Two Neighboring Southeastern Virginia Cities with Different High School Start Times (Apr. 2011) J. Clin. Sleep Med., Vol. 7, No. 2, pp. 145-151; Danner, & Phillips, Adolescent Sleep, School Start Times, and Teen Motor Vehicle Crashes (Dec. 2008) 4 J. Clin. Sleep Med. 6, pp. 533535.) Ohio -- In response to studies showing sleep-deprivation among students, in 2011-2012 Dublin City Schools pushed back high school start times from 7:25 a.m. to 8 a.m. and middle school start times from 8:15 a.m. to 8:43 a.m. A budget shortfall, however, has resulted in a plan to modify the existing schedule in order to save $175,000 to $200,000 in busing costs. The 2012-2013 schedule would have high schools beginning at 7:55 a.m., middle schools at 8:28 a.m., and elementary schools at 9:10 a.m. (Binkley, Proposed Dublin school cuts include new starting times, higher fees (Feb. 14, 2012) The Columbus Dispatch; Corvo, Later school day start and end times will begin this fall (Aug. 5, 2011) Columbus Local News.)

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On January 17, 2012, Beavercreek City Schools advanced the start time of Beavercreek High School from 8:20 a.m. to 8:05 a.m. in response to budget cuts which reduced busing services. (Sedlak, Some lament Beavercreek school districts reduced bus service (Jan. 18, 2012) Dayton Daily News; Beavercreek Schools Transportation Changes [Ferguson Middle School start time has been delayed].) Oklahoma -- Putnam City Schools will advance high school start times from 8:30 a.m. to 8 a.m. in order to align school schedules with the schedules of the career tech sites serving district students. Middle school start times will advance 5 minutes to 7:40 a.m. as part of a plan to add 15 minutes to the school day. (Staff Reports, Putnam City changes schools start, stop times (Jun. 11, 2011) NewsOK; Staff Reports, Putnam City School District plans forum to discuss start, stop times (May 21, 2011) NewsOK.) In June 2011, it was reported that in order to add 15 minutes to the school day, Tulsa Public Schools may advance high school start times from 9:10 a.m. to 7:40 a.m. (Vickers, Tulsa schools looking to lengthen days, shorten school year (Jun. 24, 2011) jkrh.com.) The plan adopted in July, however, calls for some junior and high schools to start at 8:15 a.m., with the remaining secondary schools beginning at 8:45 a.m. (Sims, Tulsa School Board Approves Uniforms, Schedule Changes (Jul. 21, 2011) Newson6.com.) Pennsylvania -- The Allentown School District will save as much as $1 million in transportation costs by advancing high school start times from 7:55 a.m. to 7:30 a.m. Middle schools will start at 7:50 a.m. (Shelosky, Local District Changes School Start Times (Jun. 23, 2011) wfmz.com; Esack, Allentown schools may change start and end times (Jun. 10, 2011) The Morning Call.) South Dakota - The Dakota Valley School District is considering advancing start times by 15 minutes due to congestion on North Shore Drive and student sporting events occurring close to the end of the school day. Unknown is whether the change would be made to the high school/middle school schedule or the elementary school schedule. A Dakota Valley High School student journalist noted, The fifteen minute earlier start time would not help what the average teen is said to be suffering from, sleep deprivation. The high school and middle school presently begin classes at 8:25 a.m, the elementary school begins at 8:15 a.m. (Dick, To sleep or not to sleep (Oct. 2011) 2 Dakota Valley Panther Pride 1; Dick, To sleep or not to sleep (Oct. 7, 2011) my.hsj.org [same article]; Dakota Valley High School, Master Time Schedule; Dakota Valley Middle School; Dakota Valley Elementary School Student Handbook, 2011-2012.) Texas - For the 2011-2012 school year, the Houston Independent School District considered advancing high school start times to 7:45 a.m., at least 30 minutes earlier than most campuses now begin. Parent protests, informed by Marta Fiorotto, Ph.D., Associate Professor of Pediatrics at Baylor College of Medicine, may have caused the proposal to be defeated, 4-3. Nonetheless, five high schools -- Barbara Jordan, Law Enforcement and Criminal Justice, Davis, Furr and Sam Houston -- independently adopted the 7:45 a.m. start time for the benefit of students participating in extracurricular activities. More than 20 elementary and middle schools also voluntarily changed their schedules. A proposal to save $1.2 million in transportation costs for 2012-2013 would again modify start times, with high schools beginning at 8:45 a.m., middle schools at 7:45 a.m., and elementary schools at 7:30 a.m. or 8:30 a.m. Although some district middle schools now begin as early as 7:37 a.m., most begin later than the proposed new 7:45 a.m. start time. Those schools which voluntarily modified their schedules for 2011-2012 may seek exemptions to avoid implementing the proposed new start times. (Mellon, HISD: See how your childs school schedule could change (Feb. 24, 2012) Houston Chronicle [the proposed schedule would represent a delay in high school start times]; HISD considers changing school start/end times (Feb. 23, 2012) ABC13; Mellon, Students, beware: School hours could change in HISD (Feb. 23, 2012) Houston Chronicle; Mellon, HISD wont be tinkering with kids wake-up times (Jun. 9, 2011) Houston Chronicle; Mellon, HISD students might pay for budget woes with less sleep (Jun. 1, 2011) Houston Chronicle [nearby Cypress-Fairbanks ISD begins morning classes at 7:25 a.m.]; Walsh, HISD moves to uniform start and end times for school days (Apr. 11, 2011) Texas Watchdog.)

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In early November 2011, the superintendent of College Station Independent School District announced a tentative plan to advance high school start times from 8:20 a.m. to 7:25 a.m. in order to eliminate bus routes and purchase fewer buses. The new plan was anticipated to save approximately $200,000 annually and an estimated $1.1 million over the next 3 years. On November 15, 2011, the board announced its decision to retain the current schedule for 2012-2013. (CSISD, CSISD Board of Trustees Decides to Keep Current School Start Times (Nov. 15, 2011) KBTX.com; Falls, CSISD Mulls Changing School Start Times for Fall 2012 (Nov. 2, 2011) KBTX.com [the plan would have delayed middle school start times to 8:45 a.m.]; Superintendents Monday Message, Nov. 7, 2011.) On October 3, 2011, the Lovelady Independent School District advanced start times for students in grades 7-12 from 8:10 a.m. to 7:50 a.m. Since the cafeteria cannot accommodate all students (K-12) simultaneously, the change will allow younger students to eat breakfast before the morning bell; older students will breakfast at an unstated alternate time. (Lovelady Independent School District, Notice of Schedule Change.) Beginning with the 2010-2011 school year, McKinney Independent School District advanced start times for its three high schools to 7:30 a.m. A district representative advises that morning classes previously began at 9:15 a.m. (Graham, Weve Got Two Options (Jan. 5, 2012) Essay Forum [the link to Mr. Graham's article appears to have expired].) Washington -- South County Washington Schools (ISD 833) is considering advancing the start times of its four middle schools from 7:55 a.m. to 7:35 a.m. in order to save $190,000 in busing costs. (Spooner, District 833 could bump up middle schools' start time to trim bus costs (Feb. 10, 2012) South Washington County Bulletin.) The Longview School District advanced start times by 10 minutes in order to accommodate 3 teacher training days. District middle school start times will now range from 7:30 a.m. to 7:50 a.m., and high schools will now begin at 7:40 a.m. Superintendent Suzanne Cusick says shes aware of research that suggests students learn better later in the day, but said she doesnt believe the new start times are too early. (Garrison, Earlier start times set to kick in for Longview schools (Aug. 13, 2011) The Daily News.) Yelm Community Schools reduced busing costs by advancing middle school start times to 7:25 a.m. and 7:30 a.m. (Huey, Yelm schools alter start times in fall (Jun. 10, 2011) Nisqually Valley News.) Wisconsin -- The Menomonee Falls School District is considering a plan to advance the high school start time from 8 a.m. to 7:14 a.m. in order to increase staff development time and reduce late period absenteeism due to extracurricular activities. (Engelking, Rise and Shine! School Could Start Earlier Next Year at MFHS (Nov. 28, 2011) Menomonee Falls Patch [the middle school start time may be delayed.) Baraboo School District Administrator Crystal Ritzenthaler advanced middle and high school start times by 15 minutes to 7:45 a.m. in order to increase instructional times and to allow for collaboration and training among teachers. (Bridgeford, Early to rise: Baraboo Schools change start times (Aug. 30, 2011) Baraboo News Republic.)

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Recent & Selected Literature/Websites Vedaa, Saxvig, Wilhelmsen-Langeland, Bjorvatn & Pallesen, School start time, sleepiness and functioning in Norwegian adolescents (Feb. 2012) Scandinavian J. Ed. Res., pp. 55-67. Matricciani, Olds, Blunden, Rigney & Williams, Never Enough Sleep: A Brief History of Sleep Recommendations for Children (Feb. 13, 2012) 129 Pediatrics 3, pp. 548-556; see also, Shute, How Much Sleep Do Kids Need? Not Such A Mystery After All (Feb. 14, 2012) NPR [Dr. Judith Owens criticizes study]. Eide & Showalter, Sleep and Student Achievement (2012) Eastern Economic Journal. Taki, Hashizume, Thyreau, Sassa, Takeuchi, Wu, Kotozaki, Nouchi, Asano, Asano, Fukuda, & Kawashima, Sleep duration during weekdays affects hippocampal gray matter volume in healthy children (Dec. 14, 2011) Neurolmage. Deitz, Childrens Sleep: Time For A Wake-Up Call (Dec. 11, 2011) Huffpost: Healthy Living. Christakis & Christakis, Why Are We Depriving Our Teens of Sleep? (Nov. 18, 2011) Time. Venkateshiah, Teenagers and Sleep (Nov. 10, 2011) Am. Coll. Chest Physicians, Chest Physician Article. Ming, Koransky, Kang, Buchman, Sarris, & Wagner, Sleep Insufficiency, Sleep Health Problems and Performance in High School Students (Oct. 20, 2011) 2011 Clin. Med. Insights: Circulatory, Respiratory and Pulmonary Med. 5, pp. 71-79. Jacob & Rockoff, Organizing Schools to Improve Student Achievement: Start Times, Grade Configurations, and Teacher Assignments (Sept. 2011) The Hamilton Project, Brookings Inst. Eaton, McKnight-Eily, Lowry, Croft, Presley-Cantrell, & Perry, Relationships between hours of sleep and health-risk behaviors in US adolescent students (Aug. 5, 2011) Prev. Med., pp. 1-3; CDC Online Newsroom (Sept. 26, 2011) Insufficient sleep among high school students associated with a variety of health-risk behaviors. Carrell, Maghakian, & West, As from Zzzzs? The Causal Effect of School Start Time on the Academic Performance of Adolescents (Aug. 2011) 3 Am. Economic Journal: Economic Policy 3, pp. 62-81. Ohio Department of Transportation (Aug. 23, 2011) Crashes Involving Teens Triple During Back-to-School. Clinkinbeard, Simi, Evans, & Anderson, Sleep and Delinquency: Does the Amount of Sleep Matter? (Jul. 2011) J. Youth & Adolesc., pp. 1-3. Short, Gradisar, Wright, Lack, Dohnt, & Carskadon, Time for Bed: Parent-Set Bedtimes Associated with Improved Sleep and Daytime Functioning in Adolescents (Jun. 2011) 34 Sleep 10, pp. 797-800. Lufi, Tzischinsky, & Hadar, Delaying School Starting Time by One Hour: Some Effects on Attention Levels in Adolescents (Apr. 2011) 7 J. Clin. Sleep Med. 2, 137-143, discussed here, Quan, Podcast Transcript (Apr. 2011) 7 J. Clin. Sleep Med. 2, p. 1. Vorona, Szklo-Coxe, Wu, Dubik, Zhao, & Ware, Dissimilar Teen Crash Rates in Two Neighboring Southeastern Virginia Cities with Different High School Start Times (Apr. 2011) J. Clin. Sleep Med., Vol. 7, No. 2, pp. 145-151; discussed here, Am. Acad. Sleep Med. (Apr. 12, 2011) Crash rates may be higher for teen drivers who start school earlier, and, Quan, supra, Podcast Transcript, p. 1.

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Kirby, Maggi, & DAngiulli, School Start Times and the Sleep-Wake Cycle of Adolescents: A Review and Critical Evaluation of Available Evidence (Mar. 2011) 40 Educational Res. 2, pp. 56-61. 2011 Sleep in America Poll: Communications Technology in the Bedroom (Mar. 2011) National Sleep Foundation. Sofer-Dudek, Sadeh, Dahl, Rosenblat-Stein, Poor Sleep Quality Predicts Deficient Emotion Information Processing over Time in Early Adolescence (2011) 34 Sleep 11, pp. 1499-1508. Mah, Mah, Kezirian, & Dement, The Effects of Sleep Extension on the Athletic Performance of Collegiate Basketball Players (2011) 34 Sleep 7, pp. 943-950. School Start Time and Sleep (2011) National Sleep Foundation. Edwards, Working Paper, Early to Rise: The Effect of Daily Start Times on Academic Performance (Mar. 9, 2011) University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign. Taboh, American Teenagers Dangerously Sleep Deprived: Tired teens physically, mentally, emotionally compromised (Sept. 9, 2010) VOA News. Owens, Belon, & Moss, Impact of Delaying School Start Time on Adolescent Sleep, Mood, and Behavior (Jul. 2010) Arch. Pediatr. Adolesc. 164 Med. 7, pp. 608-614. Wahlstrom, School Start Times and Sleepy Teens (Jul. 2010) 164 Arch. Pediatr. Adolesc. Med. 7, pp. 676-677. Mednick, Christakis, & Fowler, The Spread of Sleep Loss Influences Drug Use in Adolescent Social Networks (Mar. 2010) 5 Plos One 3, e9775. Pasch, Laska, Lytle, & Moe, Adolescent Sleep, Risk Behaviors, and Depressive Symptoms: Are They Linked? (Mar. 2010) 34 Am. J. Health Behavior 2, pp. 237-248. Pizza, Contardi, Antognini, Zagoraiou, Borrotti, Mostacci, Mondini, & Cirignotta, Sleep Quality and Motor Vehicle Crashes in Adolescents (Feb. 15, 2010) 6 J. Clin. Sleep Med. 1, pp. 41-45. Gangwisch, Babiss, Malaspina, Turner, Zammit, & Posner, Earlier Parental Set Bedtimes as a Protective Factor Against Depression and Suicidal Ideation (Jan. 1, 2010) 33 Sleep 1, pp. 97-106. Eaton, McKnight-Eily, Lowry, Croft, Presley-Cantrell, & Perry, Prevalence of Insufficient, Borderline, and Optimal Hours of Sleep Among High School Students -- United States, 2007 (2010) J. Adolesc. Health, pp. 1-3. Dewald, Meijer, Oort, Kerkhof, & Bgels, The inuence of sleep quality, sleep duration and sleepiness on school performance in children and adolescents: A meta-analytic review (2010) Sleep Med. Rev. 14, pp. 179189. Olds, Maher, Blunden, & Matricciani, Normative Data on the Sleep Habits of Australian Children and Adolescents (2010) 33 Sleep 10, pp. 1381-1388. Figueiro & Rea, Lack of short-wavelength light during the school day delays dim light melatonin onset (DLMO) in middle school students (2010) 31 NeuroEndocrinology Letters 1. Willis, How Students Sleepy Brains Fail Them (Summ. 2009) Kappa Delta Pi Rec., pp. 158-162.

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Calamaro, Mason, & Ratcliffe, Adolescents Living the 24/7 Lifestyle: Effects of Caffeine and Technology on Sleep Duration and Daytime Functioning (Jun. 2009) 123 Pediatr. 6, pp. e1005-e1010. Knutson & Lauderdale, Sociodemographic and behavioral predictors of bed time and wake time among U.S. adolescents aged 15-17 years (Mar. 2009) 154 J. Pediatr. 3, pp. 426430. Hagenauer, Perryman, Lee, & Carskadon, Adolescent Changes in the Homeostatic and Circadian Regulation of Sleep (Jun. 2009) 31 Dev. Neurosci. 4, pp. 276-284. Phillips, Circadian rhythms: Of owls, larks and alarm clocks (Mar. 2009) Nature 458, pp. 142-144. Buckhalt, Wolfson, & El Sheikh, Children's Sleep and School Psychology Practice (Mar. 2009) 24 School Psych. Practice 1, pp. 60-61. Alfano, Zakem, Costa, Taylor, & Weems, Sleep Problems and their Relation to Cognitive Factors, Anxiety, and Depressive Symptoms in Children and Adolescents (2009) 26 Depression and Anxiety, pp. 503-512. Noland, Price, Dake, & Telljohann, Adolescents Sleep Behaviors and Perceptions of Sleep (2009) 79 J. School Health 5, pp. 224-230. Danner & Phillips, Adolescent Sleep, School Start Times, and Teen Motor Vehicle Crashes (Dec. 2008) 4 J. Clin. Sleep Med. 6, pp. 533535. Am. Lung Assoc., Sleep Disorders Section, School Daze: A Wake Up Call; Am. Lung Assoc. of New England, School Daze: A Wake Up Call (Sept. 2008) Healthy Air Matters, p. 4. OMalley & OMalley, School Start Time and Its Impact on Learning and Behavior, publish. in, Sleep and Psychiatric Disorders in Children and Adolescents (Ivanenko edit., Informa Healthcare 2008) pp. 79-94. Bronson, Snooze or Lose (Oct. 7, 2007) New York Mag. Wolfson, Spaulding, Dandrow, & Baroni, Middle School Start Times: The Importance of a Good Nights Sleep for Young Adolescents (Aug. 15, 2007) 5 Behav. Sleep Med. 3, pp. 194-209. Liu & Buysse, Sleep and youth suicidal behavior: a neglected field (May 2006) 19 Current Opn. Psychiatr. 3, pp. 288-293. Millman, edit., Excessive Sleepiness in Adolescents and Young Adults: Causes, Consequences, and Treatment Strategies (Jun. 2005) 115 Pediatr. 6, pp. 1774-1786. Hansen, Janssen, Schiff, Zee, & Dubocovich, The Impact of Daily Schedule on Adolescent Sleep (Jun. 2005) 115 Pediatr. 6, pp. 1555-1561. OBrien & Mindell, Sleep and Risk-Taking Behavior in Adolescents (2005) 3 Behav. Sleep Med. 3, pp. 113-133. Walker & Stickgold, Its Practice, with Sleep, that Makes Perfect: Implications of Sleep-Dependent Learning and Plasticity for Skill Performance (2005) 24 Clin. Sports. Med., pp. 301-317. Fredriksen, Rhodes, Reddy, & Way, Sleepless in Chicago: Tracking the Effects of Adolescent Sleep Loss During the Middle School Years (Jan./Feb. 2004) 75 Child Dev. 1, pp. 8495. Later Start Times for High School Students (Jun. 2002) University of Minn. 100

From Zzzzs to As (Jan. 31, 2002) Frontline: Inside the Teenage Brain [video]; id., Interview with Mary Carskadon [transcript]; id., Interview with Carlyle Smith; id., Adolescents and Sleep, Frontline Producer Sarah Spinks. The Center for Applied Research and Educational Improvement (CAREI), School Start Time Studies, University of Minn. Dornbusch, Sleep and Adolescence: A Social Psychologists Perspective, publish. in, Adolescent Sleep Patterns, Biological, Social, and Psychological Influences (Carskadon, edit., Cambridge Univ. Press 2002) pp. 1-3. Laberge, Petit, Simard, Vitaro, Tremblay, & Montplaisi, Development of Sleep Patterns in Early Adolescence (2001) 10 J. Sleep Res., pp. 59-66. Dahl, The Consequences of Insufficient Sleep for Adolescents: Links Between Sleep and Emotional Regulation (Jan. 1999) 80 Phi Delta Kappan 5, pp. 354-359. Wahlstrom, The Prickly Politics of School Starting Times (Jan. 1999) 80 Phi Delta Kappan 5, pp. 344-347. Edina Public Schools, Edina High School Start Time Decision Process, District News.

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Student Advocacy The Student Advisory Board on Legislation in Education Cal. Assn. Student Councils (2004) Student Advisory Bd. Leg. Ed., School Starting Time, pp. 10-11. Students Addressing School Boards California -- The Sleep Club -- Shultz, TEMECULA: High school students seek later start (Oct. 31, 2011) The Californian; see also, Surowski, Students Push for More Sleep (Dec. 20, 2011) Temecula Patch; Kabany, Sleepy teens need relief (Nov. 6, 2011) North County Times [Temecula Valley High School, Temecula, CA] Ohio -- Josh Flick -- Collier, Waking up is hard to do (Feb. 29, 2012) FoxToledo.com ; Dupont, Teens losing sleep over school (Feb. 27, 2012) Sentinel-Tribune [Bowling Green High School] Student Writings Alabama -- Mallory Schum, Starting classes so early isnt good for students (Jan. 2, 2012) Press-Register [Theodore High School] California -- Kelsey Abkin, Solution: Start School Later (Nov. 26, 2011) Edhat: Teen Voice [Santa Barbara High School] Kimberly Sanchez, Late-Start (Nov. 16, 2011) The Express [San Juan Hills High School] Connecticut -- Zach Speed, The Wrong Side of the Bed (Feb. 19, 2012) Inklings [Staples High School] Illinois -- Michelle Martinez, Vince Cole, & Diana Avitia, Students Prefer Late Start Tuesdays (Oct. 17, 2011) Monthly Mortonian [Morton East High School] Indiana -- Eleni Souronis, Teens vs. Sleep (Nov. 30, 2011) The Howl Online [Boone Grove High School] Iowa -- Andrea DuVall, Later start to the school day (Feb. 9, 2012) Ames Tribune [Ames Community School District] Kentucky -- Haley Dallas, The Early Bird Gets Sleepy? (Feb. 7, 2012) News Flash [McCracken County Public Schools] Massachusetts -- Zachary Dietz, Teens sleep needs dictate later school start time (Dec. 3, 2011) Daily Hampshire Gazette [Hilltown Cooperative Charter Public School] Sydney Snow, Its Still Dark Out, Time for School! (Nov. 29, 2011) The Pentucket Profile [Pentucket Regional High School] Henry von Thaden, Start Time Change (Nov. 2, 2011) Nauset Horizons [Nauset Regional High School] Michigan -- Jamie Grunewald, Nighty Night (Dec. 13, 2011) The East Edition [South Lyon East High School] New York -- Stephanie Philpott, Sleep is a necessity that is often overlooked by teenagers (Dec. 29, 2011) Niagara Falls Rev. [A.N. Myer Secondary School]

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John Mantikas, Reasons behind students drowsiness (Oct. 27, 2011) The Charles Street Times [Lindenhurst High School] Joshu Creel, Get up! Sleepy teens roam school halls while debate goes on about changing start times (Aug. 21, 2010) Buffalo News.com [Park School] Ohio Quinton Couch, Sleep deprivation in todays youth (Jan. 12, 2012) Ro-Hi-Ti [Ross High School] Victoria Bracher, Start time unrealistic (Dec. 5, 2011) The Colonel [Roosevelt High School] Pennsylvania -- Sienna Lee, Why high school students need a later arrival time (Dec. 12, 2011) Lions Tale [New Hope-Solebury High School] South Dakota -- Mary Dick, To sleep or not to sleep (Oct. 7, 2011) Panther Pride [Dakota Valley High School] Texas -- Justin Graham, Weve Got Two Options (Jan. 5, 2012) Essay Forum [McKinney Independent School District] Wisconsin Mary Siebert, Later school start time helps pupils (Jan. 20, 2012) Stevens Point Journal [P.J. Jacobs Junior High School] Liz Hall, Should High Schools Start School Late(r)? (Dec. 22, 2011) The Arrowhead [Arrowhead High School] Student Videos Bailey Mohr, Whats Your Issue? Need More Sleep! (Apr. 13, 2010) SchoolTube.com [Ladue Horton Watkins High School, Saint Louis, MO]. Mohommad Tavakoli, We need more sleep! (Jan. 5, 2010) YouTube [Fairfax County Public Schools, Virginia]. Matts Story: Rethinking School Start Times (2007) Harvard Univ., Healthy Sleep [includes brief interview with Richard Ferber, M.D., Associate Professor of Neurology, Harvard Medical School, Senior Associate in Neurology, Department of Neurology, Childrens Hospital Boston]. Students on Facebook As teens we should get 8-9 hours of sleep, SO WHY DOES SCHOOL START SO EARLY Everyone who hates getting up so damn early for school If sleep is important then why does school start so early?!? If teens bodies cant wake up before ten AM, why does school start at 8??? If teens need the most sleep...Why are we going to school so early???? Sleep for Students! Start Later to Ensure Educational Progress

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Students Need More Sleep Teens need the most sleep.. So why are we getting up so damn early? WHY CANT SCHOOL START LATER Why Does School Have To Start So Early... I Need More Sleep :) Why does school have to start sooooooooooo early!!! :( WHY THE HELL DOES SCHOOL START SO EARLY??!!! Why the hell does school start so early?

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Notable Quotes Sending kids to school at 7 a.m. is the equivalent of sending an adult to work at 4 in the morning.--William Dement, M.D., Sc.D., Ph.D., Professor of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Stanford University School of Medicine, Division Chief, Stanford University Division of Sleep. (Grabbe, Amherst considers impact of starting school later for secondary students (Jan. 6, 2012) Amherst Bulletin.) Their biological rhythms are set in such a way that they really cant wake up earlier. Its like telling a person they have to jump eight feet. They just cant.---William Dement, M.D., Sc.D., Ph.D. (Fernandez, Politician Hopes to Reawaken Sleep Legislation (Mar. 25, 1999) SFGate.com.) In the 1990s, after a change in start time from 7:30 a.m. to 8:30 a.m. a decrease was found in car accident rates for 16 - 18 year olds in the Fayette County school district, while rates actually increased in the rest of the state for 17 - 18 year olds. Given the danger posed to young people from car accidents this is a strong reason in itself to change school start times.---John Cline, Ph.D., Assistant Clinical Professor of Psychiatry, Yale School of Medicine, commenting on the 2008 study by Danner, et al. (Cline, Do Later School Start Times Really Help High School Students? (Feb. 27, 2011) Psychology Today.) Our study does confirm that on school days adolescents are obtaining less sleep then they are thought to need, and the factor with the biggest impact is school start times. If sleep loss is associated with impaired learning and health, then these data point to computer use, social activities and especially school start times as the most obvious intervention points.---Kristen Knutson, Ph.D., M.A., Assistant Professor of Medicine, Pulmonary/Critical Care, University of Chicago, Department of Medicine, Diane Lauderdale, Ph.D., M.A., M.A., Professor of Epidemiology, University of Chicago. (Knutson & Lauderdale, Sociodemographic and behavioral predictors of bed time and wake time among U.S. adolescents aged 1517 years (Mar. 2009) 154 J. Pediatr. 3, pp. 426430, [p. 5].) During adolescence sleep becomes shallower and shifts to later hours, reflecting extensive brain rewiring. The frontal lobe - responsible for executive functions such as planning and inhibiting inappropriate behaviour - shows a marked fall in synapse density as the result of neuronal pruning. Teenagers are not just being lazy when they dont want to get out of bed. Their adolescent biology may also prefer an adjustment of school hours. [] There is good evidence that young people dont get enough sleep. When they live on an 8-hour sleep schedule they remain sleepy, and much more so than older people on the same schedule (Sleep, vol 33, p 211).--- Derk-Jan Dijk, Ph.D., M.Sc., Professor of Sleep and Physiology, University of Surrey, Director, Surrey Sleep Research Centre, Raphaelle Winsky-Sommerer, Ph.D., M.Sc., Lecturer in Sleep and Circadian Rhythms, University of Surrey. (Dijk & Winsky-Sommerer, Sleep: How much we need and what keeps us awake (Feb. 9, 2012) New Scientist [registration required to access article].) [O]ur inability to change start times is illustrative of a larger pattern of neglecting the wellbeing and potential of our young people.---Erika Christakis, M.P.H, M.Ed., Harvard College administrator, early childhood educator, Nicholas Christakis, M.D., M.P.H., Ph.D., Professor of Medical Sociology, Harvard Medical School, Professor of Medicine, Harvard Medical School, Professor of Sociology, Harvard Faculty of Arts and Sciences. (Christakis & Christakis, Why Are We Depriving Our Teens of Sleep? (Nov. 18, 2011) Time.) Sleep deficit is hampering high school achievement. Tiredness should not be confused with laziness. All teens should have the right to learn in an optimum environment. Rather than the early to bed... adage, the new adage should be, Wake up later and your grades will be greater. ---James Maas, Ph.D., Retired Professor of Psychology, Stephen H. Weiss Presidential Fellow, Cornell University. (Am. Lung Assoc., Sleep Disorders Section, School Daze: A Wake Up Call; Am. Lung Assoc. of New England, School Daze: A Wake Up Call (Sept. 2008) Healthy Air Matters, p. 4.) 105

Because academic clocks are in conflict with teenagers body clocks, teenagers are one of the most sleepdeprived [populations] in the country.---James Maas, Ph.D. (Lim, Maas Pushes for Later Start Time at Schools (Feb. 26, 2009) The Cornell Daily Sun.) Almost all teen-agers, as they reach puberty, become walking zombies because they are getting far too little sleep[.] What good does it do to try to educate teen-agers so early in the morning? You can be giving the most stimulating, interesting lectures to sleep-deprived kids early in the morning or right after lunch, when theyre at their sleepiest, and the overwhelming drive to sleep replaces any chance of alertness, cognition, memory or understanding.---James Maas, Ph.D. (Carpenter, Sleep deprivation may be undermining teen health (Oct. 2001) APA Mon. Psych., Vol. 32, No. 9.) Almost all teenagers in this country are sleep-deprived.---Maida Chen, M.D., Assistant Professor of Pediatrics, University of Washington School of Medicine, Assistant Director, Pediatric Sleep Disorders Center, Seattle Childrens Hospital. (Amodei, Powering up your teens brain (Feb. 26, 2008) ParentMap.) Sleep deprivation among adolescents appears to be, in some respects, the norm rather than the exception in contemporary society.---Robert E. Roberts, Ph.D., Professor of Behavioral Sciences, Division of Health Promotion and Behavioral Sciences, University of Texas School of Public Health, Catherine R. Roberts, M.P.H., Ph.D., Clinical Assistant Professor, Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, University of Texas Health Science Center at Houston Medical School, Hao T. Duong, M.D., Ph.D. (Roberts, Roberts, & Duong, Sleepless in adolescence: Prospective data on sleep deprivation, health and functioning (2009) 32 J. Adolesc., p. 1055.) Almost 80 percent of kids dont get enough sleep. If they get one hour less than usual, they face significant academic and psychological consequences.---David Palmiter, Psy.D., Ph.D., Professor of Psychology, Marywood University. (Heesen, Back to school: How to make the transition to high school a smooth one (Aug. 7, 2011) pennlive.com.) Among adolescents, daily feelings of anxiety, depression, and fatigue are the most consistent psychological outcomes of obtaining less sleep at night.---Andrew Fuligini, Ph.D., Professor of Psychiatry & Biobehavioral Sciences, David Geffen School of Medicine, UCLA, Christina Hardway, Ph.D., Assistant Professor of Psychology, University of Michigan. (Fuligini & Hardway, Daily Variation in Adolescents Sleep, Activities, and Psychological Well-Being (2005) 16 J. Research Adolesc. 3, p. 371.) Chronically sleep-deprived teens often become so used to the feeling of sleepiness that they dont recognize that they are settling for less than they are capable of in creativity, academic performance, and communication both in and out of the classroom.---Paula K. Rauch, M.D., Associate Professor of Psychiatry, Harvard Medical School, Director, Marjorie E. Korff PACT Program, Massachusetts General Hospital, Chief, Child Psychiatry Consultation Liaison Service, Massachusetts General Hospital. (Rauch, What is Normal Sleep for Children and Adolescents? publish. in, Attention Deficit Disorder: Practical Coping Mechanisms (Fisher, edit., Informa Healthcare, 2nd ed. 2007) p. 175.) They are additional data suggesting that high school start times should be delayed to increase the amount of sleep that teenagers get during the school week and, hence, reduce the amount of sleep deprivation they incur.---Stuart Quan, M.D., Professor of Medicine, Harvard Medical School, Senior Physician, Division of Sleep Medicine, Department of Medicine, Brigham and Womens Hospital, commenting on the recent study by Vorona, et al. (Quan, Podcast Transcript (Apr. 2011) 7 J. Clin. Sleep Med. 2, p. 1.) Our findings have important implications for education policy; administrators aiming to improve student achievement should consider the potential benefits of delaying school start time. A later start 106

time of 50 minutes in our sample has the equivalent benefit as raising teacher quality by roughly one standard deviation. Hence, later start times may be a cost-effective way to improve student outcomes for adolescents.---Scott Carrell, Ph.D., Associate Professor, Dept. of Economics, UC Davis, Teny Maghakian, Ph.D. candidate, Dept. of Economics, UC Davis, and James West, Ph.D., Professor of Economics, Dept. of Economics & Geosciences, U.S. Air Force Academy. (Carrell, Maghakian, & West, As from Zzzzs? The Causal Effect of School Start Time on the Academic Performance of Adolescents (Aug. 2011) 3 AEJ: Econ. Policy 3, 62-81.) School schedules are forcing them to lose sleep and to perform academically when they are at their worst. [] Knowledge of the unusual weekday/weekend sleep phenomenon among adolescents could promote better family relationships if parents understood that sleeping late on weekends is part of their childrens inborn cycle and not lazy or antisocial behavior.---Martha Hansen, M.S., Imke Janssen, M.S., Ph.D., Assistant Professor, Preventative Medicine, Rush Medical College, Adam Schiff, B.S., Phyllis C. Zee, M.D., Ph.D., Professor of Neurology, Neurobiology & Physiology, Director, Sleep Disorders Program, Northwestern University, Feinberg School of Medicine, Margarita L. Dubocovich, Ph.D., Professor and Chair, Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, SUNY Buffalo, School of Medicine and Biomedical Sciences. (Hansen, Janssen, Schiff, Zee, & Dubocovich, The Impact of School Daily Schedule on Adolescent Sleep (Jun. 2005) 115 Pediatr. 6, p. 1560.) The earliest school start times are associated with annual reductions in student performance of roughly 0.1 standard deviations for disadvantaged students, equivalent to replacing an average teacher with a teacher at the sixteenth percentile in terms of effectiveness.---Brian A. Jacob, Ph.D., Walter H. Annenberg Professor of Education Policy, Gerald R. Ford School of Public Policy, University of Michigan, Jonah E. Rockoff, Ph.D., Assistant Professor, Finance and Economics, Columbia University. (Jacob & Rockoff, Organizing Schools to Improve Student Achievement: Start Times, Grade Configurations, and Teacher Assignments (Sept. 2011) The Hamilton Project, Brookings Inst., p. 7.) The tail of transportation wags the dog of the educational system.---Associate Professor Charles Stoddart, Ed.D., SUNY Fredonia. (Creel, Get up! Sleepy teens roam school halls while debate goes on about changing start times (Aug. 21, 2010) Buffalo News.com.) The results were stunning. Theres no other word to use. We didnt think wed get that much bang for the buck.---Patricia Moss, M.A., Ph.D., Assistant Head of School and Head of the Latin Department, St. Georges School, Rhode Island, after start times were delayed from 8 a.m. to 8:30 a.m. (Tanner, Study Shows Teens Benefit from Later School Day (Jul. 5, 2010) Assoc. Press.) You know a school or a school district is in trouble when the strategic plan follows the principles of the ABC School of Management--Administration By Convenience. One of the best indicators of an adultfocused environment, one that is practicing the principles of ABC, is when research is blatantly ignored in favor of current practice.---Mel Riddile, M.Ed., Ed.D, Associate Director for High School Services, National Association of Secondary School Principals, former state (Virginia) and national Principal of the Year. (Riddile, Time Shift: Is your school jet-lagged? (Mar. 14, 2011) NASSP, The Principal Difference.) Its about adult convenience, its not about learning.---Mel Riddile, M.Ed., Ed.D. (Tanner, Study Shows Teens Benefit from Later School Day (Jul. 5, 2010) Assoc. Press.) Given that the primary focus of education is to maximize human potential, then a new task before us is to ensure that the conditions in which learning takes place address the very biology of our learners.--Mary Carskadon, Ph.D., Professor of Psychiatry & Human Behavior, Brown University, Director, Chronobiology and Sleep Research, Bradley Hospital. (Carskadon, When Worlds Collide: Adolescent Need for Sleep Versus Societal Demands (Jan. 1999) 80 Phi Delta Kappan 5, pp. 348, 352.) 107

Many adolescents are not getting the recommended hours of sleep they need on school nights. Insufficient sleep is associated with participation in a number of healthrisk behaviors including substance use, physical fighting, and serious consideration of suicide attempt. Public health intervention is greatly needed, and the consideration of delayed school start times may hold promise as one effective step in a comprehensive approach to address this problem.---Lela McKnightEily, Ph.D., National Center for Chronic Disease Prevention and Health Promotion (CDC), Division of Adult and Community Health. (CDC Online Newsroom (Sept. 26, 2011) Insufficient sleep among high school students associated with a variety of health-risk behaviors.) Changing a schools start and end time to be later for teenagers is not an easy undertaking. Sleep specialists can play an important role by educating school administrators about the potential adverse outcomes of very early school start times. [] Hopefully, in the near future, increased awareness of the sleep problems faced by teenagers should motivate schools across the country to synchronize school schedules with students circadian clocks. That way, teenagers are in school during their most alert hours to achieve their full academic potential.---Saiprakash B. Venkateshiah, M.D., F.C.C.P., Assistant Professor, Emory University School of Medicine. (Venkateshiah, Teenagers and Sleep (Nov. 10, 2011) Am. Coll. Chest Physicians, Chest Physician Article.) The often serious impact of this chronic under-sleeping is now evident in both high school and middle school students. [] For all students one of the most salientand correctablesocial factors contributing to student sleep deprivation, is school start times. (OMalley & OMalley, School Start Time and Its Impact on Learning and Behavior, publish. in, Sleep and Psychiatric Disorders in Children and Adolescents (Ivanenko edit., Informa Healthcare 2008) p. 79.) A good deal of research shows sleep is very important for memory and learning. The evidence fairly strongly suggests that later start times are better. Inherently, the majority of kids with a later start will get more sleep, which is beneficial to grades as well as being safer.---Philip Fuller, M.D., Medical Director, Mary Washington Hospital Sleep and Wake Disorders Center. (Sklarew, Getting As with More Zs: The fight for later school starts has backing from doctors and statistics (Nov. 2011) Northern Virginia Mag.) Abusive, Nonsense, Deleterious, Cruel, & Nuts [T]hese early school start times are just abusive.---Mary Carskadon, Ph.D., Professor of Psychiatry & Human Behavior, Brown University, Director, Chronobiology and Sleep Research, Bradley Hospital. (Carpenter, Sleep deprivation may be undermining teen health, supra, APA Mon. Psych., Vol. 32, No. 9.) Professor Till Roenneberg, Ph.D., Interim Director of the Institute of Medical Psychology and Team Leader of the Chronoscience and Systems Biology project, says it is nonsense to start school early in the day. It is about the way our biological clock settles into light and dark cycles. This clearly becomes later and later in adolescence. [] Sleep is essential to consolidate what you learn. (Ryan, Lie in for teenagers has positive results (Mar. 22, 2010) BBC News.) Citing the deleterious impact of school times on our teenagers, Janet Croft, Ph.D., a senior epidemiologist at the CDC, referred to early high school start times as an unrealistic burden on children and their families. ... It can change lives to change school start times. They cant concentrate that early when driving that early in the dark. They stay sleepy all the day. (Park, Falling Asleep in Class? Blame Biology (Dec. 15, 2008) CNN.) It is cruel to impose a cultural pattern on teenagers that makes them underachieve. Most school regimes force teenagers to function at a time of day that is suboptimal and many university students are exposed to considerable dangers from sleep deprivation.---Russell Foster, Ph.D., F.R.S., Chair of Circadian 108

Neuroscience, Oxford University. (Making teens start school in the morning is cruel brain doctor claims (Dec. 1, 2007) London Evening Standard.) All of the research that has been done shows that older adolescents need more sleep than younger ones. They fall asleep later and wake up later to get the sleep they need. Despite these two facts, almost all districts start the senior high schools first. Were sending them to school during the last one-third of their sleep cycles. Its comparable to adults getting up at 3 a.m. or 4 a.m. You wouldnt want to be making important decisions at that hour. I think its nuts. The sleep deficit builds up until they fall asleep at school or driving.---Mark Mahowald, M.D., University of Minnesota, Neurology Department, Professor and Chair, Hennepin County Medical Center, Director, Minnesota Regional Sleep Disorders Center. (Delisio, Its About Time (and Sleep): Making the Case for Starting School Later (Jun. 3, 2003) Ed. World.) Four more from Professor Mahowald: Of all the arguments Ive heard over school start-times, not one person has argued that children learn more at 7:15 a.m. than at 8:30. (Bronson, Snooze or Lose (Oct. 7, 2007) New York Mag., web p. 3.) Most adolescents are sub-optimally alert in the morning. Yet their biological clocks program them to go to sleep late---too late to get an optimal amount of sleep before the next school day begins. If we as a society are sending kids to school to learn, it would be wise to send them in a condition that fosters learning. (Lamberg, Teens arent lying -- they really need to sleep later (Dec. 5, 1994) Am. Med. News, p. 24.) Not a single excuse [for not changing start times] weve heard relates to education. None of the excuses have the word education in them. We should send kids to high school in a condition that promotes learning rather than interfering with it. (Delisio, Its About Time (and Sleep): Making the Case for Starting School Later, supra, Ed. World.) [S]chools are scheduled early for adult convenience: theres no educational reason we start schools as early as we do. (Bronson & Merryman, Nurture Shock: New Thinking About Children (Twelve Books 2009) p. 37, citing, rather than quoting, Professor Mahowald.)

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Incognizant Educators America is a vast reservoir of ignorance about sleep, sleep deprivation and sleep disorders.---Former U.S. Senator Mark Hatfield, quoted here by Professor William Dement, M.D., D.Sc., Ph.D. California -- In January 2012, Rio Americano High School teachers voted on whether to modify their contract to permit a start time change from 7:50 a.m. (zero period begins at 6:50 a.m.) to 8:20 a.m. The schools (now expired) Later Start Times Information page noted the teachers approval was needed for any change of five minutes or more[.] Parent group STEPS (Support to Engage Parents and Students) had pressed for later start times since February 2011, holding informational forums, making presentations to faculty, etc. Teachers opposed to the change attacked the research proffered by STEPS, voting against the proposal, 57% to 43%. (Hartman, Proposal to Change School Start Time (Jan. 27, 2012) The Mirada.) No matter what the research says, [former] San Mateo County Superintendent of Schools Floyd Gonella [Ed.D.] said he has no plans to allow Peninsula students to sleep in. Trying to adjust school times to sleep patterns has no validity, Gonella said. And even if it does, scientific facts come out and then three days later, theres another study countering that. (Fernandez, Politician Hopes to Reawaken Sleep Legislation (Mar. 25, 1999) SFGate.com.) The biological basis for phase delay in adolescents has been confirmed repeatedly since 1993. (Hagenauer, Perryman, Lee, & Carskadon, Adolescent Changes in the Homeostatic and Circadian Regulation of Sleep (Jun. 2009) 31 Dev. Neurosci. 4, 276-284; Crowley, Acebo, & Carskadon, Sleep, circadian rhythms, and delayed phase in adolescence (2007) 8 Sleep Med., 602-612; Carskadon, Vieira, & Acebo, Association between puberty and delayed phase preference (1993) 16 Sleep 3, 258-262.) Connecticut -- In order to save $500,000 in busing costs, the Fairfield Public Schools Board of Education advanced high school start times from 7:50 a.m. and 7:40 a.m. to 7:30 a.m. Anne Pasco, President of the Fairfield Education Association, said the extra 20 minutes given to Warde High students, who started school at 7:50 a.m., and extra 10 minutes for Ludlowe High students, who started at 7:40 a.m., was an inequity between the schools and didnt mean students used that extra time to sleep. When those students go to bed is not within the control of the board, and, as they get older, is not within the control of parents, Pasco said. $500,000 is a lot of money to allocate to give a child an opportunity if he wants 10 minutes more of sleep a day or 20 minutes. (Brophy, Board of Ed Approves $148.5m Budget for 2011-12 (Jan. 26, 2011) Fairfield Patch; Lang, Proposed Fairfield schools budget calls for 4.9 percent spending increase (Jan. 20, 2011) ctpost.) As previously noted: (a) 8:30 a.m. is the earliest start time recommended by any sleep expert (discussed here); (b) students in schools which have delayed start times get significantly more sleep (discussed here); (c) most teens are unable to fall asleep much before 11 p.m. so that advancing start times invariably reduces sleep time (see, Later Start Times for High School Students (Jun. 2002) University of Minn.); (d) obtaining even 11.4 additional minutes of sleep per night provides a statistically significant benefit (Dexter, Bijwadia, Schilling, & Applebaugh, Sleep, Sleepiness, and School Start Times: A Preliminary Study (2003) 102 Wisconsin Med. J. 1, pp. 42-46; and, (e) on school days adolescents are obtaining less sleep then they are thought to need, and the factor with the biggest impact is school start times. (Knutson & Lauderdale, Sociodemographic and behavioral predictors of bed time and wake time among U.S. adolescents aged 1517 years (Mar. 2009) 154 J. Pediatr. 3, [p. 5].) Massachusetts In a citation-free, science-free commentary, parent and Associate Professor of Education and Public Policy Kathryn A. McDermott challenged the wisdom of the Amherst Regional Public Schools plan to delay middle and high school start times, currently set at 7:45 a.m. Routinely starting the school day later will, most likely, affect when but not how much the secondary students sleep and does not seem worth the logistical challenges and potential child-care costs for working families. [] Im not convinced that a one-hour delay in the secondary start time would make enough of a difference to be worth the financial and other costs it would entail. Dr. McDermott characterized the early start time as a relatively small part of the problem of adolescent sleep deprivation. (McDermott (Jan. 24, 2012) My two 110

cents on the proposed changes to Amherst school start times.) Dr. McDermott appears to suffer many of the same misapprehensions noted for Ms. Pasco, supra. Moreover, Dr. McDermott offers no reference to, nor any discussion of, recent studies finding fiscal benefits to schools and students when school begins later. (Jacob & Rockoff, Organizing Schools to Improve Student Achievement: Start Times, Grade Configurations, and Teacher Assignments (Sept. 2011) pp. 5-11, 21; Carrell, Maghakian, & West, As from Zzzzs? The Causal Effect of School Start Time on the Academic Performance of Adolescents (Aug. 2011) 3 AEJ: Econ. Policy 3, pp. 62-81; Edwards, Working Paper, Early to Rise: The Effect of Daily Start Times on Academic Performance (Mar. 2011) University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign, p. 20.) In addition, in any school district where the start times are changed, it is likely that those directly and indirectly involved in the school system will need to make some degree of sacrifice for the benefit of the students. (Kirby, Maggi, & DAngiulli, School Start Times and the Sleep-Wake Cycle of Adolescents: A Review and Critical Evaluation of Available Evidence (Mar. 2011) 40 Educational Res. 2, p. 59, italics added.) After all, schools are scheduled early for adult convenience: theres no educational reason we start schools as early as we do. (Bronson & Merryman, Nurture Shock: New Thinking About Children (Twelve Books 2009) p. 37, citing Professor Mark Mahowald.) In 2008, a group of teachers and parents appointed by the Northampton Public Schools School Committee to explore a later start time for Northampton High School students recommended a one hour delay from the current 7:30 a.m. start time. In 2010, the principal presented a plan to begin classes at 8 a.m. Budget issues and complex scheduling problems have sidelined implementation of any new school schedule. When the issue was addressed at a November 10, 2011 School Committee meeting, Brian Salzer, Ed.S., the Committees unanimous June 2011 selection as new superintendent from a field of 23 applicants, did not mince words when he told committee members that changing the start time at the high school is not a top priority of the administrative team and it is not a top priority on my list. If you would like it to be, you will have to give me direction. Committee member Howard Moore noted the reason for the current 7:30 a.m. high school start time is the bus schedule, not because its whats good for education. Committee Vice Chairwoman Stephanie Pick said she had never heard a single teacher at the high school lobby for a change in the start time. The matter was tabled until January 2012, at which time it was further delayed until 2013 to allow additional study of costs, busing, and the impact on programmatic priorities. (Editorial: Dithering on school start (Jan. 21, 2012) Daily Hampshire Gazette; Solow, Northampton School Committee delays vote on high school start time (Nov. 11, 2011) Daily Hampshire Gazette; Superintendent Blog, Brian Salzer named new Northampton school superintendent (Jul. 13, 2011) Northampton Public Schools; Solow, Issue Tracker: Slow going for advocates of later high school start time (May 9, 2011) Daily Hampshire Gazette; see also, Hanauer, Good evidence, but no action (Nov. 15, 2011) Daily Hampshire Gazette.) In December of 2010, the Lexington Public Schools Committee considered delaying the current 7:45 a.m. high school start time. Superintendent Paul Ash opposed the move, explaining, Im convinced this would require a massive amount of work, and implementing the change would be huge. Im not aware there is any evidence that this produces a positive change in learning. It could have a positive effect, but is it worth the time? I think its not something we should look into right now. (Pickering, School Committee Discusses High School Start Time (Dec. 15, 2010) Lexington Patch; Lexington High School, Schedule.) Michigan -- The superintendent of Dearborn Public Schools, Brian Whiston, has been reported as stating the research has shown that later start times help students initially, but the benefit quickly fades over time. (Hetrick, Dearborn high schools looking at more flexible start times (Feb. 28, 2012) Press & Guide.) This statement is completely unfounded. Missouri -- I can Google right now, and come up with research that will say just about anything. This isnt an open debate.---Bruce Major, Parkway School Board Member, after students argued the plan to advance high school start times to 7:35 a.m. runs counter to findings from studies conducted in other

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districts. (Calhoun, Dissent Doesnt Defer Changes in Parkway Schools Start Times (Sept. 22, 2011) CBS St. Louis.) New Jersey -- Following its designation as a persistently lowest-achieving school, Camden High School added 95 minutes to the school day, advancing start times from 8:20 a.m. to 7:45 a.m. Camden City Public Schools Assistant Superintendent Andrea Gonzalez-Kirwin commented, The students had a hard time adjusting to going in early. (Vargas, A new (and longer) day: Camden High School adjusts to its new academic schedule (Oct. 2, 2011) philly.com.) So far, only by carefully controlling exposure to light, including utilizing eyeshades to exclude evening light, have scientists successfully modified the delayed sleep patterns of adolescents. (Backgrounder: Later School Start Times (2011) National Sleep Foundation; Carskadon, When Worlds Collide: Adolescent Need for Sleep Versus Societal Demands (Jan. 1999) 80 Phi Delta Kappan 5, p. 351.) Otherwise, adolescents simply get so used to the feeling of sleepiness that they dont recognize that they are settling for less than they are capable of in creativity, academic performance, and communication both in and out of the classroom. (Rauch, What is Normal Sleep for Children and Adolescents? publish. in, Attention Deficit Disorder: Practical Coping Mechanisms (Fisher, edit., Informa Healthcare, 2nd ed. 2007) p. 175.) New York Beginning with the 2012-2013 academic year, the Webster Central School District will advance high school start times from 7:30 a.m. to 7:25 a.m. and middle school start times from 8:25 a.m. to 7:40 a.m. and 7:30 a.m. When asked about the new start times, Chief Human Resource Officer Carmen Gumina responded that the district has done the research: What we found was if youre going to move to a later start time, it was, there might be a difference for high school kids, really didnt see any difference with middle school. (Arnold, Webster Schools Will Have Earlier Start Times (Feb. 3, 2012) 13Wham.) The biological basis for phase delay at pubertys onset has been known since 1993. (Carskadon, Vieira, & Acebo, Association between puberty and delayed phase preference, supra, 16 Sleep 3, 258-262.) Physicians have urged eliminating early starting hours teenagers since 1994. (Edina Pub. Schools (1994) Minn. Med. Assn. Letter to Superintendent Dragseth.) In 2004, scientists specifically identified middle schoolers as benefiting from a delay in morning classes. (Fredriksen, Rhodes, Reddy, & Way, Sleepless in Chicago: Tracking the Effects of Adolescent Sleep Loss During the Middle School Years (Jan./Feb. 2004) 75 Child Dev. 1, p. 94.) In the years since, multiple studies have recognized the benefits of later middle school start times. (See, e.g., Jacob & Rockoff, Organizing Schools to Improve Student Achievement: Start Times, Grade Configurations, and Teacher Assignments, supra, pp. 5-11, 21; Lufi, Tzischinsky, & Hadar, Delaying School Starting Time by One Hour: Some Effects on Attention Levels in Adolescents (Apr. 2011) 7 J. Clin. Sleep Med. 2, pp. 137-143; Edwards, Working Paper, Early to Rise: The Effect of Daily Start Times on Academic Performance, supra, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign; OMalley & OMalley, School Start Time and Its Impact on Learning and Behavior, publish. in, Sleep and Psychiatric Disorders in Children and Adolescents (Ivanenko edit., Informa Healthcare 2008) p. 79; Wolfson, Spaulding, Dandrow, & Baroni, Middle School Start Times: The Importance of a Good Nights Sleep for Young Adolescents (Aug. 15, 2007) 5 Behav. Sleep Med. 3, p. 204.) Theres still something that doesnt click for me.---Karen McCarthy, Ph.D., former superintendent of Westchester Schools, after declining an initiative to start district high schools later. (Bronson & Merryman, Nurture Shock: New Thinking About Children (Twelve Books 2009) p. 37.) South Carolina -- Edmond Burnes, principal of Battery Creek High School, said hes not convinced delaying start times would have much effect on students at his school. He said much of the research he is familiar with involves schools in the north or Midwest whose demographics are different than those of Battery Creek. Im kind of skeptical of the research because I think apples and oranges are being compared, he said. Its not the same type of schools. Burnes said he wants to see the breakdown of students socioeconomic status and ethnicity before considering a change. I dont think our start time has anything to do with our student achievement. (Cerve, Early high school start times affect teens ability to learn, studies find (Aug. 2010) islandpacket.com, italics added.) It might be noted that a delay in the 112

timing of sleep during the second decade of life has been observed in over 16 countries on 6 continents, in cultures ranging from pre-industrial to modern[.] (Hagenauer, Perryman, Lee, & Carskadon, Adolescent Changes in the Homeostatic and Circadian Regulation of Sleep (Jun. 2009) 31 Dev. Neurosci. 4, p. 276, citing, Carskadon, Maturation of processes regulating sleep in adolescents, publish. in, Sleep in Children: Developmental Changes in Sleep Patterns (Marcus, Carroll, & Donnelly eds., Informa Healthcare, 2nd ed. 2008) p. 96.) Washington -- South County Washington Schools (ISD 833) is considering a advancing the start times of its four middle schools from 7:55 a.m. to 7:35 a.m. in order to save $190,000 in busing costs. (Spooner, District 833 could bump up middle schools' start time to trim bus costs (Feb. 10, 2012) South Washington County Bulletin.) The Longview School District has advanced start times by 10 minutes in order to accommodate 3 teacher training days. District middle school start times now range from 7:30 a.m. to 7:50 a.m., and high schools now begin at 7:40 a.m. Superintendent Suzanne Cusick, Ph.D., says shes aware of research that suggests students learn better later in the day, but said she doesnt believe the new start times are too early. (Garrison, Earlier start times set to kick in for Longview schools (Aug. 13, 2011) The Daily News.) Again, the earliest start time recommended by any sleep expert is 8:30 a.m.; noted here.) Wisconsin -- In a follow-up comment to his own article concerning the Menomonee Falls School District plan to advance the high school start time from 8 a.m. to 7:14 a.m., journalist Carl Engelking notes district superintendent Patricia Greco, Ph.D., did address the issue of sleep and changing the hours during the meeting. She said that if they started school at 9 a.m. or 10 a.m., kids would likely just stay up until 1 a.m. or later rather than using a later start time as a way to get more sleep. (Comments section, Engelking, Rise and Shine! School Could Start Earlier Next Year at MFHS (Nov. 28, 2011) Menomonee Falls Patch.) The studies do not support Dr. Grecos contention. Students in schools which have delayed their start times have not delayed their bedtime significantly but have been provided with the opportunity to obtain more sleep by sleeping later in the morning. This then provides a pathway whereby these students are better rested at school, have better attendance, and report better mood. Such policy changes may have a major impact on the health and education of adolescents. (Crabtree & Witcher, Impact of Sleep Loss on Children and Adolescents, publish. in, Sleep and Psychiatric Disorders in Children and Adolescents (Informa Healthcare 2008, Ivanenko edit.) p. 144; further discussed here.)

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About/Contact My sons high school begins classes at 7:30 a.m. four days a week. In 2009, after hearing science writer Po Bronson discuss adolescent sleep loss, I began researching the subject. Persuaded by the evidence, I suggested a start time change to my sons principal, Mr. Goldenberg. He thanked me for the research, noted certain obstacles, and commented, I really have not seen or heard any negative effects with student alertness and focus with our 7:30 start time. This information appears to be inconsistent with every pertinent study ever published, the results of an informal student poll, and student sources alleging first period and napping to be well-acquainted. In any event, if the principal is correct, the teenagers at my boys school, like the demographically unique students Mr. Burnes avers to be under his care in Battery Creek, would appear to represent biological anomalies, as studies have uniformly found: (a) sleep-deprivation prevails among adolescents attending schools with 7:30 a.m. start times; (b) adolescent alertness remains at its lowest levels during early morning hours, increasing as the morning wears on; and, (c) a delay in the timing of sleep during the second decade of life has been observed in over 16 countries on 6 continents, in cultures ranging from pre-industrial to modern[.] (Hagenauer, Perryman, Lee, & Carskadon, Adolescent Changes in the Homeostatic and Circadian Regulation of Sleep (Jun. 2009) 31 Dev. Neurosci. 4, p. 276, citing, Carskadon, Maturation of processes regulating sleep in adolescents, publish. in, Sleep in Children: Developmental Changes in Sleep Patterns (Marcus, Carroll, & Donnelly eds., Informa Healthcare, 2nd ed. 2008) p. 96.) In 2012, apparently enjoying some type of supernatural powers, Mr. Goldenberg stated he has not read any of the studies noted in the Sample Advocacy Letter, but knows that he disagrees with them. School leaders good fortune at the lack of any disciplining body is equally the misfortune of our children. By any measure, the proper discharge of pedagogical administration may no longer be reconciled with early starting middle or high schools. Dr. Helene Emsellem, CAREI Director Kyla Wahlstrom, and the National Sleep Foundation each propose education as the first step in persuading a community to consider a start time change; that we must include school leaders among those requiring instruction is disconcerting. The extensive list of materials referenced here is intended to allow the broadest possible review of the relevant literature. This project is dedicated to the memory of my nephew, Nathan, whose tragic passing inspires this effort. ---Dennis Nolan, J.D., certified specialist, juvenile law (child welfare). Website layout by Scott Palamar. For reviewing the manuscript (a charitable description) and many helpful suggestions, thanks to Amy Nolan, M.A., B.A., Gerald Nolan, M.D., Maureen Nolan, R.N., B.F.A., Mike Nolan, M.A., B.A., B.A., and, Scott Palamar, B.A. We welcome web design suggestions (particularly when accompanied by technical ability), as well as references to additional studies, articles, etc. P.O. Box 6101, Oceanside, CA 92052 dn@schoolstarttime.org Citation form -- California Style Manual Copyrighted materials are utilized here under the fair use doctrine. (17 U.S.C. 107.)

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