CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION

1.1 Power quality Power Quality is the set of limits of electrical properties that allows electrical systems to function in their intended manner without significant loss of performance or life. The term is used to describe electric power that drives an electrical load and the load's ability to function properly with that electric power. Without the proper power, an electrical device (or load) may malfunction, fail prematurely or not operate at all. There are many ways in which electric power can be of poor quality and many more causes of such poor quality power. The electric power industry comprises electricity generation (AC power), electric power transmission and ultimately electricity distribution to an electricity meter located at the premises of the end user of the electric power. The electricity then moves through the wiring system of the end user until it reaches the load. The complexity of the system to move electric energy from the point of production to the point of consumption combined with variations in weather, generation, demand and other factors provide many opportunities for the quality of supply to be compromised. While "power quality" is a convenient term for many, it is the quality of the voltage- rather than power or electric current that is actually described by the term. Power is simply the flow of energy and the current demanded by a load is largely uncontrollable.

1.2 Common Power Disturbances

Common power quality disturbances include surges, spikes and sags in power source voltage and harmonics (or noise) on the power line. Each of these occurrences is discussed briefly below. Surge A rapid short-term increase in voltage. Surges often are caused when high power demand devices such as air conditioners turn off and the extra voltage is dissipated through the power line. Since sensitive electronic devices require a constant voltage, surges stress delicate components and cause premature failure. Spike An extremely high and nearly instantaneous increase in voltage with a very short duration measured in microseconds. Spikes are often caused by lightning or by events such as power coming back on after an outage. A spike can damage or destroy sensitive electronic equipment. Turn the equipment off during a power outage. Wait a few minutes after power is restored before turning it on, then turn on one device at a time. Sag A rapid short-term decrease in voltage. A sag typically is caused by simultaneous high power demand of many electrical devices such as motors, compressors and so on. The effect of a sag is to starve electronic equipment of power2 causing unexpected crashes and lost or corrupted data. Sags also reduce the efficiency and life span of equipment such as electric motors. Noise A disturbance in the smooth flow of electricity. Often technically referred to as electro-magnetic interference (EMI) or radio frequency interference (RFI). Harmonics are a special category of power line noise that causes distortions in electrical voltage. Noise can be caused by motors and electronic devices in the immediate vicinity or far away. Noise can affect performance of some equipment and introduce glitches and errors into software programs and data files.

Outage Total loss of power for some period of time. Outages are caused by excessive demands on the power system, lightning strikes and accidental damage to power lines. In addition to shutting down all types of electrical equipment, outages cause unexpected data loss.

1.3 Cause For Power Quality Problems Studies show that up to 80 percent of most small business power quality problems are caused by disturbances created inside of a facility or business. (See the chart below.) When large power users in a building, such as fans and air conditioning equipment, cycle on and off, they can cause power dips and surges that affect other equipment in the building. Lightning is another major source of disturbance, accounting for more than 10 percent of power disturbances. Thats why it is important to have power quality protection at the incoming utility meter and at each piece of sensitive electronic equipment throughout your facility.

1.4 Assessing Power Quality Needs While it is best to have a detailed assessment of ones risk of problems from power quality disturbances conducted by a trained power quality professional, one can take the first step by completing the self-assessment included below. 1. Does the business have electronic equipment that is especially sensitive to power quality disturbances (power surges, outages, etc.) including computers, cash registers, laser printers, telephone switches, fax machines, copiers, and medical office equipment? 2. Is the building or facility more than 10 years old? Older facilities were not designed to handle the electrical demands of todays business equipment. Because up to 80 percent of power quality disturbances originate inside a facility, these older facilities tend to experience more problems.
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3. Is there an electronic equipment that operates 24 hours a day? Summer lightning storms in the Phoenix area tend to occur most frequently between 6pm-12am. Lightning strikes are responsible for more than 10 percent of outages and other power quality disturbances. 4. Does one have a modem line or coaxial cable entering your facility? These lines can introduce back-door power disturbances into your facility. 5. Does the business have more than five users on a computer network system? The larger a computer network grows, the more susceptible a system becomes to power disturbances. 6. Has one experienced any power outages or other disturbances in the past two years? Past experience is a good indicator that one is at risk for future problems. 7. Does ones facility lack adequate protection against power quality disturbances? Adequate protection includes service entrance protection, modem/coaxial and telephone line protection, and point-of-use surge suppressers and uninterruptible power supplies for critical equipment.

1.5 Objective

To simulate and Implement Single-Phase To Three-Phase drive system using two parallel single-phase rectifiers. Fault tolerance capability High voltage ratio

1.6 Block Diagram Description

Figure 1.1: Block Diagram

The block diagram of the single phase to three phase system using two parallel single phase rectifiers is shown above. An AC power source feeds two controlled rectifiers connected in parallel. The DC output is filtered and fed into a controlled three phase inverter. The output of the three phase inverter provides the three phase AC voltage required to run the RL load. The firing circuit for the controlled rectifier and controlled inverter is provided by microcontroller AMTEL 89c51 through a buffer and driver circuit.

CHAPTER 2 INVERTER 2.1 Inverter: An Inverter is an electrical device that converts direct current (DC) to alternating current (AC); the converted AC can be at any required voltage and frequency with the use of appropriate transformers, switching, and control circuits. The following are examples of inverter applications. 2.1.1 DC Power Source Utilization Inverter designed to provide 115 VAC from the 12 VDC source provided in an automobile. An inverter converts the DC electricity from sources such as batteries, solar panels, or fuel cells to AC electricity. The electricity can then be used to operate AC equipment such as those that are plugged into most house hold electrical outlets.

2.1.2 Uninterruptible Power Supplies One type of uninterruptible power supply uses batteries to store power and an inverter to supply AC power from the batteries when main power is not available. When main power is restored, a rectifier is used to supply DC power to recharge the batteries. A UPS is a device which supplies the stored electrical power to the load in case of raw power cut-off or Blackout.

2.1.3 Induction Heating Inverters convert low frequency main AC power to a higher frequency main for use in induction heating. To do this, AC power is first rectified to provide DC power. The inverter then changes the DC power to high frequency AC power. 2.1.4 High-Voltage Direct Current (HVDC) Power Transmission With HVDC power transmission, AC power is rectified and high voltage DC power is transmitted to another location. At the receiving location, an inverter in a static inverter plant converts the power back to AC. Inverters are used in a wide range of applications, from small switching power supplies in computers, to large electric utility applications that transport bulk power.The inverter is so named because it performs the opposite function of a rectifier.

2.2 INVERTER APPLICATIONS Variable-Frequency Drives A variable-frequency drive controls the operating speed of an AC motor by controlling the frequency and voltage of the power supplied to the motor. An inverter provides the controlled power. In most cases, the variable-frequency drive includes a rectifier so that DC power for the inverter can be provided from main AC power. Since an inverter is the key component, variable-frequency drives are sometimes called inverter drives or just inverters.

Electric Vehicle Drives Adjustable speed motor control inverters are currently used to power the traction motor in some electric locomotives and diesel-electric locomotives as well as some battery electric vehicles and hybrid electric highway vehicles such as the Toyota Prius. Various improvements in inverter technology are being developed specifically for electric vehicle applications.[1] In vehicles with regenerative braking, the inverter also takes power from the motor (now acting as a generator) and stores it in the batteries.

2.3 Inverter Circuit Description Simple inverter circuit is shown with an electromechanical switch and with a transistor switch 2.3.1 Basic Inverter Designs In one simple inverter circuit, DC power is connected to a transformer through the centre tap of the primary winding. A switch is rapidly switched back and forth to allow current to flow back to the DC source following two alternate paths through one end of the primary winding and then the other. The alternation of the direction of current in the primary winding of the transformer produces alternating current (AC) in the secondary circuit. The electromechanical version of the switching device includes two stationary contacts and a spring supported moving contact. The spring holds the movable contact against one of the stationary contacts and an electromagnet pulls the movable contact to the opposite stationary contact. The current in the
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electromagnet is interrupted by the action of the switch so that the switch continually switches rapidly back and forth. This type of electromechanical inverter switch, called a vibrator or buzzer, was once used in vacuum tube automobile radios. A similar mechanism has been used in door bells, buzzers and tattoo guns. As they have become available, transistors and various other types of semiconductor switches have been incorporated into inverter circuit designs. Square waveform with fundamental sine wave component, 3rd harmonic and 5th harmonic 2.3.2 Inverter Output Waveforms The switch in the simple inverter described above produces a square voltage waveform as opposed to the sinusoidal waveform that is the usual waveform of an AC power supply. Using Fourier analysis, periodic waveforms are represented as the sum of an infinite series of sine waves. The sine wave that has the same frequency as the original waveform is called the fundamental component. The other sine waves, called harmonics, that are included in the series have frequencies that are integral multiples of the fundamental frequency. The quality of the inverter output waveform can be expressed by using the Fourier analysis data to calculate the total harmonic distortion (THD). The total harmonic distortion is the square root of the sum of the squares of the harmonic voltages divided by the fundamental voltage. The quality of output waveform that is needed from an inverter depends on the characteristics of the connected load. Some loads need a nearly perfect sine wave voltage supply in order to work properly. Other loads may work quite well with a square wave voltage.
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More Advanced Inverter Designs H-bridge inverter circuit with transistor switches and anti parallel diodes is an example of a more advanced inverter design. There are many different power circuit topologies and control strategies used in inverter designs. Different design approaches address various issues that may be more or less important depending on the way that the inverter is intended to be used. The issue of waveform quality can be addressed in many ways. Capacitors and inductors can be used to filter the waveform. If the design includes a transformer, filtering can be applied to the primary or the secondary side of the transformer or to both sides. Low-pass filters are applied to allow the fundamental component of the waveform to pass to the output while limiting the passage of the harmonic components. If the inverter is designed to provide power at a fixed frequency, a resonant filter can be used. For an adjustable frequency inverter, the filter must be tuned to a frequency that is above the maximum fundamental frequency. Since most loads contain inductance, feedback rectifiers or anti parallel diodes are often connected across each semiconductor switch to provide a path for the peak inductive load current when the switch is turned off. The anti parallel diodes are somewhat similar to the freewheeling diodes used in AC/DC converter circuits. Fourier analysis reveals that a waveform, like a square wave, that is anti symmetrical about the 180 degree point contains only odd harmonics, the 3rd, 5th, 7th etc. Waveforms that have steps of certain widths and heights eliminate or cancel additional harmonics. For example, by inserting a zero-voltage step between the positive and negative sections of the square-wave, all of the harmonics that are divisible by three can be eliminated. That leaves only the 5th, 7th, 11th, 13th etc. The required width of the steps is one third of the period for each of the positive
10

and negative voltage steps and one sixth of the period for each of the zero-voltage steps. Changing the square wave as described above is an example of pulse width modulation (PWM). Modulating, or regulating the width of a square-wave pulse is often used as a method of regulating or adjusting an inverter's output voltage. When voltage control is not required, a fixed pulse width can be selected to reduce or eliminate selected harmonics. Harmonic elimination techniques are generally applied to the lowest harmonics because filtering is more effective at high frequencies than at low frequencies. Multiple pulse-width or carrier based PWM control schemes produce waveforms that are composed of many narrow pulses. The frequency represented by the number of narrow pulses per second is called the switching frequency or carrier frequency. These control schemes are often used in variable-frequency motor control inverters because they allow a wide range of output voltage and frequency adjustment while also improving the quality of the waveform. Multilevel inverters provide another approach to harmonic cancellation. Multilevel inverters provide an output waveform that exhibits multiple steps at several voltage levels. For example, it is possible to produce a more sinusoidal wave by having split-rail direct current inputs at two voltages, or positive and negative inputs with a central ground. By connecting the inverter output terminals in sequence between the positive rail and ground, the positive rail and the negative rail, the ground rail and the negative rail, then both to the ground rail, a stepped waveform is generated at the inverter output. This is an example of a three level inverter: the two voltages and ground.

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2.4 HISTORY

Early Inverters From the late nineteenth century through the middle of the twentieth century, DCto-AC power conversion was accomplished using rotary converters or motorgenerator sets. In the early twentieth century, vacuum tubes and gas filled tubes began to be used as switches in inverter circuits. The most widely used type of tube was the Thyratron. The origins of electromechanical inverters explain the source of the term inverter. Early AC-to-DC converters used an induction or synchronous AC motor direct-connected to a generator (dynamo) so that the generator's commutator reversed its connections at exactly the right moments to produce DC. A later development is the synchronous converter, in which the motor and generator windings are combined into one armature, with slip rings at one end and a commutator at the other and only one field frame. The result with either is AC-in, DC-out. With an M-G set, the DC can be considered to be separately generated from the AC; with a synchronous converter, in a certain sense it can be considered to be mechanically rectified AC. Given the right auxiliary and control equipment, an M-G set or rotary converter can run backwards, converting DC to AC. Hence an inverter is an inverted converter.[3][4]

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Controlled Rectifier Inverters Since early transistors were not available with sufficient voltage and current ratings for most inverter applications, it was the 1957 introduction of the thyristor or silicon-controlled rectifier (SCR) that initiated the transition to solid state inverter circuits. 12-Pulse Line-Commutated Inverter Circuit The commutation requirements of SCRs are a key consideration in SCR circuit designs. SCRs do not turn off or commutate automatically when the gate control signal is shut off. They only turn off when the forward current is reduced to zero through some external process. For SCRs connected to an AC power source, commutation occurs naturally every time the polarity of the source voltage reverses. SCRs connected to a DC power source usually require a means of forced commutation that forces the current to zero when commutation is required. The least complicated SCR circuits employ natural commutation rather than forced commutation. With the addition of forced commutation circuits, SCRs have been used in the types of inverter circuits described above. In applications where inverters transfer power from a DC power source to an AC power source, it is possible to use AC-to-DC controlled rectifier circuits operating in the inversion mode. In the inversion mode, a controlled rectifier circuit operates as a line commutated inverter. This type of operation can be used in HVDC power transmission systems and in regenerative braking operation of motor control systems.

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Another type of SCR inverter circuit is the current source input (CSI) inverter. A CSI inverter is the dual of a six-step voltage source inverter. With a current source inverter, the DC power supply is configured as a current source rather than a voltage source. The inverter SCRs are switched in a six-step sequence to direct the current to a three-phase AC load as a stepped current waveform. CSI inverter commutation methods include load commutation and parallel capacitor commutation. With both methods, the input current regulation assists the commutation. With load commutation, the load is a synchronous motor operated at a leading power factor.

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CHAPTER 3

SOFTWARE DESCRIPTION

3.1.Introduction Electronic circuit design requires accurate methods for evaluating circuits performance. Because of the enormous complexity of modern integrated circuits, computer-aided circuit analysis is essential and can provide information about circuit performance that is almost impossible to obtain with laboratory prototype measurements.

SPICE is a general-purpose circuit program that stimulates electronic circuits. SPICE can perform various analyses of electronic circuits. The operating points (or the quiescent) points of transistors, a time domain response, a small signal frequency response, and so on. SPICE contains models for common circuit elements, active as well as passive, and is widely used both in industries and universities.

The acronym SPICE stands for Stimulation Program with Integrated Circuit Emphasis. Until recently PSPICE was available only on the mainframe computers. In addition to the initial cost of the computer system, such a machine can be expensive and inconvenient for classroom use. SPICE, therefore, widens the scope for the integration of computer-aided analysis into electronic circuits courses at the undergraduate level. In 1984, microsim introduced the PSPICE simulator, which is similar to the Berkeley SPICE and runs on an IBM-PC or compatible. PSPICE, therefore, widens the scope for the integration of computer aided circuit analysis into electronic circuits at the undergraduate level. The other versions of
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spice that will run on computers such as the Macintosh 2, V AX, SUN, and NEC are also available.

3.2 TYPES OF ANALYSIS PSPICE allows various types of analysis. Each analysis is invoked by including its command statement. For example, a statement beginning with the .DC command invokes the DC sweep. The types of analysis and their corresponding . (Dot) commands are described below. DC analysis is used for circuits with time-invariant sources. It calculates all node voltages and branch currents over a range of values, and their quiescent (DC) values are at the outputs. DC sweep of an input voltage/current source, a model parameter, or temperature over a wide range of values (.DC) determination of the liberalized model parameters of non linear devices (.OP) DC operating point to obtain all node voltage, small-signal transfer function with small-signal gain, input resistance, and output resistance small-sign transient analysis is used for circuits with time-variant sources. It calculates all sensitivities. (.SENS)

All node voltages and branch currents over a time interval, and their instantaneous values are the outputs. Circuit behavior in response to time varying sources (.TRAN), DC and Fourier components of the transient analysis results (.FOUR), AC analysis is used for small-signal analysis of circuits with sources of variable frequencies. It calculates all node voltages and branch currents over a range of frequencies, and their magnitudes and phase angles are the outputs. Circuit response over a range of source frequencies (.AC) Noise generation at an output node for every frequency (.NOISE)

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Depending on the type of output voltages, the power supplies can be categorized into two types: DC power supplies AC power supplies

3.3 POWER SUPPLIES Power supplies, which are extensively in industrial applications, are often required to meet all or most of the following specifications: Isolation between the source and the load High power density for reduction of size and weight Controlled direction of power flow High conversion efficiency Input and output waveforms with a low total harmonic distortion For small filter Controlled power factor if the source is an ac voltage

3.4. LIMITATIONS OF PSPICE As a circuit simulator PSPICE has the following limitations: The student version of PSPICE is restricted to circuits with 10 transistors only. However professional DOS version can simulate a circuit up to 200 bipolar transistors The program is not interactive, that is the circuit cannot be analyzed for various Component values without editing the program statements.

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 PSPICE does not support an iterative method of solution. If the elements of a circuit are specified, PSPICE cannot be used to synthesize the circuit elements. The input impedance cannot be determined directly without running the graphic post-processor probe. The student version does not require a floating-point processor for running probe, but the professional version does not require such a co-processor The PC version needs 512kilobytes of memory (RAM) to run. Distortion analysis is not available in PSPICE. SPICE 2 allows distortion analysis, but it gives wrong answers. The output impedance of a circuit cannot be printed or plotted.

3.5. SIMULATION Simulation has become a very powerful tool in industry application as well as in academics, nowadays. It is now essential for an electrical engineer to understand the concept of simulation and learn its use in various applications. Simulation is one of the best ways to study the system or circuit behavior without damaging it. The tools for doing the simulation in various fields are available in the market for engineering professionals. Many industries are spending a considerable amount of time and money in doing simulation before manufacturing their product. In most of the research and development (R&D) work, the simulation plays very important role. Without simulation, it is quite impossible to proceed further. It should be noted that in power electronics, computer simulation and a proof of concept hardware prototype

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in the laboratory are complimentary to each other. However, computer simulation should not be looked upon as a substitute for a hardware prototype. In many cases, testing a real world system can be prohibitively expensive or out rightly impossible. Seeing how the generator of a power plant is going to be damaged in a real system is an example of an expensive exercise to conduct in reality. But by damaging the generator into a simulated fault condition, generator safety engineers can quickly evaluate potential designs and reduce the level of risk for it to sacrifice.

3.6. MERITS OF COMPUTER AIDED SIMULATION Benefits of computer-aided analysis in power electronics circuits are enormous. They are listed as follows: 1. Evaluating the effects of variations in elements, such as resistors, power semiconductor devices, transformers, and so on. 2. The assessment of performance, improvements or degradations 3. Evaluating the effects of noise and signals distortion without the need of expensive measuring instruments.

3.7. DEMERITS OF COMPUTER AIDED SIMULATION We need to realize that there are several factors that make simulation of power electronics systems very challenging: Solid-state power semiconductor switches including diodes and Thyristors present extreme nonlinearly during their transition from one state to the other. The simulation program ought to be able to represent this switching of states in an appropriate manner.
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The simulation may take a long time. The time constants, or in other words the response time of various parts within the system, may differ by several orders of magnitude. Accurate models are not always available. This is especially true for power semiconductor devices but is also the case for magnetic components, such as inductors and transformers.

3.8. SIMULATION TOOLS Simulation of power electronic converters and can be done, either by (1) circuit oriented simulator (e.g. PSPICE, PSIM, TINA, electronics workbench, etc), or by (2) mathematical model based equation solvers using high level languages (e.g., C++, VISUALBASIC, etc.), or high level language based packages (MATLAB, MATHEMATICA, etc). In this we can use the circuit-oriented simulators (PSPICE) also few software simulation tools are listed which are widely accepted by the engineering society, particularly by the electrical engineers. The simulation tools are in use in industries as well as academic institution.

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CHAPTER 4

HARDWARE DESCRIPTION

4.1 CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

7812 9
2 2

R3 1 3 MOSFET A D1 6 5 2 R2 7 MOSFET B R4 C4 10u C5 47u

47u D3

C3 13

TX1 V5
1

D1
1

C1 10
2 2

12 D4

230/6V
1

D3
1

IR2110

7805

1 3

MOSFET C D1

47u

C6 13

IR2110

6 5 2 R5 7 MOSFET D R6 C7 10u C8 47u

1 R1

40 10 12 39

38 9

1 3

MOSFET E D1

89C51

47u 36 24 23

C6 13

4 X1 C1 C2 5

IR2110

37

6 5 2 R7 7 MOSFET F R8 C7 10u C8 47u

10 22 12 21

0
20

0
9 47u C6 13

1 3

MOSFET G D1

IR2110

6 5 2 R9 7 MOSFET H C7 10u C8 47u

10 12

Figure 4.1: Circuit Diagram

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4.2 POWER SUPPLY

T1

230V A.C.

5 2

1N4007

OUTPUT

8 C 1000uF R1 1k

Figure 4.2: Power Supply

The power supply can be built using a transformer connected to the AC supply line to step the AC voltage to desired amplitude, rectifying that AC voltage, filtering it to a ripple free DC voltage with a capacitor. It is then regulated to a steady level. A voltage regulator, which converts the input DC voltage to a required low DC voltage, which remains the same even if the input DC voltage varies, usually does the regulation or the output load connected to the DC voltage changes. It provides regulations of either a fixed positive voltage, a fixed negative voltage, or an adjustably set voltage.

SPECIFICATIONS: Input Voltage -230V, 50 Hz Output Voltage - 6V Diode 1N 4007 Capacitor 1000 F

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4.3 MOSFET

A power MOSFET is a voltage-controlled device and requires only small input current, they can control using lower gate drive power level. In this device, the control signal is applied to a metal gate electrode that is separated from the semiconductor surface by an intervening insulator, typically silicon-di-oxide. The control signal required is essentially bias voltage with no significant steady state gate current flow in either ON state or OFF state. MOSFET have high input impedance that greatly simplifies the gate drive circuitry and reduces the cost.

The power MOSFET is a unipolar device. The current conduction acquired through the transport majority carriers in the drift region without the presence of minority carrier injection required for bipolar transistor operation. In MOSFET during turn off, no delays are observed as a result of storage or recombination of minority carriers. The inherent switching speed is of magnitude faster than that for BJT. They have operating frequency well above 100KHz. They have switching time in the order of (50-100ns) and can generate many kilowatts of power. They are finding increasing application in low power, high frequency converters. MOSFET do not have the problem of second breakdown phenomena as do the BJT. However MOSFET a problem of electrostatic discharge and requires special care in handling. In addition it is relatively difficult to protect them, under shortcircuited fault conditions.

There are two basic types of MOSFET namely 1. Depletion Enhancement Mode 2. Enhancement only

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Depletion Enhancement MOSFET can be operated either of two modes, the depletion or enhancement mode, since the gate is insulated from the channel, either the positive or negative gate voltage can be applied MOSFET operates in deflection mode when a negative gate to source voltage gate is applied and in enhancement mode when a positive gate to source voltage is applied. When MOSFET operates in the enhancement mode, the positive voltage is applied to the gate thereby attracting more conduction electrons are attracted into the channel conductor. The modern power MOSFET retaining high input impedance and switching speed to switch a MOSFET on it is necessary simply to apply a voltage typically 10V for full enhancement between gate and source. The gate current for MOSFET flows only for a short period. MOSFET has no inherent delay and storage times. The absence of storage times increases circuit utilization factors. Switching time ranges from less than 10 nanoseconds for low rated MOSFET and 50 to 100 ns for high rated one. MOSFET have huge peak current capability the gain of the bipolar transistors decreases with increasing current but Tranconductance of a MOSFET. High peak current in a bipolar transistor tends to pull it of saturation and destroy it through over heating. The ON resistance of a MOSFET does increases with increasing current but the effect is much more benign than with a bipolar and the MOSFET has much higher peak current carrying capabilities. The conduction voltage of a MOSFET is higher than for a bipolar. Conduction losses of a MOSFET when operating near rated current are generally greater than BJT. The switching losses are almost negligible.

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4.4 OPTOCOUPLER ISOLATED DRIVE CIRCUITES In optocoupler isolated drive circuits the optocoupler itself is the interface between the output control circuit and the input of the isolated drive circuit. The input side of the optocoupler is directly coupled to the control circuit and the output side of the optocoupler is directly connected to the isolated drive circuit. The topology of the isolated drive circuit between the output of the optocoupler and the control terminal of the power switch can take many different forms. The drive circuit has a bipolar output so that rapid turn on and turnoff of the BJT can be achieved. An npn-pnp totem pole circuit couples the appropriate dc voltage to the base of the power BJT to turn it on or off as required. The isolated split dc power supplies are implemented by the circuit segment in the lower left side. Optocoupler isolated drive circuits can also be used with power MOSFETs and IGBT. The block diagram of the IR2110 will be used to illustrate the typical structure of most MGDs. It comprises a drive circuit for a ground referenced power transistor, another for a high side one, level translators and input logic circuitry.

Figure 4.3: Functional Block Diagram

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Figure 4.4: IR2110 Pin Diagram

Figure 4.5: IR2110 Typical Connection

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INPUT LOGIC

Both channels are controlled by TTL/CMOS compatible inputs. The transition thresholds are different from device to device. Some MGDs, (IR211x and IR215x) have the transition Threshold proportional to the logic supply VDD (3 to 20V) and Schmitt trigger buffers with hysteresis equal to 10% of VDD to accept inputs with long rise time. Other MGDs (IR210x, IR212x, IR213x) have fixed transition from logic 0 to logic 1 between 1.5 to 2 V.

4.5 BUFFER

A buffer amplifier (sometimes simply called a buffer) is one that provides electrical impedance transformation from one circuit to another.

Two main types of buffer exist: Voltage buffer and Current buffer.

4.5.1 CURRENT BUFFER Typically a current buffer amplifier is used to transfer a current from a first circuit, having a low output impedance level, to a second circuit with a high input impedance level. The interposed buffer amplifier prevents the second circuit from loading the first circuit unacceptably and interfering with its desired operation. In the ideal current buffer in the diagram, the input resistance is zero, the output resistance infinite (impedance of an ideal current source is infinite). Again, other properties of the ideal buffer are: perfect linearity, regardless of signal amplitudes; and instant output response, regardless of the speed of the input signal.

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4.5.2 VOLTAGE BUFFER A voltage buffer amplifier is used to transfer a voltage from a first circuit, having a high output impedance level, to a second circuit with a low input impedance level. The interposed buffer amplifier prevents the second circuit from loading the first circuit unacceptably and interfering with its desired operation. In the ideal voltage buffer in the diagram, the input resistance is infinite, the output resistance zero (impedance of an ideal voltage source is zero). Other properties of the ideal buffer are: perfect linearity, regardless of signal amplitudes; and instant output response, regardless of the speed of the input signal.

Figure 4.6: 74244 Octal Buffer

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4.6 THREE PHASE INVERTER

Three-phase inverters are used for variable-frequency drive applications and for high power applications such as HVDC power transmission. A basic three-phase inverter consists of three single-phase inverter switches each connected to one of the three load terminals. For the most basic control scheme, the operation of the three switches is coordinated so that one switch operates at each 60 degree point of the fundamental output waveform. This creates a line-to-line output waveform that has six steps. The six-step waveform has a zero-voltage step between the positive and negative sections of the square-wave such that the harmonics that are multiples of three are eliminated as described above. When carrier-based PWM techniques are applied to six-step waveforms, the basic overall shape, or envelope, of the waveform is retained so that the 3rd harmonic and its multiples are cancelled.

Figure 4.7: Inverter Circuit

29

To construct inverters with higher power ratings, two six-step three-phase inverters can be connected in parallel for a higher current rating or in series for a higher voltage rating. In either case, the output waveforms are phase shifted to obtain a 12-step waveform. If additional inverters are combined, an 18-step inverter is obtained with three inverters etc. Although inverters are usually combined for the purpose of achieving increased voltage or current ratings, the quality of the waveform is improved as well. 4.6.1 MODES OF OPERATION MODE 1: Q1, Q6 Conduct

0 t

3 ,

During

Figure 4.8: Mode 1 Operation

30

MODE 2: Q1, Q2, conduct

During 3

2 3 ,

Figure 4.9: Mode 2 Operation

31

MODE 3: Q2, Q3 conduct

2 t 3 During ,

Figure 4.10: Mode 3 Operation

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CHAPTER 5

MICROCONTROLLER

5.1 Introduction

The main controlling unit of the proposed system is the microcontroller. The main features of microcontroller and particularly Atmel 89c51 is discussed here. A microcontroller consists of a powerful CPU tightly coupled with memory [RAM,ROM or EPROM],various I/O features such as serial ports, parallel ports ,timer/counters, interrupt controller ,data requisition interface , Analog to digital converter[ADC],digital to analog converter, everything silicon chip. It doesnt mean that any microcontroller should have all the above said features on a single chip, depending on the need and area of application for which it is designed, the on chip features present in it may or may not include all the individual section said above. integrated into a single

Any microcomputer systems requires memory to store a sequence of instructions making up a program ,parallel port or serial port for communicating with an external system timer/counter for control purpose like generating time delay.

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5.2 ADVANTAGES OF MICROCONTROLLER If a system is developed with a microprocessor the designer has to go for external memory such as RAM, ROM or EPROM and peripherals and hence the size of the PCB will be large enough to hold all the required peripheral. But, the microcontroller which has got all the peripheral facilities on a single chip so developed of a similar system with a microcontroller reduces PCB size and cost of the design.

One of the major difference between a microcontroller and a microprocessor is that a controller often deals with bits, not bytes as in the real world application, for example switch contacts can only be open or close ,indicators should be lit or dark and motors can be either turned on or off and so forth.

The microcontroller has two 16 bits timer/counters built within it, which makes it more suitable to this application since, we need to produce some accurate time delays.

5.3 AT89C51 from Atmel Corporation This popular 8051 chip has on-chip ROM in the form of flash memory. This is ideal for fast development since flash memory can be erased in seconds compared to the 20 minutes or more needed for the 8751. For this reason the AT89C51 is used in place of the 8751 to eliminate the waiting time needed to erase the chip and thereby speed up the development time. To use the AT89C51 micro controller based system requires a ROM burner that supports flash memory; however a ROM eraser is not needed. Notice that in flash memory we must erase the entire contents of ROM in order to program it again. This erasing is done by
34

the PROM burner itself and this is why a separate eraser is not needed. To eliminate the need for a PROM burner Atmel is working on a version of the AT89C51 that can be programmed via the serial COM port of an IBM PC.

There are various speed and packaging versions of the products. For example notice AT89C51-12PC where C before the 51 is for CMOS, which has a low power consumption, 12 indicates 12 MHz, P is for plastic DIP package and C is for commercial. Often the AT89C51-12 PC is ideal for many student projects.

PART NUMBER AT89C51 AT89LV51

ROM RAM

I/O PIN

TIMER INTER RUPT 2 2 1 2 3 3 6 6 3 6 8 8

Vcc PACKAG ING 5V 3V 3V 3V 5V 3V 40 40 20 20 40 40

4K 4K

128 128 64 128 128 128

32 32 15 15 32 32

AT89C1051 1K AT89C2051 2K AT89C52 AT89LV52 8K 8K

Table 5.1: Versions of 8051 from Atmel

PART NO

SPEED PIN S

PACKAGIN G

USE

AT89C5112PC

12

40

DIP PLASTIC COMMERCIAL

35

AT89C5116PC AT89C5120PC

16

40

DIP PLASTIC COMMERCIAL

20

40

DIP PLASTIC COMMERCIAL

Table 5.2: Various Speed of 8051 from Atmel

TRANSMITTING SECTION: The transmitting section contains circuitry for a carrier signal (125 kHz), power amplifiers, and a tuned antenna coil .The 125 kHz carrier signal is typically generated by dividing a 4 MHz (4 MHz/32 = 125 kHz) crystal oscillator signal. The signal is amplified before it is fed into the antenna tuning circuit. A complementary power amplifier circuit is typically used to boost the transmitting signal level. An antenna impedance tuning circuit consisting of capacitors is used to maximize the signal level at the carrier frequency. This tuning circuit is also needed to form an exact LC resonant circuit for the carrier signal. The tuning compensates the variations in the component values and the perturbation of coil inductance due to environment effect

RECEIVING SECTION: The receiving section consists of an antenna coil, demodulator, filters, amplifiers, and micro controller. In applications for close proximity read range, a single coil is often used for both transmitting and receiving. For long read-range applications, however, separated antennas may be used. In the FSK communication protocol, a 0 and a 1 are represented by two different frequencies. In the MCRF200, a 0 and a 1 are represented by Fc/8 and Fc/10, respectively. Fc is
36

the carrier frequency. The MCRF200 sends this FSK signal to the reader by an amplitude modulation of the carrier signal. The FSK reader needs two steps for a full recovery of the data. The first step is demodulating the backscattering signal, and the second step is detecting the frequency (or period) of the demodulation signal .The demodulation is accomplished by detecting the envelope of the carrier signal. A half-wave capacitor-filtered rectifier circuit is used for the demodulation process. A diode detects the peak voltage of the backscattering signal. The voltage is then fed into an RC charging/discharging circuit. The RC time constant must be small enough to allow the voltage across C to fall fast enough to keep in step with the envelope. However, the time constant must not be so small as to introduce excessive ripple. The demodulated signal must then pass through a filter and signal shaping circuit before it is fed to the microcontroller. The microcontroller performs data decoding and communicates with the host computer through an RS-232 or other serial interface protocols.

FEATURES: P89C51 Central Processing Unit. On-chip Flash Program Memory with In-System Programming (ISP) and In-Application Programming (IAP) capability. Boot ROM contains low level Flash programming routines for downloading via the UART. Can be programmed by the end-user application (IAP). 6 clocks per machine cycle operation (standard). 12 clocks per machine cycle operation (optional).

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 Speed up to 20 MHz with 6 clock cycles per machine cycle. (40 MHz equivalent performance); up to 33 MHz with 12 clock per machine cycle. Fully static operation. RAM expandable externally to 64 KB. 4 level priority interrupt. 7 interrupt sources. Four 8-bit I/O ports. Full duplex enhanced UART. o Framing error detection. o Automatic address recognition. Power control modes. o Clock can be stopped and resumed. o Idle mode. o Power down mode. Programmable clock out. Second DPTR register. Asynchronous port reset. Low EMI (inhibit ALE). Programmable Counter Array (PCA). o PWM. o Capture/compare.

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5.4 BLOCK DIAGRAM OF MICROCONTROLLER

Figure 5.1: Block Diagram Of Microcontroller

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5.5 MICROCONTROLLER - P89C51RD2BA

Figure 5.2: Pin Diagram Of P89C51RD2BA

5.5.1 PIN DESCRIPTION:

Ground: 0V reference.

Power Supply: This is the power supply voltage for normal, idle, and power-down operation.
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Port 0: Port 0 is an open-drain, bi-directional I/O port. Port 0 pins that have 1s written to them are float and can be used as high-impedance inputs. Port 0 is also the multiplexed low-order address and data bus during access to external program and data memory. In this application, it uses strong internal pull-ups when emitting 1s.

Port 1: Port 1 is an 8-bit bi-directional I/O port with internal pull-ups on all pins except P1.6 and P1.7, which are open drain. Port 1 pins that have 1s written to them are pulled high by the internal pull-ups and can be used as inputs. As inputs, port 1 pins that are externally pulled low will source current because of the internal pull-ups.

Port 2: Port 2 is an 8-bit bi-directional I/O port with internal pull-ups. Port 2 pins that have 1s written to them are pulled high by the internal pull-ups and can be used as inputs. As inputs, port 2 pins that are externally being pulled low will source current because of the internal pull-ups. Port 2 emits the high-order address byte when it fetches from external program memory and during access to external data memory that use 16-bit addresses (MOVX@DPTR). In this application, it uses strong internal pull-ups when emitting 1s during the access to external data memory that use 8-bit addresses emits the contents of the P2 special function register. (MOV @ Ri), port 2

Port 3: Port 3 is an 8-bit bi-directional I/O port with internal pull-ups. Port 3 pins that have 1s written to them are pulled high by the internal pull-ups and can be used as inputs. As inputs, port 3 pins that are externally being pulled low will source current because of the pull-ups.
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Port 3 also serves the special features of the 89C51RB2/RC2/RD2, as listed below: Reset: A high on this pin for two machine cycles while the oscillator is running, resets the device. An internal resistor to VSS permits a power-on reset using only an external capacitor to VCC. Address Latch Enable: Output pulse for latching the low byte of the address during an access to external memory. In normal operation, ALE is emitted twice every machine cycle, and can be used for external timing or clocking. Note that one ALE pulse is skipped during each access to external data memory. ALE can be disabled by setting SFR auxiliary. With this bit set, ALE will be active only during a MOVX instruction.

Program Store Enable: The read strobe to external program memory. When executing code from the external program memory, PSEN is activated twice for each machine cycle, except that two PSEN activations are skipped during each access to external data memory. PSEN is not activated during fetches from internal program memory.

External Access Enable/Programming Supply Voltage: EA must be externally held low to enable the device to fetch code from external program memory locations. If EA is held high, the device executes from internal program memory. The value on the EA pin is latched when RST is released and any subsequent changes have no effect. This pin also receives the programming supply voltage (VPP) during Flash programming.

42

Crystal 1: Input to the inverting oscillator amplifier and input to the internal clock generator circuits. Crystal 2: Output from the inverting oscillator amplifier.

5.6 MEMORY ORGANISATION:

All Philips flash microcontrollers have separate address spaces for program and data memory as shown in figure. The logical separation of program and data memory allow data memory to be accessed by 8 bit addresses which can be more quickly stored, manipulated by an 8 bit CPU nevertheless 16 bit Data memory addresses can also generated through the DPTR register Program memory can be read and not written. There can be upto 64KB of directly accessible program memory. The read strobe for external program memory is the program strobe enable signal PSEN. Data memory occupies a separate address space from program memory. Up to 64KB of external memory can be directly accessed in the external data memory space.

PROGRAM MEMORY:

Figure shows the map of the lower part of the program memory, after reset, the CPU begins execution from location 0000h.As shown in figure each interrupt is assigned a fixed location in program memory. The interrupt causes the CPU to jump to that location, where it executes the service routine. External interrupt 0 for example, is assigned to location 0003h.If external interrupt 0 is used; its service routine must begin at location 0003h. If the first interrupt is not used, its service location is available as general-purpose program memory.
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TIMER 2 SERIAL PORT TIMER 1 EXT INTERRUPT 1 TIMER 0 EXT INTERRUPT 0 RESET

002BH 0023H 001BH 0013H 000BH 0003H 0000H

Figure 5.3: PROGRAM MEMORY

The interrupt service locations are spaced at 8 bit intervals 0003h for EXT interrupt 0, 000Bh for Timer 0, 0013h for Ext INT 1, 001Bh for Timer 1, and so on. If the interrupt service routine is short enough it can reside entirely within that 8-byte interval. Longer service routines can use a jump instruction to skip over subsequent interrupt locations. If other interrupts are in use the lowest address of program memory can be either in the on chip flash or in external memory.

To make this selection strap the external access EA Pin to either Vcc or ground. For example P89C51RD2BA with 4KB of on chip flash, if the EA pin is strapped to Vcc, the program fetches to addresses 0000h through 0FFFh are directed to internal flash. Program fetches to addresses 1000h through FFFFh are directed to external memory.

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DATA MEMORY: The Internal Data memory is divided is divided into three blocks namely, The lower 128 Bytes of internal RAM. The upper 128 Bytes of Internal RAM. Special Function Register.

DATA MEMORY Internal Data memory Addresses are always 1 byte wide, which implies an address space of only 256 bytes. However, the addressing modes for internal RAM can in fact accommodate 384 bytes. Direct addresses higher than 7Fh access one memory space, and indirect address higher than 7Fh access a different Memory Space. The lowest 32 bytes are grouped into 4 banks of 8 registers. Program instructions call out these registers as R0 through R7. Two bits in the Program Status Word (PSW) Select, which register bank, are in use. This architecture allows more efficient use of code space, since register instructions are shorter than instructions that use direct addressing. The next 16-bytes above the register banks form a block of bit addressable memory space. The micro controller instruction set includes a wide selection of single bit instructions and this instruction can directly address the 128 bytes in this area. These bit addresses are 00h through 7Fh either direct or indirect addressing can access the upper 128. The upper 128 bytes of RAM are only in the devices with 256 bytes of RAM.

45

The Special Function Register includes Port, latches, timers, peripheral controls etc., Direct addressing can only access these register. In general, all Philips micro controllers have the same SFRs at the same addresses in SFR space as the P89c51RD2BA and other compatible micro controllers. However,

upgrades to the P89c51RD2BA have additional SFRs. Sixteen addresses in SFR space are both byte and bit Addressable. The bit Addressable SFRs are those whose address ends in 0000B. The bit addresses in this area are 80h through FFh.

5.7 ADDRESSING MODES:

DIRECT ADDRESSING: In direct addressing, the operand is specified by an 8-bit address field in the instruction. Only internal data RAM and SFRs can be directly addressed.

INDIRECT ADDRESSING: In Indirect addressing, the instruction specifies a register that contains the address of the operand. Both internal and external RAM can indirectly address. The address register for 8-bit addresses can be either the stack pointer or R0 or R1 of the selected register Bank. The address register for 16-bit addresses can be only the 16-biy data pointer register, DPTR.

INDEXED ADDRESSING: Program memory can only be accessed via indexed addressing this addressing mode is intended for reading look up tables in program memory. A 16 bit base register (Either DPTR or the Program Counter) points to the base of the table,
46

and the accumulator is set up with the table entry numbe5r.

Adding the

Accumulator data to the base pointer forms the address of the table entry in program me memory. Another type of indexed addressing is used in the case jump instructions is computed as the sum of the base pointer and the Accumulator data.

REGISTER ADDRESSING: The register banks, which contains registers R0 through R7, can be accessed by instructions whose Opcodes carry a 3-bit register specification. Instructions that access the registers this way make efficient use of code, since this mode eliminates an address byte. When the instruction is executed, one of four banks is selected at execution time by the row bank select bits in PSW.

REGISTER-SPECIFIC ADDRESSING: Some instructions are specific to a certain register. For example some instruction always operates on the Accumulator. In these cases, the opcode itself points to the correct register. Instructions that refer to Accumulator as A assemble as

Accumulator- specific Opcodes.

IMMEDIATE ADDRESSING: The value of a constant can follow the Opcode in program memory for example. MOV A, #100 loads the Accumulator with the decimal number 100. The same number could be specified in hex digit as 64h.

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PROGRAM STATUS WORD:

PSW.7 PSW.6 PSW.5 PSW.4 PSW.3 PSW.2 PSW.1 PSW.0

CY

AC

F0 RS1 RS0

OV

---

Figure 5.4: PSW Register

The PSW contains status bit that reflects the current state of the CPU. The PSW shown in figure resides in SFR space. The PSW contains the carry bit, the Auxiliary carry (for BCD operations). The two register bank select bits, the overflow flag, a parity bit and two user definable status flag. The carry bit, in addition to serving a carry bit in arithmetic operations also serves as the Accumulator for a number of Boolean operations. The bits RS0 and RS1 select one of the four register banks. A no. Of instruction registers to this Ram locations as R0 through R7.The status of RS0 and RS1 bits at execution time determines which of the four banks is selected. The parity bit reflects the no. of 1s in the Accumulator. P=1 if the accumulator contains an odd number of 1s, and P=0 if the Accumulator contains an even no. of 1s.Thus, the no. of 1s in the Accumulator plus P is always even. The two bits in the PSW are uncommitted and can be used as general-purpose status flag.

TIMERS AND COUNTERS: The P89c51RD2BA has two Timers. Timer 0 and Timer 1.They can be used either as Timers or as Event Counters.

48

Timer 0 Registers: The 16-bit Register of Timer 0 is accessed as low byte and high byte. The low byte register is called TL0 and high byte register is referred to as TH0.This registers can be accessed like any other register, such as A, B, R0, R1, R2, etc. Timer 1 Registers: Timer 1 is also 16 bits and its 16-bit register is split in two bytes, referred to, as TL1 And TH1.These registers are accessible in same as the registers of Timer 0.

TMOD (Timer Mode) REGISTER: Both Timer 0 and 1 use the same register, called TMOD, to set the various Timer operation modes. TMOD is an 8 bit register in which the lower 4 bits are set aside for Timer 0 and the upper 4 bits are set aside for Timer 1.In each case, the lower 2 bits are used to set the Timer mode and the upper two bits to specify the operations.
TIMER 1 TIMER 0

GATE C/T

M1

M0 GATE C/T

M1

M0

Figure 5.5: TMOD Register

GATE: Gating control when set. Timer/Counter is enabled while the INT x pin is high and TRx control pin is set. When cleared, the Timer is enabled whenever the TRx control bit is set.

C/T: Timer or Counter selected cleared for Timer operation. Set for Counter operation.
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5.8 INTERRUPTS: The P89c51RD2BA provides 5 interrupt sources. Two external Interrupts, two Timer Interrupts and a serial port interrupt. The External Interrupts INT0 and INT1 can each either level activated or transition activated, depending on bits IT0 and IT1 in register TCON. The flags that actually generate these Interrupts are the IE0 and IE1 bits in TCON.

TF0 and TF1 generate the Timer 0 and Timer 1 Interrupts, which are set by a roll over in their respective Timer/Counter register (Except for Timer 0 in Mode 3). When the Timer Interrupt is generated, the on chip hardware clears the flag that generated it when the service routine is vectored to. The logical OR of RI and TI generate the serial port Interrupt. Neither of these flags is cleared by hardware when the service routine is vectored to. In fact, the service routine normally must determine whether RI or TI generated the interrupt and the bit must be cleared in software.

IE.7

IE.6

IE.5

IE.4

IE.3

IE.2

IE.1

IE.0

EA

--

ET2 ES ET1 EX1 ET0 EX0

Figure 5.6: Interrupt Enable Register

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CHAPTER 6 SIMULATED RESULTS CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

L5 1 2m 2

M1 V1 = 0 V2 = 0 TD = 0 TR = 1n TF = 1n PW = 10ms PER = 20ms L1 1 L2 1 .5mH M3 V4 V1 = 0 V2 = 5 TD = 10ms TR = 1n TF = 1n PW = 10ms PER = 20ms IRF840 2 V2 IRF840 V1 = 0 V2 = 0 TD = 10ms TR = 1n TF = 1n PW = 10ms PER = 20ms V3

M2 IRF840 C1 10u

.5mH

M4 V5 V1 = 0 V2 = 5 IRF840 TD = 0 TR = 1n TF = 1n PW = 10ms PER = 20ms V21 V1 = 0 V2 = 5v TD = 0 TR = 1ns TF = 1ns PW = 6.6ms PER = 20ms

M11 IRF840

M31 M51 V41 IRF840 V1 = 0 V2 = 5v TD = 6.6ms TR = 1ns TF = 1ns PW = 6.6ms PER = 20ms V61 V1 = 0 V2 = 5v TD = 13.2ms TR = 1ns TF = 1ns PW = 6.6ms PER = 20ms IRF840

R9 V1 VOFF = 0 VAMPL = 230v FREQ = 50hz L6 1 2m 100k

V-

100k
V+

R10 100k 2 R11

M6 M5 V6 V1 = 0 V2 = 0 TD = 0 IRF840 TR = 1n TF = 1n PW = 10ms PER = 20ms L3 1 .5mH 2 C2 10u 2 .5mH M7 V8 V1 = 0 V2 = 5 IRF840 TD = 10ms TR = 1n TF = 1n PW = 10ms PER = 20ms V9 V1 = 0 V2 = 5 TD = 0 TR = 1n TF = 1n PW = 10ms PER = 20ms M8 IRF840 V7 V1 = 0 V2 = 0 IRF840 TD = 10ms TR = 1n TF = 1n PW = 10ms PER = 20ms M21 V31 V1 = 0 V2 = 5v TD = 9.9ms TR = 1ns TF = 1ns PW = 6.6ms PER = 20ms IRF840 M41 V51 V1 = 5 V2 = 0 IRF840 TD = 3.3ms TR = 1ns TF = 1ns PW = 13.2ms PER = 20ms M61 V71 IRF840 V1 = 0 V2 = 5v TD = 3.3ms TR = 1ns TF = 1ns PW = 6.6ms PER = 20ms

L4 1

Figure 6.1: Circuit Diagram

51

INPUT VOLTAGE

Figure 6.2: Input Voltage

52

INPUT CURRENT

Figure 6.3: Input Current

53

Figure 6.4: Gate Pulse 1

54

Figure 6.5: Gate Pulse 2

55

Figure 6.6: Gate Pulse 3

56

Figure 6.7: Output Current

57

3 PHASE VOLTAGE

Figure 6.8: 3-Phase Output Voltage

58

Figure 6.9: Phase To Phase Voltage

59

Figure 6.10: Phase To Phase Voltage

60

Figure 6.11: Phase To Phase Voltage

61

Figure 6.12: Full Circuit Diagram

62

CHAPTER 7 CONCLUSION

A new three phase inverter has been presented. The operation, analysis and design consideration were illustrated. Simulation results were shown to verify the operation principle. It is shown that ZVS in either direction of power flow is achieved with no lossy components involved, no additional active switch losses. The circuit analysis is presented. The low frequency involved in this scheme is for less switching losses.

63

REFERENCE

1. Power Electronics: Energy Manager for Hybrid Electric Vehicles". Oak Ridge National Laboratory Review (U.S. Department of Energy) 33 (3). 2000. Retrieved 2006-11-08. 2. MIT open-courseware, Power Electronics, Spring 2007 Rodriguez, Jose; et al. (August 2002). "Multilevel Inverters: A Survey of Topologies, Controls, and Applications". IEEE Transactions on Industrial Electronics (IEEE) 49 724738. 3. "Inverter FAQ". PowerStream. 2006. Retrieved 2006-11-08. Owen, Edward L. (January/February 1996). "Origins of the Inverter". IEEE Industry Applications Magazine: History Department (IEEE) 2 (1): 6466. doi:10.1109/2943.476602. 4. D. R. Grafham and J. C. Hey, editors, ed. SCR Manual (Fifth ed.). Syracuse, N.Y. USA: General Electric. pp. 236239.

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