Freeman, John Joseph. 1838. General Observations On The Malagasy Language - Outline of Grammar, and Illustrations.

THE LIBRARY OF THE UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LOS ANGELES
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Pa^'s
HISTORY
MADAGASCAR,
COMPRISING ALSO
THE PROGRESS OF THE CHRISTIAN MISSION ESTABLISHED IN 1S18 AND AN AUTHENTIC ACCOUNT OF THE RECENT MARTYRDOM OF RAPARAVAVY AND OP THE PERSECUTION OF THE NATIVE CHRISTIANS.
:
CTomptletr
cfiiefls
from
Original
IBotwatnte,
BY THE REV. WILLIAM ELLIS,

Foreign Secretary to the London Missionary Society.
"
FICIAL FOB
TELL THE ftUEEN OP MADAGASCAR FROM ME, THAT SHE CAN DO NOTHING HER COUNTRY AS TO RECEIVE THE CHRISTIAN RELIGION."
Queen Adelaide
to the
SO
BENE-
Embassy from Madagascar.
IN
TWO VOLUMES.
VOL.
I.
FISHER, SON, & CO.

NEWGATE-STREET, LONDON; QUAI DE L'ECOLE,
PARIS.
jyr
PREFACE.
The
to
materials for a large portion of the following
work, were collected by the Missionaries in the island
which
it
relates,
and forwarded
It
to
this
country
to
in the year
1830.
was then intended
pre-
sent chiefly a history of the Protestant Mission in
Madagascar, from
the decease of
its
commencement
in 1828.
in
it
1818, to
Radama
This,
was pro-
posed, to accompany by a description of the most
remarkable customs of the Malagasy, biographical

notices of the late king,
and other distinguished perof the abolition of the slave-
sonages
and an account
trade in the island.
Wlien the documents were exa-
mined by the Directors of the London Missionary

Society, to
whom
they were sent,
it
appeared desir-
able to extend the plan of the work,
by including
the history of the island from

date than 1828
;
its
discovery, to a later
I
and early in 1833,

A2
was requested
IC^l^'S^
iv
PREFACE.
prepare
tlie
to
work
for
publication,
adding such
information as could be obtained from publications in

this
country
correspondence with
now
the Missionaries
and the papers

sionary Society.
in the possession of the
London Mis-
Shortly after the period
referred
to,
circumit
stances occurrino^ in Madagfascar which rendered
expedient
to
postpone for a time the publication of

its
the history,
preparation for the press was susfor infor-
pended
and although a very strong desire
mation respecting the country and the
people has
is
been manifested, the delay that has taken place

the less to
l)e
regretted, as the
it
work has been renif
dered more complete than

lished at
could have been,
pub-
any
earlier period.
By
the kindness of the Right Honourable
Lord
Glenelg,
Her
Majesty's Principal Secretary of State
for the Colonies, access
has been obligingly gi'anted to
the voluminous and peculiarly interesting

nals of
MS.
jour-
James Hastie, Esq., by whom the
treaty for
the abolition of the slave-trade was negociated, and
who
of
was, for
many
years, British agent at the capital
Madagascar.
In the early part

Flacourt, Rochon,
life
tlie
of
the work,
of
the
writings of
narrative
Drury, and the

as well
of
Benyowsky, the History by Copland,

have been used.
as
other works,
Much
valuable
PREFACE.
information has also been obtained from the island,

in
answer
to
specific
inquiries
sent
to
the
]\lis-
sionaries.
Griffiths,
Several of these, namely, Messrs. Jones,
and Baker, have
also visited
England
since
the preparation of the
work was commenced, and
have readily furnished information, which has enabled
me
to
enlarge and modify

JMr.
many
of the original state-
ments.
Freeman has
also cheerfully supplied
much
useful information respecting the recent his-
tory of the
country, and
has prepared a valuable

is
paper on the native language, which
given as an
Appendix
to
the
first
volume.
The embellishments
are chiefly from sketches taken on the spot, or from

articles
is
brought
to this
country
the outline of the
map
copied from that published after the recent survey
by Commodore
Owen
and the names of places and
persons are given by the Missionaries, or taken from

other authorities.
To
the
distinguished
nobleman
to
whom
the
am
of
indebted for access to the documents in the Colonial

Office, to
*'
Captain Moorsom, R.N.,
to
Author
Tlie Loss of the Winterton,"
and the Missionary
Brethren who have rendered
me
valuable
assist-
ance in the preparation of the work, I would thus

publicly acknowledge
my
obligations,
especially
to
the
Rev.
J.
J.
Freeman, who,
in order to aid
in
securing the greatest possible accuracy, has kindly
vi
PREFACE.
pages as they have passed
inspected the following
through the press.
The
history of
Madagascar
It exhibits
is,
in
many
respects,
highly instructive.
a branch of that sin-
gular and widely-scattered race inhabiting chiefly the

coasts
and islands of South-eastern Asia; preserv-
ing in their language, and
many
of their customs,
unequivocal signs of identity, yet dwelling at a distance from the Malayan archipelago, or the gi'oups
of Polynesia, greater than, without the strongest evi-
dence,
reach.
family,
we should have
It
believed
it
possible for
them
to
shows an interesting portion of the human
gradually emerging from the ignorance and

the
earliest
rudeness which characterise

society, exhibiting
stages
of
the intelligence and energy, and

It further
acquiring the comforts, of a civilized state.
shows a people, with scarcely a single exception,

friendly
to
and hospitable
to their visiters, until
goaded
outrage and violence by ill-treatment, or rendered

before,
more corrupt than they were
by the vicious
influence and example of their visiters.
The work
his career of
will also
encourage the philanthropist in
undaunted and persevering benevolence,
by exhibiting the success with which the iniquitous

traflSic
in
human
beings had been prohibited, in Avhat
was once one

the world.
of the
most frequented slave-markets in
PREFACE.
Beyond
these,
vii
and other points of deep and lasting

faithful
interest, these
volumes supply a
for introducing
record of the
five millions
means employed
among
of our species, a written language, a
knowledge of
the use of letters, of

lized
life,
some
of the useful arts of civi-
and an acquaintance with the sacred truths
of Divine Revelation.
The measure
of visible success,
efforts,
which
for
a time
attended these
and the
melancholy reverses they have recently experienced,

with the fierce and destructive persecution which has
lately
burst
forth,
and
raged
with
such
fearful
violence in Madagascar, have excited deep and general interest
throughout our country.
An
account of
this persecution
which continues
still
to
rage against the

is
native Christians, from
whose numbers, there
rea-
son to fear,
additions are
made
to
the noble
army
of martyrs
who have
will
sealed
their
testimony
with their blood
be found in these volumes,
recorded with greater explicitness than in the state-
ments hitherto made public.

I
have availed myself, as
far
as
practicable,
of
every means within
my
reach for rendering the work

all
acceptable and useful to
interested in the history

;
and prospects
tions, the
of
Madagascar
with very few excep-
whole has been re-written, and arranged in

it
the order in which
now
appears,
and
will,
it
is
hoped, not only be found a faithful record of the
viii
PREFACE.
it
events
narrates,
and the scenes and stimulate
it
describes, but
excite deep interest,
to fervent
prayer
on behalf of the church in the midst of flames, and

the nation in the present crisis of
excite
its
history;
and
more ardent
desires, that in
Madagascar, and
every other portion of the heathen world, the Gospel
may have
shall
free course,
full
and be
glorified, until the earth
be
of the
knowledge of the Lord, as the
waters cover the sea.
WILLIAM ELLIS.
Pentonville, October lOth, 1838.
CONTENTS OF VOL.
I.
CHAP.
Geographical situation of Madagascar
Earliest
\4sitors
I.
Extent of discovery by which the island is designated by the natives Import of native names Description of the island by early visitors copper, silver, Geological features of Madagascar Minerals iron, rock-salt, nitre, plumbago General appearance of the country Elevation of the principal mountains Account of the appearance, structure, and peculiarities of the Ankaratra range of mountains Number, situation, appearance, and extent of the lakes, rivers, springs, mineral waters Description of the saline springs at Mandro^y, and the adjacent
Period
Names
scenery in the Betsileo country
CHAP.
Climate of Madagascar
II.
Fluctuations in the temperature of the atmosphere Insalubrity of the greater part of the sea-coast Healthiness of the interior The Malagasy year Periodical rains Number and names of the months The seasons of the Malagasy year; import of their designations Thunder and lightning Water-spouts Whirlwinds Meteors Variety and of the Productions Forests Trees and plants, indigenous and exotic Honey and gums Birds, native and foreign Fable of the birds choosing a king Wild and tame quadrupeds to obtain a supply for the capital Amphibious animals Fishes Account of the crocodiles peculiar habits of the animal Sagacity of the dog ^Fable of the serpent, the crocodile, and the dog Superstition 27 of the natives respecting the crocodile Insects and reptiles
fertility
soil
efforts
CHAP.
Provinces of Madagascar
:
III.
number, designations, import of the names of the twenty-two provinces of the island their boimdaries, extent, and Isle of St. Marj-'s Early French settlements in Madagascar peculiarities Character and history of its former inhabitants The suppression of Foule Point Port and town of Tamapiracy carried on from the island The importance of the commerce of the island The countiy of tave Culture of the midberry introduction of silkworms the Betanimena nature of their retreats in the forests and caverns of the Brigands Fertility and scenery Peculiar insalubrity of the southern coast interior Country in the neighFort Dauphin of the celebrated vale of Ambolo bourhood of St. Augustine bay Extent and peculiarities of the chief
their
;
-.
subdi\-isions
Natural beauty of the province of Mangoro ants The

river
lake Imania
The Betsileo country Provinces of the Sakalavas The Barbaritj- of the inhabitants of Ambongo The lake Anosy
Ankay
;
superstition of
its
inhabit-
61
'
CONTENTS.
CHAP.
Province of Ankova
Its
IV.
Meaning of the name The chief divisions of the province Imerina general aspect Elevation of mountains Relics of antiquity Objects of superstitious veneration Salubrity of Ankova Produce of the country Subdivisions or clans, Voro-mahery, Imamo> Vonizongo Tomb of Rapeto Peculiarities of the inliabitants of Ankova Account of Tananarivo, the capital of the island geographical situation elevation above the level of the sea Import of the name Population of Tananarivo Dwellings of the people Construction of their houses Divisions in the capital Public thoroughfares The palace The silver house The throne of the kingdom Site of tombs of the reigning family Antsahatsiroa, place of public assembly The
its
Its
Its
tlie
Central
strangers
Tarpeian rock of Tananarivo

school
The several places
of execution
and
chapel
Country residences of
fortifications
Mission
V.
buildings
the king
State of
Biirial-ground
Market
for
the public roads
Remains of ancient
82
CHAP.
Population of Madagascar
Its
probable amount
sions of the people, and the estimated
The chief political divinumber of each division Dispro-
General Description of the several races in the island Their respective provinces The Hovas import of the term; their figure, colour, number, &c. The Vazimba, or probable aborigines of Madagascar The Kimois, or nation of dwarfs The Sakalavas their character, colour, habits, &c. The Bezanozano and the Antsianaka The north and south Betsileo The Betsimisaraka and Betanimena their
portion of population to the extent and resources of the country
description of the Malagasy
;
stature, complexion, &c.
The
inhabitants of the Isle of St. Mary's
The Zafindramina,
people
or descendants of the mother of
Mahomet
origin of the distinct races in the island
truth, &c.
Moral qualities of the Malagasy Their Baneful influence of superstition

CHAP.
VI.
Intellectual
Probable
113
character of the
general disregard of
Manners and customs of the Malagasy

out the different tribes
the birth of children Observances connected Attentions shewn to the mother Ceremonies observed on taking the infant out of the house Employment of the sikidy to ascertain destiny Proportion of the sexes Practice of scrambling Bestowment of names Fearful prevalence of infanticide Motives to perpetration Means by which effected Circumstances which from the infant-murder formerly practised by the South Sea Islanders Fondness of parents for the children that are spared Amusements of childhood Occu])ations of youth The custom of betrothing Ages at which marriages are celebrated Ceremonies observed Parties between whom marriage extent and disastrous prohibited Polygamy; Divorce divorce Disposal frequency Usual mode of proceeding of the children Degraded condition of the female sex 45
Avith
first
its its
it is
Their
general uniformity thi-ough-
in
it
differs
is
its
effects
its
in
CONTENTS.
XI
CHAP.
The
rite
VII.
of circumcision
Appointment of
the time for
its
observance
Consecration of the vessel for the holy water Procession for bringing the holy water and other requisites for the ceremony Bull-baiting and Slaughter of a other amusements at the festival Platting of baskets
sheep Measuring the children Planting the banana stem Benedictions pronounced on the children Public addresses delivered to them The The strong water Slaughter of or offering to bear away perthe red bullock The father's address to the son while the the close forming Conduct of the mothers on the occasion Feasting of the ceremonies The custom of forming brotherhoods by drinking of blood Parties who thus enter into solemn covenant Symbols used Form of oath or engagement The mouth of the heart The drinking of binding Existeach other's blood Extent to which the engagement
faditra,
evil
rite
is
at
is
ence of a similar custom in Borneo Nature and operations of slavery Hard lot of the slave-mother Mode of redemption from slaveiy Bonds176 men of the government Hospitality of Madagascar
CHAP.
Facility
VIII.
with which the means of subsistence are obtained in Madagascar Flesh of the ox, sheep, and goat, monkeys, and Different kinds of food hedgehogs Poultry Fish Eggs of the crocodile Locusts and grassSilkworms in their chrysalis state Vegetables and grain hoppers
Rice, maize, manioc, arrow-root, yams, sweet potatoes, &c.
to the above
by the introduction of European vegetables
Additions Increasing use
Fruits Pineapples, grapes, oranges, peaches, citrons, of bread Methods of dressing their food Rice-boiling Cooking of meat Limitation of the number of meals in a day Custom of washing the hands before meals Manner of taking food Beverage of the people Distillation by foreigners By natives Uses of tobacco Expedients used in preparing Malagasy snuff General mode of taking snuff by the mouth Intoxicating quality of the native hemp Longevity of the natives Number and nature of diseases The Malagasy
of the
Ii-ish
potato
lemons,
&c. Manufacture
fever
the healing art
symptoms, progress, European and native remedies State of among the natives Supposed origin of diseases Cures attempted only by divination Native medicines Use of the vapour bath Of cold bathing Superstitious observances The Malagasy god of 200 medicine
:
its
CHAP
Practice of surgery
fractures
IX.
Tooth-dravnng Native mode of cupping Bleeding Anecdote of Radama Feast on occasion of his recovery Treatment of the general Influence of divination in the selection of means of recosick or offering to remove pollution The sorona, or supvery The reference to death Mourning Addresses plicatory offering Usages to the deceased Watching the corpse Presents of money to the chief mourner Method of disposing of the body Manner of interment Cusin
faditra,
among
the natives
Method
of treating wounds and
in
XU
toms
CONTKNTS.
at funerals in the southern part of tlie island, described by Drnry Property deposited in the tombs Imagined pollution from touching a corpse Badges of mourning Period of its duration The manao afana,
or slaughter of bullocks, to avert evil from the deceased
Criminals not of burial Places of sepulture Size and nature of their tombs Costly and gorgeous ceremonies of mourning on occasion of the death of Radama description of his coffin of silver, mausoleum, &c.
allowed the
rite
money
buried with him
number of
cattle
slain
Cenotaphs Singular
226
custom of bringing home
to the family the
bones of those slain in war
Monumental
pillars
CHAP.
Native expressions of thankfulness
X.
Different forms of salutation Customs
common
Description of the mode of taking wild by Drury Hunting the wild boar Fishing Mode of catching the crocodile Games at kicking Throwing the target The katra or Musical instruments The lokanga and drums, Singing, Character of the songs Specimens of native poetry Song for the dead Dress of the Malagasy Materials of which composed Manner of wearing The salaka The kitamby The lamba or mantle Different kinds of lamba manucattle,
observed on the return of the sovereign to the capital Prevalence of swearing among the natives Their use of abusive language Amusements of the Malagasy Smoking Feasting Hunting wild cattle
at
drafts^
valiha,
fifes
it is
it
factured
by the natives Coverings
for
tlie
head-
Native
sandals
Articles of foreign manufacture used as clothing in Madagascar
ness of the natives for ornaments

shells
Ornaments
of ivory
Silver
chains
Artificial
flowers
Perfumes,
Silver
Fond-
rings, beads,
native and
foreign
Ornamenting the body with scars Mode of dressing the hair
cal occurrence
The European mode of wearing the hair, introduced by Radama Tragiamong the native females in consequence of the innova257
tion
CHAP.
XI.
Occupations of the Malagasy Division of labour Professional employments The judges Officers of the palace Head-men or elders Extent General division of the people into to which offices are hereditary
freemen, peasantry, and soldiers Native farming Culture of Preparation of the Sowing and transplanting the grain Modes of gation General appearance of the country immediately before harvest Quality of the grain Causes of the occasional failure in the crop Reaping Manner of thrashing Storing the grain Description of the granaries or rice-houses in different parts of the countiy Culture of the growth Extent to which used manioc Period required for Failure of attempts to introduce Eiu:opean modes of agriculture Rearing of silkworms Native methods of manufacturing iron Situation and character of the mines Manner of getting and preparing the ore Description of the Malagasy furnace, bellows, &c. Nature of the fuel ^nd Process of smelting Native blacksmiths Native forge,
lice
soil
irriits
it
is
tools,
articles
CONTENTS.
Xlli
of native maniifiirture Iiitrodiietioii of the art of shoeing horses Arrival of Mr. Chick from England Astonishment of the natives at beholding
the apparatus of an English forge, and the strength of Mr. Chick Trials of strength between the natives and Europeans Improvements in the
art of
working
iron,
manufacturing cutlery, and wire-drawing Native
gold and silver smiths
290
Felling of timber
Number of persons constantly employed as woodcutters Amount of labour required to convey the timber to the capital Native or bearers of burdens Method of splitting for planks or boards Introduction of the use of the saw Native Carpenters Characof their work Masonry Madagascar Native potteries Articles manufactured Native kilns Anecdote of Radama Introduction of brickmaking-Malagasy rope-making, twine-spinning, and basket-making Introduction of the of tanning Immense quantity of hides provided by the government Native methods of spinning and weaving Simplicity of the Malagasy loom Excellence of the native cloths Preparation of indigo Methods of Dyeing Domestic occupations of a day Madagascar Native hawkers or pedlars Fondness of the Malagasy for traiHc Native markets Number, designation, order, &c. Prices of Money-changers Table of moneys Value of labour Foreign commerce Chief exports and imports 315
coolies,
CHAP.
XII.
trees
ter
in
art
in
articles
CHAP.
the will of the sovereign
is
XIII.
Government of Madagascar; monarchical and

absolute
military Extent to which Instnnce of personal devotedness to the sovereign Duties of the sovereign Importance attached to hereditary rank Gradations in rank Members of the royal family Civil and The king's household Native police Number and military dignity of honours connected with the public service Nature of ancient military tactics and fortifications Formation of the army after the European model Military punishment of burning Employment of singing women during a campaign Revenue of Madagascar lEnumeraderived Veneration of the natives for tion of the sources whence
officers
it is
the popular traditions and usages supposed to be derived from the practice of their ancestors Combination of the regal and sacerdotal character
in the
person of the sovereign

cattle
year
slaughtered Number of the the Modes of administering the oath of allegiance Animals slaughtered on the occasion Formation of new laws Proclamations and edicts Different modes of punishment
at
Description of the ceremonies observed Benedictions pronounced

feast
National festivals The feast of
the
new
spearing, beheading, crucifixion, burning alive, flogging to death, fines, banishment, or reduction to slavery The sovereign's decision final
duties of the
Operation of native laws on foreigners National councils Office and judges Public mode of conducting trials Code of laws
in the
promulgated by the present queen
year 1828
341
XIV
CONTENTS.
CHAP. XIV.
Extensive prevalence of superstition
belief in the
among
the Malagasy
power of charms and frequent use of divination
Their general Mythology

tutelar)'
Defective sense of moral responsibility Worship of which the are kept gods Imagined sacredness of the villages The idol-keepers Bearers of the idols in public processions Origin and Homage paid to them appearance of the national and household otherwise common by the people Means used in rendering objects of superstitious worship Temples Sacred stones Sacrifices Appeals to the administration of oaths and the ordeals Names of the principal Their supposed antipathies Anecdotes of the deceptive pretences of the keepers of the idols Exposure of their deceptions by Radama Public exhibition of the idols Import of the names of Radama to the supposed residence of the
state
in
of the Malagasy
Indefinite ideas of God, of the human soul, and a future

idols
idols
articles
idols in
idols
illustra-
tive
()f
Visit
idols
the idol
387
CHAP. XV.
Unfavourable operation of the superstitious opinions of the Malagasy DifferRestrictions imposed by the idols at particular times and seasons
ent kinds of sacrifices
Localities in which they are offered Description
of the ceremony of sprinkling the people in the presence of the idols Usages observed in sacrificing an ox The offering of human sacrifices
means employed to remove diseases and other evils The afana, or ceremony performed at the tombs as a means of securing repose Account of the vazimba, their graves, altars, anecdotes for the dead Influence of fear on illustrative of the popular belief respecting them
The
faditra, or
the minds of the natives

state
Ideas
of the Malagasy respecting a future

of
the dominion of supernatural beings
Reported origin of divination decisions Various modes of Universal confidence of the people in Influence working the sikidy Offering charms The sorona and
its
Reported appearance of the ghost
Radama General
belief in
faditra-
of witchcraft, prognostications,
&c
416
CHAP. XVI.
Tables or rules framed by the diviners for working the sikidy mth beans Explanation of the mode of divimng by means of the foregoing tables or Divination also practised with sand Astrology of the Malagas)' rules Pretended means of ascertaining fortunate and unfortunate days Calcu-
lating the destiny of individuals Supposed Arabian origin of astrology and di\'ination among the Malagasy Names of the moons or months
Division of each
tinies
on by which
Diagram of the months by which desare calculated, or events foretold Difference of the calendars used the coast and in the interior Manner of calculating time Means
moon
or
month
it is
pretended indiWdual destiny
is
ascertained
439
CONTEXTS,
CHAP.
Trial by ordeal in Madatâscar
XVII.
its
Uncertainty respecting
origin
Various
modes
gena
rior
practised in different parts of the island

fruit
General use
of the tanis
Description of the Cases in which the tangena employed Manner of preferring an accusation among the inhabitants of the inte Preparations for drinking the poison Translation of the invocation or curse used in administration Copious use of rice-water Appearance regarded as indicating innocence or guilt Summary deaih in case of of the latter Ceremonies attending an acquittal Mode and adadministering the poison-water on the coast Cases in which ministered to animals and fowls Motives by which the natives are decisions induced to employ Anecdotes illustrating the fallacy of Probable number destroyed by the poison Notice of witchcraft among influence recorded by Drurj' the Malagasy Singular instance of on those supposed to General dread of sorcery Terrible death
its
effects
it
is
it
its
its
inflicted
beguilty of
it
458
Appendix
Malagasy Language
491
ILLUSTRATIONS.
VOL.
I.
PACE
Portrait of Rafaralaby
Frontispiece.
1
Map
of Madagascar
Woodcutters' Huts
Cattle-feeding
35
Plan of the Capital
46 92
Head of the chief
officer in the
Embassy
to
Europe
in
1835
116 117
Head of another member of the Embassy
A native
Village
. .
124
Rice-beating, and Gathering and

Rice-plate and Pedestal
Winnowing Locusts
after meals
203 208
209
Method of washing the bands and mouth
Malagasy Burial Ground
245
247
Family Sepulchre
Musical Instruments
373
300
Mode of
thrashing Rice
Rice Granaries
Iron-smelting
302
308
326
461
Malagasy Loom, &c

Tanghinia Veneniflua (Tangena)
Procession of Madio
475
HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.
CHAPTER
Geographical
situation
I.
Period of Discovery Extent designated by the Natives Import of Native Names Description of the island by early Geological features of Madagascar Minerals copper, rock-salt, plumbago General appearance of the country Elevation of the principal mountains Account of the appearof Madagascar
Earliest visitors
Names
by which the island
is
visitors
iron,
silver,
nitre,
ance, structm-e, and peculiarities of the Ankaratra range of mountains
Number,
situation, appearance,
and extent of the lakes,
rivers, springs,
mineral waters
Description
of the saline springs at Mandrovy, and
the adjacent scenery in the Betsileo country.
^Madagascar, the Great Britain of

largest islands in the world,
is
Afx-ica,
and one of the
situated in the Indian, or
Eastern Ocean, and
is
the principal island in the group

It is sepa-
usually designated the Ethiopian Archipelago.

rated from the eastern coast of Africa by the
Mozambique
is
Channel, which
is
about 150 leagues across, though the
nearest point of Madagascar,
Cape Manambaho,
not
more than 90
or 100 leagues from the opposite continent.

fre-
East India ships, especially those bound to Bombay,

quently pass through the channel, and,
when
in
want of
which
is
pro\4sions, usually resort to St. Augustine's Bay,
on the south-eastern shore of the island, being situated in

latitude 23 S.
I.
and long. 40 E.
B
The
distance between the
^ Cape
of
Good Hope and Madagascar,
it is
is
about 600 leagues

Isle
from Mauritius
of Bourbon,
186 leagues distant; and from the
150.
or
From Cape Amber,

situated in
lat.
Ambro,
its
northern extremity,
25 40'
S.,
Madagascar extends southward,

St.
about 900 miles, to Cape
Mary,
its
southern point,
which
is
in S. lat. 12*^ 2'.

is is
The
breadth of the southern

;
part of the island

is
about 300 miles
the northern portion

it is
narrow, and
it
widest in the centre, where
about
400 miles broad.

hundred millions
It
has been estimated to contain
two
of acres of land, but
one hundred andfifty
millions would probably be a
Madagascar
in the
is
said to
it
more accurate computation. have been discovered by Europeans

visited
year 1506;
was shortly afterwards
by
Tristan d'Acunha.
By
the Portuguese
it
was called the island

its
of St.
Law-
rence, either in honour of

or, as stated
discoverer,
Lawrence Almeida,
custom
by early
writers, in accordance with a

in
prevailing
among them,
it
honour of the saint on whose

seen.
it
day
in the calendar
was
first
The
French, during
the reign of
Henry
to the
IV., called
Isle
Dauphine.
The
island had, however, for a long period previously,
been known
western shores for the purpose of trade.

called Serandah,
Moors and Arabs, who have visited its By them it was
which there
is
and not Serandib, as stated by Rochon, every reason to believe was the name they
gave to Ceylon.*
The
inhabitants of
Europe had
also
been previously made acquainted with its existence by the accounts of Marco Paulo, whose travels were published in
the close of the 13th century.
veller the island
By
the last mentioned tra-
was called Magaster.
* See D'HcTbelot's Bib. Orient.
The word Madagascar
than native origin.
with
it
S
;
is
of uncertain import
and
its
use, to designate the island, appears to
be of foreign rather
The
the
inhabitants appear to be acquainted

to
only as
designation .given by strangers
their country.
specific
The
for the
natives themselves have no distinct
names
whole of their
it
island.
By
those
who
reside on the coast
is
sometimes called Nosindambo,
" island of wild hogs," from the number of these animals
found in the country.

INladegasse usually
or, if
In speaking of their country, the

the several provinces respectively,
name
they have occasion to speak of the whole, some kind
of periphrasis is
employed,
as,
Izao rehetra izao, " All

" this whole
;"
this
entirely
;"
Izao tontolo izao,

all this
Ni
still
tany
rehetra,
"
country
;"
or, as
expressions
more
ambany lanitra, " this beneath the skies;" Amhony tany ambany lanitra, " upon the earth, and beemphatic, Izao
neath the skies.'

island,
is,
familiar
expression for the whole

riaJca, signifying, literally,
is
also,
^y, anivony ny
" The, in the midst of the flood," " that which
surrounded
by water," " island." *

appropriate term for
to
'
This name, however, though an

island,"
is
applied by the natives

island,'' in
Madagascar
Mary."
only.
is,
The
nosy,
usual word for "

as,
the
native
St.
language,
Nôsy
Ibrahim,
" Isle of
The
similar.
descriptions which different writers have given of

various, and, in
Madagascar have been
many
respects, dis-
In general, the representations of
its
productions,
its
salubrity,
visitors
and resources have been such as the hopes of

desire, rather
have been led to
than such as their

to
observations have fully authorized
them
make.
In the
* Tomponi/
m/ anivony ny riaka, " sovereign of the island."
This expres-
sion as descriptive of the extent of the sovereignty claimed by the late king
Rudama, was placed on
his
tomb.
B 2
Dutch thus
write
:
sixteenth century, the

this island are great,
"
The
riches of
abounding in
rice,
honey, wax, cotton,
lemons, cloves," &c.

picture
:
The French draw a far more splendid M. de Modeve, in his Memoir respecting the
Les objets que Ton pent
cette ile reunit les
I'infini,
island of Madagascar, remarks, "

tirer
de Madagascar sont varies a

;
productions des deux zones
elle
pent fournir abondam-
ment au commerce de
sole,
I'Asie et de I'Europe, le coton, la

les raisins,
les
gommes, tons
I'ambre gris, I'ebenne,
le hois
de teinture,
le chanvre, le lin, le meilleure fer, tons
les
metaux,
meme
de For
(!)
on peut y fabriquer plus
utilement que partout ailleurs, toutes les etofFes de I'lnde."
The
but
prize, as thus
it
announced, certainly looks tempting,
has never yet answered the eager expectations of
adventurers.
Highly coloured as the above may appear, our own coim-
trymen have shewn themselves equally capable of appreciating

its
excellencies,
and exhibiting
its
beauties and
of
its
worth.
visited
Mr. Richard Boothby, a merchant
London, who
Madagascar about the beginning of the seventeenth

1
century, and published his account in

its soil,
644, after describing

all question,
productions, &c., adds, " And, without
this country far transcends
and exceeds and
all
other countries in
Asia, Africa, and America, planted by English, French, Dutch,
Portuguese, and Spanish
it
is likely to
prove of far
greater value and esteem to any Christian prince and nation

that shall plant and settle a sure habitation therein, than
the West Indies are to the king and kingdom of Spain

it
and
may
well be compared to the land of Canaan, that flows

;
with milk and honey
little
world of
of
itself,
adjoining to
:
no other land within the compass

or the chief paradise this day
place, after having again
many
its
leagues or miles
upon earth."
In another
spoken of
resources, he adds,
*'
In further commendation thereof,

it,
I will
take the liberty
of extolling
I
:
hope without
'
offence, as
Moses did
in
the
land of Canaan
It is a
good land, a land
which
rivers
of waters and fountains spring out of the vallies and

tains:
mounfig-
a land of wheat and barley, of vineyards, of
trees
and pomegranates
a land wherein thou shalt eat

:
without scarcity, neither shalt lack any thing therein
land whose stones are iron, and out of whose mountains
thou mayest dig
brass.' "
The
geological features of the country are distinct and
prominent; and although hitherto but very partially examined, present considerable variety.
the island exhibits primitive
sienite,
The
greater part of
chiefly
formations,
granite,
and blocks of exceedingly pure quartz; somethe white kind
times large pieces of beautifully-coloured rose-quartz are
met with;
ment
is
used by the natives to orna-
the summits of
quartz,
their
tombs;
cyst,
intersected
by
broad veins of
and a substance resembling grey

frequently seen.
;
wacke or whinstone,
is
Many
of
the
formations are of clay-slate

suitable for roofing
and a valuable kind
of slate,
and writing upon, has been discovered
in the Betsileo country, at about a

capital.
hundred miles from the
Silex and
chert,
with beautiful formations of
chalcedony, primitive limestone, including some valuable
specimens of marble, with different kinds of

are also
sandstone,
met
with.
Finely-crystallized schorls frequently
occur in the Betsileo country, where, embedded in limestone,

fossils,
apparently of fresh-water formation, specimens of

including serpents, lizards, cameleons, with different
fossils,
kinds of vegetable
have been found.

are
No
subterranean
fires
known
yet
in
to
be at present in
sections of
tlie
active or visible
*
operation;
some
ii.
Oisborne's Voyages, Vol.
p. (334.
country, especially in the Betsileo province, indications of

volcanic action frequently occur, and are strongly marked.
Many
of the rocks, for several miles together, are com;
posed of homogeneous earthy lava

also occasionally discovered,
scoria
and pumice are
and some of the lavas abound
with finely-formed crystals of olivine.
Besides the primitive and transition formations, and the

rocks of volcanic origin, there are large beds of clay, and
extensive tracts of
soil
composed
of ferruginous earth
and
disintegrated lava, rich alluvial deposits, and vegetable mould.
Some
of the
geological specimens brought
home
to
this
country are evidently carbonaceous, and would favour the

expectation that there are coal formations in some parts of
the island.
Limestone has not yet been discovered in the

;
eastern part of Madagascar

coast,
but coral
is
abundant on the
and furnishes the inhabitants with excellent lime.

with the
Our acquaintance
minerals
of
is,
Madagascar,
as
far
though exceedingly limited and partial,

extends, highly satisfactory.
costly gems, have not yet
its
as
it
If the
diamond, and other

in its mines,
been discovered
and
if
bowels have not yielded the precious metal by which the
new world inflamed the avarice of the inhabitants of the old, and doomed its own unoffending and aboriginal occupants,
lation;
first,
to a merciless
is
bondage, and,
finally, to
annihi-
Madagascar
already proved to
Silver
be rich in the
minerals most useful to man.
and copper have been
stated by early visitors to exist in certain portions of the

island:
the latter
is
frequently visible in specimens found

to
in the country,
and brought
England
and
it
is
still
reported by the natives that the former has been obtained.
Mr. Boothby,
country
:
indeed, refers to gold brought
from
this
for after observing, "
This gallant island of Mada-
gascar affords these several rich commodities," which he
enumerates, concluding with gold
old Earl of
;
7
states,
he further
" the
Denbigh brought home from

and
this
island of
Madagascar, gold sand, which he presented to the king's

majesty and the council-board
;
was at the councilof."
board when this gold sand was in question, and approved
Had
this
been
correct,
it
is
not likely that the circumof,
stance would have been lost sight

efforts
far
more vigorous
this
all
would certainly have been made
to discover
precious metal.
probability,
The
gold sand in question was, in
brought from the adjacent coast of Africa.
However
this
its
may
be, iron ore, a mineral to a nation in the
infancy of
civihzation far
more valuable than

to
gold, has
been found so rich and abundant as
be rendered avail-
able to the natives, by a rude and simple process of smelting, for
almost every purpose for which
it
is
at present
required.
A great
iron.
part of the interior district of

Its quality is good,
Ankova
renders
abounds with
coal,
but the want of
which has hitherto been sought

it difficult.
for in vain,
the smelting of
lies to
In the district of Imamo, which
the west of the capital, great quantities of iron ore,
in
a very perfect state, are found on the surface of the

the portion of iron
is
ground:
so large in
some
ore,
as
perhaps to have occasioned the remark in Rochon, a remark
which
is
is
certainly not warranted
by
facts, that native
steel
found in IVIadagascar.
is
The
iron in the mountain

it
of
Ambohimiangavo
Rock-salt
so abundant, that
is
called
by the
natives, " iron-mountain."

is
found near the coast, and nitre has been

also,
met with
and
abundance of
pyrites,
yielding
valuable per centage of sulphur.

hoar-frost on the surface of
The
is
nitre appears like
embankments, and other procalled
jecting parts of the ground, and

sira tani/, salt of the earth
:
by the people,
it is
not, however, plentiful.
the buperintendence of
Under
Mr. Cameron, one
of
the
missionary artisans, measures were taken a few years ago,

for obtaining,
by
artificial
means, a larger supply of
this
useful article.
fifty
Oxide of manganese has been found about
miles south-west of the capital.

is
substance resem-
bling plumbago, or black lead,

in
found in great abundance

is
some parts
and
of the island, and
used by the natives to

of their rude articles of
colour,
polish, or glaze
many
domestic use.
Several kinds of ochre, or coloured earth,
have been found,* some of which are used in colouring the

outsides of buildings,
Stc.
The
is
country next the shore, with the exception of the
south-eastern coast in the neighbourhood of Fort Dauphin,

flat
and exceedingly low.
Some
parts are apparently
below the level of the ocean, and, consequently, marshy
and incapable of
culture.
This margin of comparatively

meadow-land, or rice-grounds,
fifty
it is
level soil, consisting of rich
extends on the eastern coast from ten to

breadth
to one
;
miles in
on the western side of the island
from
fifty
hundred wide, and occasionally extends
still
farther
towards the interior.
In some parts of the eastern coast,
the country becomes suddenly mountainous at the distance

of about thirty miles fi*om the sea. Within the level border,
the whole country,

Betsileo
with
the
exception
is
of
part
of the
and Sakalava
districts,
diversified with hills
of varied elevations,
and extending
in every direction.
In some parts of the island, immense plains stretch, in
comparatively cheerless solitude,
over a wide
extent of
country
spot
*
and
all
at distant points, in varied directions, a small
is
that
J. J.
appears under cultivation.
Thus,
for
The Rev.
Freeman Las recently brought
to this country a valuable
collection of the minerals. &c. of Madagascar, specimens of whicli arc
deposited in the Missionary Museum, Blomlield-street, Finsbury.
example, in travelling from the centre of the island westward, after leaving the inhabited parts of Ankova, about a
week's journey must be performed through a desert, before
reaching any villages in

Sakalavas.
the
adjoining
is
districts
of
the
The
surface of the country
in general con-
siderably diversified, and presents the usual characteristics

of pi'imitive, secondary, volcanic,
and the other formations

In
associated with these, in different parts of the globe.

this respect
the island exhibits a greater resemblance to
many
portions of South America, or India, than to any
equal section of the adjacent continent of Africa.

outlines of
its
The
bold
varied
features
are,
however,
less
and stupendous than those
of America,
and
inferior in
dimensions to those of the Asiatic or Afi'ican continents.
Many
parts,
especially
on
the eastern,
northern,
and
southern
borders,
;
may be
appropriately
denominated
mountainous
is
but the altitude of the highest mountams

that of several in islands of
less
greatly below
ex-
tended' boundary in other parts of the torrid zone.
The
broad extent of table-land in the interior

derably elevated
tains rise,
;
is
itself consi-
and from
it,
Ankaratra and other moun-
yet the highest are probably not more than
8,000 or 12,000 feet above the level of the sea.
Few
exact
measurements have yet been taken, but from observations
made by a common
rivers, there is
level,
and from the direction of the
reason to conclude that the highest moun-
tains in the
island are, Angavo,
near Ambatomanga,
in
Imerina, and Ankaratra, the south-west boundary of
An-
kova, Andringitra in Imerina, and n.n.w. from Tananarive
and langogora, called

mity of the island.
also Vigarora, in the northern extre-
The
first
three of these rise to the

is
greatest elevation above the level of the sea, the last
the
highest from the base to the summit.
By
some, the chain,
10
or range of mountains, called Ankaratra, and situated to
the south of the capital,
is
supposed to be the highest,

thirty miles
and
is
said to cause, for a distance of

side,
on
its
eastern
an
artificial
twilight,
of ten minutes or a
quarter of an hour's duration.
The
following account of the appearance of the Ankaratra
mountains, and of the country in their immediate neigh-
bourhood,
is
given by Mr. James Cameron, an intelligent

artisan,
and
scientific
who was
for
many
years connected
with the mission at the capital of Madagascar.
" Southward of Imerina, there
is
an elevated cluster or
:
range of mountains, called Ankaratra

than the
is
they are not higher
hills in
Imerina, but the ground whence they rise
high, so that at a distance they appear like the highest
range of an exceedingly elevated chain of mountains.
The
face of the country continues to rise in a southern direction

for a distance
of
probably forty miles, after which the
ascent becomes more steep for the next ten miles.

this elevated
On
called
ground
is
situated a chain of
is still is
hills,
Vava
vato, or
Stone Mouth. This
a continuation of
the same chain as Ankaratra, but
the most rugged of
any in the country.

lower, though
still
To
the south of this ridge spreads the
hilly
country of Betsileo; and to the
west, the district
of Mandridrano.
of
"
The summits
Ankaratra are generally basalt
in
various stages of decomposition,

solid within, while the external
many
of
is
them hard and

soft
surface
and earthy,
and evidently losing a portion every year, from the action of

the atmosphere, rains, &c.
also, in this place,
Several of the smaller

to the sugar-loaf
hills
approach more
form
in these, granite predominates.

this
It is
on the north side of
range that the iron pyrites are found, from which

is
sulphur
extracted at Tananarive.
11
" In travelling a distance of about thirty miles along the
north-west side of this range, I do not recollect seeing a

single piece of
any other stone than that above described.
But there
miles,
is
a place called Kiotrakiotra, where, for a few

granite,
huge masses of
and small fragments of
quartz, indicate a change in the nature of the rock.

little
Some
account of this place, which
wrote on the evening of
the day
we passed
large
it,
may
not be unacceptable.
"Many
ground.
stones
appeared standing out of
the
One
that
we saw
projected horizontally to the
distance of twenty-five feet, forming a kind of cave underneath, M'here travellers are accustomed to lodge.
"
The neighbourhood
of this
cave formed one of the
most romantic and picturesque scenes we had yet seen.

It consisted of
a deep, narrow vale, in
many
places not less
than 500 feet deep, with a considerable stream at the
bottom
the rivulet meandering sometimes through the narof the vale,
row bottom
and
at other times almost lost

its
among
dis-
the beautiful green shrubs, which clothed
banks, and were

little
the resort of several kinds of birds, apparently
turbed by our intrusion.
Wherever the water presented

in
any extent of surface, numerous waterfowl sported

parative tameness on
its
com-
surface.
in the
" In the neighbourhood of the cave, the change

scenery became more romantic and bold.
Masses
of rock,
some
of
them from
thirty to fifty feet long, projected from
the side of the ravine, like rudely-shaped pillars, and on

the top of these rested other masses of rock,
sometimes
projecting so as to threaten destruction to
all
below.
" Between the masses of rock, thus strewn in wildest confusion on every hand,
with greater luxuriance than any
many kinds of shrubs were growing we had hitherto seen in

which formerly flowed in a
ser-
our journey.
The
rivulet,
12
pentine course from one side of the ravine to the other,
now
disappeared,
for at least
and forced
its
way by a subterranean
passage
a quarter of a mile.
" Fragments of rock thrown together in several places,
formed a frightful bridge over the stream. masses were more than 100
feet in
Many
of those
length,
and generally Some,
presented a globular, or rather oval-shaped form.

again,
presented massy sides
and rather obtuse peaks,
towering from the sides of the valley. Beneath and between

these blocks of granite were extensive caverns, occasionally
twelve or sixteen feet in breadth, connected by passages in
some places
so narrow as scarcely to allow a person to pass
between them.
These caverns received
light through aper-
tures between the stones by which they were formed, but

in
to
some
forbid
places
they were so dark and deep as almost

of
the approach
those
who were desirous
of
exploring them.
We
penetrated their gloom for a dis-
tance of nearly two hundred yards, and might have gone
much
farther
had time and strength permitted.
The
river,
during the dry season, seemed to find a way considerably lower than the bottom of the caverns, for nor heard any thing of
it.
we
neither saw
But
in the rainy season, that
passage must be too small for the waters of the swollen
stream
they must then rush with fearful violence through
the passages
we were now
exploring.
During that season,

is
when
generally the stream both above and below
impass-
able, the projecting
masses of rock are used as bridges by
the natives, and afford
means
o^"
communication between
the opposite sides of the valley,
more
safe
and easy than
any other they could devise for crossing the torrents. " On looking at those hills called Vava vato from the
north, at a disfance of ten or fifteen miles, they present a
most rugged and irregular aspect, resembling an aesem-
blage of ruins.
13
to
On
approaching nearer, they appear
be
granite, having almost all their summits, in

their sides also,
many
places
and the valleys between them, covered with

;
enormous blocks of stone

tion being
many
stones in an upright posi-
from forty to sixty feet high; and some on the
higher
hills,
which at a distance appeared
like
towers,
seemed more than a hundred
feet in perpendicular elevation.
The
strata of a considerable portion of the rock
were
large,
and ranged
in a position nearly perpendicular, apparently
granite or gneiss.
Some
of
it
was beautiful
in appearance,
and certainly would be highly serviceable

purposes of civilized
life.
for
many
of the
"
We
is
crossed this chain of hills at two different places,
eight or ten miles distant from each other.
The
width
across
this
ten or twelve
miles;
the
romantic scenery of
highland region was agreeably enlivened by streams
of very pure water, which vvound their sparkling course
through most of the ravines and valleys of the pass.
In
one of the
hills
there
is
said to be a cavei-n
sufficiently
capacious to contain a large
number
of
men.
The whole
banditti, or
neighbourhood
is
stated to be infested with
robbers, so that travellers generally go in small companies.
We
saw several birds of the falcon kind among the rocks,

be any chain of mountains
but no quadrupeds.
There does not appear
to
extending north and south through the island.
Those
represented in maps, and designated Ambohitsmena, signifying " at the red villages," are probably the Vohidrazana,
forming part of the forest of Alamazaraotra, and the highest section of forest west of Betanimena.
is
Ambohitsmena
eastern
a name unknown in the island, and has probably been
given by Europeans visiting and describing the

parts of the island.
But though no continuous chain of
14
to
mountains stretches from one end of the island

other, the traveller cannot pass
the
from any one point on the
coast to a section on the opposite shore, v/ithout crossing
a number of mountains of greater or less elevation.
The
highland scenery of Madagascar, in the central

is
portions of the island,
diversified
by lakes
of
various
extent and form
they are also met with in some parts of
the low alluvial countries nearer the sea.
Some
large.
of these
lakes are remarkable for their natural beauty, others are
esteemed
for their utility
many
of
them are
Among
the most considerable are Ihotry, situated to the north of
Fiarenana, Imanangora in Antsianaka, Safe in Ambongo,
Imania in the Sakalava country, being about one hundred

miles in length, though not more than a mile wide.
To
these
may be added
"image
of
in
Saririaka, (an expressive name, signifying
of the ocean,") which lies to the east of the forest

to the south of
Bemarana; Anosive,
Betanimena; and
Tamatave;
famous
Ivavong}^,
Itasy, in Imerina,
for its fish.

is in
The
highly bituminous lake near the river Mangafiaf}',
the province of
Anosy
this
remarkable lake
is
about
five
miles in breadth, and extends in length about sixty miles.
In the interior of the same province there
is
another lake,
whose waters
Excellent
taste as
if
strongly impregnated with copper.
fish is
found in the greater number of the lakes,
of which there are several others, but the
most valuable
are those already named.
On
are
the eastern coast of
the island, a series of lakes
extends for a distance of 200 miles.
Several of these
remarkably beautiful, being
spotted
with
islets
of
various dimensions,
some
of
them clothed with verdure,
others enlivened with the habitations of men.
The annexed
account of the voyage by the lakes, near the eastern shore,

proceeding from the coast to the capital, describes their
HISTORY OF Mi^DAGASCAR.
extent, dimensions,
and other
peculiarities,
which may be
regarded as illustrating a general notice of the lakes in
Madagascar.
The water
;
of
some
of the
lakes
is
fresh;
of others, brackish
and
of others, decidedly salt.
The
traveller proceeding
first
from Tamatave to the
capital,
reaches the
lake at Hivondrona.
This lake
is
called
Nosi-ve^ which signifies "
many
large islands," from the
circumstance of there being several in the lake. Proceeding

southward,
its
it
assumes two other names in succession.

it is
At
widest part,
is
called Sarobakina^
"
difficult to cross,"
which
or
peculiarly appropriate, especially in rainy, stormy,
otherwise
unfavourable
weather.
Farther on,
it
is
called "
Si-anak atigaitra, " the place of

this lake to Tany-fotsy,
whole length of
rofia plants." The may be twenty-two
or twenty-three miles,
having about six villaccs on each
bank.
At Tany-fotsy
tent
:
(i. e.
white
soil)
the traveller pitches his
and the natives must carry the canoes and packages
across the
bank
to the adjoining lake,
a distance of about
a quarter of a mile.
junction has been
commenced
atten-
between the two lakes.

tion to
this
Radama
paid
particular
object;
and under the superintendence of
Ratefie and Filibert, about eighteen hundred

for
men were
some time employed

soil.
in cutting a channel,
and removing
the
Since the decease of Radama, the labours have

this
been suspended; and
work, as well as
many
others
of great national importance, remains unfinished.
South of Tany-fotsy, is the small lake Famonoampaninana, " killing of serpents." -This extends about half
a mile in length
when a shallow stream commences,

becomes narrow, and
is
called
Ampanirana.
The next lake, Ampandran-ety, though wide

succeeded
cast,"
at its entrance, gradually
by Atopiana, "
or
" thrown," from a custom the
natives ha'e of throwing a stone or stick in a certain part
16
of
it
as they pass by, in
memory
of
some fabled event
of
olden time.
The next
it is
is
one of the most extensive and

it is
beautiful in the whole series of lakes;
called Irangy.
In some places
able,
narrow
in others, the width is consider-
and crossing
it is difficult,
from the extremely rude
canoes of the natives, and the numbers of crocodiles with
which
its
waters are infested.
Atakairimpona
is
generally
is built
selected as a resting-place.
This
village,
fifty
which
;
on
an insulated bank, contains forty or

opposite
is
houses
and nearly
Ambaribe, an excellent fishing
village.
its
Irangy becomes very shallow towards
termination,
trees,
is
where a bank called Fantomaizina, and covered with

separates
it
from the adjoining lake Antoby.
The bank
about half a mile across.

nopandrana, where there
to float the
A
is
narrow stream, called Andra-
scarcely water
enough
at times
is
canoes, runs out of Antoby.
The next
Morillion,
the broad lake Andrasoamasay.
Here M.
trader from Mauritius,
who
settled at
Tananarive in 1821,
was unfortunately drowned in 1825.
His body was found,

It
and buried
in the
bank by the
natives.
was afterwards
burrowed up, and partly devoured, by

natives again got possession of
it,
crocodiles.
it
The
and
wrapped
in cloths,
placed
it
in a tree,
beyond the reach of these formidable
animals,
and
having communicated the circumstance to

at
the friends of the deceased
the
capital,
his remains
were conveyed
thither,
and interred
in the missionary or
European burial-ground.
Andrasoamasay
and noblest
width,
joins Andrasoa-be, which
is
the finest
of the lakes, being from four to six miles in
and
eight
or
ten
in
length,
having
its
borders
enriched and adorned by luxuriant vegetation.
At
the
southern extremity of Andraso-abe

Ivavongy, where an
old chieftain
;
is
the small village of
has been long found
exceedingly kind
and hospitable
he
is
man
of large
corporeal
17
powers
dimensions
smaller
the
intellectual
the
husband of four wives

mild in disposition
father of a
numerous race
but
a
extremely fond of one of the
greatest sources of evil to his country, ardent spirits.
Near
this
spot
circumstance lately occurred which
the natives consider as decisive in establishing the power

of the charms of their wise men.
An
European trader
of cattle
from the capital
was conducting a number

:
down
to
the coast for exportation
the natives advised
him
to try
the effect of their " ody," or charms, for the protection of

his bullocks in crossing the lake.
all
Deeming hismelf above
necessity for attention to their superstitions, he disre-
garded their advice, and sent forward the animals.

soon saw and repented of his error
:
He
for
nine of his bullocks
were almost instantly seized by the crocodiles, and drawn

under the wâter; fearing the
loss of the whole,
he hastily
desired the " charms" to be prepared, exclaiming, " I shall

lose all
work
the ody
bring the charm."

^s,
To
his aston-
ishment, and the triumph of the nat''
when the charm

;
was worked, the
rest of the cattle crossed in safety
and
even those which had disappeared, were in a moment, as

if
some
invisible
agency had dissolved the
spell, released,
and, recovering their position, passed over to the opposite

shore.
On
the
the return of the trader to Tananarivo, he related
the circumstance, and expressed his belief in the power of
Malagasy charms.
Being questioned as
to the
mode
in which the " ody" was worked, the mystery vanished.
The charm
consisted in noise.
The charmers
shouted,
beat the water with branches of trees, both in the canoes
and on both sides of the lake, and thus frightened the

crocodiles,
who were unmercifully dragging
his
is
oxen
to the to b3
deep parts of the lake.

1.
The
c
crocodile
known
18
timid
;
and
if
resisted by the
human
species, seeks safety in
retreat.
On
the bank of the long and narrow lake Imoasa, the
next at which the traveller arrives, stands the small village

of Ambila.
The
waters are here brackish, from the junction

sea.
between the lake and the

in
The
is
natives are in the habit,
most places, when the wind

sail,
gentle and steady, of
raising
feel
by means of their lambas tied to a pole, and

mortified, should the traveller, distrusting
not a
little
their " skill in sailing," object to this
mode
of saving their
labour,
and expediting the voyage.

lake Imdasa terminates at an isthmus, or
The
called
bank,
Andavaka menaruna,
is
" the hole of serpents," from
the
number
of these reptiles said to have
been found there.

It
This
the widest bank between the lakes.

:
extends
about three-quarters of a mile
a pleasant and spacious
path leads through a thick wood to the next stream, Ratio-
mainty,
i.
e.
black-water
name
correctly bestowed from

is
the appearance of the water.
The stream
narrow and
serpentine, scarcely affording space sufficient for a canoe to

pass.
The
canoe,
if
pushed with too much

is
force, strikes
against the winding bank, and
certainly upset.
is
The
to
stream afterwards becomes wider, and

feet across,
from 100
300
but
still
difficult to navigate, on account of the

its
quantity of fallen timber strewn in

is
waters.
The
scenery
inexpressibly charming, and well compensates the lover
of the picturesque and beautiful in nature for the incon-
veniences sustained.
Ranomainty
nimena, which
joins the Iharoka, the largest river in Betafalls into
the sea to the south of Andevoranto,
a large village, containing from 200 to 300 houses, and
having about 1200 inhabitants.

structui'e, those of
The
houses resemble, in
is
Tamatave.
Tlie village
a mart for
rice,
19
cattle,
and
fish.
Some Arab
traders reside here

it
purchasing rice from the interior, and forwarding

to the coast.
down
On
the banks of the Iharoka are several
villages; the chief are
Maromandia, Ambohibohazo, Mais
hatsara, and, at a short distance from these,
Vohitsara.
The appearance
is
of the country on the banks of the river,

all
remarkably rich and beautiful, exhibiting

in its
the variety
attractive
it
and loveliness of nature

forms
;
most pleasing and

to
and
vie
to the eye
accustomed
European scenery,
Vv'ere
would
with some of the fairest regions,
its
gently-rising grounds, sheltered groves, or spreading lawns,
enlivened by structures, the abodes of intelligence, refine-
ment,
and comfort, with temples sacred
to
Him who
hills
hath weighed the mountains in scales, and the

a balance.
in
From
the Iharoka, the traveller turns westward into a
narrow, serpentine,
and deep
river,
called Alavenonana,
which extends about four miles, where he reaches the

village of Vohitsara.
This river
is
embosomed by
rich
and
valuable plantations belonging to the natives, and appropri-
ated to the culture of rice, plantains, gourds, sugar-cane, S:c.
The
village contanis
from 100 to 150 houses, and being

affords a
situated on an eminence,
varied, extensive,
charming view of the
and beautiful scenery of the surrounding
country.
Though some
portions of Madagascar, and considerable
parts of the district of
Ankova
in particular, are arid as

is
well as barren, the country in general
well watered.
The most
Most
of natives,*
*
fertile
spots in the island are
the valleys.
these abound with rice, the staple food of the
and a few other vegetables.
These
valleys are,
is
Excepting, perhaps, the Sakalavas, of Menabe, whose principal food
arrow-root.
20
especially in
the
rainy season, clothed with a lieh and
luxuriant verdure, delightfully exhilarating amidst the sterility
and wildness of the surrounding regions.
The most
extensive valleys in the island are Belisa in the Sakalava

country, and
Ambolo
in
Anosy.
;
The
them
rivers of
Madagascar are numerous

the greater
and many of
of considerable width,
number flowing
Sambaho, which
into the sea on the western coast; thus the
passes through
Ambongo, and
called
falls
into the sea south of
Cape
St.
Andrew,
by the Malagasy, Jantsanira; the

falls
Betsiboka, which passes through Iboina, and

sea not far fi'om Mojanga.
joins at
loses its
It is this river
)
into the
which the Ikiopa
Marovoy,*
a military post,
where the Ikiopa
own name
in the united course of the Betsiboka.
The
is
Ikiopa rises south of Angavo, and waters the whole

capital,
neighbourhood of the
also
Tananarivo.
The Mansiatra The

Matita-
an extensive river on the west,
falling into the sea at
a bay of the same name, north of Morondava.
nana
is
one of the largest
rivers on the eastern coast, and
for its sanctity
gascar.f
The
origin of the
may be regarded as the Ganges of Madaname of this river is fabulous

;"
Maty signifies
said,
" to die," " dead
tuuana^ " the hand." It
is
two giants of extraordinary stature were disputing, one

;
standing on each side of the river

test,
during the dreadfid con-
one seized the hand of the other with such a giantit off.
grasp as actually wrenched
It fell into the river,
and
gave
it
the commemorative
name
of Maty-tanana, " the

all less
dead
hand." There are also other rivers, but
favourable for
the purposes of trade and commerce, than fi'om their magni-
many alligators. Some farther notice of this river, the banks of which seats of Mohammedanism in the island, will be found in
f
portion of the work.
* Signifvang
are the chief
a subsequent
; ;
tude a traveller might, on
expect.
first
21
seeing them, be induced to
At
their junction with the sea,
most of the
rivers
are choked by sand ; in
some
instances; the
same
river forms
frequent cascades and
falls,
in its course towards the ocean
and
in other places, the descent is
extremely rapid, and
its
current strong as a torrent, rendering navigation dangerous

if
not impracticable.
The gloomy and unbroken

cataracts of varied size, form,
solitude of
some parts
is
of the
sublime mountain-scenery of Madagascar,
enlivened by
and
elevation.
The
principal
cataracts or water-falls in the island are Talaviana in the

district of
Tamatave. Farahantsana, about thirty miles west
of Tananarivo, in the district of half a day's journey from

in Betaniniena;
Marovatana;
Ifito,
about
Hivondrona; landrianavomby,
and Moavana, in Mahavelona.
Fountains, or springs, are numerous and valuable, especially in the

is
more elevated parts

abound
in the
its
of the island.
The
it
capital
supplied with water from the rano-velona, "perennial
springs," which
mountain on which
vicinity.
stands,
of
or in the low grounds in
immediate
Some
these natural fountains are extremely good, and afford an
ample supply of water
for all
domestic purposes
others
are brackish, and consequently less serviceable.
These are not the only kind
of valuable fountains to be
met with
bably
in
Madagascar. Mineral waters have been found
and a more perfect knowledge of the country would pro-
make us acquainted
with a greater
number than have
yet been discovered.
Medicinal springs, as might be ex-
pected, occur in those parts of the country, the external
form of which
is
evidently the effect of volcanic agency.
Thermae, or warm-springs, occasionally appear;
among
which may be mentioned those in the
fertile
and beautiful
province of Anosy. which are reported to possess valuable
22
medicinal properties, and others near the small and charming village of Ambohizanahdry, " Village of God."
It
has
been supposed
to
have taken
its
name from some
thermae,
or warm-springs, found about half a mile north-east of the

village,
and which the natives have regarded as sacred, or

indicative of the divine power.
in
some way
These springs are called Rdtio-mafana, or "warm waters."
The
spots in which the springs issue from the
soil,
are deeply
shaded by a large quantity of closely-woven over-hanging
bamboos, and the
wild-fig,
whose branches shoot directly
across the stream, and by sending forth innumerable small

fibres,
which descend and fasten themselves in the
soil
beneath, resemble, in miniature, the banian-tree of India, of
which species the wild-fig of Madagascar

variety.
is
probably a
issue, at
The immediate
and
cavity
is
whence the waters
one of the principal springs two

feet width,
it
an irregular hollow of about

depth
;
tvvelve or fourteen inches in
from
this source
flows in a shallow
stream
till it
meets a river
at a short distance, called also

its
Rano-mafana, which winds
way between the
springs and the village of
Ambohiza-
nahary.
The The
smell and taste of the springs are highly
sulphureous.
point.
The
natives
average heat
is
somewhat below boiling
make no use
of the springs, but merely
regard them as objects of curiosity. There are warm-springs

also in the Betsileo country,
and many indications
of former
volcanic action in their immediate vicinity, whereas no indications of this kind are found in the locality
now under
consideration
The
following account of a visit to the saline springs at

in the Betsileo country, is given
Mandrovy,
by Mr. Cameron,
by whom they " When we
were visited
in
1834:
first
arrived at the
if
village in Betsileo,
we
inquired of our host
there were any natural curiosities
111
23
the neighbourhood.
He
soon mentioned a place where

salt,
he described the ground as overspread with

springs as having a saltish taste.
and the
On
the following mornforty
ing
or
we
visited the spot,
and found, within a space of
fifty
yards, several springs, the united waters of

five or six gallons
which
might produce
per minute.
The water
had an agreeably acidulous
taste,
apparently highly im-
pregnated with carbonic acid gas, which speedily separated
from the water, adhering in small globules

the glass with which
to the sides of
we took up some
of the water.
The
same gas appeared
rising in globules from all the springs.
Where
the ground was
damp
it
was covered with an
effloresence, as
were also the stones which were moistened

it
by the stream as
ing brook. "
flowed from the springs into an adjoin-
The
people of the neighbourhood informed us that
they drive their cattle to the place to drink the water and
lick
up the
that
salt,
which they say has a remarkable tendency

for slaughter
;
to
promote their fattening

the
but we could not
learn
people themselves used, for any purpose

salt.
whatever, either the water of the spring, or the

cattle, daily
The
driven to the spot, had gradually worn away
much
thick,
of the earth, and exposed several masses of granite,

six
and also a thin layer of limestone,
or eight inches
which in some places presented the appearance of
marble.
The
layer, however, did not consist of calcareous

it
matter alone, but had embedded or enclosed within

pieces of basalt,
quartz,
and, apparently, feldspar,

to
all
of
which extraneous substances seemed
have been sub-
jected to considerable friction, for they were round and
smooth,
like the
stones found
in
rapidly-flowing rivers.
There were
also
many
pieces of decayed
wood enclosed
in
the limestone, some as thick as a man's finger, others of a
24
smaller
size.
We
found also some varieties of
fossils
in
the mass.
One fragment
of stone contained the impression
of a serpent:
the part of the body which lay uppermost
seemed
"
to
have been crushed, as the lower part only was
distinctly
marked.
a thermometer was immersed in the adjacent
stood at 66*^
;
When
it
stream,
when
in the spring,
it
stood at 80.
The specific gravity of the water rather exceeded that of common water, being in the proportion of 1000 to 1004.
When
when
little
water was added to
it,
a white precipitate
effect
was immediately formed: the same

nitrate of barytes
was produced
nitrate of silver
first
was added.
When
was added, a white precipitate was produced, which

turned brownish, and soon
appearance.
afterwards assumed a black

soap.
The water decomposed
" At a place about seven miles distant, near the western

extremity of a succession of volcanic
miles in extent, there
is
hills, six
or eight of
a spring rising
among a mass
1.38.
volcanic rocks, in which the thermometer rose to

water,
The
however, did not seem to possess any stionglysaline or other properties.

to the east of the region in
marked
"
About seven miles

to
:
which
the last spring was seen, wê
came
the
to a well
which was
described
properties
us
as
possessing
it
following marvellous
to
In appearance,
it
was said always
resemble
boihng water, while
was
at the
same time
perfectly cold
and
faint
if
any one attempted
to bathe, it
was said he would

it
on going into the water.
On
reaching the well,
presented the appearance of a large cauldron beginning to

boil
;
and we had no doubt but that the
latter part of the
report was correct, as the surface of the water was about

three feet below the ground at the edge of the well, instead
of flowing
over
its
side.
The water seemed
to find
an
outlet
25
by a covered passage,
as, at
a considerable distance
from the well, we heard a rumbling noise under ground,

resembling that which would be produced by the bubbling
of gas through water.
The
boiling appearance arose from
the discharge of large quantities of carbonic acid gas, w^hich
constantly escaped from the water.
This
gas,
from
its
superior density to
common
air,
would
certainly, at least in
a quiet day,
lie
in
the cavity of the well, and produce the water.

I
fainting in those
effects
who entered
the
natives
showed the
us to
of
carbonic-acid
of
gas upon a grasshopper, which
enabled
some
who accompanied
effects
understand the
described.
cause of
those
which they had
" At a distance of about a mile and a
half,
we
visited
another spring, or rather an assemblage of springs, rising

off
a bed of limestone.
These springs
also emitted great
quantities of carbonic acid gas.
One
spring, in particular,
to
discharged
it
in such
abundance as
produce a noise
which might be heard at the distance of several yards. The

strata in
this
locality
appeared to be limestone
and
in
some places there were extensive caves, from the inside of

the roofs of which beautiful stalactitic formations were sus-
pended.
What appeared
rocks,
to us
remarkable was the great

state of effloresence
quantities of salt
which was found in a
on these
and
also
on the damp ground in the
neighbourhood.
The
natives of this part of the country
also drive their cattle to the place, to

also, instead of planting rice,
Uck the
salt.
Here,
or grain, or roots, for food,
as
is
usual in other places, the natives plant a kind of

rapid growth, which imbibes a large portion of the
flag, of
saline properties of the soil
on which
it
grows.
it,
This rush
they cut several times in the year, burn

ushes extract a
salt,
and from the
which they pack up
in baskets of rush
26
From
or grass, sell in their markets, or send to the capital.
the manufacture
of
salt of
very inferior quality, by the

this
salt
above simple process, the people of

are said to be comparatively rich.
neighbourhood
formed on the
The
ground was a remarkably pure carbonate of soda, which
we used
narivo."
Salt
is
afterwards in the manufacture of soap in Tana-
an
article in
considerable
demand
at the capital
;
and other thickly-populated parts of the country

the
and as
demand has been such

it
as to induce the natives to culti-
vate the rush above referred to, for the sake of obtaining
a supply,
seems remarkable that they have never used
the superior kind of salt furnished by the laboratory of
nature in this part of the country.
The
probability
is,
they have been deterred by considerations more or less
connected with their superstitions.
27
CHAP
II.
Climate of Madagascar
Fluctuations the temperature of the atmosphere Insalubrity of the greater part of the sea-coast Healthiness of the The Malagasy yearPeriodical Number and names of designathe months The seasons of the Malagasy year; import of Thunder and lightning Water-spouts WTiirlwinds Meteors of the Productions ForestsTrees and Variety and native and foreign indigenous and exotic Honey and gums
in
interior
rains
their
tions
fertility
soil
plants,
Birds,
Fable of the birds choosing a king Wild and tame quadrupeds obtain a supply Fishes the Amphibious animals Accomit of the crocodiles; peculiar habits of the animal Sagacity of the dog Fable of the serpent, the crocodile, and the dog Superstition
;
efforts to
for
capital
of the natives respecting the crocodile
Insects and reptiles.
The
in
climate of Madagascar
its
is
exceedingly diversified, both

its
the range of
temperature, and the degrees of
salubrity.
The
;
heat, in the low lands
and on the
coast, is
often intense
but in the interior and elevated parts of the
country,
it is
mild, the thermometer seldom rising above 85.
In the different sections, every variety of temperature
may
be met with, from the comparatively oppressive heat of the

coast, to the cold of the lofty
Ankaratra range, on. the sum-
mit of which, ice may often be found; or the elevated regions

in the northern part of the island,
where showers of
sleet
are frequently seen.
28
of the province of
The temperature
the capital
is
Ankova,
in
which
situated, is
agreeable to a European, the
greatest heat being about 85,
and the lowest 40; and

from nine in
though during the chief part
of the day, viz.

it is
the morning to four in the afternoon,
often sultry, the
mornings and evenings are always pleasant.

months, or from
In the winter
is
May
to October,
when
the ground
occa-
sionally covered with hoar-frost, the thermometer frequently
does not rise above
44'^ for
several days in succession.
At
other seasons, the fluctuations in the heat of the atmo-
sphere are extreme and sudden.

the thermometer
is
Often in the morning
at 40,
or even at 38, and rises to
75 or 80 between two and three o'clock in the afternoon

of the
same day.
The
difference in the temperature,

is
how-
ever, is
much
less
than that which
experienced in the
salubrity of the climate in different portions of Madagascar.
The
inhospitality of the whole coast, with but few excepis
tions,
extremely prejudicial to health, and
affects
the
natives not born in those parts, and foreigners, in nearly
an equal degree.
The miasma pervading

has
the atmosphere over the greater
part of the coast, during the whole of the
summer months,
or
settlers
proved so
fatal
to
the
colonists
from
France, who have at different times attempted to establish
themselves in the country, and to the Dutch,

visited
it
who have
for traffic,
as
to
render the not inappropriate
designation of the Isle of St. Mary's. " the gi-ave of the
French,"
" the churchyard " or
" dead
island "
of
the
Dutch, applicable to the coast of the greater part of the

island.
The
malaria which engenders the destructive fever,

to
is
supposed
arise
from the decomposition of vegetable
substances in contact with stagnant v/ator.
The mouths
of
many
of the rivers are
29
their
choked up with sand, so that

or,
waters either pass sluggishly into the sea,
when not
swollen by rains falhng in the interior, present the aspect

of a broad, unruffled, stagnant lake, for several miles inland.
The
brackishness of the water, and the absence of croco-
diles, often indicate
a level below that of the waters of the
sea, while
much
of the
ground on the inland side of the
bank
of sand that is raised along the border of the sea,
being below the level of the ocean, extensive morasses

occur in several parts of the coast.
also shallow,
ter,
Many
of the lakes are
and receive large quantities of vegetable matall
furnished in
the rank luxuriance which the heat

to
and humidity of the climate unite
produce
and some of
these sheets of water, from the trees and shrubs that grow
around, and rise in different parts of their surface, bear a

greater
lakes.
resemblance to insulated
forests
than ordinary
The
effluvia arising
from the lakes and swamps near the

;
coast, is
extremely prejudicial to health

this, either early in
and by incautious
exposure to
the morning or late in the
evening, the fatal seeds of the Malagasy fever
may be
so
deeply received into the

eradicated.
human
constitution as never to be
In the central parts of the island, and in

in
Ankova, said to be the most salubrious province
Madavictims
gascar, the fever does not exist, though here, occasionally,
persons
who have been
affected on
the coast,
fall
under a relapse.
The
great elevation of the province of Ankova, perhaps
five or six
thousand feet above the level of the

forests,
sea,
soil,
the
the
absence of
the general dryness of

is
the
partial extent to
which luxuriant vegetation
spontaneous,
soil,
and the cultivation of many of the marshy parts of the

will be sufficient to
account
for its salubrity.
The weather
30
on the coast
is
generally hot and damp, or rainy
but in
the interior the rains are periodical, and, in a great measure, regulate the divisions or seasons of the year.
The Malagasy
annual
year commences at the capital with an

the Fandroana.
feast, called
The
festival, of
which
an account
will
be given in a subsequent part of the work,

or eleven days in each year earlier
;
commences about ten

lution
than in the preceding year
consequently, a complete revoyear.
takes place about every thirty-third

is
The
circulation of this festival
often the only
means
that the
inhabitants have of ascertaining their age; and as there
are
some who are
said to be able to recollect the
Fandroana
occurring precisely at the same period, three successive

times, they
must be upwards of one hundred years of age.

are lunar, but with an additional day, called
The months
the Vintana, or Fortune, to be afterwards explained.
There
are four seasons, called the Lohataona, or " head of the
season
;"
from loha, "head," and taona, " season," or "year."
Fahavaratra, " the causing or introducing rain," or sum-
mer; from faha, "to cause," and varatra, "thunderbolt."

Fararano, "end of water," or rain; from /ara, "end,''
and rano, " water," or rain
and Ririnano,
" winter.''
These seasons neither commence nor

any month, or day of the month
the weather, or rain.
close at the
is
same
period in successive years, as their duration

:
not fixed by
their length
depends on
may commence much earlier than in another; and the rainy season may last much longer in one year than in another. The seasons,
Spring, in one year,
as their
names imply,
of
are not regulated by any specific
number
weather.
moons, but depend on certain states of the
The Lohataona, head

of
of the year, or spring,
commences with the budding
the trees, whether that
take place earlier or later in the year.
Fahavaratra, the
causing of the thunder, begins
fall,
31
of rain
when heavy showers
accompanied usually by thunder and lightning.
Fara-
rano, (end of rain) includes the
whole season of cutting and
gathering in the
rice,
which, with some, commences before
the Fahavaratra has strictly ceased, and

cases,
may
not, in
is
some
terminate with others

Ririnano, the
it is
till
the Ririnano
far ad-
vanced.
name given
to the winter season, is
highly expressive;
a passive participle, from the neuter

is riry,
verb mariry, the root of which
"
all
cleaned
off,"
nothing growing, or found verdant." *
On
an average, the
Lohataona
Fararano
Ririnano
lasts
one month and a

five
half.
Fahavaratra
....
months.
half.
one month and a

five
months.
making a
year,
total of thirteen lunar
months.
The Malagasy
;
however,
contains
but twelve months
and those
of the
making a
total of
about 354 days.
354 days are taken up with

and during the other
the rain, and
Ten parts out the summer and

Of
winter
seasons, during five of which the rain falls almost every day,
five scarcely any.
the remaining
three parts, one and a half, or about six weeks, precedes

is
the time of planting the rice, &c.; the
other half, an equal period of about six weeks, following the
heavy
rains,
forms the autumnal season, and
is
succeeded by
the dry and cold weather.
The
at
rain,
during
its
season, usually
commences every day

and conti-
from two
*
to four or six o'clock in the afternoon,
ofT
Hence the expressions, Mariry ny zavatra, " the things are all cleaned ;" Mariry vy tany, ' the country is swept of people, cattle, produce, &c.," as after a desolating war Mariry ny loha, " the head is cleaned off;" as when the head is shaved.
property all gone
32
nues
It is
HISTORY OF iMADAGASCAR.
for a
few hours
sometimes
it
lasts
through the night.
generally accompanied with heavy thunder, and

;
much
season
in
lightning
and
in
some
seasons, the thunder and lightning
continue during the whole of the Fahavaratra.

is
The
generally introduced
by the lightning playing

rains actually
an
evening, perhaps a
month before the
com-
mence.
It
has been remarked

fall
;
also, that
a few showers of
heavy rain
about three or four weeks before this season

off,
commences
month, or
is
the weather again clears
and
in about a
less,
the regular diurnal rains set in.

;
The
rain
occasionally mingled with hail
and showers
of hail-
stones, at times as large as walnuts, or pigeons' eggs, have
proved, at this season of the year, extremely injurious to

vegetation
alone,
:
snow
is
never mixed with the
hail,
or seen
even among the summits of the

cold,
loftiest
mountains,
sleet often
where the fogs are dense and

heavy and continued.
" thunderbolt charm,"
and the
A
is
charm
called the ody-varatra,
generally used at such seasons

far less
by the natives, but, as may be supposed, with

effect
than their fears induce them to desire.

trade-winds prevail during the greater part of the
fi'om the east, or south-east
;
The
year,
and blow
but the rains are
often accompanied by high winds from the west, occasionally north-west,
and not unfi-equently from the south-west.

'
The Rambondanitra,
and Tadio, "
twist,"
i.
tail
of heaven,"
i.
e.
waterspout,
in
to
e.
whirlwind, are not
uncommon
Madagascar, and often exceedingly destructive both
houses and plantations, even in the interior of the island.
Houses are
fi'om the
also at times struck by the electric fluid
and
scarcely a season passes without the loss of several lives
same cause
is
this is
from the forked lightning
that which
seen almost constantly of an evening in

in
warm
;
weather,
playing
the
horizon,
is
not
forked
and
33
being perfectly innocuous, forms one of the most beautiful
and splendid phenomena in nature,

Madagascar.
to
be witnessed in
Meteors are occasionally seen, and earthquakes are not
unknown.
Besides the effects of
these
convulsions
of
nature, as experienced in
itself
some
of the villages, the capital
has been shaken by an earthquake within the last

viz.
twenty years,
since
the Missionaries
arrived there.
Among
an
this
is,
the accounts of remarkable

native,
is
events preserved by
intellisfent
the record of an occurrence of

21st of
kind which took place on the
Alahamady, that
about the end of March, 1829, when a piece of ground,
or large portion of the surface of the earth, situated to the

east of Antananirivo,
was removed
to a considerable dis-
tance from
its
former position.
The
soil
in
many
parts of
Madagascar, especially
in
several of the beautiful
and extensive
fertile.
valleys of the island,
may
justly
be denominated
Large portions of the
table-land of the interior, and of the mountainous part of
the island, are, however, rocky and sterile, and
much
of the
low land near the coast appears

lential
little
better than a pesti-
swamp, or unwholesome morass, while the border

is
extending to the sea
often
sandy and barren.
The
soil of
many
parts
is
nevertheless mellow, prolific, and susceptible,

;
in a high degree, of cultivation

to yield the
while
it
appears sufficient
means
of support for a vastly larger population

is
than the island at present contains, or

for
likely to contain
many
generations to come.
From
the varieties of soil

it
which the different sections of the country exhibit,
seems
eminently adapted not only to jield a far greater abundance

of the articles at present cultivated, but to be well suited
to the
growth of every valuable production of countries in
the temperate or the torrid zone.

I.
34
HISTORY
01
MADAGASCAR
The
vegetable productions of Madagascar are numerous
and valuable.
Notwithstanding the
sterility of the granitic
mountains, and the bare, or moss or fern-clad plains of
some portions
scape
of the
interior,
the shore, in general,
is
woody; groves, with pleasing frequency, adorn the land;
shrubs and brushwood decorate and clothe
many
The
vast extent, the unbroken solitude

forests,
and gloom of
its
impenetrable
where, under the
continued influence of a tropical sun and a humid atmosphere, the growth and decay of vegetation, in
its
most
uncontrolled spontaneity, has proceeded without interruption for centuries, present scenes of extensive
and gigantic
vegetation, in sublime
and varied forms,
rarely, perhaps,
forests traverse
surpassed in any part of the world.

the island in
all directions, all
Immense
within which
may be expected
and realised
years, "
that
is
imposing, and wonderful, and vene-
rable in the vegetable kingdom, where, for thousands of
no
feller
has come up against them," nor have the

ever broken their deep and impressive
footsteps of
silence.
man
The
value,
difficulty of
exploring these forests, however inviting

their promise
;
to the botanist
is
by
of
novelty, variety,
and
incalculable
partly on account of the impene-
trable masses of underwood,
and the abundance
of enor-
mous parasitical plants, which entangle and obscure his way at almost every step * partly from the insalubrity of
;
the
deep recesses, where no
air
circulates freely;
and
partly from the very situation of the forests themselves,
stretching
up the
sides of precipitous mountains, spreading
Some
idea
may be formed of
these impervious masses by the fact, that

its
an immense army has at times eluded the observation of

suers,
^dctorious pur-
merely by one of these almost impenetrable thickets intervening
between them.
t4
Iw*^
^,^^y?
over
hills
35
broken by sudden and deep chasms, or tenaciously
occupying an under-soil, from whence the upper has been
washed away by heavy rains and
torrents, leaving
merely
a net-work of roots and fibres, with fallen and decayed

timber, to support the foot of the passenger.
The
four principal forests in the island are, Alamazaotra,
Ifohara,
Bemarana, and Betsimihisatra,
all of
which, how-
ever, unite,
and form one immense belt

all
of forest, traversing,
with occasional interruptions, nearly

island.
the provinces in the expected, different

intersect.
These
forests assume, as
may be
names
in the different provinces
which they
Amidst the recesses
of the forests are
numerous immense
war as
caverns, which are often frequented in times of
places of retreat,* and at other times used by the jiolahy,

or
brigands,
to
conceal
themselves and their plunder.
These
in
retreats are seldom
known, except
to those
who
live
their
immediate neighbourhood, hence they are but
rarely discovered
by persons from other provinces.
The
lity
forests yield
;
abundance of timber, of varied durabi-
and value
they also furnish dye-woods, with suitable
wood
for cabinet-work, carpentry,
and ship-building.
To
the patrons of botany,
Madagascar presents a
rich, exten-
sive field, scarcely penetrated, almost entirely unexplored,
yet promising a choice and abundant harvest
This
in the
is evi-
A curious
instance of this kind occurred
some time ago
Sakalava
Radama, with a large army, undertook the subjugation of the province. At the close of the campaign, he married Rasalina, daughter of Referring afterwards to the war between the king of the Sakalavas. Radama and her father, she remarked to some officers who had accomcountry.
saw you, during your whole march, and observed all We were near you in the woods, and concealing ourselves in caverns and on one occasion you actually walked over our heads, without ever imagining we were so near." Yet there were several thousand persons with Radama, and as many with the Sakalava
your movements in search of us.
;
panied the king, "
We
prince.
d2
36
dent from the
fact, that of
the four hundred plants, collected
by two botanists from Germany who visited the island some

years ago, one hundred are reported to be
scribed species, and two hundred
of
new
or unde-
new
varieties.
An
account
many
of these
was given
in a description of plants in
Mauritius, published by order of His Excellency the governor, the late Sir R. T. Farquhar.
Speaking of the botany of
the island, after their visit in 1822 and 1823, Messrs. Hilsen-
berg and Bojer observe, "
An
exact enumeration of
is,
all
the
indigenous Madagascar plants,
and
will long remain,
desideratum in botany.
Centuries must previously elapse,
and the knowledge can only be obtained through the exertions of the sons of the north,
who
will render the climate
of
its
Madagascar
cultivation,
less prejudicial,
by extending the
limits of
dis-
and exploring the hitherto vmexplored
tricts.
The
productions of the west, north, and southern

all
coasts,
and of
the interior, remain entirely
unknown,
and the slender documents that have been furnished as to

the vegetation of the north-east by the French naturalists,
most of
whom
have perished from the
effects of the climate,
serve rather to stimulate than to satisfy a botanist's curiosity.
We
were so fortunate as
to
be the
first
botanists
who
penetrated the interior of the island with a view to study

its
vegetable
resources,
which, though
possessing
some
points in sent
common with other maritime countries, yet premany singular features and of which we propose, at
;
some future
period, to
pubUsh
scientific descriptions.
Still
we must
ft-ankly confess, that
towards the approaches of
we but traced a slender path those immense and inexhaustible
natural riches, of which the most creative fancy can hardly

pencil a sketch."
Without, in the present work, attempting a description

of the greater part of the plants
and
trees of
Madagascar;
among
its
37
it
many
valuable and indigenous productions,

:
may
not be unsuitable to mention the following

ravinala,
;
The
speciosa
soiiia,
urania
speciosa;
fotabe,
;
harringtonia
iilao,
casiiarina
equisetifolia
baobab,
;
adan-
found abundantly on the western coast

rofia,
the highly
valuable
a species
is
of
cyriis;
ampaly, a species of
;
morus, whose hard leaf

the
finest
;
used to pohsh wood-ware
ebony,
dais
kind of diospyrus ebenaster ;
avoha, or
Madag.
a native
from which a coarse kind of paper has been

ediilis,
;
manufactured on the eastern coast; fajna

silkworm
is
on which
extensively reared
coast,
the tamarind,
which abounds on the western
but will not thrive in
the interior; amiena, urtica furialis, on which the native
voaloboka, or Madagascar grape,
is
often trained
aviavy,
a species of Indian
species of fig
;
fig,
and amontana and voara, other

;
Indian betel
foraha, callophyllum inophyl-
lum, the dragon tree; the vakoa, (vaquois of the French,)

or pandanus, of which there are three species known, viz.
P. hofa, P. sylvestris, P, longifolius pyrcanidalis, the

being found in Antongil bay;
arundinacea,
last
and the bamboo, bamhusa

to
found in
some parts so abundant as
have given
I-volo-ina.
its
name,
volo, to a part of the country called
To
these
may be added
the azaina, (azign of Chapelier,)
which has been regarded by some as the most useful tree in

Madagascar.
species of
it
It is the chrysopia fasciculata.
Three other
have been met with,
viz.
verrucosa, pomifera,
and parvijiora.
by the natives
They belong to
the family of the gtittifercc,

resin, called
and produce a great quantity of yellow juice or

kitsy,
and used by them
in fastening knives,
&c. into their handles.

tion of canoes
;
The
tree
is
used for the construc-
which are made by scooping out the trunk.

is
The hymencca verrucosa
also
found,
and
affords
3&
gum
copal.
j
large supply of
yields the
The voahena
;
abounds, which
gum
elastic
the roindambo, a species of smilax, the avozo,

laiii'iis
but not the true sarsaparilla
sassafras^
and belahy, a species

articulata,
is
of
simaroba.
Zahana, hignonia
used for spear-handles, walking-sticks, &c.,

the
and partly
bignoiiia
for
same purposes, the voankitsihity, or

of
Telfaria,
;
Boyer
zozoro,
is
the papyrus
of
Madagascar
several species of hibiscus and
mimosa
are
also found; the
former
is
used for the manufacture of

;
cordage, and a coarse beaten cloth frequently planted near the
the latter, called fano,
is
tombs of the Vazimba, in
Imerina.
There must
also be
added
caja,
to the
list,
the seva, buddleia

(native
Mad.
the
cytisus
or
pigeon-pea,
name
ambarivatry ;) the songosongo, a noble species of euphorbia,
employed as a common fence in cultivated lands
laingio,
sophonicus lingum, a plant used by the natives in cleaning

their teeth
its
;
and the tangena venenijiua^ of which
tree,
and
medicinal qualities, a description will be given in the

it is
account of the ordeal of tangena, in which

with such
fatal effect.
employed
Madagascar
the
yields also an
ample supply of spices

on account of
;
e.
g.
agathophyllwn aromaticum, called by the natives,

its
ravintsara, " the excellent leaf,"
delicious
flavour
the longoza,
curcuma zedoaria
also ginger, wild
pepper, capsicums, and turmeric, called tantamo, curcuma
lo72ga*
There abounds
;
also fary, sugar-cane; landihazo,

;
the cotton plant
paraky, tobacco
rongona,
hemp and
;
the
indigo plant, besides several trees

natives in dyeing.
and plants used by the
* For several of the scientific designations of the native plants above

noticed,
we
are indebted
to
Professor Bojer, of Mauritius,
who
kindly
supplied them to Mr. I'Yeeman, on his late visit to that island.
Of
sorts
39
food,
native productions, used as

rice, as
articles of
must
the
be specified
holding the principal place.*
Of
cultivated
in
Madagascar, modern botanists have

varieties.
enumerated eleven
The
oldest people in
the
country agree in affirming, that this article of food, which,

with the exception of the Sakalavas,
the staff of
origin.
life
may be regarded
as
to the
Malagasy,
is
of comparatively recent
This opinion may probably, however, refer more
strictly to the introduction of rice into the interior of the
island,
and
its
cultivation there, as Flacourt gives a descrip-
tion of the different kinds of rice cultivated in the island
before his time, nearly two hundred years ago.
The
cocoa-nut
is
also thought to
be of recent date in
the island,
and
is
supposed
soil,
to
have been borne by the

to the shores of
waves from some other
and washed
fifty
Madagascar about one hundred and

bread-fruit tree
tains
is
years ago.
The
Plan-
of
still
more recent
introduction.
and bananas have been known from time immemorial.

also several kinds of yams, called
There are
by the
natives,
ovy; the manioc plant, also called manga-hazo;
Indian
corn, or maize, and large millet; several kinds of beans,
gourds,
melons,
pine-apples,
and earth-nuts.
Lemons,
planted by
oranges, citrons, limes, peaches, and mulberries also flourish

luxuriantly
;
some
of which,
it is said,
were
first
Flacourt in the south of the island.
Many
edible roots
and vegetables grown
in the neighbouring islands, at the

in
Cape
esq.
of
Good Hope, and
Europe, have been introduced
within the last few years, partly by the late James Hastie,
and Mr. Brady, and
still
more extensively by the
* So general is the use of this article of food, that in the ordinary language of the country, to take a meal is to eat rice whatever besides may appear in the most sumptuous banquet, being only an accompaniment
;
to rice.
40
members
fig,
of
the
Mission.
To
the
latter
the
island
is
indebted for several varieties of the Cape vine, the Cape

quinces, pomegranates, and, as an experiment, wal-
nuts and almonds.
Coffee has been found to succeed well.
Wheat, barley, and oats have been produced, but are not
much
prized by the natives, and do not seem to flourish in
their soil.
The European
potato
is
extensively cultivated,
and highly esteemed.

Flowers are numerous, and
rare.
It
is,
however, only
during half the year that the gardens present an inviting

appearance, excepting those whose low situations admit of
their being watered
by channels from the

means.
rivers
and foun-
tains, or other artificial
The
alternation of long
seasons of heavy rain and extreme drought, are unfavourable to the culture of flowers.
Honey and wax

in
are abundant in or near the forests,

;
which also are found a number of valuable gums

oil,
and
not fewer than ten or twelve kinds of

of
including that
the
the
palma-christi,
are
obtained from
numerous
vegetable productions of the country.
With the number and

of
field of
peculiarities of the feathered tribes

;
Madagascar, we are but imperfectly acquainted
yet no
research appears more interesting, or promises to
the student in this department of the Creator's works, a
more ample reward.
Domestic poultry
is
abundant, and
is
may name
be obtained at a reasonable price.

for fowls,
Akoho
the native
with the addition of lahy to signify the
male, and vary the female.
There are
said to be several
kinds of pheasants, called
by the people, akoho-ala^ wild

;
akoho, or fowl of the woods
partridges are also
met
with,
but they are smaller in
size
than those of Europe.

is
The
akanga, guinea-fowl, both wild and tame,

found in considerable numbers.
common, and
41
Besides the birds which appear to be natives of the

island, peacocks,
turkeys, geese,
and ducks, with an im;
proved kind of fowl, have been introduced

are reared in such abundance, that
and the
of
latter
numbers
them are
at
times sent to the Isle of France for sale. There are several
kinds of pigeons in the island, and the turtle-dove, called

domohina.)
is
found in the woods.
Birds of the eagle or

less
falcon tribe are
met with
in the
frequented parts of
the island; crows, hawks, and kites are also seen.
The
bird
screech-owl
is
called
is
by the natives vorondolo,
or,
of death; lolo
figuratively,
the
name
of a disease, and,
when used
is
signifies
malice.
Some
writers have stated
that the beautiful flamingo, called
by the natives tamby,
found in Madagascar
but no one of the species has been
seen by any late resident in the island.
There
is
a large-
beaked bird inhabiting the desert, called sama, but the

description given of this bird does not answer to that of the
splendid flamingo. Wild ducks and geese, and other waterfowl,
abound
in the
neighbourhood of the lakes and rivers

with.
snipes are also
met
Though
the woods
and
forests are
peopled with several
varieties of
paroquets, and other tribes of splendid and
beautiful plumage, but few of
melody
in
song enliven the

is
places of their resort.
bird of the ostrich kind

If
said to
frequent the most desert places of the island.

this
a bird of
species exist in the country, the story of the ambas-
sadors, to
which Marco Paulo
refers,
may
not be totally
void of foundation.*
The people
oi'
the island report, that at a certain season of the year

call
an extraordinary kind of bird, which they
rukh,
makes
its
appearance
is
from the southern regions.

incomparably greater in
phant, and to
lift it
In form,
it is
said to resemble the eagle, but
size,
being so large and strong as to seize an eleair,
into the
from whence
it
lets
it fall
to the ground,
42
have only noticed some of the more useful and
We
are
conspicuous
among
the feathered tribes:
that the birds
numerous, and exhibit many distinguishing charac-
teristics,
fable,
may be gathered from the following popular under which some Malagasian Êsop has expressed
difficulties
his ideas of the
attending the selection of a
king, the extent of obligation devolving on the subjects,
and the
ful
facility
with which the determined and the power-
set aside all
engagements with those who are unable
in order that
when dead
it
might prey upon
its carcass.
Persons
who have
seen this bird assert, that
when
the wings are spread, they measure sixteen
paces in extent, from point to point, and that the feathers are eight paces
in length, and thick in proportion.
Messer Marco Paulo, conceiving that
these creatures might be griffins, such as they are represented in paintings,

half birds or half lions, particularly questioned those
their
who had
reported
that
having seen them, as to this point;
but
they maintained
was altogether that of birds, or, as it might be said, of The grand khan having heard of this extraordinary relation, the eagle. sent messengers to the island on the pretext of demanding the release but in reality, of one of his servants who had been detained there
their shape
;
to
examine the circumstances of the country, and the truth of the wonderit.
ful things told of
When
I
they returned to the presence of his majesty,
they brought with them, as
have heard, a feather of the rukh, positively
affirmed to have measured ninety spans, and the quill-part to have been
two palms in circumference. This surprising exhibition afforded his majesty extreme pleasure and upon those by whom it was presented, he bestowed
;
valuable gifts.
" All
On this marvellous account, the intelligent editor of Marco Paulo observes, who have read the stories of the Thousand-and-one Nights, must be
acquainted with the size and powers of this extraordinary bird, there called the roe ; but its celebrity is not confined to that work. ' Rukh,' says the
Arabic and Persian Dictionary,

said to have
'
is
the
name of
monstrous bird, which
is
powers sufficient to carry off a live rhinoceros.' " Its existence seems indeed to have been universally credited in the East, and those Arabian navigators with whom our author conversed would not hesitate to attest a fact of such notoriety, but they might find it convenient, at the same time, to lay the scene at a place so little frequented as the southern extremity of Madagascar, because the chances were small of any contradiction from
local
knowledge. Mr.Marsden supposes
this bird to
have been nothing more
than the albatross of the sea, or the condor of Africa or America.
to resist.
43
furnished by
The
translation of this fable
is
Mr. Baker.
On a certain
assembled
occasion,
it is
said,
the birds, having no king,

elected sovereign:
first
to inquire
who should be
when
the land-fowl and the water-fowl
discussed the
question, the land-fowls inquired of the water-fowls " Shall
a sovereign be sought from amongst us, or you ?" " Amongst

you," replied the latter, " will
we seek a
"
suitable king
for
with us there
fowl
:
is
none good."
We
agree," said the land-
" gather yourselves together

will pass
to select
your sovereign,
and we
one by one through your assembly, that

is
you may see who

assented.
most
suitable."
To this
the water-fowl
Then
the water-fowl
came on land
to the foot of a hill,

it.
and the land-fowl assembled

were assembled; when
at the top of
The
water-
fowl then sent the Asirity to ascertain

all
if all
the land-fowl
first
being arranged, the latter sent
of all the tararaka, to pass through the assembly; but
when
he was passing in review, the water-fowl exclaimed, "
Who
would make
nous
this contemptible tararaka sovereign,
a rave-
bird, forsooth, that sleeps
by day ?"
So when they
refused to accept of the tararaka, he stood on the opposite

side
;
and
after
a while the papango (kite) was sent, and
whilst he stood amidst the water-fowl,

said,
some of the land-fowl

but some of the
this sovereign ?
" Come,
let
us
make
this sovereign ;"
water-fowl exclaimed, "
Who
would make
;
he eats
rats
!"
So they would not agree

said,
they then sent the
voromahery (hawk,) and some

king."
" Let us
indeed,
,
Others rejoined,
" This,
make this the we will make

is
supreme."
reign
!
Some, however, objected

steals
" Make this sovenot

;
he
and eats chickens, and there

?"
diiFerence
between chickens and some other birds
much who
would make him sovereign
So he was
rejected.
44 The
fable brings forward in a similar
;
manner the
kituki-
tukia, a thin bird, the size of a pigeon
the goaika, a kind

(that eats
of crow, striped black

ft'ogs,)
and white; the takatra,

"
a small bird, the size of a blackbird, objected to on
account of the proverb,
The
'
takatra on the side of a
rice-plat sleeps not, but disturbs his spirit with watchings,
and because of
the fihiaka
:
his ugly voice,
mitakatakatra.' "
Then came
(a large
but he
steals chickens.
The vanobe
stork,) but they
laughed at his long neck, and objected to
his eating their food, frogs.
The
vorompotsy, (white bird)

;
about the size of a crow, quite white

species.
and of the stork

of a ci'ow, of many
size of
colours.
The vorombato, (rockbird) size The fodilahimena, a bird the
a sparrow,
perfectly red.
to, as too small.
He
;
was admired as beautiful, but objected

is
The next
asikirity, a bird as large as
a wild pigeon
lorohitra.
as likewise the next, asintima, then the

fable,
According to the
many others, whose names
are not specified, passed in review, until the akanga, (guineafowl) came.
Him
they chose, and appointed sovereign, and
in the evening all

if
were sworn
to allegiance,
and denounced
not attending on the following day.
The appointment
hail,
of a
king was, however, rendered void by the

fall,
for
a shower happening to
that
the vulture professed to think
God was
judging or condemning them for appointing
so inefficient a king,
their allegiance,
when one by one they

to his
to the strong.
all
forswore
and departed, each
home, leaving the
weak, as before
a prey
The word vorona name of many birds,

(literally)
signifies bird,
and
:
is
prefixed to the
as the following
Voromahazo, voromailala
tame pigeon
i.e.
Vorombaazaha,
vorombe, goose
bird
:
white
people's birds,
duck
vorombango, vorombola, vorombozaka
much
ab-
horred by the people, and thence called bozaka, grass, fuel
voromjago, vorompotsy
a pigeon or sea-gull
;
45
size
white bird about the
of
supposed to be a great favourite with

its
the cattle, from the circumstance of
following the herds,
and feeding on the insects found on the bodies of the

oxen
:
vorompamo, voronakondro,
of water: voronandro,
:
(lit.)
bird of the banana,

:
being a blue and brown bird, the size of a pigeon

drano,
(lit.)
(lit.)
voron-
of day: vorondolo, the abhorred owl vorondoza, vorondreo a blue bird of the the of a pigeon vorondriaka of the vorondry, vorongo, voronkahaka a crow, with a white neck voronkohj-, voronosy of the goat vorontiada, vorontiaka, vorontianomby beloved by vorontsiloza
desert,
size
:
flood
like
cattle
not dangerous or dreadful, a turkey.

Although the quadrupeds of
and essential
Madagascar extend
to
but few varieties, they comprehend the kinds most useful
to a nation
cattle are
in
the early stages of
its
civilization.
Horned
numerous, both tame and
wild.
Many
of the latter resemble, in shape and size,
the cattle of Europe.

buffalo kind,
The former
Herds
are of the zebu,
or
and have a large hump or bunch on the back

of cattle constitute the
between the shoulders.

principal wealth of a
island,
number
of the chiefs or nobles of the
and not only furnish a large portion of their means

exported in great numbers to the
to ship-
of subsistence, but are
Islands of
Bourbon and Mauritius, and furnished
ping visiting the coast for supplies.

Individuals residing in the capital,
who
possess large
herds of cattle, generally send them under the care of

their slaves into
fifty
some unenclosed part of the country,

till
or a hundred miles distant, where they are kept
required for the

sale
home market,
or sent to the coast for
or
exportation.
Many
that are kept
up and
fed,
resemble the prize animals of the English market, and
46
HISTORY or MADAGASCAR.
some distinguished occasion
of domestic,
are reserved for

civil,
or religious festivity.
is
Their mode of feeding their
oxen
singular.
Each
village has its fahitra, or rather

cattle, for security, are
cattle-folds, into
which the horned
driven every evening, and whence they go forth to pas-
turage in the morning.

for the
Cattle are also kept in the fold
The
purpose of being fattened. fahitra is an enclosure, usually a large square
pit
or excavation,
dug out
in front of the owner's house,

is
and
sur-
within the walls by which the family residence
rounded.
It
is
generally
about six yards
square,
and
about
in
it,
five feet
deep.
sort of shed is
is
sometimes erected
under which the provision
placed for the cattle.
The
it is
provision
is
sometimes placed in a kind of rack, but

is
also placed so high, that the animal
compelled to
stand, the whole time of feeding, in a position that forces
HISTORY OF MADAGASCAK.
the chief weight of
this
its
47
Whether
body on
its
hind legs.
custom originated
it is
in accident or design, is uncertain,

is
but
universal,
and
supposed to aid in fattening the
animal better than our European mode of allowing them

to stand
this
on a
level floor.
Sometimes animals are fed
in
manner
size,
for three or four years,
and
attain
an enor-
mous
especially those
belonging to the rich,
and
intended for the day of slaughter at the annual
feast, or
some other season of rejoicing and

Besides
cattle, sheep,
display.
and swine, goats are also numerous.
The
sheep, which appear to be aboriginal, resemble those
of the
Cape
of
Good Hope, covered with

tails,
short hair instead
of wool,
and having large

Their
that weigh from ten to twenty
pounds each.
flesh is considered greatly inferior to
the mutton of Europe.
Tame
swine are of comparatively modern introduction,
and, from the
name
soa, or
kisoa,
seem There
to
is
have been
a species of
brought from some part of India.
wild hog in the forests, said to have two short horns grow-
ing from the snout.
It is
supposed by some to resemble
" the wild boar of Africa."
The
substances supposed to
be horns appear to be only the large tusks which grow

out of the upper jaw, and running upwards towards the
eyes, through a kind of groove in the flesh at the edges of
the snout, in
some respects resemble horns.
Hedge-hogs,
(tandraka) of which there are several species, are numerous,
and their
these
flesh is occasionally eaten
by the natives.
To
it
may be added an animal
of the badger kind, found

;
chiefly, if
not exclusively, in the Sakalava country
is
called fosa.
Dogs and
cats,
both wild and tame, abound in most
The
is
wild cat, called karj', though
exceedingly beautiful,
an object of great terror to the
48
natives,
who
consider
it
an animal of
ill
omen.
The
native
dogs are small, and the attempts to intz'oduce the Newfoundland and mastiff species have not succeeded.
Among
called
the wild animals
by the natives tratratratra.
may be mentioned the baboon, Of this animal there
are two varieties, as well as of the amboanala, wild dog of
the forest.
is
species of monkey, found also in the woods,

:
occasionally killed and eaten by the natives
there are
also
two other kinds of monkey, both having long rough

;
hair
one kind
is
as large as a spaniel dog, the other
is
exceedingly small.
The
following interesting particulars, related by the late

esq., British resident at the capital,
James Hastie,
appear
In
to refer to the larger of the two kinds last mentioned.
the journal of one of his expeditions to the north of the

islands,
he remarks
" The
solicitude
of
the
monkey
to
tribe for their
young
has often
been noticed.
Wishing
have a few, I shot several, and, among them, unintentionally,
some females carrying
their
young
ones.
When
alarmed, they carefully conceal these under their arms,
and often place themselves

branch, of a tree, so that
I shot
it
in
is
the fork,
or behind the
not easy to see the young.
a female on a very high branch, and
when she had
tumbled within twenty
feet of the ground, she let fall a to alight
young one, which happened

me.
In this position
it
on a bush very near

its
was seen by a male, possibly
father,
who immediately descended

little
the tree, and, grasp-
ing the
one
hastily, regained his elevated post,
and
actually cried as he looked
down
at the mother, with
whom
diffi-
a second young one was discovered clinging closely under her arm
culty.
:
this latter
was taken from her with some
1 shot another mother, the
young one of which
fell
to the ground,
and immediately leaped upon one of
my
49
dogs, that had long soft hair, an animal so very docile and
quiet, that she did not
attempt to remove this strange comto
panion until
it
endeavoured
get under her fore-leg,
which not being able to

"
effect, it
its
clambered up a branch,
and was soon received by one of
own
species.
The boys who
followed
me
brought several young

shot,
monkeys, whose mothers had been

I
to
the camp.
took two of the largest,
and placed them on some
branches put up for shelter outside
my
tent;
but they
continued to get together, and each being desirous of being

carried as they were accustomed to be, they constantly
grasped each other, and
fell to
the ground, where they con-
tinued to struggle, each trying to get under the

other, until separated."
arm
is is
of the
Besides the animals already mentioned, there

cies of fox with a large
a specalled
bushy
tail;
the animal
amboahaolo;
caverns
villages.
also a kind of wild
dog which haunts the

of
among
the rocks
in
the neighbourhood
the
are
In the forests, brown and grey squirrels

these,
numerous; besides
winged bat
is
and
rats
and mice, the largeis
found in
many
parts of the island, and
at
times eaten by the natives.
During the reign
of
Radama, horses and other useful
animals were brought to the island.
The
horse
is
held
in great estimation by the people; a good horse having
been frequently sold

sterling.
for
from sixty
to
one hundred pounds
They have been

crocodile
is
greatly multiplied lately, and
their value has consequently decreased.
The among
the most
numerous and conspicuous

of
the
amphibious
animals
Madagascar
and
these
ferocious creatures
swarm
in the rivers
lakes, to the
great terror of the natives, and render navigation in their

fragile
I.
and unsteady barks, often exceedingly perilous.

i;
50
In
the
size,
the crocodiles \a.vy in different parts of the island:
largest that are found in the
lakes on the eastern

;
coast do not usually exceed fifteen feet in length
but in
the Sakalava country, they are said to attain a greater size,
and
of a
to manifest a
more perilous
colour,
ferocity.
Their body
is
brown or stone
of them,
is
reddish on the breast, and
yellow underneath the belly.

are
full
That the
is
rivers
and lakes
and that
it
unsafe to walk along their
banks,
an exaggerated statement.
is
That they
exist in
the rivers
places
is
true,
and
;
to
bathe or swim or ford in some

is
hazardous
but there
no danger in walking on
Crocodiles
ai-e
the banks of any of the waters of the island.
found in most rivers or lakes between the mountain torrents

of the interior,
and the
partially salt waters of the coast
though there are many large rivers in which neither these

reptiles,
nor any of the
fish
on which they prey, are ever
found.
This
is
perhaps caused by the coldness of the
water, and the rocky barrenness of the beds through which
these rivers flow.
In the brackish water, extending from the junction of

the river with the sea, to a distance of about seven miles
or
more towards the
interior, crocociles are

salt.
never found;
nor in water absolutely
Their favourite places are
the deep rugged banks of a river or lake overhung with

trees,
and containing numerous

themselves,
cavities in
which they can
hide
having also a gradually sloping sandto
bank, up which they can crawl
deposit
their
eggs.
In such situations they abound, and can often be heard

at the
bottom of the water, and especially underneath
the overhanging trees, uttering a shrill sound, not unlike the
much
mewing
of a kitten.
In some parts, the natives
affirm that they are so
numerous, as to cause the place to
resemble a plain covered with bullocks.
They
feed prin-
cipally
51
their
upon
fish,
and may be seen and heard chasing
prey in the waters of the lake with astonishing velocity,
and apparently in concert with each other.

their teeth their
They
fasten
upon any animal that approaches
in silence
domain.
Bullocks are often seized as they are
swimming
across the water, and are sometimes successfully
attacked whilst drinking.
But besides preying upon the
animals that venture within their reach, they seize and

eat with great voracity their
own young.
They have
the
sagacity to watch at those places where the females deposit

their eggs,
for
the appearance of the young, which,

shell,
on
bursting
the
usually
rua
directly
to
the
water.
Many
of the natives state that they have often seen a line

station
of old crocodiles
themselves near the banks on

;
which eggs have been deposited
and when the young ones
have, in emerging from their shell, hastened to the water,

their first progress through this their genial element, has
only been a passage to the open sepulchres edged round
with
terrific
file
teeth,
which the extended jaws of the close-
formed
of full-grown crocodiles have presented, and by
which they have been instantly devoured.
Sometimes the young crocodiles take the wrong

c^ the crocodiles' eggs are destroyed
direction,
and are caught by the natives in the rice grounds.
Many
by
birds, especially
by vultures, and also by serpents, but many more by the

natives,
who
take off the rind or shell, boil the eggs, and

;
dry them in the sun use or

as five
sale.
after which, they are preserved for
A single
family have been seen to have as

at
many
hundred eggs drying
one time.
;
The
crocodiles
always deposit their eggs on the sand

tial
and seek the par-
concealment afforded by some overhanging branch, or

It is
cave, or hole in the sand, or a very retired situation.
not
known what number
of eggs
are deposited at a time,
E 2
52
saj^, "many, many :" between fifty and sixty have been found in one animal. They begin to lay their eggs in August, when the summer is coming on hence it appears, that rain,
or in a season, by one animal; the natives
very
and the consequent obscuration of the sun's

destroy the vitality of the egg.
rays,
do not
The
crococUles are
known
;
to
be afraid of noise, or any
disturbance of the water
they flee into their recesses at the
sound of thunder, and agitation of wind. Hence the natives

are but rarely attacked by them, as they beat the water
with long poles, and
make a
great noise.
By
;
using such
means
after
of deterring the crocodiles, they generally
swim
their
herds of bullocks over the river in safety
and sometimes
terrific
one has disappeared, he
is
recovered by the
animals releasing him before any material injury

Yet,
is
done.
when pressed by hunger,

river,
the crocodiles
become more
audacious, and are said to approach near enough to be seen
by persons fording a by the

with
when they
are only kept off
travellers beating
the water with spears on
each
side as they pass, at the

all
same time shouting and hallooing

sufficient,
their might.
is
That these means are not always

the passage of a
river, in
clearly
shown by the following account, given by Mr. Hastie,
of
number
of
cattle
over
the
Betsiboka
1824."
of soldiers were sent
fire
"
company
across
the river,
with orders to
blank cartridge, to prevent the cro-
codiles attacking the bullocks,
and a similar
fire
was kept
endea-
up on the
side firom
whence they embarked.
The
vours of the parties thus employed, though unremitting,

did not, however, prevent these bold animals, with which
the river abounds, from seizing, and regaling themselves
on, the cattle
:
some herds
suffered a loss of three,
some
of five,
53
and some of more than
ten. Putting out of considerait
tion the loss thus sustained,
certainly
was an interesting
the alligators,
sight to behold a beast carried
down by
surface
speedily torn to pieces by the hungry animals,
some
of
whom were
tossing
soon seen near the
of the
air,
water,
up
portions of their prey into the

it
;
previous to
consuming
while
the
frequency of this occurrence,

in the presence of
under such circumstances, and

constant
strange.
to
firing,
an almost
produced an
effect at
once surprising and
have often seen the alligators bring their prey
the bank,
and feed; but
have not any reason to
believe
that they are incapable of feeding under water.
When
a bullock was seized, thirty or forty crocodiles were

it,
sometimes seen about
but I did not notice any instance

I
of one attempting to take a piece from another.

at the
river until noon,
remained
and got seven that had crept

having
satisfied
up
far
on the land, after
themselves
with beef.
length,
Some
of
these
were about sixteen feet in
and a boy who accompanied me, shot one that

feet;
measured twenty-three
he found
it
it
to
be a female,
filled
and on opening the stomach, found

beef."
It is generally believed
almost
with
by the natives of Madagascar,

except to avenge an
injury,
that
the
crocodile
never,
;
destroys innocent persons
and the
fact of
any one's being

theii'
destroyed by a crocodile, makes the people shake
heads with horror at the unknown guilt of

destroyed.
the person
Attaching the popular ideas of supremacy and

the sovereign are accustomed to say, "
equity to the andrian-andrano, king of the waters, orators
who
flatter
A croco-
dile in the water art thou, not preying
on the upright, but
surely destroying the guilty."
Women, however, have been
known
to enter the water,
and combat the king of the flood
o4
in his
own
element, where they have succeeded in destroy-
ing him.
Mr. Freeman has supplied a

amusing native
a dog
:
translation of the following
fable of a serpent, a
young
crocodile,
and
in which,
among
other things, the origin of the
crocodile's hostility to the
dog
is
attempted to be shown.
serpent and a young crocodile dwelt in the same part
of the country.
The
serpent fixed itself in a tree by the

tree,
water- side; and,
underneath the same
the
young
crocodile watched for prey.
After a time a dog came to
drink
the crocodile pursued
him
down came
to
the serpent,
to stop the crocodile.
the crocodile.
" WTiy, you are seeking
"What have you
do with me?" said

to eat every
that passes this way," replied the serpent.

said the crocodile, " lest I give
" Be
body
quiet,"
and cut you

serpent
:
in two."
"And pray what are you?" asked the

;
you a blow with
my
tail,
" I suppose you are thinking that because I have

but, perhaps,
neither hands nor feet, I can do nothing
have not looked at
my tail, how
sharp
it is."
" Cease your

you
in
his loins so as
you
noise," replied the crocodile,
" or
I'll
just break
two."
The
serpent then becoming excessively angry, struck

tail,
:
the crocodile with his
and wounded
"
nearly to break his body
all
the fish were astonished, and,
addressing the
crocodile,
said,
cattle,
How
is
this,
you that
and anysight,
can conquer people and

thing else ?"
however
large,
The
crocodile,
ashamed, dived out of on the

tree.
while the serpent resumed his place

crocodile, however,
The
hoping to repay him, kept watching for
prey.
After a time, there came a goose to the water ; the
crocodile pursued
and got hold of him, when down came the
serpent to stop him as before. "

the crocodile.
" Let
Where
are you going?" cried
that goose alone," said the serpent,
"
lest I kill you."
The
crocodile replied contemptuously,
and the serpent, enraged, exclaimed, " Well,
if
55
this
time see
3'ou are
not the worse for
it,"
and then he struck the croface,
codile,
and wounded him on the
and made him scream
again.
off;
So he was conquered that time, and the goose got

all
and
the fish
that
came
again,
and
said to the crocodile,

little
"
How
is it
you are beaten by yonder
serpent,
you are wise and powerful, and that

and beats you
!"
little
fellow
comes
Completely ashamed, again the crocodile
hid himself in the water, and began to think by what
means he might conquer
this
serpent
upon
and
the
tree.
After thinking a long time, the crocodile determined on
boring a hole through the root of the tree
for
a whole
week he kept on
boring.
;
Presently, a dog comes to drink
afterwards the goose
also a
man
but the crocodile keep-
ing at his work, the
serpent exulted in having intimisaid,
dated his adversary, and

strong as I am."
" There's nothing then so
The
crocodile heard him,
and laboured
one branch
then
with
all his
might
to finish boring at the root, to

cut.
of which
alone remained
The
crocodile
watched at the water-side a good while, when down came

the dog to drink
pent, as before,
;
the
to
crocodile pursued
him
came
oppose him, calling out,

of
it.''
him alone
and
there, lest
you get the worst

;
the " Let " You,"

serto people,
says the crocodile, " do not fear god

us,
I
yonder dogs deceive

;
that's the reason I
pursue them
and as
never touch
them, unless they are guilty of witchcraft.
I only eat the small things, (poultry, &c.;)
so
I'll
just let
me
alone."
is
When
the serpent heard that, he replied,
"There
no god,
feet;
for if there were, I should

is
have had both hands
and
there
no god
at
all.
But
have your
carcase to-day.''
ther,
Then
the dog
and the serpent, toge;
made an
attack on the crocodile
the crocodile got

all
weaker,
and dived into the water, when
the
iishes
56
their astonishment, as before, that
little
came and expressed

should
little,"
he
be
conquered by that
serpent.
"Wait a
not con-
says the crocodile, " and you'll see I
am
quered by him.
The
;
serpent got up the tree as usual ; the
crocodile watched
bored the hole completely
then looked
root,
up and saw the serpent sound asleep on a branch overhanging the water then cutting what remained of the
;
the tree broke, and
fell
into the water, the serpent falling
with
dile
it.
Then
all
the fishes acknowledged that the crocofor
was superior,
he had got the serpent into the

it,
water, and
made him
dive in
and kept him under water

however,
"
half an hour.
The
serpent,
survived
that I
it,
and
repented of what he had done:

again."
O
I'll
had never
opposed you; only

*'
let
me
go,
and
never attack you

I
Ah
!"
says the crocodile,

I
" but as often as

;
pursued the dog,

in your turn."
was pursued by you

the crocodile
;
so you
must
suffer
Thus
made him
heartily
repent before he let him go

ever I touch you again,
then, said the serpent, " If

I
may
be conquered," (may god
subdue me.)
After that, the crocodile let him go.

off,
He
was glad
to get
but he had been beaten, and took
an oath not to renew the attack when the crocodile went

to look out for prey.
The
crocodile, however,
owed the
laid
dog a grudge because he had attacked him, and so

all his
'*
family under a curse to devour the dog whenever
opportunity offered.
Unless you do that," said he, "
may
you die without
posterity, for
yonder dog took part with
another against me."
That
suffer
is
said to be the origin of the hatred
between the
dog and the crocodile.
It is
not probable that the latter
much from
the former,
who
are themselves frequently
devoured by the formidable enemiesin
Mr. Hastie mentions,
his journal, that he
was awoke one night by a most
plaintive
57
his
howl from
that,
his dog,
which slept at the door of

he was just in time
tent;
and
on rushing
out,
to see
a crocodile dive into the adjacent stream with the dog in

his jaws.
Like
the
ancient
Egyptians,
and the inhabitants
of
Sumatra, with some other parts of the East, in the present

day, the
Malagasy regard the crocodile with superstitious
veneration.
By
the latter he
is
esteemed the king of the
waters, and they not only consider
him
as
supreme
in his
own element, but seem

to
to suppose the animal has a right
be
so.
To
To
dispute
it,
according to their ideas, would be
to
expose themselves to his vengeance, and to consequent
death.
shake a spear over a
river, is
regarded as chal-
lenging the lord of the waters, and exposing themselves to

his wrath the next time they
had
to pass that or
any other
river,
stream.
To
and
throw any kind of manure into the
especially that of cows, is

affront
;
deemed
if
to
be an unpardonable
it
is
thought to be well for the unhappy

outrage,
man
who commits such an

his temerity.
he
it
forfeit
not his
life for
Hence, perhaps,
happens they seldom
attempt to destroy the crocodile, and rather avoid whatever
they suppose
Ukely to provoke him.
They have
ody mamba, charms against the crocodile, which are sometimes thrown into the river, but generally carried about
the person.
The
natives also, at times,
when about
to cross a river,
to
pronounce a solemn oath, or enter into an engagement
acknowledge the sovereignty of the crocodile
in
his
own
clement
was
Monsieur de V., whose voyage

at the water's
to
Madagascar
published in 1722, after speaking of an aged native
who
had been occupied

in
edge nearly half an hour

this,
pronouncing his oath, observes, " After
elevating
river,
his voice, so that
he might be heard across the
he
58
addressed himself to the crocodile, urging him to do him
no
any
injury,
;
because he had never done him (the crocodile)

in
and assuring him that he had never engaged
war
against any of his species; on the contrary, that he had
always entertained the highest veneration for him ; at the
same time adding, that if he came

sooner or later, would follow
all his relatives,
;
to attack him, vengeance,

if
and that
he devoured him,
and
all his race,
Avould declare
war against
after
him.
This harangue occupied a quarter of an hour,

fearlessly into the stream."
to
which he dashed
They happen,
he adds, however, sometimes
be caught, when they are
not armed with muskets; and then, instead of attributing

the accident to their
that
it
own want
of precaution, they imagine
arises
from some failure in their mode of taking the
customary oath.*
Many
anecdotes are related by the natives, illustrating
the characteristic sagacity of the dog in avoiding the jaws

of these formidable enemies.
When
accompanying their
masters across the streams infested by crocodiles, the dogs

are accustomed to bark and howl, while the natives shout
and halloo: and
it
is
stated by the people,
that a dog,
when about
to
cross a river alone,
has been
known
to
remain near the edge of the water, at one part of the

stream, barking for a considerable time, as
if
urging cattle
to the water, and then running with the utmost speed to
a distant part of the stream, and there hastening with

its
all
might
is
to the opposite side.
place
said
to
have attracted
The barking at the first many crocodiles within
hearing to the spot, and thus secured for the dog a safe
passage at the part actually crossed.
Though
the sea in the neighbourhood of

fish,
this
island
abounds with every variety of
they are not abundant

Paris, 1722.
* Voyage de Madagascar, par M. de V.
in
ill
59
is
many
of the lakes in the interior
and the capital
but
supplied with this valuable article of food.

in
Oysters are
numerous
are
some parts
of the coast,
and
eels
and crawfish
met with
and
in the rivers
and lakes of the island; the
former are abundant, and are

tives
much esteemed by both
na-
foreigners.
Various attempts have been made to
convey
of
fish occasionally
from Itasy, a lake in the province
Imamo,
to Tananarivo,
where the worthy
citizens
have
that
enough of the epicurean in

good
fish is
their natures to
know
all
good eating.
The
distance
is
not more than
eighty miles, but the badness of the roads renders
com-
munication extremely
difficult.
;
Fish,
it is
true,
has been
conveyed to the capital
but the time consumed in the

its flavour.
carriage has not improved
A
in
Mons. Le Gros
endeavouring to
expended considerable sums
of
money
stock a pond in his garden near Tananarivo, from Itasy,
but failed of success.
In 1828, Radama, who was desirous
of seeing a plan for supplying Tananarivo with fish carried

into effect, afforded every possible facility to Prince Coroller,
for
making the attempt on a large
scale.
Ponds were
:
accordingly formed at two intermediate stations

at
the
first
Antongona, about twenty-five miles from the capital
the second, at Ambohilehivy, about twenty miles further.
About one hundred

king's
fish
were by
this
means brought
capital. It
to the
pond
at
Mahazoarivo near the
is,
how-
ever, feared they

pigs, goats,
have not benefited by the change.
As
and other useful

by the
articles of food, are forbidden
at Tananarivo
idol Rakelimalaza, it is not surprising
that the natives should desire to have, as

cation, the delicious fish of Itasy.
some indemnifi-
Besides the attempts
above referred
to.
Monsieur M'Swinney had been emto carry fish
ployed some time previously in endeavouring
from the lake at Tamatave to Tananarivo.
He, however,
00
fell
a victim
to
the
Malagasy
fever,
and died
at
the
capital.
Among
the reptiles of the island are lizards, scorpions,
centipedes,
and several kinds of
spiders,
called
hala.
Serpents abound in the woods, and other places in which

this
reptile
is
usually found;
and though few,
if
any of
them, are venomous, some are large, probably of the boa

constrictor kind,
cattle.
and have been known
to
destroy wild
The
serpents, as well as the
hawks and other
birds, feed
on the crocodile's eggs, which are exceedingly numerous
and the ravages which these commit among the eggs, as

well as the diminution of
diles themselves,
number occasioned by the croco-
who, as already stated, devour, with a
voracity unusual even amongst the lowest orders of animal

creation, their
own young, prevent
their
becoming so numer-
ous as to destroy almost every other living creature in the

vicinity of the regions to
which they
resort.
Among
the
several varieties of lizards which prevail in the island, the
chameleon
is
found; and the insect tribes of Madagascar

brilliant firefly.
it
comprehend the valuable silkworm and the

would have been improper
natural history
;
In a general description of the island of Madagascar,

to
have omitted altogether
its
but our means have been such as to allow
us only to notice, with great brevity, some of the most pro-
minent and general or useful objects

ments.
in its several depart-
61
CHAP.
Ill,
Provinces of MadagJiscar
their
number, designations, import of the names

;
of the twenty-two provinces of the island

peculiarities
their boundaries, extent,

Isle
St.
and
Early French settlements in Madagascar of Maiy's Character and history of former inhabitants The suppression of piracy carried on from the island Foule Point Port and town of Tamatave The importance of the commerce of the island The country of the Betanimena Culture of the mulberry introduction of silkworms
its
;
Brigands
interior
nature of their
retreats
in the forests and caverns of the
Peculiar insalubrity of the southern coast Fertility and scenery Fort Dauphin Country in the neighbourhood of Augustine bay Extent and peculiarities of the chief subdivisions The Betsileo country Provinces of the Sakalavas The lake Imania Barbarity of the inhabitants of Ambongo The lake Anosy Natural beauty of the province of Ankay; superstition of inhabitof the celebrated vale of Ambolo
St.
its
ants
The river Mangoro.
Madagascar
in his time.
contains twenty-two chief or larger provinces.

of twenty-eight, as existing
Rochon has given some account

It is
probable that in some instances the minor
divisions of a province, or even
some
of the principal towns,
may have been reckoned as distinct and independent provinces. Most of the provinces have three or four principal divisions or districts,
and these again have numerous

of these has
subdivisions
as,
for
example, Ankova includes Imerina,

its
Imamo, and Vonizongo, and each

smaller divisions.
into north
numerous
In other instances the natural division

in the Betsileo
and south, which obtains both
and Sakalava countries, may have given the appearance of
(>2
number
of independent provinces than actually
a greater
existed.
The
is
following are the provinces into which
Madagascar
at present divided.
1.
2.
Vohimarina,
12. Isienimbalala,
13.
14.
Maroa,
Ivongo,
Ibara,
Betsileo,
3.
4. 5. 6. 7.
Mahavelona,
15.
16.
Menabe,
Tamatave,
Betanimena,
Anteva,
Matitanana,
Ambongo,
17. Iboina,
18. Antsianaka,
a
9.
19.
Ankay,
Vangaidrano,
20. iVnkova,
10.
Anosy,
21. Mahafaly, 22. Fiarenana.
11.
Androy,
it
Having given a general description of the whole island, will not, perhaps, be deemed wholly incompatible with
avowed design
of the present
the
work, which relates

offer
principally to the interior of
Madagascar, to
a brief
sketch of
its
several provinces.
to
Some
of the circumstances
introduced, in reference
a few of the provinces, arc
derived from the accounts of those

written
who have
are
previously
as the
on Madagascar
the others
stated
result of
information which the Missionaries themselves

;
obtained from various quarters in the island
and the whole
may be regarded
of the
as presenting,
if
not a perfect exhibition
existing state of the island, yet, certainly, such a

it
view of
as
is
considered correct by the best informed

:
natives at the Capital
it
is
what Madagascar
is
at
Tana-
narivo believed to be, and such as eye-witnesses for the most part have described
it.
fohimariiia,* the
the island
;
(J3
first, is
the most northern province of

soil, for
it is
but thinly populated, and the
the
most
part, is unproductive.
The
district is
mountainous,
and incapable of extensive
cultivation.
langogoro, one of
is
the highest mountains in Madagascar,

province.
It is
situated in this
Its
sometimes called Vigarora.

diversified
summit
commands an extremely
pect.
and extensive pros:
There are here four principal ports

call
viz.,
Diegosoray
(which the natives usually
Mahazeba;) Port Luquey,
or Lucas; Andravena, and Vohimarina, or, as frequently

spelt,
Vohimaro.
to
its
South of Vohimarina, and having Antsianaka

west,
is
the province of
Maroa, the second

forests.
in the list
is fertile,
already given.
The
general face of the country
abounding also
it
in hills
and
Its population,
is far
though
cannot be regarded as numerous,
greater than that

its
of the province last described.
Some
;
of
vegetable pro-
ductions are remarkably fine
particularly the akondro,
or banana, which grows here to an extraordinary height.
Maroa
readily submitted to
Radama
in his northern expe-
dition of 18-23.
The most important
circumstance, in c(mnexion with the
history of this province, relates to the
French settlement
at
the bay of Antongil, which
is
situated here, in
lat. 15*^25' S.
The bay
south,
is
about fourteen leagues long, from north to
and eight broad between Cape Bellones and point
Baldrick.
The
small islet Marotte lies about one mile
The common anchorage is to the north The river bears a musket-shot distance. of Marotte, The anchorage off this river N.N.w. from the Marotte.
from the shore.
is
called Port Choiseul.

* " Vohitra," villages,
and " marina"
level or just
i.
e.
the
flat
or equit-
able country
or " Vohimaro,"
many
villa[,'es.
G4
province of Ivojig, the thh'd,
is
The
lies to
the south of
Maroa, and
separated from Mahavelona by the river

in a lake to the west of Antsianaka.
Manangoro, which rises
There
is
also in this province another considerable river,
called Penimbala,
and a port called Tahotaingia,
or,
as
sometimes marked in maps, Teinteigne.
It is generally
pronounced by captains and traders at Mauritius, Tang-tang.
The
general appearance of the country resembles that of

hilly,
Maroa, being
woody, and
fertile.
Cattle and consider-
able quantities of rice are exported from this province for
the markets of Bourbon and Mauritius.
The
Isle of
St.
Mary, which occupies so prominent a

about forty
place in the history of Madagascar, lies off this province,

at the distance of
two or three leagues, and
is
miles N.N.E. from Foule Point.

selves Zafy-Ibrahim,
island,
i.
The
inhabitants call them-
e.
descendants of Abraham, and their
Nosy-Ibrahim, Island of Abraham,
The
name
natives of
the province do not generally designate themselves by this

title;
and
it is
not improbable that the
originated
with some of the pirates,
who were
all
Europeans, and who
made
their settlement in the Isle of St.
Mary, and
after-
wards intermarrying with the natives, assumed the

one of honour
piratical acts.
title
as
one
St.
of the
most innocent, perhaps, of
their
The
fertile,
Isle of
Mary's
in
is
represented as exceedingly
and extends,
to 16
37'.
a north-easterly direction,
is
from
17
6'
On
the west side

its
a bay, having an
islet called
Quail's Island, at
entrance.
Here small
from being
vessels
may
obtain shelter.
The
place
is far
salubrious.
The
French,
recruits to replace the
who from time to time sent troops who died in their establish-
ment there, gave

of the French."
to the island the designation of
"The Grave
To
this
melancholy picture of the spot
0*5
should perhaps be appended the redeeming consideration,

so happily, so philanthropically suggested by the " philo-
sophic"
to
Rochon
" The greatest care was taken,

settle,
if
it is
true,
send no persons thither to

little
except such as could
occasion
hurt to society
they perished."
From
the time that Vasco de
Gama
in
1498 opened a
passage to India by the Cape of

pirates infested those seas.
Good Hope, numerous

at length, so
They became,
formidable by the success of their nefarious transactions, as

to render a general effort,
by the European powers
inte-
rested in the Indian trade, indispensably necessary for their
suppression.
off
In the prospect of their being thus
cut
from their usual resources, they formed an establishin the Isle of St.
ment
Mary about
the year
1724, and
gained, by their assiduous attentions, and valuable importations, the good-will
and friendship of the
natives,
who
were,
were ignorant of the iniquitous means by which the treasures brought to their island were obtained.
They
however, so vigorously pursued, even to their places of
most secure
by vessels from Europe, that their system was annihilated, and their ships burnt. After this
retreat,
they appear to have settled in different parts of the northern

coast
of
Madagascar, wherever an
eligible
opening was
is
presented,
and
connected
themselves,
traffic
there
every
reason to believe, with the
in slaves,
the greatest
scourge ever
the
known
to the islanders, equally his hapless victims.

is
degrading to
inhuman trader and
The next
fertile,
province, Mahavelona,*
the fourth, which
is
separated from Ivongo by the IVIanangoro.
The
soil is
and the country
is
woody, and, to some extent,

It
is,
brought under cultivation.
however, stated by the
Signifying " causing to live," or " productive."
I.
OG
by
natives, that tlie plantations are frequently destroyed
irruptions of herds of wild hogs from the adjoining forests.
Abundance
of
game may be found

its
in this district
excel-
lent oysters are plentiful on
shores, at the
head of the
bay of Antongil, and especially in the bay of Ifenoarivo.
The
principal trading ports in this province are,
Maro-
pototra, or
Foule
Pointe, anil
is
Ifenoarivo.
The
latter is
the most valuable, and

the
Isle
usually called by traders from

It
is
of
France,
FenerifFe.
well situated
for
the purposes of
traffic,
having the advantage of water-
carriage from a considerable distance in the interior.

this
By
less
means,
rice,
yams, and other vegetables are conveyed
to the coast with greater despatch
and
facility,
and at a
expense, than in most other ports.
Foule Pointe, called also Marofototra (names of the
same
gasy,)
signification
is
the
former, French, the latter,

its
Malais
important for trade on
own
account, and
its
desirable station for traders,
on account also of
conti-
guity to Tamatave, Ifenoarivo, Antongil bay, and St. Mary's.
The two
principal rivers in
Mahavelona
are,
Ony-be, and
Ifontsy, which divides it from Tamatave. The province of Mahaviilona is considered
as highly
insalubrious.
Many
of the troops sent to Foule Point

fever,
by
Radama,
in 18-2S,
were seized with

reduced by
its
and the forces of
the sovereign so
prevalence, that not long
afterwards Itasy, a native chieftain, raised the standard of

rebellion.
He
was, however, taken prisoner in 1827, and

capital,
conducted to the
Tananarivo, where he
still
remains
under guard.
number
of Arabs,
as well as
French traders from

in this part of
Mauritius and Bourbon, have settlements

the country.
The Arabs
have, in fact, established them-
selves along the whole eastern coast of Madagascar,
Ttmiatave, the
fifth, is
67
the next province, and Ues to the
south of Mahavelona.
coast, takes the
call
Its principal
name
of the district
itself,
town or port on the which Europeans

it is
Tamatave, or Tamatavy, but by the natives

Taomasina.
uni-
versally called
The
port of
Tamatave
is
one of the
finest
on the eastern
coast of the island.*
The
adjoining reefs are extensive,
and the swell and surf heavy and appalling, but they
are
considered
dangerous only to vessels
entering
or
leaving
when
is
the wind blows strong from the north-east.
Tamatave
a small and irregularly-built village, situated
on a low point of land, with an anchorage in about nine

fathoms water within the coral
south.
village,
reef.
Its latitude is IS'' 12"
There are about two

and from eight hundred
hundred houses
to a
in
the
thousand inhabitants.
The
tion
;
habitations of the natives are of very inferior construc-
those belonging to European and Creole traders are

;
better
and a few are comfortable and
substantial.
The
Hovas erected a battery

village
:
at the northern extremity of the
being, however, merely an enclosure formed of strong
poles,
and containing three or four native houses belonging
to the government, together with with a
powder-magazine
and several smaller tenements, the whole was destroyed

by the French in their attack on the island, in 1829.
Another
cannon.
battery,
built
of coral,
has been subsequently
erected near the spot, and planted with a few pieces of
The
in
rofia,
materials employed in the construction of the houses

ravin-ala,
Tamatave are the
or
traveller's-tree,
the
and bamboo; the roofs are composed of the leaves

which soon decay.
of the traveller's-tree,
*
It
The
houses
might be more
it
strictly correct to
speak of the roads of Tamatave,
rather tlian to call
a port-
f2
G^
though
this is
consist of but one room,
sometimes divided
floor is of flattened
by a
fragile partition of matting.
The
bamboos fastened
avoid
the
to poles,
which are raised
in order to
dampness,
that
would otherwise be
equally
unpleasant and injurious.
The
principal exports from
Tamatave
;
consist in
rice,
poultry, bullocks, and
rofia cloth
and several vessels are
employed
in
the trade between this port and Mauritius.
Some also visit it from Bourbon, for the same purposes. The neighbourhood is extremely damp and swampy and, as may be supposed, the village and its vicinity are at
;
all
times far from being salubrious

is
but the most unhealthy
period
from the middle of November to the beginning of
March.
The
freshness and luxuriance of the verdure give
so delightful an appearance to the scenery, that a stranger
can scarcely regard

residence
it
as the seat of disease
but a few days'
makes him
sensible of the constant exhalations
from the marshes, which are so productive of the justly

dreaded fever of the coast.
The
is
country
is is
woody and marshy,

the
considerable
quantity of rice
cultivated here, called the tavy, which
grown,
not
on
low ground,
where
it
may be
is
constantly covered with water, but on high ground, fre-
quently the side of a
hill.
The
culture of the rice
extremely simple.
The
trees are
cut down, and, after

is
burning the stumps, the rice-seed
planted in the spot,
covered with the ashes, and with but

the crop
is
little
subsequent care
generally abundant.
is
In the interior of this province
the fine lake of Nosive,
one of the twenty
most extensive
in the island.
This lake
is
from
to twenty-five miles in length.
It contains several
It
small islands, some of which are inhabited.
forms part
of the series of lakes already noticed, and which are
known
to reach
69
upwards of two hundred miles on the eastern coast
of Madagascar.
Eight or nine miles fi'om Tamatave,
is
the village of
Anjolokefa, occasionally called Hivondrona, (and in some
maps marked Ivondro,) though Hivondrona

perly the
the
is
more proat
name
of the river only,
which proceeding from

into
interior
of the
country,
falls
the
sea
the
distance of
about two hundred yards from the
village.
Anjolokefa was the residence of the enterprising chieftain

Fisatra, otherwise called Fische, or Fish.
He
held in sub-
jection to himself all the inhabitants of the Betanimena,
Tamatave, and Mahavelona provinces.

at that time the principal place
This village was

coast.
on the
His very Ankay,
name was a
quered.
interior,
terror even through the province of
{west of Betanimena,) the eastern part of which he con-
He
was
at length
murdered by a party from the

in his death the ruin also of his
who contemplated
ally,
brother and
failed
:
John Rene, of Tamatave.*

lived to inflict terrible
In this they
John Rene
vengeance on the
murderers of his
relative.
A son
of Fisatra,
named Berora,
intended to succeed to his father's possessions, was placed

for
some time under the care

of
of the
Rev. D. Jones, on the
commencement
and conveyed
the missionary efforts of the latter at

island,
Tamatave, but was shortly afterwards taken from the

to Paris for
education, where he lately died.
What
political views the
French government may have had

with Madagascar.
is
in this measure,
remain yet to be developed in the future
connexions France
may form
To
the west of Hivondrona
a fine cataract called
Ifito; inferior,
however, to some in the Betanimena country;

Radama formed with him
the alliance
Ftilidra,
* Rene was chieftain of Tamatave
of brotherhood, agreeably to the custom of the roimtry, called

described in Chapter VII, of the present volume.
and
70
and
in the division called Ivoloina, there are
two immense
caverns.
Betanimena, the
sixth, is
the province adjoining

it
Tama-
tave to the south, separated from
by Tany-fotsy, and
stretching about thirty-five leagues along the coast.
The
no
name
of the province signifies "
much red
earth," and,
doubt was given from the reddish ferruginous appearance

of the
district,
soil.
There are
several extensive lakes in this
and two
cataracts, Tahaviara,
and landrianahomby,
deserving the notice of travellers.
The
country
is
flat
near the sea, hilly in the interior, and mountainous towards

the north.
It is in
thickets and forests.
many The
parts marshy, and covered with

soil for
some distance from the
coast
is
sandy
but for the most part productive, from the

it
abundance of decomposed vegetable matter which

tains.
con-
The
population
the
is
numerous.
the
soil
At Ambohibohazo,
is
the
capital of
province,
rich,
and the
scenery diversified and beautiful.
In the neighbourhood of Ambohibohazo,
Mr. Hastie
to
selected a spot of ground for a plantation of mulberries.
They succeed
finite
well,
and might be cultivated
an inde-
extent for silkworms.
Some good
;
silk
has already
been produced in Madagascar

dity
to
and
this valuable
commo-
may
hereafter
become an
article of great
importance
the
island.
Mr. Hastie intended

the
to
form a sugar
for
plantation
soil
in
same neighbourhood,
that
which the
appeared well adapted.
Labour being extremely cheap,

the
there was every prospect
establishment would
have succeeded.
But
his
lamented decease, and subsesuspended every plan of
quently that of Radama, have

the kind then in
distinctly,
contemplation,
and have shewn, most
the extent and beneficial influence each exerted
over the people, while they exhibit in an affecting light
the
or
71
degree to which a single

his
individual
may promote,
nation.
removal
is
;
retard,
the
improvement of a
in the
There
abundance of grazing-land
same part
of the
province
and numerous herds of
cattle,
belonging to the
sovereign, and to the traders on the coast, are usually taken
there for
also
some time previously

this part of the
to their exportation.
It is
from
country that " maromita," usually

(coolies
called
by Europeans " marmittes,"
or bearers,)
are generally obtained, for
conveying travellers and their
luggage, or merchandise, from the coast to the capital, or
other parts of the interior.
This
district
has also been famous for
its
jiolahy, or
brigands.
They have concealed themselves

and
in the recesses
of its almost impenetrable forests
thickets, or extensive
and generally unknown caverns

forth
whence suddenly rushing
on passengers and bearers of burdens, they have
committed with impunity extensive depredations, not unfrequently adding murder to their robberies.
Vatomandry
is
a small port in this province, but has
scarcely any trade.
At Tany-fotsy an important junction

communications
the interior by
between two extensive lakes was commenced by Radama,

in order to facilitate
witfi
means
of water-carriage.
lies to
Anteva^ the seventh province,

nimena, which
it is it
the south of Beta-
resembles
hilly.
in
general appearance, though

is
rather
more
Rice
grown
in this province in
great abundance, and quantities of beef are salted here for

exportation, though the inhabitants are extremely poor.
The
is,
great cause of the poverty of this part of the island,
the love of ardent spirits prevalent

rice,
among
the people.
After toiling to obtain a crop of times

sell
the natives will some-
the whole for a small quantity of arrack, imported
bv traders from Mauritius and Bourbon.
With
the delete-
72
rious drug thus heartlessly given in return for the produce

of their labour, the
natives soon
become
intoxicated, in
which humiliating
lasts: for
this
state they continue so long as the arrack
short-lived
indulgence,
they sink into a
state of the
most abject penury and misery, and then force
themselves and their families to subsist the greater part of

the year on roots, &c. found in the woods and swamps.
Their chief means of subsistence

arum, the root of which
is
is
the via, a species of
tuberous or cylindrical, and freis
quently fi'om ten to twelve inches in diameter. It
dressed
by baking
for
about twelve hours in an oven of heated
stones under ground, after the

islanders.
manner
of the South
Sea
In
is
this state it will
keep good
for three or four
days, but
cut into small pieces and dried in the sun,

to
when intended In payment

equivalent
be kept for a longer period.

goods into the
interior,
for the carriage of
or for their produce, the intoxicating draught is the usual

:
to
diminish,
and
if
possible
prevent,
the
^vretchedness thus induced,
on the importation of ardent an improvident

party,
Radama imposed a heavy duty Some check on such spirits.

in
and destructive infatuation

in the other,
the one
and of relentless avarice

is
was required
is
but there
great reason to fear that the baneful habit
too deeply fixed
among
the unthinking natives of this part

;
of the coast, to be very easily extirpated of
but the attempt
Radama
to diminish the evil, is only
one among many
instances of the soundness of his

ficial
judgment and the bene-
tendency of his measures.

:
There are three important
ports in this province
Manoro, Mahela, and Mananjary.
A considerable trade
at
is
carried on at these places, especially

settlers.
Mananjary, by French
The
eighth, the province of
Matitanana,
lies
south of
Anteva, and has for a length of time been the principal
settlement of the
gascar.*
73
of
Arabs,
on the east
coast
Mada-
Matitanana
is also
famous
for
a class of persons called by
some
v/riters
Ombiasses, but more correctly Mpiasa, which
signifies
" workers."
They appear
to
resemble the Mpiinterior,
sikidy,
Mpanandro, and Mpanao-ody of the

is to
whose
profession
work the
sikidy, or divination, to calculate
days, foretell fortunes, as well as to prepare medicines and
charms.
It has
been conjectured that most of the superstihave had their origin in

this province.
tions in the island
Madagascar
district
is
the land of ody, or charms, and in this

all their
is
they triumph in
melancholy glory.
but
fertile
;
The
country in general
flat,
rice,
sugar-
cane, and cattle abound.
Vangaidrano, the ninth, or as sometimes

joins the south of Matitanana.
called, Taisaka,
little
Here very
advance-
ment has yet been made,

yet the population
is
or even attempted in civiUzation,
considerable.
The Manabatra
Malagasy
fever,
with seven mouths, and the
Mantangy
with four, are the two principal rivers in this province.t
The
which prevails more or

is
less along the
whole
coast of the island,

fatal,
very general, and to strangers often
on the coast of
this province.
The country
is flat
and
marshy.
forests,
There are
also extensive
is
and almost impervious
where vegetation
rank, and the free circulation of
the air intercepted by thick underwood. are
The
productions
much
the
same
as in the provinces already described,
though
little is
attempted by the natives beyond the cultiva-
tion of a supply
*
adequate to their immediate wants.
here.
is
The doctrines and precepts of Mahomet have obtained some influence The Arabic writing is also used, and paper of a verj' coarse qnality
be manufactured.
in the
said to
t
Marked
map, accompanying Rochon's work, Mananghera,
;uid
ManartcuKha.
74
is
Anosy, the tenth,

accounts
is
south of Vangaidrano, and on some
one of the most important provinces, in the

It
history of Madagascar.
has been the

;
site
of the
most
extensive French estabUshments
and the principal
efforts of
the Catholic missionaries in Madagascar have

forth here.
been put
fertile
In Anosy also
is
situated the
most
and
beautiful vale in the island,
the vale of Ambolo.

soil
The
Rice
Its
country
is
populous, and the
extremely
are
fertile.
and manioc, sugarcane and

extensive marshes
coffee,
abundant.
render
it,
however, like the greater
part of the lower portions of the island, extremely insalubrious.
There are
in this province several rivers,

is
and
in
the
northern part of Anosy

the natives Mangafiafy.
is
the bay of St. Lucia, called by
Ten
in
leagues south of
St.
;
Lucia,
the peninsula in which Fort
Dauphin stands
the earis
liest
French settlement
or,
the island.
The
peninsula
called Taolanara,
as
sometimes written, Tholangari.
Fort Dauphin
is in lat. 25'' 5' S.
and long. 46"

;
35' E.
cliffs
The
shores are often bold and steep
and the
ap-
pear composed of strata of limestone, of varied thicknesses.

Rock-salt and saltpetre are found in this province.
In
fact,
next to the Betsileo country, of which we shall have occasion

to
speak presently, Anosy
may be
considered the finest
province in the island

productive.
the
most beautiful and the most
Of
the
rich vale of
Ambolo, mention has
been already made.
In this charming valley, not only the
usual produce of the island, but cloves and other spices,
with citrons of various kinds,
may be
obtained.
Hot
springs, reported to possess valuable medicinal qualities,
are also found there.

spot,
It was,
perhaps, from this fertile

for
that
Monsieur de Modave drew materials
his
too flattering^
memoirs
of the island of Madagascar.
The next
province
is
75
the eleventh, Androy^ separated by
the river Mahafaly from Anosy.
Of
this
and the adjoin-
ing provinces, (twenty-first and tviênty-second,) Mahafaly
and Fiarenana, there
is,
perhaps,
little to
be
said.
Scarcely
any advancement has been made
in the civilization of their
inhabitants, excepting in this one important circumstance,
that the chiefs of the two latter provinces, in voluntarily sub-
mitting to
Radama, agreed
country
to
his
propositions
slave-trade in
on the
subject of the suppression of the

gascar.
MadaMahato this
The
is
woody, and the population small.
Wild
faly
cattle
abound.
Salt and nitre are found in
and Fiarenana.
Tolia Bay and
St.
Augustine Bay
it is
are situated in the province of Fiarenana;
part of the country that

principally refers
in
;
Drur/s
notice of
Madagascar
lost
and there
also the
Winterton was
August 1792.*
The
ship was wrecked in the district
of the bay of St. Augustine, about fifteen or twenty miles
from Tolia.
The
soil in
the neighbourhood of
Toha
is
sandy and unproductive, but improving towards the bay of

St.
Augustine.
Before proceeding to the next great division of the

western coast,
it
may be
proper to remark, that there are
two inland provinces lying between Mahafaly and Fiare-
nana on the west, and Anosy on the east

south,
the
twelfth, called
Tsienimhalala ; and the thirteenth, Ibara; the former to the

bordering on Androy;
the latter
to
the
north,
little
joining the Betsileo country.
Of
these,
however,
more can be said than respecting the western provinces,

to
which they are contiguous.
They have never been

foreigners.
It is
is
carefully explored, either
by natives or
known
that they are but thinly peopled.
The
country
Loss of the Winterton pp. 13
18.
76
it
woody, and a very inconsiderable portion of
is
brought
under cultivation.
The
inhabitants have obtained from

of
the adjoining maritime provinces, supplies
arms and
ammunition, and their acknowledgment of the sovereignty

of the
Plovas
appears the
effect
of
compulsion rather
than of cordiality.
They
possess great numbers of cattle,

coast, in
which they dispose of on the

nition
exchange
for
ammu-
and arms.
to the
Immediately
Betsileo
north of Ibara,
is
the province of
the fourteenth.
The name
signifies
" much, not
conquered," or "invincible," and denotes the independent
and unconquered
spirit of the inhabitants.
It is separated
from Ankova by a range of mountains called Ankaratra,
and from Anteva by an extensive waste or

sileo is
desert.
Bet-
a fine grazing country.
The
cattle are exceedingly
numerous, and among them some are found, called " omby
bory," cattle without horns.
authors,
of cattle in
The account
given by some
Madagascar having horns appended

skin,
to the forehead
by means of a small portion of

cattle are
appears
fabulous.
Such
not noiv
known
in the island,
and
it is
believed never were.
The
inhabitants of the Betsileo province, though not
equally advanced in civilization with the people of Ankova,
who have had more
intercourse
with
Europeans,
are
remarkable for the mildness of their dispositions, and the

simplicity of their manners.
Living in an inland province,
and having had scarcely any communication with strangers

visiting the island
or setthng on the coast, they naturally
express the utmost surprise at the appearance, manners,
and pursuits
of the foreigners,
when they meet with any
of
these, to them, singular
and extraordinary beings.

life.
Generally speaking, the Betsileo lead an inactive
The
principal domestic occupation of the people consists
in
77
the manufacture
of the native
silk,
lamba, or long robe,
from a kind of coarse
the produce of the country,
which they render extremely heavy by ornamenting with an immense quantity of small leaden beads fastened
silk in
to the
rows either straight or curved.
metal on the coast, or in the interior, and

themselves.
They purchase the make the beads
Their land
is
fertile,
and, with but trifling
labour, yields
an ample supply
;
for
the few wants with
which they are familiar

this,
and
grade
to exert themselves
beyond
be
in
their
present
of
civilization,
would
contrary to the
species.
known laws and
history of the
human
Betsileo
is
divided into six districts,

in
three
The
in the north,
and an equal number
the south.
former, which
are situated nearly in the centre of the island, are Andrasay, or
Vakinankaratra, Fisakanana, and Vohidrahomby.
To the south, are Lalongina, Sandrabe, and Tsianipariha. The scenery of the country is not unfrequently rich and
varied, occasionally
it
is
picturesque, and sometimes bold
and majestic; and the indications of former volcanic action

are distinct and numerous.
To
the west of Betsileo, and proceeding northward on

is
the sea-coast,
the fifteenth pro^'ince, the large country of
Menabe, otherwise designated the South Sakalava country.

This
district
has from time immemorial been renowned for
the brave and warlike chieftains by
whom
its
inhabitants
have been governed.
The
prevalence of wars in former times,

together with the
this district,
fatal
among
the
Sakalavas,
effects
of
the fever
abounding in
fact, that,
it
may
sufficiently
account for the

is
though the aggregate population
considerable,
is
yet small compared with the

is
amount the Sakalava
country
capable of maintaining.
The
cultivated part
78
;
of the province is large
other portions yet remain desert.
Various esculent roots are cultivated by the Sakalavas,

especially arrow-root.
ral fruits
but
little
The tamarind is abundant, and seveknown in the island. Cattle, though still
their wars.
abundant, are not so numerous as formerly, owing chiefly

to the destructive
and predatory nature of
On
the borders of this province, between

is
Menabe and
Ankova,
a large tract of country occupied by herds of

;
cattle in the wild state
many
of
them are distinguished

having
the
from other
" tafona," or
cattle
in
Madagascar, by not
the back.
hump on
To
hunt these animals,
was a favourite amusement of Radama.

chosen for the
feat, is called
The
is
spot usually
Manerinerina.
situated in this
It is
The
fine
and extensive vale of Belisa
province, running in a direction north and south.
watered
by three considerable
the
rivers,
the
Imania,
is
the
Manambolo, and
tioned, Imania,
tiful
Manambala.
There
also
an
extensive lake of the same
name
called
as the first river

its
men-
famed
for
having near
centre a beau-
and picturesque
islet
Anosisaka.
This
rendering
is
it
adorned with a remarkably
fine natural grove,
an attractive object, in the scenery of which

guished an ornament.
it is
so distin-
North of the Sakalava country
is,
sixteenth,
Amhongo
country
having a considerable extent of sea-coast, and being for

the most part, a level and
woody
district.
its
The
resembles that of the Sakalavas, but

civilized;
inhabitants are less
they may, perhaps, be termed barbarous.

instance, cruelty has
In
more than one

ers
been shown to foreignthis
who have been unfortunately shipwrecked on
part of the coast.

ago,
case of this kind occurred a few years

cast
when a Portuguese whaler being

all
on
this part
of the island, the crew were
murdered.
Ambongo
reignty of
is
79
the only province in Madagascar, whose
inhabitants did not,
more or less, acknowledge the soveRadama, and whom he had not attempted to
rivers
reduce to subjection.
The
principal
here are,
the
last
Manambaho,
falls
the
Sambaho, and lantsanira, which

south of Cape St. Andrew.
into the
is
sea
The
province
separated
from Iboina by the river Mangaray.

Seventeenth, Iboina^
vince
is
lies
north of Ambongo.
It
This pro-
also level
and woody.
abounds in marshes,
is
and hence
also in fevers.
is
The
population
considerable,
is
and the
soil
generally
productive.
is
Cattle
very
numerous.
The
chief river here
the Betsiboka, which

this
is
runs into the sea near Mojanga.

village of
Near
the small
Bombitoka.
This name
seems to be a corrupi. e.
tion of
the Malagasy Vohirn-be toaka,

spirituous liquor."
visit this
" the village
of
much
accustomed to
The Arabs have long been place, and many of them reside
;
here for the purposes of trade
they are called by the
Malagasy, Talaotra.
To
the east of Iboina lies Vohimarina, which has been
already described.
of as south of
province,
is
The
Betsileo country has been spoken

that to the north, the eighteenth
Ankova;
called Antsianaka."^
This
is
an extensive
cattle.
tract of country,
abounding with large herds of
Sheep, as well as bullocks, are numerous here.

not largely cultivated, but
is
Rice
is
the finest cotton in the island
produced in
this province,
and
its
cultivation
might be
its
greatly increased, as the soil appears well adapted to
growth.
Great quantities are sold in the markets in the
raw
state,
and afterwards manufactured by the natives into

name
signifies,
* Literally the
"
The province of not
children,"
i.
e.
not subject to others
independent.
80
dresses.
Their process
is
is
slow and tedious, but the cloth
manufactured
firm and durable.
The
country, though
large, is not populous,
and
is also far
from being healthy
a Malagasy fever prevails extensively.
The houses
Very
little
are
mere huts, and generally excessively dirty.

the inhabitants of this part of the island.
has
yet been attempted for the civilization or improvement of
The high
Antsianaka.
road toTananarivo from Mahavelona, in which

is
Foule Pointe
situated,
lies
is
through the province of
The
province
intersected by a part of the

is
great forest of Alamazaotra.

in this province, called
There
also a beautiful lake

its
Anosy, having an island in
centre,
and a
village
occupying the highest part of the

the nineteenth,
island.
lies
The
province of Ankay^
to
the
It is
south of Antsianaka, and to the west of Ankova.
a narrow
strip
of
the interior
of
Its
the country,
and
is
sometimes
called
;
Antankay.
inhabitants are called

spirit,
Bezanozano
a people of independent
and formerly
among
zano.
the most turbulent and anarchical in the island;

is,
anarchical
in fact, the signification of the
name Bezanorice is largely
The
inhabitants are not numerous, and the villages

;
are small.
cultivated.
dirty,
Cattle and poultry are abundant
The
people are, however, generally poor and

to
and much addicted
divination and idols.
The
dialect spoken, like that of Antsianaka, being strongly nasal,
resembles that of the coast more than that of the adjoining

inland province of Ankova.
The
tiful
scenery of
and picturesque.
many parts of Ankay is extremely beauThe province consists principally of

between
lofty hills,
an extensive
plain, situated
and watered
to Anteva.
by the
fine river
Mangoro, which runs eastward

is
West
of this river
a mountain called Ifody, covered for

:
the most part with a forest
it
commands an
extensive view
HISTORY OF IMADAGASCAR.
of the country north
81
bling mahogany, called
cabinet work,
is
A beautiful wood resemmango wood, and excellent for found here, though not known to exist
and south.
elsewhere in the island.

direction
The
river
Mangoro, from
its
and magnitude, would be well adapted

but
for the
conveyance of merchandise between the coast and the

rior of the island,
for
its
intefalls,
numerous and rapid

cataracts
;
which
in
some places may be considered
and,
though not so large as
to deserve notice as objects of curi-
osity or surprise, render the currents too
impetuous
for the
purposes of navigation.
The
But
only province remaining to be noticed
is
Ankova.
as this province is the country of the present rulers of
the island, the site of the capital, the seat of the govern-
ment, as well as having been the principal and almost

exclusive scene of the labours of the Protestant Mission
in the island,
a more detailed account
is
required of this
central part of the island.
82
CHAP.
Province of Ankova
province, Imerina
IV.
Meaning of the name The chief divisions of the general aspect Elevation of mountains Relics of antiquity Objects of superstitious veneration Salubrity of Ankova Produce of the country Subdivisions or clans, Voro-mahery, Imamo, Vonizongo Tomb of Rapeto Peculiarities of the inhabitants of Ankova Account of Tananarivo, the capital of the island geographical situation elevation above the level of the sea Import of the name Popidation of Tananarivo Dwellings of the people ConIts
its
Its
Its
struction of their houses

fares
of the tombs of the reigning family
assembly
Antsahatsiroa, place of public The Tarpeian rock of TananarivoThe several places of execution Market Central school and chapel Mission buildings Burial-ground for strangers Country residences of the king State of the public roads Remains of ancient
fortifications.
The palace The
Divisions
house
in the capital
Public
thorough-
silver
The throne of the kingdom Site
Ankova,* the country

Its inhabitants are
or province of
in
the Hovas,
is
the
most important province
the
island
of Madagascar.
more numerous,
industrious, ingenious,
and
v^êalthy,
than those of any other part of the country.
It is the centre of the empire, the seat of the
government,
and the scene of the principal and sciences, and

Ankova
is
efforts hitherto
made
in the
country, to introduce education,

arts
*
European improvements,
civilization.
to
promote
Its climate
compound word, formed of Any and Hova.

there,
Any
is
an
adverb of place, signifying

position, the final y
and a preposition signifying
at.
In com-
is dropped. Hova is the name of the people. It is sometimes spelt without the h, as Ova; but more correctly with the h, It is changed into k, in composition, after n, gratia breathed very softly.
euphoniee,
An-kova, for Any-hova
there,
at
the place of the Hovas, the
country of the Hovas.
is
83
soil,
the most salubrious in the island, and
its
though
to a great extent still untilled, has yet

sufficient
been brought under
improvement and
culture, to maintain a large
population.
of
From its extreme want of wood, the general appearance Ankova is sterile, dreary, and uninteresting. The
is
eye
fatigued
with traversing
its
numerous
relief
hills
and
mountains in search of vegetation, as a
from the
dulness of the unvarying scene, which a country, generally

destitute of brushwood, grove, or forest, presents.
rainy,
In the
is
which
is
;
also
the
warm
season, vegetation
ex-
tremely rapid
green,
are
the
valleys,
carpeted with the loveliest

verdure,
then
rich
in
luxuriant
and
even
the ferruginous tops of the mountains, and the rounded
summits of the thousand
hills,
clothed for a few months in
the year with a coarse and dwarfish grass, assume an aspect

of comparative cheerfulness.
also the cold
But
in
the dry, which
is
and wintry season, the appearance of the
whole country, excepting the meadows, and a few spots

artificially irrigated, is
exceedingly barren.
Ankova
viz.
is
divided into three chief parts or divisions;
Imerina, Imamo, and Vonizongo.
Imerina gave name
originally to the
kingdom
of the
of
Radama, and hence he has
sometimes been spoken of as prince of Imerina, chieftain

of
Emerne,* king
Hovas, &c.
Imamo and
Voni-
zongo, were annexed to the district of Imerina during the

reign of the father of Iladama, and have ever since com-
posed the kingdom of Ankova.

In
its
external characteristics, the great part of
may be
considered
hilly,
rather than mountainous.

rise
Ankova Few
of its highest
*
mountains
above
five
or six hundred
Emiriie
is
the usual, but certainly incorrect, ortbography, employed
by Frciub writers.
G 2
84
feet
above the level of the surrounding rice grounds.
itself,
I'he
of a
capital
Tananarivo,
hill,
is
situated on the
summit
long irregular
principal
are,
about
in
five
hundred
feet high.
The
mountains
the
three
divisions
of Ankova,
Angavo
to the east,
Ankaratra to the south, Ambo-
himiangara to the west, and Andringitra to the north,

chiefly distinguished as the scene of legendary tales, re-
counting the mighty achievements of giants,
and other
monstrous beings, supposed to belong to a fabulous age.
The
altars erected
by former generations on the summits
of these mountains, to the
memory
prayer
of such extraordinary
personages,
the
still
exist,
and are
for
visited
by the people as
sacrifice
appropriate
of
places
and
the
to
the
of
manes
the
mighty dead.
still
On
tops
of
some
these mountains, are

villages.
existing the vestiges of ancient
Altars
are
also
met with throughout

sites
the
whole of
Ankova, and frequently the

places and groves.
i. e.
chosen
for
them are high

is,
The
usual
name
for these
Vazimba,
altars raised to the Vazimba, the supposed aborigines
of the central parts of the island.
Ankova, although
its
it
has few trees to improve or diversify

fig,
appearance, excepting the wild
which
is
met with
in
most of the
;
villages, is
bounded by
forests to the north
and east
the former separating the province from Antsia-
naka, and the latter from Ankay.

of wood,
To
its
being thus clear
and
its
consequently favouring the free circuin part
lation of the air,
may
be attributed the salubrity of
Ankova, and
for here the
the north of Betsileo, called Vakin-ankaratra,
Malagasy fever
is
as
much an
exotic, as
it is
indigenous almost every where
else.
The valleys and low grounds

cultivation of rice
:
are principally used for the
bogs and marshes, which are too swampy
for the
85
;
growth of
to
rice, are
planted with rushes
a valuable
production
for
the cultivator, being in extensive
demand
&c.
thatching,
making
baskets,
matting,
hats,
fuel,
The
higher level grounds, and the sides of the

is
hills,
where
the
the ascent
liability of
not so steep as to expose the
soil to
being washed away in the rainy season, are planted with manioc, sweet potatoes, gourds, sugarcane,
beans, &c.
The Ikiopa
rounds.
west,
is
the finest river within a great distance

it
of the Capital, which at unequal distances

It rises in the east,
almost sur-
runs southward, bearing to the
where several tributary streams from the Ankaratra

its
range augment
falls into
waters ; continuing
its
course,
it
at length
the Betsiboka, which, as already remarked, flows
into the sea on the north-west coast of Madagascar, not

far
from Mananjary.
This river waters the

lies
fine vale
of
Betsimitatatra,
which
to
the
west
of
the
capital.
The
vale itself reaches from thirty to forty miles,
in
direction from north to south, varying in width from half
a mile to four miles.
It
is,
however, impossible, merely
by specifying
idea
its
length and width, to convey an accurate
of the form or
beauty of the
its
Betsimitatatra vale.
its
Its rich productions
throughout
whole exent,
irregular
outline,
terminated by innumerable rising grounds and

hills,
gently-sloping
covered with villages, or adorned with

to
cultivation, continually present
the traveller
new and
varying scenes of tranquillity and loveliness.
In the rainy
season especially, Betsimitatatra, viewed from the capital,

presents the
is
most charming and delightful scenery.
It
extensively cultivated, and the beautiful green of
the
rice plantations, in
the early part of the season,

of the
is
not
surpassed by the finest herbage

scape.
European land-
; ; ;
86
principal lake in
The
Ankova
is Itasy, or,
as called
by
of
the natives, Itasianaka.
It is situated in the division
Imamo, and
angai'a.
at the foot of the high
mountain
of
Ambohimifrom
The
principal cataract
is
Farahantsana, in the
thirty-five miles
division of
Marovatana, and about
the capital.
The
affects
almost total absence of wood in Ankova, not only

the
appearance of the country, but renders fuel
scarce and dear.
By
those
who
reside near the forests on

is
the borders of the province, fuel
easily obtained;
and
considerable quantities of fagots are
carried for
also
sale to
the markets of Ankova.

their
Slaves
are
employed by
owners in fetching wood from the forests.
But among
the poor, almost the only fuel used consists of bozaka, or
long grass
roots of grass, plucked

;
up
in the dry season
rice-straw with the chaff and husks
weeds collected from
the gardens and rice-grounds, the stalk of the manioc

refuse from the thatching,* chips of wood, and great quantities
of dried cow-dung.
In most of the villages there are a few trees, and from

these the privileged " head-men" obtain part of their fuel
but none
may be
sold,
nor
may
others venture to put
sacrilegious hands on these

table empire
:
guarded favourites of the vege-
otherwise, with such eagerness would they
be seized, that in a very short time not a twig or a stump
would remain.
Imerina consists of four smaller subdivisions
;
namely,
Avaradrano, Vakinisisaona, Marovatana, and Ambodirano.

* Thatching
made of
;
reeds has
an extremely rough and unsightly
appearance
with much dexterity
This the native thatchers perform and they, as well as the carpenters in their work, claim all that is cut off as a perquisite of indefeasible right though not unfrequently they are found to cut and clip more than is meet, and
till
;
dressed and clipped.
rather for their
own advantage than
for the benefit of house or landlord.
HISTORY OF .MADAGASCAR,
87
I'hese constituted originally four distinct and independent
kingdoms, or petty
tains,
states,
governed by their own
chief-
but were united into one by Andriamasinavalona.
At
his death, the
whole was again divided into four
parts,
as he
sons,
had
allotted one-fourth of his
kingdom
to
each of his
whom
he nominated to their respective shares of
territory prior to his decease.
By
the father of
Radama,
these four subdivisions were again consolidated into the
kingdom
These
vided.
of Imerina. lesser subdivisions of Imerina are again subdifor

;"
Avaradrano contains,
" the powerful bird
example,
1.
Voro-mahery
that
is,
meaning the
:
eagle, or per;
haps,
more properly, the vulture 2. Tsimahafotsy 3. Tsimihamboholahy turning pale" courageous
" not
" not
turning the back"
on stones"
undaunted
4.
Mandiavato
" treading
firm, resolute, &c.
For the sake of
illustrating
the nature of this smaller subdivision,

first-mentioned,
tains
tain
we may take
it
the
Avaradrano, especially as
also
con-
the capital.
portion of
Avaradrano
:"
is
the
name
and
of a cersignifies,
country, a given district,
literally,
" north of the water
the
names
of the sub-
divisions above-mentioned, as belonging to Avaradrano,
refer
place.
rather
to
clans
and divisions
of people,
than
to
The
divisions are extremely
numerous and
soil,
intricate, in-
volving not merely divisions of
but classifications of
people and families
and
it
not unfrequently occurs that the
same
is
applied both to place and people, though perhaps,

it
as a general rule,
may be remarked,
that
names
of villages
districts
belong to them
strictly as
such, but
names
of
involve primarily the idea of clans, families, or classes of

people.
Sometimes the same clan occupies a portion of

and sometimes a
district is desig-
soil in diff"erent districts,
88
nated by the name of the principal class or clan to which

it
originally belonged.*
To
illustrate this
view of the subject,

"
it
may be
"
inquired
with regard to
its locality,
Where
is
the capital situated ?"
and the reply may
be, " In
Voromahery."
Where
is
Voromahery?"
though
strictly
"In Avaradrano."
is
Here, Voromahery,
an heraldic designation and therefore belongyet attached to a place, as a portion of
ing to a clan,
the territory called Avaradrano.
In other cases
it
desig-
nates necessarily the clan
for
example,
"Who
are sumIt
moned to attend such a kabary, or public assembly ?" may be answered, "All Voromahery;" that is, all
people falling under that heraldic
residing in
designation,
district.
the
whether
it
Avaradrano or any other
Or
might
be asked, "
Who
are ordered to the forest for timber for
such a service ?" and the reply
may
be, " All
Avaradrano ;" Avaradrano
and
in
that case all the clans belonging to
would be intended.
These
divisions
and subdivisions are most tenaciously

Proportions of pubhc service to be
and rigorously maintained by the people themselves, and by the government. by reference
performed by the people, are most scrupulously regulated
to
to
these
divisions.
Quotas of men
for
be furnished for
the
army,
and of youth
the
schools, are fixed
on by the government agreeably
to the
arrangement of the people into clans; a mode of proceeding, however, frequently involving great inconvenience,
and which must, as

into desuetude.
It
civilization advances, ultimately
fall
might be adapted
to the feudal state
* This custom does not appear to be peculiar to the Malagasy. In the South Sea Islands the same desigTiation is used for the clans or tribes and the country which they inhabit, although primarily employed to designate the
people only.
of Madagascar,
89
when
the island was spUt

;
mto innumerable
unsuitable for an
petty and independent states
but
it is
empire, which requires
its
services rather
by convenience
of locahties than the prejudice of clans or families.
The
capital
and
its
suburbs, for about six miles round,
are called Voromahery, though

called "
more
strictly the capital is
Voromahery
of the
to
in
town," and the suburbs
" Voro-
mahery
in the country."
Most
preceding observations,
Imerina,
though properly
to
belonging
may
yet be applied
Ankova
its
generally, since a great similarity obtains between
three
great divisions.
It will, therefore,
be necessary to subjoin
but a few remarks respecting
Imamo and Voniz5ngo, and
these on points only where the two divisions differ from
Imerina.
Imamo
lies
to
the
west
of
Imerina,
and embraces
of iron
is
Mandridrano, and Valala-fotsy.

highest in Ankova.
there
;
Abundance
found in the mountain of Amb5himiangara, one of the

It
has been said that silver also exists
but of
this,
no satisfactory evidence has yet been
given.
One
is
of the
most celebrated vestiges of antiquity
in
It
Imamo,
is
is
situated on the
summit
of this mountain.
the ancient
tomb of the renowned giant Rapeto.
An altar
still
connected with the tomb, on which sacrifices are
offered.
The
tradition
respecting
these
renowned personages
states, that
Rapeto came from the mountain Ankaratra, and
Rasoalao from Ambohiman5a.

fires,
They made immense bonother,

till
and gradually approached each
they met
at
Antongona, where they entered into a mutual covenant,

of
and married. Their children consisted

seven sons.
one daughter and
The
sons were laudably inured to industry, and
sent to plant rice, but very impertinently took
upon them-
90
Mala-
selves to order their sister to fetch their Sarotra, (the
gasy umbrella, a rude sort of mat-covering.)
The
parents
were indignant, and reproved the youths, on their return

home, for imposing so menial a task on
sister.
their sister
their only
They even took them by the shoulders, and denounced
anathemas on them, and solemnly charged the daughter

never to carry anything, nor plant anything, except rice
not even the manioc, nor sweet potato
;
that, if
ordered to
do
it,
she must peremptorily refuse, and that the " boys"

all
must do
labour of that kind.
A
old
clan exists to the present day in Amb5dirano, calling

i.e.,
themselves Zanak'antitra,
old children,
meaning made
by
toil
and labour.
They
consider themselves the

still
descendants of this giant family, and their females
adhere to the ancient interdict, never carrying nor planting

anything but the ketsa, rice-plants.
The powers
of
is
Rapeto were
said,
of the
most marvellous kind.

from the farthest
He
could,
it
fetch anything
extremities of the earth, and could even, at a stretch, reach
the sky.
One
single step of his,
would be equal
to the
dsitance of six days' journey

visited
by an ordinary man.
When
his
by strangers, he
conversed freely with them, and,

seat,
without moving from his
would merely stretch out
hand, and procure abundance of fowls, sheep, and bullocks. With the same means he would bring an ample supply of
fuel from the forest, to dress the provisions for his guests.
Wishing occasionally for a few dainties at hi^ table, he produced the beautiful and extensive lake Itasy, which abounds
to this
day with excellent

still
fish
a village to the west of
Tarinarivo
retains his name.
On
one unfortunate occasion he had a serious quarrel
with the moon, with
whom
he fought, but, notwithstanding
and his gigantic formation and strength, he was vanquished
slain.
91
He
is
was buried on the summit of the high mounItasy.
tain of
Ambohi-miangara, near the lake

erected,
At
his grave
an
altar
and thither the people occasionally

regarded as the owner of the wild
resort to pray
and
offer sacrifices.
His
cattle.
wife, Rasoalao, is
Her grave
is
unknown.
She
is,
however, prayed
to
and, unless thus worshipped with sacrifices, the people
imagine they could neither obtain bullocks nor sheep, nor

success in any journey they might undertake.
To
the south of this mountain
is
the large and valuable
lake Itasy, referred to in the preceding fable, into

the Matindrano, a river flowing from the east, empties
which
itself.
;
Two
rivers
from the south
fall
also
into this lake
the
it,
Fitandambo, and the Varahina.
The
Lily runs out of
westward, and proceeds to Sakay.
The
is
general appearance of
Imamo
is
not inviting.
It
hilly,
but with extensive pieces of level ground, and
fertile valleys.
In order to secure good pasture -land
for
the cattle, the inhabitants burn

luxuriantly on the sides of the
the grass which grows
hills.
;
They
at
set fire to this
about the close of the dry season

year, the fires
which season of the

illu-
may be
seen at an immense distance

for
minating the horizon in a most splendid manner,

miles in extent.
many
pro-
As soon
as the rains
fall,
the young and

is
tender grass springs up, and a fine rich pasture

vided.
Vonizongo
is
a district
renowned
for
having contained
an unusual number of petty chieftains and nobles.
These
have generally claimed exemption from some particular

kinds of service, such as digging with the spade, fetching
wood from
sovereign,
the forests, assisting in building houses for the
&c.
number
of these
were chosen a few
years since,
by Radama,
to assist in cultivathig
some land
92
where he formed a colony; and on the
at Foule Pointe,
service being declined

dignity,
by them, as incompatible with

still
their
Radama
labours,
yielded the point, but
availed himself
of their
by ordering, that as carrying a spade

to their dignity, carrying
would be derogatory
a musket
could not, and that they must, therefore, honourably serve

with the army in his wars.
of
The
inhabitants of the district

for
Vonizongo are distinguished

idols.
their
attachment to
charms and
ody mahery
During the year 1828, three of the
natives of this district were put to death, for
making the
in
the
powerful medicine, or ^pell;
other
words, for being sorcerers.
Vonizongo has no extensive

fertile
valleys,
but numerous small
spots between the
hills,
where large quantities of
rice are
grown.
district,
This
of
Uke other parts

its
of the island,
consists
numerous subdivisions:
Fihaonana,
is
four principal towns are,
Soavina,
Fiambazana,
and
i.
Fiarenana.
Its
highest mountain
called
Angavo,
e.
the lofty.
The
chief point of attraction,
and the most important

is
object in the
province of Ankova,
the capital;
to
an
be
account of which the remainder of

unsuitably appropriated.
this chapter will not
Tananarivo, the capital of Imerina, and now of Madagascar, stands on the

hill;
it
summit
of a lofty, long,
and irregular
commands an
extensive prospect of the surround-
ing country, and of not fewer, perhaps, than a hundred

smaller towns and villages.
The
geographical position of
Tananarivo*
*
is,
according to the observations of Mr. Lyall,
This
is
the
name by which
the capital
is
generally designated, thougli in
wilting
it,
the most intelligent

:
among
the natives add the formative prefix
Anat,
to stand
there
but in speaking they do not pronounce the An, which seems
in a relation to the
name of
the capital similar to that of the
1- J't/aceYant
2.
f'-'-'^'M^- Chapel a,uil>
,.,,,
Af4TANANAR0V<D,
the late British resident at the capital of the island
93
lat.
18 56' 26"
S.,
and 47 57' 48" E. of Greenwich, or 45 37' 22"

highest elevation of Tananarivo above the
E. of Paris.
The
is
adjoining vale,
about
five
hundred
feet.
Its elevation
above the level of the
sea, is believed to
be about seven
is
thousand
vi'est
feet.
The
in
direction of the hill
nearly northits
and south-east.
The two
principal paths to
;
sum-
mit,
wind up
east
to
an extremely irregular manner

centre of the town, and
one from
the
the
another from
its
the north,
extremity.
proceeding through the town to
southern
The
by
its
signification of the
name Tananarivo
is
determined
tanana,
etymology.
Arivo, signifies a
thousand;
means a town.
a
The compound word will thousand towns. It may be regarded as

to the extensive population thus
therefore signify
a name given in
compliment
drawn together;
and, viewed as descriptive of a native's idea of a town

large as to
so
The
who
comprehend a thousand towns
in one.
This ap-
pears to be the correct interpretation of the term.
European, who smiles,

tion, will
it
may
be, at the childish exaggera-
yet forgive the fond vanity of the Malagasy,
thinks as proudly of his City of a thousand towns, as ever

(lid
the inhabitants of Palmyra or Babylon, Corinth or Piome,

their
in
dreams of the pomp, splendour, and durability of

cities.
their
immortal
The summit and

The houses are
built
the sides of the
hill,
on which the
city
stands, are covered with buildings, especially near the top.
on the
declivities
by means of artificially
levelled terraces, of twenty, thirty, or forty feet in width.
before Tahiti, or before the largest of the Sandwich Islands.
la the
geographic position of the capital, as given above, the Mis ioiiaries suppose there is an error of one degree, and that it should be 48 57' 48" east of
Greenwich.
94
formed one above another.
A principal thoroughfare, or road,

;
divides the town east and west
out of which branch innu-
merable small pathways, leading between the houses, where,

however, room
is
scarcely left in
;
some places
little
for
two
foot-
passengers to pass
and even that
can only be obtained
with
difficulty,
perhaps by means of enormous stones jutting
out of a bank, amidst hollows caused by incessant torrents of

rain, or across
some mass of rock projecting over a
frightful
precipice beneath.
The
nature of the ground on which
the city stands precludes the possibility of regularity in the
formation of the streets or the disposition of the buildings.
The
principal houses in the capital are built of wood,
and are sometimes substantial and durable.

entrance always faces the west.
The
chief
The
of
threshold of the
door being often raised eighteen inches or two feet above

the
level
of
the
pathway,
a block
stone
is
placed
outside the door as a step, and another inside to assist in
reaching the
rally
floor.
surrounded by a low
The houses are detached, and genemud wall. The fronts of several
are screened by verandas, and
officers of
comparatively
new houses
a few of recent construction, belonging to the
government, have boarded
floors.
In general, a coarse
earth, constitutes the
and strong matting, spread on the
bed, table, and floor of the inhabitants.
In building a house, the Malagasy consider

to
it
essential
lucky day.
commence on a day declared by Panandro to be a The commencement is always made at the

that being
north-east corner,
deemed more sacred than

to the south-east,
any other; they then proceed

round by the west.
the owners of them.
tised.
and thence
The occupants The system of
of houses are usually
renting
is little
prac-
A
this
few Arab traders have hired houses for shops

is
when
the case, the purchasers of goods at such
95
shops have to pay the landlord as rent, a certain amount,

according to the extent of their purchase, frequently about
say one penny in every dollar.
In nearly
all
the houses, a hearth or fire-place
is
made,
not far from the centre of the building, consisting of three,

or usually five square upright
distances,
stones,
fixed
at
suitable
;
and used
in cooking.
No
is
it is
chimneys exist
great, and, in
hence
of
the annoyance from the
smoke
some
the houses whose roofs are low,
intolerable to a Euro-
pean.
Most
of the natives have fires
occasionally kept
in all their dwellings,
though the cooking may be performed
in a detached building.
ficiently cool,
The
climate of Madagascar
is suf-
during a greater part of the year, to render
fire
an agreeable domestic companion, especially during
their evening hours.
One
peculiarity in the construction of

roof.
Malagasy houses
respects the
The
pitch
is
generally
much
greater
from the wall-plate to the ridge, than the height of the

building from the ground to the lower edge of the roof.
Fifteen feet for the height of the walls, and twenty-three
for the roof,
is
not unusual.
At
the gable-ends are also
placed long poles, ornamented by rudely carved ornaments

at the extremity.
The
greater the rank of the owner of

poles.
in
the
house,
the longer the
The
prerogative
of
to
building the
highest house
the
capital,
belongs
the sovereign; no one dares

king's.
build
his house
above the
The European method
of building with roofs of a
lower pitch, and with sloping ends, has been generally
adopted in the houses lately

the
built,
and promises
gable-ends.
to
supersede
chief
plan of building with steep

it
The
objection to
with a Malagasy
is,
that neither his father
nor his grandfather built their dwellings in that form.
The
thatching of the roof, in good houses, consists of the
96
is
herana, a rush, of which abundance
found in the neighof thatching
bourhood of the
capital.
The Malagasy mode
bears a strong resemblance to that practised by the South
Sea Islanders.
which
it is
tied
five or six feet
The rush is folded over a slender cane, to down by a small reed. The cane is about in length, and, when filled with rushes, is
rafters
fastened to
bers.
bamboo
placed on the principal tim-
The folia
of prepared rushes are placed one over
another, at two or three inches' distance from the margin.
Roofs thus constructed look remarkably neat, and generally last
from seven to ten years.
The two
palaces lately
erected by
Radama, and
the
one or two other houses, have
shingled roofs similar to those used in the Isle of France.
Many
of
poorer houses
are
constructed of
the
zozoro, a species of rush, formed, by
means
of mat.
of small canes
passing through them, into a sort
These,
fast-
ened
to a
few upright poles driven into the earth, complete
the houses of great

gascar.
flat.
numbers
of the inhabitants of
Mada-
Some
are also built of

all
bamboos
split
and beaten
These are
much
colder than the
wooden houses.
Three or four
dollars will
be sufficient to complete a
this
moderate -sized residence of
kind.
No mud- wall
in the
houses are built in the capital, but

vicinity.
many
immediate
Some
of these are coloured with different kinds
of earths,
as yellow or light pink,
and give a pleasing
variety to the scenery in which they appear.
The number
of houses in Tananarive
has greatly inalso
creased within the last few years.
There has been

;
an augmentation in the amount of population
though not,
perhaps, in proportion to the increase of buildings.

the year 1820, the
at
is
About
number
of inhabitants
was computed
the population
from ten to twelve thousand.
At present
supposed
to
exceed twenty thousand.
The number
increase
of houses
is
97
about six or seven thousand,
affording an average of three persons to each house.
The
of one-third
in
the
amount
of the
population
in the short space of
about eight years, distinctly shews
the
value
of
Radama's
in
government
to
the
country.
to
The
for
increase arose
part fi-om persons
preferring
settle at the capital rather
than to remain in the country,
the
same reasons
Europe
is
;
M'hich
have led to the increase
of our cities in
tion
where, however, a denser popula-
on a given spot
no proof of a general augmenta-
tion in the inhabitants of the country,

in
the
a
accumulation
in
the
one
case
being
is,
founded
on
diminution
another.
There more
however, reason to believe that the
increase in the population of Madagascar has been very

general,
particularly in
the vicinity of the capital,
where the influence of the government has been most powerfully felt,
and
its
vigilance
most
beneficially exercised.
The
suppression of the slave
traffic,
and of the horrid

life
practice of infanticide, and the diminished sacrifice of
from the mock

reign of
increase.
trials
by ordeal, during the enlightened no small degree account

for the
Radama,
will in
The
average number of inhabitants to each house apIt

is,
pears small.
however, to be remarked, that the
houses consist generally of but one apartment, or that

occasionally divided by a partition
made
of coarse matting
and a few bamboos.

even more,
Most
of the inhabitants, excepting the

;
poorest classes, have two houses

several
of which
others three or four, or
are
used as kitchens, or
occupied by their relations, slaves, and slave families.

civilization has
As
advanced at the
capital, it has
augmented
the desire of securing additional comforts and

dations,
accommo-
and hence the increased number of habitations
98
beyond the average increase of inhabitants. As the security

of property
became greater by an organized and firmly

reward and encourage-
established government, and as industry, under the patron-
age of that government, found
its
ment
in a greater
demand
for its produce, wealth increased,
and hence
style of
also the
improved appearance and the modern
many
of the houses at the capital.
In the centre, and near the highest part of the town,

(called
by the natives Tampombohitra,* crown, or top of
the town,) stands the palace, surrounded by a high pali-
sading of strong poles.
Properly speaking, the enclosure
comprehending
of
all
the buildings called the palace, consists

it,
two parts
a division being formed within
by means
division
of a palisading from east

is
and west.
The northern
strictly the
palace,
and the southern the palace-yard,
called
by the
natives,
Anaty R5va,
of
i.
e.
" within
the
fence."
The
northern
division
the
i.
enclosure
e.
contains
building designated Trano-v51a,
Silver House,
built
and occupied by Radama:

buildings either
in the
the
latter
contains
several
occupation of the sovereign and
part of his family, or for other uses

sently specified.
which
will
be pre-
The
front
line of
palisadoes, in which
the front gate

fifty
is
situated, facing the north, reaches about
paces
and that on the west, the usual place of en-
trance, about one

latter is
hundred and
forty paces.
Part of the
occupied by three or four houses belonging to
the government.
The ground on which

to seven or eight feet
the palace
is
erected appears to
have been originally raised, by
artificial
means, from
five
above the level of the pubhc road,
From Tampona,
vertex, or top, and Vohitra,
town or
illape.
which passes
is
it
99
ground
'
in a westerly direction.
The
raised
well supported by
means
of a neat
and strong stone
wall, of native construction.
The
palisadoes are placed

:
about six feet from the edge of this stone coping
they
are about eighteen or twenty feet in height, firmly driven

into
the
earth:
those
around the northern division are
united by cross-beams placed on the top, into which large

spears, painted yellow in imitation of gold, are driven with
their points upwards.
To
are
the
Anaty R5va there
are two public
entrances;
one through the palace, and another from the west.

also
There
and
two private entrances; one from the
east,
another, not frequently used, from the north-east, allowing
no admission whatever
trance to the
for strangers.
The
northern en-
palace
is
finished with the greatest care.
flight of
is
twelve stone steps leads to the door, and on
each side
placed a sentry-box for the guards,
who
are
on duty day and night.
The door
is
surmounted by a
large plate of glass, and various ornaments,
more showy
than any pretensions to good taste would allow.
The
Silver
northern division contains, as before remarked, the
House
this
was erected about ten years ago, under
the immediate superintendence of
Radama, and was

at
al-
ways selected as
derives
its
his
residence
when
the
capital.
It
name from
the circumstance of the bardeaux
of the roof, the gable- ends, ceilings, door-posts, &c. being
ornamented with
small
silver nails
and studs.
Its
dimensions are
twenty
feet
is
by twenty-four.
The apartment on
the ground-floor
used as a store-room; and the upper
part of the building, which consists of two small rooms,
was occupied by Radama.

pean
style,
It
was furnished
in the
Euro-
and improved by the modern addition of a

flight of steps.
veranda and a
h2
100
division, the three principal build-
Within the southern
ings are, Besakana, Mahitsy, and Masoandro.

is
The
first
considered the most important in
all civil affairs,
being
regarded as the throne of the kingdom; and the second,

the
most sacred in
all
religious
is
affairs.
In Besakana,
" great width," the
new
sovereign
placed, and installed
there he bathes at the great annual festival of the Fan-
droana, and pronounces benedictions on the people

there also the deceased sovereign
to interment.
is laid
and
in state,
previous
In the house called Mahitsy, (that
is,
straight^
and
in a
moral sense. Just,)

the
sikidy,
is
kept the idol Manjakatsiroa,

is
Here
the
or
divination,
worked
for
It
is
the sovereign,
on
all affairs of
public importance.
is
here
also,
sacrifice of
a cock
made
at the
commencement
of the
Fandroana, which the sovereign attends, and after which
he proceeds
to
bathe in Besakana.
(i.e. the
Masoandro,
sun,)
is
is
the house in which the
newly constituted sovereign

ing to the throne.
placed immediately on acced-
Here Radama was placed by order

evening
also,
of his father, to be guarded by the Tsiarondahy, the king's
body-guard, on
the
he perceived his death

the successor
to
be near;
and here
Ranavalona,
of
Radama, was
empire.
placed, on
becoming the sovereign of the
Within
this
Anaty R5va are two

:
or three other buildings,
erected in the European style
one, called Marivo-lanitra,
occupied occasionally by the sovereign; another, a small
and neat residence, intended by Radama
for his
daughter
Raketaka
another used by the royal band of musicians,

built
and the house

direction, for
at the capital,
by order of Radama, under his own

his first arrival
to
Mr. Jones the missionary, on
and subsequently appropriated
Rasalimo,
consort of Radama.*
to
101
Here are
also
the houses allotted
those
who
are nominally the wives of the sovereign,

is
and another surrounded by a fence, which

occasional seraglio,
of
merely an
without the strictness or refinements
Turkish despotism, jealousy, or sensuality.

But, as
if
to
show that man
in his best estate is vanity,
as
if
he were destined to place some curb on his own

to erect
desires,
some " memento mori'
in the
midst of
his pleasures
and grandeur
here, in sight of these houses
of
power and enjoyment, are the tombs, the dilapidated

In the immediate neighbourhood of the palace are the
tombs, of former chieftains and kings.
houses of several of the judges, the nobles, and the principal

officers
in
the army, constituting this part of the
town, " componere parva

of Tananarivo.
cum mugnis"
of
the Westminster
On
the western
side
the
palace -yard, the judges

air,
hold their courts.
The
causes are tried in the open

style,
either in true patriarchal
beneath
the shadow
of
the fine row of fig-trees growing there, or on the stonewall

of
the
fence
to
already
described.
deliberate,
to the
Formerly the
judges
justice,
met
hear causes,
and administer
in a house, not
exposed
gaze of the rude
or curious.
since,
On
an occasion, however, not many years
the king was passing by the house in which the

rise
judges were assembled, when the latter omitted to
and pay his majesty the usual tokens of homage, either

not seeing, or pretending not to see the king
:
Radama
since the
tenacious of respect, and believing, with a Spanish monarch,

that " no ceremony should be
deemed a
trifle,
* Radama, on his marriage with Rasalimo, the Sakalava princess, requested the Missionary to relinquish the house in her favour, promising,
at the
same
time, to furnish
him with materials
for another.
102
king himself
HIvSTORY OF MADAGASCAR.
is
but a ceremony,"
resolved,
that " those

to see," and,
who
could see, and would not, should be
made
accordmgly, ordered the house to be instantly taken down,

that, in future, all causes should be tried, and awards given, " sub dio" in broad day-light, that the admi-
and directed
nistraticn of justice
for not
might be open, and no one find excuse
paying due respect to majesty.

short distance from the palace, proceding north-
At a
ward, and immediately opposite

eastern side of the
called Antsahatsiroa,
hill,
the
great path on
the
is
a spacious piece of ground,
where kabarys, or public assemblies,

gun-fire as the signal for proceeding
are fi-equently held, where the town-watch assembles every
evening, waiting
till
to their respective
wards; and where also a considerable

during the time of mourn-
market is held
for provisions, &c.
ing for the sovereign.
little
to
the west of
viz. all
Antsahatsirda
is
the spot to
which " strangers,"

are taken,
to
who
are not natives of Ankova,

It is a small pond,
swear allegiance.
or, in
some-
times fed by a spring,
case of drought, supplied by
a few buckets of water.
The
oath taken here
is
called
mively rano, " to strike the water," a name taken from

a part of the ceremony, which consists in striking the
water with boughs of trees and a spear.
At a
little
distance from this spot
is
the top of the
Tarpeian rock of Madagascar, where criminals convicted

of witchcraft,
sorcery,
and similar
oifences,
are executed
by being hurled headlong down the tremendous precipice.
The
fall
of the
eighty feet;
unhappy when he is
victim
may be about
sixty or
inevitably killed, being dashed

at that
amid the scattered masses of broken rock lying

distance
:
the
fall is
then from three to four hundred feet

hill,
further to the base of the
from the edge of which
he has been hurled.
rinana.
"103
The
place
is
called
Ampahamais
The
is built.
usual place of execution for ordinary criminals

extremity of the
hill
at the southern
It is
on which the town

It is
designated Ambohipotsy.
a dreary spot,
adapted to excite deep and melancholy
feelings.
Numerous
skulls are scattered over the ground, the only remaij^ of
unhappy
victims,
left
who having
fell,
suffered the sentence of the
law, were
birds.
as they
to
be devoured by dogs and

familiar
These animals appear

it
it,
with
the place,
if
and the scenes of terror

instinctively attracted to
so often exhibits, and, as

flock
to
the
spot whenever
there
is
an execution, and seize their prey almost before
the executioners
have
left
the
ground.
No
one dares
remove the body of a criminal

Descending the
for interment,
without pre-
viously obtaining the express permission of the sovereign.

hill
by the high road through the town,

any public
kabarys,
after leaving Antsahatsiroa, the next place of
importance
is
Andohalo, where
the
It is
principal
or public assemblies, are held. well suited, by

its
a large open space,
natural formation, for the purpose for
which
it
is
used;
and
the
will
continue to be esteemed as
such, so long as
custom obtains of assembling the
people en masse to receive messages fi-om the sovereign,
and
to transact
all
public
affairs.
On
the north, south,
and cast of
this
spacious area, the ground gently rises,

of a natural amphi-
giving the site

theatre,
somewhat the appearance

to
and where from eighty
one hundred thousand

witness
all
persons
passes.
may The
conveniently assemble, and
that
high road from the west runs through the
centre of this P'ikabariana,

I'lie
" place
of holding kabarys."
fig- trees
;
eastern side
is
bounded by a row of
is
and
the elevated ground in front of these
occupied during
104
a kabary
by the judges or
officers
appointed by the sove-
reign to deliver royal messages.
When
stê
ever,
is is
the
sovereign
appears in person, a temporary

his attendants
;
erected for
him and
which, how-
by some kind
of strange
is,
anomaly
in state language,
Its
called Farafara, that
" a bedstead."
this
form someled
what resembles a native bedstead, and

to the
may have
name
but
if it
were meant
in
to intimate that the situais
tion of a sovereign
Madagascar,
ill
" repose
facts.
upon a
downy couch,"
it
would but
accord with
To
the south of Andohalo are two spots, of no small

native
e.
:
importance to a
one,
where the
calf," is
ceremony of
Milefon-omby,
i.
" killing the
performed, being
another part of the ceremony of swearing the oath of

allegiance;
and the other
spot,
adjoining the above,
is
large pond, where cattle and poultry enjoy

rious draught
where
with
the daughters of
filling
many a luxuthe people may

sinys* with
be seen every hour of the day

water
their
and
where the smiths

sand and
are
busily
employed
dirt
in
scrubbing
off,
water,
the
and rust
from their swords and muskets, when the trumpet of war

is
heard in the land, and a part of the army
is
about
to
march from the
capital.
is
Opposite to this pond
a part of the town which neither
the sovereign, nor any part of the royal family,

enter.
may
ever
Some
chieftain, or sovereign of
former times, placed
himself and his successors for ever, under an obligation of

this
kind
and time has rendered the observance
of the
custom so sacred, that any sovereign who should have the

temerity to attempt an infraction of so important a privilege,
would now perhaps
risk his
head or his kingdom.
Native pitrher.
105
hill
few paces below
this,
still
descending the
west-
ward, stands one of the the missionary chapels, and the

centi'al school
poses,
it is
same building subserving both pura school-room and place of worship. Adjoining;
;
the
the dwelling-house
of
the
Rev. D.
Griffiths,
Mis-
sionary.
About one hundred yards

erected,
farther,
a building has been

printing-office,
which comprises a repository,
and
School-society's
rooms
for library. Sec,
connected with the

of the
hill,
Madagascar Mission. Near the
foot
at
some
short distance from the above building, stood formerly an
immense block
of stone, which from time
immemorial had
been venerated as sacred, but a few years past was blown up,
under the direction of the
to
late
Mons. Le Gros,
to
in order
widen and improve the road

affection
is
the
capital.
Some
by the
kind of mysterious
natives for the spot,
still
cherished
combined with some undefined notion

forms a boundary
line,
of its sanctity.
It
beyond which and deemed

Formerly
animals and vegetables, forbidden by the

unclean,
idols,
may
not be carried into the capital.

this limit,
no pig nor goat might pass

kept at a
still
but those are now

;
more
respectful distance
to
and at present,
far as this point,
though onions are allowed

they
be taken as
may
not be carried one inch beyond
it.
Just below this nicely discriminating point, two paths
branch
off
from the main road.
The high-way
itself is
continued towârds Ambohitsorohitra, the residence of the

late
Mr. Hastie, and thence
to the fine vale of Betsimihi-
satra.
The branch
road to the north leads by Analakely,

is
the site of the king's spring, from which the royal family
frequently supplied with water for daily use.
Extensive
buildings for various manufactures, under the direction of
Mr.
.T.
Cameron, have been erected
in Analakily.
Nearly
106
is
opposite this spot there
an immense rock of
sienite,
from
part of which, stone slabs, for most of the tombs near the
capital are procured.
The road
leads from this part of the
rock, either into the country north of the capital, or along
the
ridge of a hill
covered with tombs, and joins the
capital near the part of
Andohalo which kings are
forbid-
den
to enter.
i.
The
road branching to the south, leads to
Amparibc,
depot
for
e.
the place of
much
sugarcane, passes by the
muskets, leads to the vale of Betsimihisatra, to
the king's threshing-floors, to a large marshy plantation of

rushes, to the piece of ground allotted by the king for the
missionaries on their arrival at Tananarivo
and
to the road
leading to the
new
palace of the sovereign at Soa-ierana.

for strangers
is
At Amparibe the burial-ground

situated, the spot
also
was selected by the government on the

artisan,
decease
their
of
Mr. Brooks, missionary
the
first
of
number who was removed

of the mission,
foreigners,
after the establishment of
the mission at the capital.
In the same ground, several
members
and other
Mr. Hastie, Rev. D. Tyerman,
have been interred.

resi-
In the immediate vicinity of Tananarivo are two
dences erected by Radama; one at IVIahazoarivo, being
merely a cottage,
bustle of the town,
intended to form a retreat
from the
;
and
built
on a very limited plan
and
the
other at Soa-ierana,
still
unfinished, but forming a

scale.
mansion or palace on a highly respectable
Mahazoarivo
is
a small village, distant about two miles
south-east fi'om the capital.
The
cottage was built, and the
grounds laid out, entirely under the direction of Radama.
The
cottage itself consists of three rooms, to which are

It
attached numerous out-houses.
was
is
built in
1826, by
RIalagasy workmen, and the interior

the European style.
neatly fitted
up
in
The
garden contains a collection of
all plants,
107
shrubs, flowers, &c. introduced by foreigners to

;
the country
and a considerable, though
still
extremely
It
imperfect collection, of those found in the island.
was
the intention of the king to have rendered the collection

of the plants of
could.
it,
Madagascar
as complete as
he possibly
When
his leisure
from public business permitted

this retreat,
he spent much of his time in
and sought
amusement sometimes
in
in a bull -fight,
and occasionally
occupation,
of
the
more
quiet,
but equally useful
superintending the care of the garden.
Close within the
gates of the front entrance, the king had formed with grass
turfs
two
letters,
the great path to the cottage.
"R. R. Radama, Rex." one on each side Who, twenty years before,
out,
would have thought of a Madagascar chieftain carving

in the turfs of his garden, the initials of his
name and
sove-
reignty in the learned language of
Europe ?
a small lake, in which
To the south of the Radama kept a stock of

Soa-ierana
lies
cottage
fish
is
and
turtles.
He
had planted
also in the vicinity of the lake, several rofia trees. to
the
south
of
Tananarivo,
to
distant
about one mile.
The name was
given
the site
by
;"
Radama, as signifying, " a place well suited for inquiry

grievances,
meaning, perhaps, where his subjects might bring their
make
their requests,
affairs.
and assemble
hill
for the dis-
cussion of public
An immense
so
of
was cut down

hill
its
in 1824, to form the site of the palace;
an adjoining
to
was intended to be cut down, prospect, and form a good road
as
improve
it.
approach to
The
building was in a state of great forwardness, and would most
probably have been completed in the course of a few
months, had
Radama
is
lived.
The
prospect
from the palace
extensive and panoramic.
commanded The front
affords a bold view of the
south-west of the capital.
108
late
Mons. Le Gros, native of France, but
of Mauritius,
was engaged as architect and

for a country like
ing,
builder.
Immense
labour,
Madagascar, was expended on the buildtimber fi'om the

forest,
particularly in conveying
fifty
distance of
miles.
Many
hundreds of the
finest trees
that could be found, adapted to the purpose, were felled,
roughly stripped of their branches and bark, and then
dragged the distance stated above, by
ten, twenty, thirty,
or forty men, to each piece of timber, as
the case re-
quired
the roads in some places being almost " impass-
able," rendered the effort truly herculean.
About
sixty
carpenters and apprentices were employed for four years on

the works.
five
The
is
building
fi-ont,
is
about one hundred and twentyfeet
feet long in
and one hundred
in depth.
The
structure
entirely of wood, finished on the outside
in diagonal
panels, resembling in appearance the style of

It consists of a
is
building frequently seen in South America.
centre and two wings
and the
roof,
which
covered with
shingles, corresponds with the threefold division.
There are
first
about
forty pi'incipal
rooms on the ground-floor and

attics
story, besides
a large number of
and store-rooms.
balcony
it is
is
carried round the whole extent of the building

five
about
feet in
width, well guarded in part by
iron railing, and in part
by wood ; the balcony
is
supported
by semicircular arches, placed on columns. two others opposite

leading to
it,
There are
two principal entrances, south-east and north-west, and

to these.
The
kitchen, and passage
are wholly subterraneous.
The former
is
two hundred
is
feet
from the building

to
and the passage, which
of the
same length, was
have been constantly illumi-
nated with lamps.
An
iron chain, supported
by low wooden
posts, surrounds
the whole, at the distance of forty feet from the building.
109
treble
row of the aviavy, wild

soil
fig-tree,
was planted soon
after
the
was
levelled,
round the grounds of the

rides,
palace, having
two spacious
or " drives" between

at
them.
It
was proposed
to erect
handsome gates
the
entrances, and a splendid jet d'eau in front.

also to have
moat was
been formed round the building, with two

;
draw-bridges
and the spacious area
in front of the palace
was designed
for holding occasional kabarys.

is, its
The
principal fault perhaps in the building,
want
of elevation.
several of
paltry,
its
The
structure
is
too low for its extent, and
rooms, otherwise spacious and noble, appear

parts, for
and quite out of keeping with other

It
want
of six or eight feet additional height.
is,
however, far
more wonderful to
little
find such
an
edifice at
all,
in a country so
its
advanced in
civilization as
Madagascar, than that

taste.
it
proportions should not be
in
good
Had
the architect
been allowed to follow his own plan,
would have been a
superior building to that which he was obliged to
make
it.
The
roads about the capital are kept in a very imperfect
state of repair.
There
is
but
little level
ground
the decli-
vities are often steep.
The
torrents of water which pour
down the roads in the rainy season, destroy the repairs made during the summer and no highway levies are made. To
;
the government belongs the repairing of the roads, and for

that purpose
it
employs the prisoners, called gadralava,
"long chains," a name given them from the circumstance

of their being compelled to wear, and
work
in long iron
chains, reaching from the neck to the ankle.
Very few
fig,
trees adorn the capital.
An
aviavy, or wild
has almost the exclusive honour of admission within
the precincts of the metropolis of Madagascar,
The
fruit
of these
fection, is
is
of little value, and, long before reaching perat all risks of
knocked oiFby the boys, and eaten
110
consequences.
The
vicinity of
Tananarivo
is
almost as
destitute of trees
certainly
and shrubs as the
capital itself,
which
in
does not stand, as has been represented,
a beautifully wooded country. Tananarivo, like most towns in Ankova, and some of the
other provinces, was formerly surrounded, or intersected,
by immense ditches or moats.

earth with incredible
labour,
times, one of the principal
These were cut

of defence
still
in
the
and constituted, in former

against the
means
in
attacks of an enemy.
capital,
Of
There
of
these, six
remain at the
and are crossed
passing
through the
town
from north to south.

left
are, also,
little
a few ancient gates

is
standing,
but to these
value
now
attached.
The modern system

cannon,
useless the gates
attack and defence, by
means
of
and a disciplined army, renders
comparatively
and moats of ancient times.
The houses
are superior to
capital, the
at the capital,
all
and
in its
immediate
vicinity,
the rest in the island.
On
leaving the
houses become inferior in proportion to their

it,
distance from
excepting those in each village belong-
ing to the chiefs of the village or district.
The
best houses in the province of Ankova, are con-
structed of wood, others are built of bamboo,

rushes, and others of
some
or
of
mud
the poorest kind are merely
excavations
grass.
in
the
earth,
thatched with reeds
long
This general description
will
probably
suffice
for
the
it
dwellings of the natives throughout the country, as

difficult to
is
give any account equally applicable to the habi-
tations
of all
the
people, who, in consequence
of
their
intestine wars, have

habits, as to
been so much
separated in their social

district,
have adopted, in each province or

either in
some
peculiarity,
the material of which
their
houses are constructed, the position
the
in
1 1
which they are
built,
number
in
or aspects of their doors or windows, or the

is
manner
are
which the interior
ari'anged.
The
following-
among
the peculiarities of the chief tribes or races in
the island.
The Hovas have

deep ditches.
their
towns and villages surrounded by

are
All their houses, without exception,
placed north and south, and are of the same form, having
one high door in the south-west end.

as large as the door to the north-west.
window nearly
divisions
in
all.
The
and
arrangements of the interior are also the same
In the provinces of the Antsianaka and Bezanozano, the houses stand north and south, like the Hovas, but their
doors are north-west, and their windows south-west.
The
arrangements within are also entirely the reverse of those

of the Hovas.
They have
ditches round their villages,

to the north-
and many of the houses have a second door

east.
In the northern parts of Betsileo, the houses are situated

north and south.
The door
is
placed south-west, and the

inside
window north-west, the bed

door,
being opposite the

in
and not opposite the window as
Ankova.
With
them, as with the Hovas, their villages are surrounded by
deep
ditches.
They
excel the
Hovas
in the construction
of magnificent tombs over the vaults of the dead.
The
houses of the Sakalavas are in general miserable

little
huts, often
better than holes in the earth, covered

;
with branches of trees

also without
in
their
towns and
fortifications
are
any kind
of regularity.
It is
probable, that
to
time of war, they have

to
trusted
their
rather
their
own
and
bravery,
forests,
the
defence of
immense
woods
and
to the food afforded
by the wild
cattle
and other
natural produce which these wilds supplied, than to the
112
ditches by which their villages might be surrounded, or the
granaries they might contain.
The
Betsimisaraka have their houses built on
pillars,
about one or two feet above the ground.
They have one
window, opposite to which

the apartment.
other.
is
the hearth in one corner of
The
houses have two doors opposite each
The
Those
floors of the
Malagasy houses are generally covered

mats,
soft
with red and

of
yellow rush
neatly
put
together.
Manghabei are both
and strong.
On
these
mats they repose without any
sort of covering,
sometimes
with a pillow for the head resembling a sofa-pillow, and
sometimes only with a log of wood placed under the mat.

;;
113
CHAP.
Population of Madagascar
V.
The chief political divinumber of each division Disproin
Its
probable amount
sions of the people, and the estimated
portion of population to the extent and resources of the country

description of the Malagasy
General
Description of the several races the The Hovas import of the term colour, number, &c. The Vazimba, or probable aborigines their of Madagascar The Kimois, or nation of dwarfs The Sakalavas their &c The Bezanozano and the AntsianakaThe character, colour, north and south Betsileo The Betsimisaraka and Betamimena; their Mary's of complexion, &c. The inhabitants of the The Zafindramina, or descendants of the mother of Mahomet Probable the island Intellectual character of the races origin of the of the Malagasy Their general disregard of people Moral &c. Baneful influence of superstition on their moral character.
island
Their
respective provinces
figiu-e,
habits,
stature,
Isle
St.
distinct
in
qualities
truth,
In a country which has,
until recently,
remained almost
it
entirely destitute of every species of statistical record,

is
exceedingly
difficult to
obtain any thing approaching to
accurate information respecting the

ants.
number
of its inhabit-
Hence
the
population of Madagascar has been

It has,
variously estimated by different writers.
however,
generally been supposed to
amount
to about four millions state of the island
and from as correct a census as the
admitted, taken a short time previous to the

the
late
decease of
king,
is
Radama,
it
appears probable that this

it
estimate
not excessive, but that

its
would be a nearer
approximation to
it
actual
amount
of population, to state
at
from four millions and a

it
half, to five millions.
As
the
basis of this estimate,
was ascertained by Prince Coroller,

the Vadintany,
:
from the
officers of the respective districts,
that there were
upwards
of one million
of houses
five
persons were adopted as the average number of each household.

I.
The
entire population thus given,

I
comprehends the
114
four chief political divisions of the people
the Hovas
:
the
Sakalavas
saraka.
the Betsileo
and the Betanimena and Betsimi-
Their relative numbers are thus estimated
The Hovas The Sakalavas, includint]^ the Bezano- 1

zeno and the Antsianaka
J
,
750,000
1,200,000
1,500,000
The Betsileo The Betanimena and
Betsimisaraka
1,000,000
Total
4,450,000
the
its
This amount of population

island has contained at former
history.
is
evidently less than
and not remote periods of
country,
The embankments spread over large tracts of now overgrown with grass or brushwood, shew
villages, or
that these parts were once regularly-cultivated rice-fields
and the scattered ruins of

lages,
whole ranges of
vil-
now
totally deserted, especially in the Betsileo
and
Sakalava countries, mark, though imperfectly, the extent

to
which the country has been depopulated.
The
female sex greatly preponderates, which, as well as
the diminution of population,
by the fearful waste of
life
may in part be accounted for among the men, in their freThe

slave-trade, wars, infandis-
quent and barbarous wars.

ticide,
trials
by ordeal, and the prevalence of certain
eases,
may be
specified as reasons sufficiently accounting
for the
very Umited population of a country capable of

five
maintaining at least
the
times
is
its
present number.
Still
amount
of population
sufficient to
excite interest
in their behalf,
and give importance
to the events
by
whicli
they are affected.
Madagascar is not inhabited by one
single race (presenting
only minor and provincial differences, yet having a

orighi,
common
and constituting an extended nation,) but by a num-
bev of distinct tribes, more
or less numerous,
;
115
evidently
derived from more than one source
diiFering also in
many
respects fi*om each other; and remaining, at the present

time, thougii nominally comprised in one political empire,
distinct
and peculiar nations.
No
single account would,
therefore, present a just description of the various tribes
comprised in the population of Madagascar.
There
are,
however, points in which they bear a general

;
resemblance to each other
among
these are the following
the inhabitants are rather below the middle stature, which
but few exceed
and
their countenances
do not exhibit that
prominency of features which so fi-equently distinguishes

the
European and Asiatic
nations.
in
The men
are
is
more
elegantly formed than the
women,
whom
there
usually
a greater tendency to corpulency than in the other sex.
The
beards of the
men
are but weak, and are plucked out

to the touch as
is
in youth.
Their hands are not so warm
those of Europeans, and their blood by thermometer

colder.
These appear the
chief
among
is
the few points in
which,
physically considered,
there
any resemblance
between the several nations.
The
;
distinction
this,
most strongly
marked
is
that of colour
and
though presenting
population of
shght variations in each
tribe, separates the
Madagascar
into two great classes,
and
is
by some supposed
to allow of its being traced to only
two sources
the
one
distinguished by a light, exquisitely formed person, fair
complexion, and straight or curling hair

robust,
the other
more
and dark-coloured, with woolly
hair.*
In one or
the other of these classes, the several tribes inhabiting the

island
*
may be
:
included.
ex-
WooU;/
the analogy on \vhirh the hair has been called wool,
is
tremely loose
resemblance.
and
general.
It
implies
nothing
more than a
slight
i2
IIG
of the likeness of the chief
1
The accompanying wood- cut

officer in
the embassy sent to England and France in
835,
which
is
is
copied from an excellent portrait taken by Sperling,

fair
given as exhibiting the characteristics of the
or olive-
coloured class.
With regard simply

races in Madagascar
to colour, there are
but two distinct
the
;
olive
and the black.

all
But
as
these have occasionally intermixed, there are

varieties
possible
difficult
between them
and
in
some
it
would be
to affirm to
which division they belonged, being as much
inclined to one colour as the other.
The
it
vigour of health
frequently gives a ruddy tinge to the countenance of the

olive-coloured race; but this, while
removes them from
117
approximating in complexion to the yellow hue of the

Malays, does not give them any resemblance to the coppercoloured Indians of America.
With respect
divisions also
to the quality of the hair, there are
two
the
Tsotra,
(tso-bolo,)
straight,
and the
Ngita, curly,
or rather, frizzly.
These have
also interto colour cases,
mixed
and the same remark applies here as
the frizzly has
become almost
straight in
some
and
the straight almost frizzly.
however,
The above two distinctions of colour and hair do make two separate classes, but rather four
not,
;
for
there are
1.
olive-coloured natives having straight hair
and,
of
2.
olive-coloured natives with curly or frizzly hair

class
this
the accompanying Avood-cut of one of the
members
of the late
embassy
to
Europe
is
given as an
illus-
118
tration.
3. blacks
Besides the two classes just described, there are,
having straight hair, and, 4. blacks with curly or

But, ordinarily, the straight hair
;
frizzly hair.
is
with the
olive-coloured
and the curly or
frizzly,
with the black.
Besides the distinctions arising from colour and hair,
which would exhibit the people in two great

olive
classes,
the
and the black, the population of the island may be

occupying as many large geographical sections,
;
considered as comprised in four chief or principal political

divisions,
which are also in a certain sense identical

tion of the people
as the designais
and the country they inhabit

divisions are,
first,
;
frequently
;
the same.
These
;
the
Hova
second,
the Sakalava
third, the Betsileo
fourth, the
Betanimena
and Betsimisaraka.
In the early part of the reign of the father of the late
Radama, a period not more than seventy years

Malagasy were divided
tribes,
ago, the
into not fewer than fifty distinct

chieftains,
governed by their respective

;
and inde-
pendent of each other
the chief of each tribe exercising
absolute power over the lives, property, and services of his

subjects.
Since that period the processes of amalgamation

effectual,
have been rapid and
and the principal
divisions
now recognized
are those already
named
all
all
the rest are
either subdivisions of these, or people belonging to one or
the other intermixed.

is
That they are
nearly the same,
manifest from their general colour, language, customs, and
the
names
of towns, rivers, hills,

in
and productions.
also distinct
tribes,
That they are

is
some measure
manifest from
their dialects,
and some peculiar cusis
toms.
That they have intermingled,
manifest from their
intestine wars,
which have not been extirminating wars,

for obtaining slaves for exportaslaA ory.
nor wars prosecuted wholly

tion,
but wars of conquest, booty, and domestic
HIST(3RY OF MADAGASCAR.
They have been
in the habit also of
119
wandering or fleeing
from one part of the country to another, when pursued
by an enemy more powerful than themselves, and
settling
where there was the greatest prospect of

the remains of the
safety, just as
Vazimba, the original inhabitants of
Ankova, now reside between the Imania and the Imanambolo,

in
Menabe.
will
greater approximation to general
amalgamation
be perceived in the course of a few years,
from the constant residence of the

parts, in military stations
Hova
troops at distant
island,
on different parts of the
as most of these troops either intermarry with the
women
of the provinces, or live with

state.
them
in
a far less honourable
The
chief divisions, already referred to,

;
we now
proceed to notice
selves,
both as they regard the people them-
and the portions of the country they respectively

the Sakalavas, with
occupy.
Geographically considered,
whom
we commence,
are divided into two great sections. North

:
and South Sakalavas
the
first
includes the inhabitants of

in
Iboina in the north, and

latter,
Ambongo
the north-west
the
those of
Menabe
in the west
and south-west, extend-
ing on the west side of the island to Firenenana, which
continues
to
the
is
south of St. Augustine's Bay.
This
extensive region
sometimes called the Sakalava country.
A mixture of the
Sakalavas and Betsileo inhabit the regions
to the south of Firenenana,
embracing the southern extre-
mity of the island.
By some
the Bezanozano, a small tribe, chiefly inhabiting
Ankay, situated on the south-east of Ankova, are considered as a branch of the Sakalavas.
inhabiting the province of the
The
Antsianaka,
same name,
to the north of
Ankova, are
also considered as belonging to this nation,
which includes the black races of Madagascar.
120
Antsianaka, are supposed to have
separated, in a state of captivity,
The Bezanozano and

been conquered, and
or driven
first
distance to which they are
by war from the other Sakalavas, though the removed is not great the
:
Bezanozano, on the east, (occupying Ankaratra,)
may be
supposed to have descended from the northern Sakalavas,

occupying Iboina, &c., and the Bezanozano on the northwest, have probably descended from the Sakalavas of
Am-
bongo or Menabe.
The next
division of the country, according to the races
of the people, is the Betsileo, lying immediately within that
of the southern Sakalavas,
and comprehending the

It
interior
or central provinces of the island.

ratra southward,
extends from Anka;
through Tatsimo to Tanosy
Tatsimo
being another name for "southern Betsileo."
The Tanosy
seem
to
be a branch of the southern Betsileo, blended
with the Betanimena, whose country proceeds from the
southern extremity along the eastern side of the island,
and stretches
to Anteva,
the province bordering on the
country of the Batanimena and the Bezanozano.
The
country of the Betsileo also includes rather less
of the north part of the island than formerly.
The
hills
region
to
immediately beyond the Ankaratra range of

south,
the
sometimes called the Betsileo country,

latter before they
probably
belonged to the
were subdued by the

to
Hovas, nearly forty years ago.

south, nearest the Ankaratra,
is
But the country
the
now reckoned a
i.
part of
Ankova, and
is
called Vakinankaratra,
this
e.
" broken off
by Ankaratra," and
the
it
proceeds south to the Imania; but

limit not very accurately
from the Imania southward, to a

defined,
country
is
is
called
Betsileo.
Beyond
this
boundary
called Tatsimo, or southern Betsileo,

is
and
though Vakinankaratra
now
one of the six divisions of
Ankova,
its
121
inhabitants are evidently Betsileo,
who
are
spread over an extent of country greatly exceeding that

of the province which bears their
name.
The
Betsileo
are evidently one of the most ancient races in the island, and,
according to their
own
traditions,
came
originally
from An-
teva, a province on the south-western coast,
and now inhabited
by the mixed race of the Betanimena and Betsimisaraka.
The
at the
country of the Betanimena commences southward
Mananjary, and terminates northward
at Tany-fotsy
the country of the Betsimisaraka spreads along the eastern
shore
till
it
joins
that of the
Sakalavas of the north,

called
which includes
the
country sometimes
Hiaram-
bazaha, or Vohimaro.
An
account of Ankova, the country of the Hovas, has
been formerly given, and those of the other chief divisions

of the island have to give
been added
it will,
therefore,
be proper
some account
of the nations or races
by
whom
who
they are severally inhabited.
The
first
and most important race
is
the Hovas,
in
inhabit the province of
Ankova.
They have
every
respect the pre-eminence, and possess the entire sovereignty over the greater
number
of the other provinces.
From Ankova, and from Vakinankaratra, the army of

Radama, by which the greater part
conquered, and by which the conquest
exclusively formed;
of the
is
island
was
be
maintained, was
therefore,
and the island may,
regarded as held in subjection by the Hovas.

was, in the
first
The army
instance, formed at Tananarivo, the capital
of the Hovas, and afterwards augmented from other parts

of the province.
The
to
use of the word Hova, though generally employed

the
olive - coloured
designate
:
race,
requires
further
explanation
First,
as to
Ankova, or the country of the
122
Hovas.
This
is
the
principal
residence
of
the
olive-
coloured race, and as they seem to be the proper and

original Hovas, they give
reside.
name
to the district
where they
But these olive-coloured are not the only inhaThere are quite as many who are
their
bitants of Ankova.
black,
in
but who are also called Hovas, fi-om
residing
Ankova;
in fact, there are comparatively
few who are not
black residing out of Imerina, and Imerina forms only one

division of
Ankova; and
in
Imamo, Mandridrano, Voniall these, as
zongo, Valalafotsy, and Vakinankaratra, a large majority

are black.
Yet, in a restricted sense,
belong-
ing to Ankova,
race
of the
may be
to
called
Hovas.
Hence, then, the
Hovas (olive-coloured)
the district.
reside in
resides in
all
Ankova,
and gives name

coloured Hovas
natives also
But
in
are not olive
who
Ankova,
for there are black
who
are Hovas.
So that
is,
one sense,
all are
Hovas that
a
district
live in
is
Ankova
that
so far as the
name
of
concerned.
not Hovas that live in
But in another sense, all Ankova that is, so far as a
are
dif-
ference of origin prevails.
Another
important:
signification of the
term
is,
perhaps, the most

all
the
Hovas
are a race distinct from
the
rest of the natives of
Madagascar, an olive-coloured race,

;
and evidently not the aborigines of the country
whether
they are of Malay origin, or of an African kingdom north

of
Mosambique,
(as
was thought by Prince CoroUer,) or
from Abyssinia, as the same prince at one time supposed,

are matters for inquiry and speculation.
There
is,
perhaps,
race
considerable reason for thinking that the
Hova
may
be a colony of Javanese
but to detail the circumstances
on which that opinion has been founded, might be thought

tedious and uniteresting.
If a stranger
were
to land
on the
coast, say, at
Tamatavc,
and meet an olive-coloured
in saying,
origin.
123
safe
native,
he would be quite
" This
is
a Hova," as to his physical race and
But
as that
it
same Hova might happen

affront to call
also to
be
a nobleman,
for
to
would be an and then
him a Hova,
of too
he must be called an Andriana.

be a
slave,
it
Or, he might chance

title
would be a
much
honour
to call
him Hova.
Madagascar
is
The
central province of
now
the country
of the Hovas.
They
are not, however, the aborigines of
this part of the country,
and
it is
impossible to determine,
with certainty, from what part of the island they came,
and obtained possession of
this region.
It
is,
however,
their general belief, that they
came from
the south-east of
Madagascar, and gradually dispossessed the aborigines of

the country.
There
the
first
is
some ground
for
supposing the Vazimba were
inhabitants of Ankova.
significations.
The term Vazimba

its
has
it
three
several
In
strictest
sense,
appears to express the aborigines of the interior of the

island
of Madagascar,
from whatever part of the coast

In a former part of this chapter,
they
it
may have come.
has been mentioned that between the two famous rivers,

in
Imania and Imanambolo,
Menabe, there
it
exists a small
race of people called Vazimba, and
has been at times
thought, that they exhibit some correspondence with the
accounts given by Rochon, of a people called the Kimos,

inhabiting the interior of the island.
The
notices given
by Rochon are
far
is
too
long for insertion here, but the
amount
of
them
is
briefly this,
" That in the interior of
Madagascar
a nation of dwarfs, averaging three feet
six inches in stature, called
Kimos,
(or
Quimos,) that they

;
are of a lighter colour than the negroes
their hair short
and woolly, that
their
arms are unusually long, that their
124
;
females generally nourish their young with cow's milk
that
in intellectual faculties they are equal to other inhabitants
of the island
that they are active, industrious, and cousteel,
rageous; that they manufacture iron and
of which
they
make
lances and assagays
that they have villages on
the summits of high mountains, live chiefly on vegetables,
and rear great quantities of
cattle;
that
they hold no
communication with the other islanders, and are perfectly

peaceable, unless provoked and attacked."
The
writer
adds, " that at the distance of two or three days' journey
from Fort Dauphin are several small barrows or
hillocks,
owing their origin
to a former
massacre of these Kimos."

particularly in the instance
it
Singular as this account
is,
of the diminutive stature of the people described,
is
confidently reported, that on the banks of the rivers already
named, there
still
exists a race of natives
corresponding
generally with the particulars stated

distance,
is
by Rochon.
Fort
The
however, of these rivers from
Dauphin
considerably greater than the situation mentioned by

as
Rochon
the
country of this nation
of dwarfs.
He
speaks of sixty leagues north-west of Fort Dauphin, and
west of Matitany.
The
distance to the rivers in
Menabe
to
must
be,
according to any calculation approaching
accuracy, 100 or 120 leagues.
The
people may, however,

last
have migrated farther north within the
century
or,
what
is
still
more probable, Rochon's account may have
been incorrect.
Flacourt treats the subject in a very brief and cavaUerlike style,
regarding the whole account as fabulous, and
forming merely an amusing counterpart to the stories of

the giants.
Rochon condemns the

solid facts to
incredulity of Flacourt,
and thinks he has

on the
point.
oppose to his scepticism
The most
objectionable part of the account
I
1
-4
f-
-^
-I-
-j-
r"
E?i:jiii.v
respects
125
the
stature; in this there

is
must be a mistake,
dwarfs are met with
to
nearly
all
the rest
credible.
A few
in Imerina, but probably not in
any greater proportion
the population than in other countries, and certainly not

in sufficient
numbers, nor possessing any peculiarities of

belief
form,
to
justify a
of their
having constituted a
distinct race.
It
is
observable, that the traditional account given in

is,
the present day, of the Vazimba,

race of people a
little
that they formed a
below the common stature, having

flat
a remarkably
thin
and
configuration
of
the
head,
and narrowing
to the forehead.
Their graves correspond
with the description given by Rochon.
They resemble
and a number
of
small barrows, or gentle elevations of earth, with an upright stone placed in or near the centre,
smaller stones rudely thrown together,
like the ruins of
an
ancient grave.
It is
not easy to arrive at any distinct conclusion
possi-
bly the Vazimba, said to have lived foi-merly in Imerina,
and whose graves
still
exist,
came
those
originally
from
the
same part
of the country as
who
are
now
said to
occupy the banks of the two rivers in Menabe, and that

these
may be a
part of the people described by
M.M.
de
Modave, de Commerson, and de

de Rochon."
Surville, in the "
Voyage
how-
Their accounts
are, perhaps,
exaggerated,
It
is,
yet not without some foundation in truth.

ever,
somewhat remarkable,
that
many
of the
particu-
lars stated
by the above writers, exactly correspond with

the diminutive stature.
the Hovab, excepting
The Hovas
are certainly heloiv the general stature of the Malagasy,
and
this
may
easily
have given
rise to the report of their
" pygmean" dimensions.
But
in regard to colour, intelli-
gence, activity, industry, courage,
manufactures, produc-
126
Hovas are what Rochon describes
tlie
tions, habitations, the
Kimos
to be.*
Without entering further into the inquiry
at present,
it
may be
in
sufficient to
remark, that tradition and a few incifirst settlers
dental circumstances induce the belief that the
Imerina came from some part eastward of Tananarivo,

their residence at the villages of Alasora,
and fixed
hitraina,
Amboare
and the
neighbourhood.
These
villages
within a few miles of the capital, and they are unquestionably
among
the most ancient in that part of the country.

in Imerina, contain
They, as well as most places

graves of the Vazimba
;
numerous
offer their
constituting, as will
be afterwards
shewn, the sacred places at which the natives

religious worship.
to
One
circumstance indicating, agreeably

country,
is,
the customs of the
the antiquity and early

that its speakers, to the
i.
importance of Ambohitraina,
present day, are renowned in the public kabarys,
e.
assemblies of the people, for tracing to a remote antiquity

the genealogy and origin of their chieftains
to
;
a circumstance
which the Malagasy attach the highest importance.
The
population of
Ankova
to
is
variously estimated
but,
state-
probably,
taking an average
from the conflicting
ments given, from eighty
one hundred thousand
may
be
regarded as nearly correct.

tered in
This population
is
widely scat-
numerous
villages over the surface of the country.

fifty
its
The
villages
;
usually contain from
to one
hundred
vicinity,
houses each
contains a
*
while the capital, with
immediate
much larger number
of inhabitants than any other
the relation of
Rochon expresses his surprise that Mons. Commerson had not verified some Vazimbas having been buried under the barrows
pointed out to him, by opening one of them.

the prejudices of the natives,
to be so desecrated.
who would
This is entirely overlooking never suiFer a Vazimba grave

to
suffer
They would expect
the most terrible
vengeance as the punishment of the sacrilegious outrage.
ecjual portion of the country.
127
Most
of the villages are
situated on eminences
some of them are extremely high,
and
diflBcult
of access.
They
side,
are usually encircled, for
security,
by a deep
fosse;
the earth from which being
thrown up on the inner

which renders
forms a bank round the village,
it difficult
to scale the sides of the ditch,
and
adds to the safety of the people.
The language
of
Ankova may be considered

It is also the
is
as the stan-
dard of the Madagascar dialects.

and, being the least nasal,
of an European.
for
Its
most copious,
be accounted
parts of the
the most pleasing to the ear
copiousness
may
in part
by the constant influx of strangers from
all
island; these strangers, as well as the soldiers returning from
the difflerent provinces after a campaign, or a season of

garrison duty, bring with
them
in
many
it,
cases,
no doubt
without being aware of
it,
or intending
valuable addi-
tions to the stock of the Tenin-kova, the language of the
Hovas.
In person, as already remarked, the Hovas are generally
below the middle stature.

olive, frequently fairer
Their complexion
is
a light
than that of the inhabitants of the

;
southern parts of Europe
their features rather flat than
prominent;
but often
their
lips occasionally
thick and
projecting,
in the
thin,
and the lower gently projecting, as

:
Caucasian race
their hair
;
is
black, but soft, fine, and
straight, or curling
their eyes are hazel, their figure erect
and though
inferior in size to
some of the other
tribes,
they
are well proportioned.
Their limbs are small, but
finely-
formed; and their gait and movements are

graceful.
agile, free,
and
Though
far
distinguished by their promptitude and

;
activity, their strength is inferior to that of other tribes
and they are

or labour.
more susceptible
of fatigue from travelling
128
Next
to the
Hovas are the Sakalavas.

as
More numerous,
and occu-
especially
when regarded
comprehending the Bezanozano

nation was, during
and the Antsianaka, than

pying more extensive
their successful rivals,

this
territories,
the last century, the most powerful in Madagascar, having
reduced the Hovas to subjection, and exacted from them a

formal
acknowledgment of
their
dependence.
Tribute
was annually sent from Ankova
to the king of
Menabe, the
invaded their
ruler of the South Sakalavas, until

territories with
Radama
an army of one hundred thousand men, and
induced their chieftain to form with him a treaty of peace.
The
Sakalavas are a brave and generous people;
phy-
sically considered, they are the finest race in
Madagascar.
;
In person they are
tall
and robust, but not corpulent
their
limbs are well formed, muscular, and strong.

torrid sun has burnt its deepest hue, their
On them
Their
;
complexion being
fea-
darker than that of any others in the island.

tures are regular, and occasionally prominent
their coun-
tenance open and prepossessing; their eyes dark, and their

glance keen and piercing
;
their hair black
and shining,
often long, though the crisped or curly hair occurs
more
frequently
vinces.
among them than

is
the inhabitants of other pro-
Their aspect
bold and imposing, their step firm
though quick,
graceful,
and
their address
and movements often
and always unembarrassed.

of
The God
wants with
that, unless
nature
has so liberally supplied their

spontaneous growth, in their
soil,
his bounties of
roused by strong excitement, the habits of the
Sakalavas, like those of other uncivilized countries, incline

to indolence rather than activity.
cially to defensive war,
Summoned
to war, espe-
they are prompt, energetic, resolute,
and daring
removed,
but, the storm passed, the
immediate danger
or
surrounded with
peace,
and dwelling in
security, they surrender themselves to a state of
tive indolence
;
V29
comparaof the
spell-
and become the too-willing victims
delusions
by which their race are more strongly

of the
bound than most
other natives of Madagascar
charms, divination, and sorcery.
Towards Europeans, the Sakalavas have generally cherished
sentiments of friendship, entertaining an

of their
superiority.
exalted
opinion
And
though themselves
degraded at present by their childish superstitions, by their

faith in witchcraft
and
all its
endless absurdities, they yet

capable, under
if
exhibit
ample proofs of
mental powers
:
proper culture, of the highest attainments

the
in
enriched with
will,
means
all
of intellectual
and moral improvement, they
probability, rise, as others, once as

are,
dark, deluded,
and degraded as they
have emerged from barbarism,
and attained eminence and moral worth among the nations.
There
is
something
in the very
air
appearance of the Sakalava

gait, his full
in his favour.
His manly
and
countenance
to
and penetrating
look, declare
him destined
something
higher and nobler than he has yet attained.

intercourse, the Sakalavas discover
less of
In ordinary
much
shrewdness, with
cunning or deceit than many of their neighbours.

Betsileo, a
The
term signifying invincible, form a third

in
distinct race in
Madagascar; and though
some respects
they resemble their neighbours and conquerors, the Hovas,

in
others they are distinct.
They
erect,
are generally low in
stature,
slender
;
in
figure,
and
nimble
in
their
movements
their colour is occasionally light copper,

;
though
frequently dark
their lips are thick, the eyes hazel,
and
their hair black, long,
and
curling.
;
In these respects they
approximate
of
life,
to the
Hovas
but, in their patriarchal
mode
any
modest unassuming address, the absence
of
thing like a bold and martial bearing in aspect or behaI.
130
viour, their
ture,
attachment to the peaceful labours of agricul-
want of that energy, enterprise, and cunning which
have made the Hovas sovereigns of a large portion of the

island, as well as in
many
of their
manners and customs,
they appear to be a diiferent people, and seem to possess

few, if any, traits of character which could have originated,
or have justified the assumption of the are
name by which they now distinguished. The Betanimena and Betsimisaraka, already stated to
of the inhabitants of
be evidently but one people, constitute the next distinct and
numerous portion
in
Madagascar, difiering
many
respects from the Betsileo, as
much
as the latter
do from their western neighbours the Sakalavas.

In stature, the Betanimena and Betsimisaraka resemble
the
Hovas, and, though in complexion rather darker,

:
are,
next to them, the fairest race in the island

generally frizzly, though not always black
their hair is their
move-
ments are
less active
than those of the inhabitants of the

;
centre and western parts of the island
and though their
limbs are strong and muscular, they exhibit only occasionally the bold
and martial courage of the Sakalavas, or
the enterprise, consciousness of power, and industry of the
Hovas; though peculiarly distinguished by cleanliness

their houses
in
and apparel, they seem, with comparatively

to
few exceptions,
be degraded in morals below most of
their countrymen,
and are often the subjects of apathy and
indolence in equal extremes.

respects an interesting people.
They
are,
however, in some
The
inhabitants of the Isle of St. Mary's call themselves
the descendants of
Abraham
a designation most probably

its
brought by some of the numerous pirates who, since the

discovery of the island, have settled on
borders, and,
intermarrying vidth the aborigines, have ultimately mingled
their peculiar characters with
bitants.
13
those of the native inha-
The
lineaments of European features, occasionally
observable in the countenances of the Betsimisaraka and

the Betanimena,
may probably have been
derived from
this early intercourse of the natives with
Europeans.
for cen-
In the province of Matitanana, the Arabs, who
turies past have been accustomed to trade with the Mala-
gasy, have their principal settlements
and
this
province
is
the chief residence of the people designated Zafindramina,
descendants of the mother of Mahomet, from Zafy, descendants,
and Amina,
for "
Imana," the mother of the prophet.
It is
supposed that at some remote period, a number of
Arabs, followers of the Prophet, settled in Matitanana, and,
by intermarrying with the
natives,
became amalgamated
bear.
with the original population, but gave to the descendants

the distinctive
name which they
still
The
Betsi-
misaraka
is
composed
of the Zafibirihama, the Zafindramina
blended with the aborigines of Matitanana and the adjacent

provinces.
This may account
for the lightness of
their
colour, and the
number
of distinguished chiefs that have
risen
up among them.
late
Without specifying others, we may
mention the
Jean Rene, Fisatra, and Prince CorroUer,

next tribe
who were
of the race of the Zafindramina.
The Bezanozano,
that requires notice.
totally distinct
"anarchical,"
are
the
They
are not numerous, yet
seem
to
from the Betsimisaraka on the one hand, be and the Hovas on the other. They are not tall, but re-
markably stout
colour
black,
their
neck
is
short, their bust full, their
their
features
flat,
their
hair
occasionally
or curly, but most frequently approaching to the frizzly
crisped appearance.
Their joints are
stiff",
and their move-
ments heavy:
bearers
they are
considered the best coolies, or
of burdens, in the country.
They
exhibit
many
k2
132
commendable
decision
traits of character,
manifest frequently great
fondness for domestic
and firmness, with independency of action, and a Polygamy prevails to a very life.
limited extent, and their morals appear superior to those of
many other tribes. The Antsianaka,

in its
" not subjects of others," though relast tribe
garded as a distinct race, appear to resemble the
most
distinguishing peculiarities.
They
;
are black in
colour,
strong.
short in stature, and firmly set
their limbs are
The Antsianaka
;
are
more numerous than the

in subjection
Bezanozano
the Hovas.
and however independent they may at one
time have been, they are now easily held
by
The power
weakness
fact
of disciplined troops,
and the comparative

which
of
mere numbers, were
strikingly evinced in a
which
lately occurred in this
province
in
it is
stated, that three
thousand of the natives were successfully

soldiers.
It is reported, that at
opposed and routed hyJive

the
first
shot one of the three thousand was killed, and that

fate, instantly fled.
the rest, probably expecting a similar
The above
are the principal races or tribes recognized

;
by the people themselves
and though there are
others,
especially in the southern parts of the island, with which
we
are less familiar than with those
already described,
they are inferior in number and importance, and are rather
branches of them than distinct
tribes.
Physically considered, the various nations
now
inhabiting
Madagascar appear
to
form two distinct races, in many
respects totally dissimilar, and having each a separate and
probably remote origin.

tion of colour
of the
is
Between these races the
distinc-
marked and permanent.

are,
The
peculiarities
dark race
a black
complexion, and a taller

stouter body, thick
stature than the olive-coloured tribes,
projecting
lips,
133
curly or frizzly
iiair,
a frank and honest

;
bearing, or a grave or timid expression of countenance

of the tribes exhibiting a full
some
bust, resembling the Africans
on the Mozambique shore.
The fairer duals among

olive or
race, including the
Hovas, and many indivi-
the Betsileo, the Betsimisaraka, and Betani-
mena, but especially the Hovas, are distingushed by a hght

copper skin, smaller stature, long hair, dark hazel
courteous and prepossessing
or black eyes, erect figure, address,

aspect.
active
movements, with an open and vivacious
All the tribes have naturally fine

beautifully white, which
and regular
teeth,
is to be ascribed to their practice
of
them by the use

grated, at
Africa.
washing them regularly, and cleaning or bleaching of a dye, or pigment, made from the
laingio,* a native plant.
The former
race probably emi-
some remote
latter
period, from the adjacent coast of
The
have evidently one origin in
common
is
with that singular and astonishing race whose source

involved in mysterious uncertainty, but
"
yet
Whose path was on the mountain wave V\Tiose home was on the sea;"
of
whose
spirit
adventurous
enterprise
led
them, at a
period when navigation was almost unknown

visit
in Europe, to
the borders of Africa and of Asia, and whose descend-
ants
now people
the shores of the straits of Malacca, the

clusters of the Poly-
Malayan archipelago, and the chief

nesian islands.
We
on
the
its
have no better means of ascertaining the period at

distinct tribes
which the
now
inhabiting Madagascar arrived
shores, than
we have
of tracing the several races to
sources of their origin.
The
dark-coloured
natives
Sophonicus lingum.
134
earliest
settlers in
appear to have been the
the island,
and may therefore be considered as the aborigines of the

country, as tradition respecting the settlement of the fairer
race invariably represents them as having, at the time of

their arrival, found the country inhabited.
Their languages
do not
assist the inquiry, for they
have been so intimatelv
blended, as to present, in those spoken by the distinct races

respectively, fewer peculiarities than are in other points
observable
among
those by
whom
they are used.
We
have already seen that the physical peculiarities of
the several tribes
now
constituting the population of

;
Mada-
gascar, are considerably diversified
and serviceable as an
acquaintance with their distinctions might be, in aiding
our inquiries into the origin of the nations now peopling

our globe, and the means and the course by which
tribes
many
of the
human
family reached the countries which
they
now
inhabit, these points are,
when
the mental and
moral qualities of
tively unimportant.
the
people
are
regarded,
compara-
We
and
contemplate
their intellectual
habits and powers,
their peculiarities of mind, with
greater satisfaction, and derive from these,

in
connexion
not
with
of
their
physical constitution,
fact
dence,
only
the
that
when viewed new eviGod has made of
one blood
all
the nations that dwell on the face of the
earth, but that
He
has endowed them with faculties of a

;
corresponding order
and that while the same variety
is
observable in this as in other portions of the Creator's
workmanship,
all
the essential elements of our intellectual
nature belong equally to the several portions of mankind
and that the

sunk
elevation, strength,
and vigour these attain
in
some, and the imbecility and prostration to which they have

in others, are to
be ascribed to the culture bestowed

to the one,
and the direction given
and the neglect, indo-
lence,
135
and
and vice
by
which the
other
is
degraded
destroyed.
And though
the lineaments of their character
shew, with affecting distinctness,
how
largely they have
shared in the calamities which sin has inflicted on our race,
a knowledge of this will not diminish our concern for their

welfare, nor repress our desires to
become more intimately

of
acquainted with their circumstances.
In order to
correct view
the
Malagasy,
is
some
neces-
account of their
sary.
mental and moral
qualities
In noticing these, we observe, that the intellectual

inferior to their physical
powers of the Malagasy are not

qualities.
Their
mental
faculties,
though,
in
the
maand
jority of
cases, deteriorated
in their exercise
by
sensuality, enfeebled
cramped
by the juggleries of divination

superstition, are yet
and sorcery and the absurdities of
such as to warrant the conclusion, that they are not inferior

to other portions of the
human
race
that
if
liberated from
the debasing trammels by which they are
now
confined,
and favoured with enlightened and generous culture, they

are capable of high mental excellence.
Among
the
the dark-coloured race, the Sakalavas manifest

intellectual
greatest
of
vigour,
uniting a remarkable
of
quickness
perception
with
soundness
judgment
but we are not so well acquainted with any of these as

with the fairer portion of the inhabitants, especially the
Hovas, and to them,
chiefly,
our observations
refer.
Their
for
is
mode many
of thinking, as described by Mr. Baker,
who was
years connected with the Mission at the capital,

;
generally clear, definite, and consecutive
often prolix in
introducing a thought, but distinct and pointed in exhibit-
ing the thought
itself;
shrewd and ready
in
argument or
dispute, frequently enforcing their opinions with perspicuity, order,
and confidence.
Like
all uncivilized
nations,
136
they are, however, exceedingly averse to intellectual effort
and hence, though their mental exercise

lively,
is
prompt and
imagina-
they do not seem to possess the qualities of mind
requisite for close

tion
is
and continued thought.

like
The
all
in
most frequent use, and,
uncivilized
nations, they are fond of metaphors, unfolding or applying
many of their popular maxims by The almost entire absence of
allegory or fable.
abstract
nouns in the
language of Madagascar, indicates one great peculiarity in

the mind of the nation, and has probably exerted consi-
derable influence in continuing,
if
not in originating, the
modes
of
thinking
most
prevalent
among the
with
people,
sensible
rendering
them
so
much more
familiar
than with intellectual objects.
Facts,
anecdotes, occur-
rences, metaphors, or fables, relating to or derived from

sensible
and
their
visible objects,
appear to form the basis of
most of
lity,
mental exercises.
This
also, in all
probabi-
augments the impurity of those chambers of imagery

create,
which their imaginations

afford
and
in
which
it
appears to
them delight
to revel.
is
Notwithstanding mental application
in general so irk-
some, their acquaintance with numbers, the extensive calculations
many
of the natives
make, their keenness
in barter
or trade, their system of government, and
many
;
of their
usages, indicate considerable strength of
mind
and when
a stimulus sufficiently powerful

in
is
applied, they have
shewn
and
many
instances
no natural
deficiency
of
clear
vigorous intellectual faculties; while the specimens of elo-
quence and poetry, few indeed in number, with which we

are acquainted,
cannot be regarded but as the
fruits of
native genius of no
letters,
common
order.
The
introduction of
the general diffusion of education, and the labours
of the press, established
among them,
are already pro-
ducing the most extensive and beneficial
137
effects, in exciting
the long dormant energies of the native mind.
Many,
in
an exceedingly short space of time, have been able to read

their
own language with
correctness and fluency; while

state of their education
others in the
more advanced
qualities of the
have
advanced u ith equal rapidity.
The moral
injurious.
Malagasy are
less equivocal
than their mental characteristics, and far more censurable and
With
less that is sprightly
and prepossessing
tribes possess
;
in
manners and address, the dark-coloured

that is
more
commendable and amiable
in social life
and there
are
among them more
straightforwârdness
latter, \vith the
and honesty than

exception of the
in the fairer races.
The
Betsileo, exhibit, with but few traits of character that can
be regarded with complacency, much that
is
offensive to
every feeling of purity and every principle of virtue.
They
are often, probably under the influence of superstition and
revenge, coolly and deliberately cruel towards their van-
quished in war; they appear to be naturally vain, self-complacent,
and indolent, unless when roused

:
to effort
by ambition,
avarice, revenge, or lust
ambition and a love of domination

exhibit also a strong inclination,
to indulge in those gratifi-
appear inherent
They
where they possess the means,
cations which are the usual attendants on indolence, viz.
gluttony and intemperance.

of inebriety the
enforcement of
crime
it is
;
From the debasing habits population of Ankova are restrained by the laws which make intoxication a capital
from the restraint these laws impose,
but
if
free
supposed no people would surrender themselves more
completely to this humiliating vice than the Hovas.
Their sensuality
concealed
:
is
universal and gross, though generally

is
continence
not supposed to exist in either
138
it is
sex before marriage, consequently

its
not expected, and
absence
is
not regarded as a vice.
The
feeble
relative affections, as
might be expected, are often
and uncertain. Family feuds are frequent, and many

Occasionally two brothers, or a brother
all
of the public trials before the judges are between branches of
the same family.
and
sister,
avoid
friendly intercourse for years

filial ties
and the
conjugal, parental,
and
are often dissevered for the

of relationship
If
most
trivial
causes.
Yet the claims
are
distinctly recognized
by custom and law.
one branch
of a family
becomes poor, the members

;
of the
same family
he
if
support him
if
he be sold into slavery for debt, they often

;
unite in furnishing the price of his redemption
if
dies,
they bury him, and provide for his survivors
and
he
is
engaged
to
in
government
service, the sovereign expects
them
support him.
The
laws facilitate and encourage, and
sometimes even enforce, such acts of kindness.

instances,
is
In
many
which
where a person
is
condemned
to slavery,
called being lost, the farantsa, a sort of public appraisers,
put a nominal value on him, by the payment of which he
can be redeemed by his

sons. Public
relatives,
but not by any other per-
odium frequently attends the non-performance
of relative duties.
But
in such cases
the previous dis-
owning of a
marrying a
ships.
relative exonerates the party
from
all obliga-
tions to the disowned, just as the adoption of a child, or the

wife, involves all the claims of these relation-
Friendships by compact are often

highly beneficial;
parties not
ties of
faithful, lasting,
is
and
very great kindness
also
shown by
bound by formal compact, but merely by the

and borrowing property and money, &c.
acquaintance and neighbourhood. Visiting, assisting
in distress, lending
are
carried
139
freely
on
much more commonly and

relatives in
is
than
amongst neighbours or
disposition ;"
England.
kindness
of heart in these things
called
malemy fanahy^ " tender

is
and a compliant, easy temper
called
mora
and
fanahy^ " easy disposition."
The former
is
always esteemed
excellent, but the latter is capable of being excessive,

is
then regarded as foolish and weak.

Hospitality, a few of the southern parts
of the island
perhaps
excepted,
is
exercised
with
cheerfulness
and
promptitude, especially towards strangers.

disposition of the Malagasy,
The
general
when they
are free from the

is
influence
of
superstition
or
revengeful feelings,
also
Selfto
;"
quiet and indifferent, rather than violent and savage.

ishness
is
held in universal detestation

selfish
the
word used
denote a
person
is,
sarotra, " hard," or " difficult
and numerous
with
its
tales are told to impress the

fact,
minds
all
of children
abhorrent nature ; in
in
eating,
they
admit that a
betraying a
selfish
disposition
drinking, &c.,
is
desire to monopolize the best to oneself,
disgusting.
Although there
language to
difficulty in
is
no single word
literally,
in the
Madagascar
is little
signify,
"generosity," there
expressing the idea.

is
Mora, " easy,"

and
is
often
used for generous, and so

kind-heartedness
malemy fanahy^
to selfishness
;
as implying
avarice.
to
as opposed
Gratitude, also, has no appropriate word
yet, to thank,
return kindness for kindness, to give pleasure to the friend
who
relieves, &c.
can be distinctly stated.
Ingratitude
is
expressed
by many strong metaphors,
as zana-haratra,
" son of a thunderbolt," probably alluding to the fable of

a meteoric stone (thunderbolt) being carried very carefully
by an aged female into her house, placed near the

lady and her habitation
fire,
and,
there bursting, occasioning considerable injury to the old

;
zana-dralambo^ " offspring of a
140
it
wild boar," because
is
aifirmed that the
young boar,
be avaricious,
when running by the

her,
is
side of its
dam, continually gets before
and turns round
to bite its parent.
To
expressed by by antanamamha^ " in the hand of a crocodile."
ynahihitra, " grasping at ;"
and sometimes
Such
characters are regarded as odious, and are deprecated in

the public proclamations.
Apathy, want of decision, and excessive indolence, characterize, very generally, the natives of
Madagascar
of the
and
these,
with the oppressions of the government,

fruitful sources of
may be
extreme
of the
regarded as the
much
poverty that prevails in the country, and of
many
seasons of famine from which they suffer so severely.
The
and
mass of the people seem

enterprise,
crops,
alike destitute of forethought

for
and hence are unprepared
any
failure of their
and unable
to extricate themselves
from any unfore-
seen calamity.
Nothing
is
a greater impediment to the
advancement of
shows
this
civilization
than indolence;
and nothing
more
distinctly than the
state of starvation in
which the people are sometimes
found,
while
a small
amount
of labour
on the rich
soil of
the country around them,
would have supplied provision
in
abundance
far
for a greatly
augmented population.
They
are also
from being
cleanly in their persons, and bathe but seldom.
Mr. Hastie
excited
;
states, that their passions are
never violently
that they are not quick in avenging injuries, but
cherish for a long time the desire of revenge for the most
trifling insults,
while they rejoice or exult in the distress of
others.
In obedience to their rulers, they are influenced

and,
by
fear,
when gathered
in large
numbers, have been
seen to look upon distress and death with perfect indiffer-
ence
or,
if
any feeling has been manifest,
it
has often
been that of pleasure.
The
public executions exhibit more
J41
painfully, not only the absence of all the finer sensibilities
of our nature, but the worse
than brutalized state of the

victims of the treacherous
public mind.
The unhappy
ordeal of poisoned water,
when declared
down a
guilty, are savagely
dragged away, their bodies mutilated in a most horrid manner, or they are hurled
fearful precipice, in the
presence of multitudes of spectators,

the least emotion of pity
;
while the children
who look on without who have
mingled with the crowd, amuse themselves by throwing

stones at the lifeless bodies, which the dogs are rending to
pieces.
Amidst so much that

humanity,
is
opposed
to
every dictate of
we
notice with pleasure any indication of

;
more
generous feelings
and besides the
sensibilities of this order
already mentioned, few are

of country.
more conspicuous than their love

their
With rare exceptions, they always leave

of
spirits.
homes under great depression

them on
delayed
love of
their military
It
has been
observed by Mr. Hastie, and others
and other
if
who have accompanied expeditions, that many

the period of return be
fall
become exceedingly melancholy

;
and
home.
it is
supposed, that some

often,
victims to their
The Hovas
when
setting out on a
their native
journey, take with them a small portion of

earth, on
their
which they often gaze when absent, and invoke

to return to restore it
god that they may be permitted

from which
it
to the place
was taken.
But when returning

from a distant
from a foreign land
to their native island, or
province to their own, every countenance beams with gladness, they
seem
to
be strangers to fatigue, and seek, by
singing and dancing on their way, to give vent to the ful-
ness of their joy.
But even
their
in
these circumstances of grateful pleasure,

is
hardheartedness
strikingly exhibited.
As
the
142
capital,
army approaches the
or the province of Ankova,
many
of the relatives of the soldiers hasten to
meet them,
they meet
travelling sometimes ten or twenty miles.
When
the cordial salutation and affectionate embrace, the rubbing

of the feet of the returning soldier presents a most delightful
scene; but in contrast with this
may be
seen
the
agonizing grief of those

ther,
who now
will
learn that a son, a bro-
a husband, or a friend,
return no more
they
dishevel their hair, and give utterance to their distress in
loud and mournful lamentations

tion,
but
this excites
no atten-
and
calls forth
no kindly sympathy, from those around

in happier circumstances.
them who are placed

trait in
Duplicity has been represented as the most conspicuous

the moral character of
some
of the races.
It is
remarkable that there are in the native language more
words to express the various modes of deceiving, than any

other vice.
The
natives will invent the most specious

air, to
pretences, and assume the most plausible
impose on
the credulity of others, and ingratiate themselves into favour,
while their real design
is
hid for weeks and months in their
own bosoms.
preface
it
If they
wish to
make a
request, they will
by so complimentary a speech, and so many

a virtue to be illustrated in the
thanks and blessings for a kindness yet to be done, and by
such servile
forthcoming
flattery for
gift,
that one might imagine the whole nation

It is said to
a tribe of sycophants, or minions of a court.
be often impossible to understand their object
for
an hour
or more, as they will talk on the most apparently dissimilar

subjects, but with a visible restlessness, until, after all the
windings of plausibility are travelled through, they

if
hit, as
by accident, on the point designed from the beginning.

that this characteristic equally distin-
It is remarkable,
guishes
all
public
proceedings.
Every
petition
to
the
sovereign
servility,
is
143
and
prefaced by a long prologue

the petition
is
:
of flattery
when
made
"
to close the address
often in the following words since the introduction

is
And
since this
is
finished, to
accomplished,
we have
to
beg
and
petition," &c. &:c.
Every answer
a proclamais
tion of
the sovereign asking advice of the chieftains,
commenced by an eloquent but hackneyed

sovereign also usually smooths the
able declaration
detail of their
sovereign's royal pedigree, supremacy, equity, &c.
The
way
for
any unpalate-
by a
little
of the oil of flattery previously

calling
poured into the people's

soot," (which has
ears,
them " the ancient
adhered for generations to the house of
their ancestors,*)
the sky," &c. to
and the "under the day," the "under the which many other illustrations might be
twice as
added.
In bartering, every trader asks, at

as he intends to take
;
least,
much
and they never forget
to boast of
any instances of successful fraud.

in children
is
The
to
best sign of genius

deceive, overreach
tales,
esteemed a quickness
and cheat.
in
none so
The much
people deHght in fabulous
but
or universally as in those that relate
instances of successful deceit or fraud, though involving

loss of
life,
as well as of property, to the injured person.
Lying
is
common
vice
among
all.
To
he, is
esteemed
clever and pleasant,
and more
likely to serve one's purtell truth.
pose of interest or pleasure than to

their
In short,
in
constant aim
is,
in business
to
swindle,
pro-
The native houses in Madagascar having no chimneys, and the door and window affording the only means of escape for the smoke arising from the fires which are kindled on the floor of the house, the soot collects an the inner side of the roofs of their dwellings, where it is never disturbed by the people, who consider it a badge of honourable ancestry to have large quantities of soot hanging, frequently in long black shreds, from the roof of their dwelling.
144
mere conversation
to
fessed friendship to extort, and in
exaggerate and fabricate.
The
laws regard the testimony
of witnesses as a part of circumstantial evidence, to be
opposed by contrary testimony or e\idence.

in
Lying, has
some
cases,
been enforced on the
natives,
it
having been
foreigners on
truth,
required of every Hova,
when speaking with

far
political matters, to state the exact
opposite to
on
pain of punishment.
it
So
has this been carried, that
was once a serious and public complaint against Christaught the people to scruple at telling
lies,
tianity, that it
even to deceive their country's enemies.
Many
of the
Malagasy seem
to
think expediency deterif
mines the character of actions, and act as

perception of what
claimed, define
guilt, error,
is
;
they had no
vicious.
The
laws, publicly profor depravity,
vice
and there are terms
&c. and
it
appears that from these, and propeople derive their ideas
verbial admonitory sayings, the
of
what
is
right
or
wrong.
But
whilst
the
baneful
influence of degeneracy of heart, and long familiarity with

sin,
have been such as to lead them to regard
theft,
and
other acts of darker moral turpitude, as almost harmless,
innumerable ceremonial observances are enjoined as duty,
and the neglect of them regarded as oriminal.

Idolatr}',
wherever
all
it
prevails, leads to this gross per-
version
of
correct moral sentiments
and
feelings,
by
ascribing
all
calamities to declared errors of conduct, such
as eating certain herbs, sitting in a certain posture, &c.'
and
satisfying itself
by endeavouring
to
remove
all evil,
and
attain all good,

in themselves,
by mere external observances, often absurd

and worse than useless
to those
who perform
them.
145
CHAP.
VI.
Manners and customs of the Malagasy Their general uniformity through-
Attentions
of
out the different tribes Observances connected watli the birth of children shewn to the mother Ceremonies observed on first taking its the infant out of the house EmplojTnent of the sikidy to ascertain
destiny Proportion of the sexes Practice of scrambling Bestowment
names Fearful
prevalence of infanticide Motives to

it is
its
perpetration
Means by which
effected
Circumstances in which
it differs
from
Fondthe infant-murder formerly practised by the South Sea Islanders childness of parents for the children that are spared Amusements of
hoodOccupations of youth The custom of betrothing Ages at which marriages are celebrated Ceremonies observed Parties between whom marriage is prohibited Polygamy its extent and disastrous effects
frequency Usual mode of proceeding in divorce of the children Degraded condition of the female sex.
Divorce
;
its
Disposal
Next
to the physical, moral,
and
intellectual peculiarities
of the Malagasy, their manners, customs, institutions,
and
usages are subjects of inquiry and
interest
and
in pro-
ceeding to offer a brief sketch of the more conspicuous and
remarkable of these,
it
may
not be improper to observe,
and usages that the accounts refer chiefly to the customs which obtain amongst the inhabitants of the interior
provinces.
description of the pecuKar observances of

it is
the different tribes would be as uninteresting as

cessary, since a general resemblance
is
unneIf,
manifest in
all.
however, the inhabitants of different parts of the island their have not respectively their own customs, they have
modes
of
observing
the
national
customs.
is
In
the
;
general character of their usages there

I.
great uniformity
14G
the variety chiefly respects their minor circumstances, and
m this respect resembles the diversity that

in their language.
may be
noticed
The language is one

according
to
the
dialects differ.
In the same manner, the general customs are alike, but
vary in
and,
their
if
their
details
dilFerent
localities,
may be " provincialisms." Some

the expression
allowed, the customs have

of the clans or families are
in maintaining
also
more scrupulous than others
unimpaired
their
own
peculiar observances, adhering most servilely to

of their ancestors.
the
wisdom
Innovation and injury are
in their
minds inseparable, and the idea of improvement
altogether inadmissible.
to be attributed that
To
these opinions principally
is
remarkable uniformity which prevails
in
many
of their habits
and sentiments, where otherwise
they would exhibit considerable variety.
The
present
inhabitants
are,
as
already
nation,
observed,
evidently derived fi-om
more than one
and have, as
ought
might reasonably be expected, a diversity of customs corresponding with their distinct sources.
It to
be
remembered
individual
antiquit}',
also,
that they never, in point of fact, consti-
tuted one entire nation

sovereign
were
never brought under one
but
have, from a period of remote

settlers,
probably from the arrival of the earliest
consisted of distinct races or tribes under independent chieftains,
and have consequently never been subjected

its
to the
assimilating influence of a government deriving
authority
and power from one source, and pervading by a uniform

policy the different tribes comprised in the nation.
Notwithstanding the effects which these causes might be
expected to produce,
usages
it
will
appear that the distinguishing

every
part of the island.
of the nation pervade
Thus
ing
it
all practise
circumcision, but the ceremonies attend-
are varied.
All practise
trial
by ordeal, but the
ordeal
itself,
147
All
and the mode of
its
administration, differ.
employ the
of working
sikidy, or divination,
it.
but have different modes
The same
division of the year into twelve
moons
is
universal,
but the moons
are
designated by
different
names, one class of names being used by the inha-
bitants of the coast, another
by those of the
interior.
All
have the singular and remarkakle practice of observing one
day in the week as more sacred, favoured of the gods, or
more
lucky, than
the rest
some, however, regard Friday
as that day, others Saturday, and others Sunday.
These
instances are sufficient to shew that a description of the
manners and customs
of the inhabitants of one portion of

all its essential features,
the island will be, in

to the whole.
applicable
Besides
the
causes already assigned for this general
uniformity in the usages of the distinct races of inhabitants,

that uniformity has undoubtedly often been preserved, and
the usages themselves in
many
instances perpetuated, by
that aversion to change which operates so powerfully in all
nations under despotic and

it is
weak governments, with which
a chief maxim
of policy to perpetuate, unaltered from
age to age, the manners and habits of the people.
To
think
or act otherwise than their ancestors have thought and
acted for them, would manifest an independence of mind
and action alarming

governed,
to the despot
by
whom
they
may be
and would evince an
amount
of intelligence
that in these circumstances has rarely been obtained, and
has but seldom been deemed, by the people themselves,

either desirable or practicable.
As education
of thought
elevates the mind, and enlarges the range

civilization
will
and sentiment, and as knowledge and
advance in the country, some of these observances
gradually sink into desuetude, and in a slight degree there
l2
148
is
is
reason to believe a change
already in progress in those
parts of the country where foreigners have been accustomed

to reside or visit.
In noticing the manners and customs of the Malagasy, we
commence with
their habits
and usages
in social
life,
and
direct our attention to the circumstances of their infancy,
childhood, and youth.
In
are
this
department of their manners and customs, there

observances peculiar and interesting, blended
many
with others that excite intense and verv mingled feelings.
We
behold much that
is
grateful to a
humane and an
is
enlightened mind, as well as unusual in what
generally
that
is
termed barbarous or uncivilized
society, with
much
so repulsive to every dictate of humanity and virtue, that
the union of practices so opposite
among
the
same people
it
presents an anomaly in
is distressing.
human
society as remarkable as
Thus, in regard
to their offspring in general, the

;
Malagasy
is
are fond of children
to
have a numerous family,
a source
in
of satisfaction to the parents,
and of honourable esteem
the community.
It
is,
however, a source of satisfaction far
from being general, as few, comparatively speaking, have

large families,
and a far greater number are strangers
to the
happiness of being parents, than in more civilized society.
This
is
probably to be ascribed, in a great degree, to the
gross immorality that prevails
youth, and
suffering.
is
the source of so
among all classes from early much of their depravity and
In those families, however, wherein the enjoyments of
parentage are known, as the period approaches at which a
Malagasy wife expects

encouraged
to
become a mother, she not only

is
takes additional care of herself, " as nature dictates," but

to
do so by the prevailing dispositions and
usages of the people.
stances, excepting
his nature, is also
149
these circum-
The husband, under
where cruelty and
vice have brutalized
more than usually
attentive
and kind,*
and, influenced by the fond emotions which the anticipation

of parental affection excites, a
number
of little preparations
are
will
made
to indicate the tenderness
with which the infant
be welcomed, and to meet the exigencies of the occa-
sion.
As
the period of accouchement draws near, a temporary

is
apartment
prepared within the dwelling-house, and near

floor,
the fire-place, by fixing posts in the
which
is
of earth,
and forming partitions by fastening thick mats

a space sufficiently large
for the
to these posts;
is
purpose designed
thus
enclosed, the chief furniture of which consists of a mattress

of straw placed
on the
floor,
a brisk
fire is at
the
same time
this apart-
kept up within the houes, but on the outside of

ment, in connexion with these preparations.
A
to
short time
before her confinement, the female undergoes a ceremony of

purification
by her intended nurse, as essential

is
her safety,
and feasting
mony.
a general accompaniment of this and other

it
preparatory observances, as
is
in
nearly every
cere-
Practitioners (mpampivelona,
/. e.
those that cause to

that
of
live,
midwives) are
refinement
are
always
females
not
delicacy
and
characteristic
traits
the people, but
custom has established the rule that her own sex alone
There
that
are,
however, cases in which the heartless and sordid husband,
unwilling to bear the trifling expenses, or endure the slight inconvenience,
may be occasioned by the confinement of his wife, and the support and care of his child, publicly divorces her as soon as there is reason to
;
expect she will become a mother, even though there should not exist the
remotest suspicion of her fidelity
and so debased are public morals, that
the laws sanction divorce for such a cause, and public feeling attaches no
odium
to the
conduct of the unfeeling husband.
150
Unany
should be present in " the hour of nature's sorrow."

quahfied as these
may be
season
to render eflBcient aid in

is
critical exigency, the
fatal to but few of the Malais
gasy mothers.
The
instances in which there
any devia-
tion from the ordinary course

life
of nature, or in which the

its
of the infant has
become
;
extinct before
entrance into
the world, are but rare
and though on these occasions
enlightened scientific aid might very frequently avert any

serious results, the death of the mother generally ensues.
The
birth of a child
is
in
general considered
as
an
occasion of rejoicing to the parents and

the feeling
is
relations;
and
extended in proportion to the rank or station
of the parties.
Among
the pretended demonstrations of
joy on the birth of a child, a custom established by long
usage formerly prevailed, so characteristic of a barbarous
and licentious people, so repugnant

decency, that anything beyond the
to every
feeling
oi
most brief allusion

to
it
would be disgusting, yet a

essential to fidelity.
slight reference
for
its
seems
An
occasion
manifestation
occurred on the birth of the late king's daughter.
The
town, by reason of the scenes which the streets and
lanes almost everywhere exhibited, appeared like one vast

brothel,
and the period was
called,
Andro-tsy-maty,
i.
e.
a time in which the law could not condemn, or in which

death could not be
nobles
of high
inflicted.
The
death of three chief
rank occurring at the time, Mr. Hastie,
the British agent at the capital, in remonstrating with the
king against the grossness of these proceedings, alluded,

apparently with good
efiêct,
to the death of the chiefs, as
perhaps designed to shew the displeasure of the Almighty

against such
wickedness.
Mr. Hastie
also expressed his
utter detestation of the scenes of abomination then exhibited,
and
stated,
that
if
it
was ever permitted again,
HISTORY Of MADAGASCAR.
it
151
should be published in the Mauritius Gazette, whereit
by
would
be
known
is
world
that
the people of
throughout Europe and the England would exclaim, " What

!
a brute of a king
Radama
that they
would not allow
their agent or representative to
remain any longer in such

recalled.
a country
and that he should be
The
love of fame
was one
on
of
Radama's strongest passions, and

he was affected to
tears,
it is said,
that
this occasion
and took the most
prompt and energetic measures

as exposing
for preventing the recur-
rence of practices which he had thus been led to consider
him
to
contempt and shame.

capital with
On
the queen's entry into the
her infant,
a fortnight afterwards, when similar outrages were expected,

a strict prohibition, issued by the king, was very generally
regarded
two culprits only were brought before the judges
the next morning, and, being found guilty of disobeying the
order of the king, were immediately executed.

After the birth of an infant, the relatives and friends of
the mother visit her, and offer their congratulations.
infant
also
:
The
receives salutations, in
form resembling the
following
" Saluted be the offspring given of

!
God ! may
the child live long

possess wealth
!"
may the
among
child be favoured so as to
Presents are also
made
to the attendants
is
in the household,
and sometimes a bullock

the
killed
on the
occasion, and distributed
members
of the family.
Presents of poultry,
fuel,
money, &c., are at times also
sent by friends to the mother.
piece of meat
is
usually
cut into thin slices, and suspended at some distance from

the floor by a cord attached to the ceiling or roof of the
house.
This
is
called the Kitoza,
and
is
intended for the
mother.
for a
fire is
kept in the room, day and night, frequently
week
after the birth of the child.
At
the expiration of that period, the infant, arrayed in
152
is
the best clothing that can be obtained,
carried out of the

still living,
house by some person whose parents are both
and then taken back and

in,
to the mother.
In being carried out

fire,
the child
must be twice
carefully lifted over the
which
is
placed near the door.
Should the infant be a boy,
the axe, large knife, and spear, generally used in the family,
must be taken out

building that
at the
same
time, with any implements of

:
may be
in the house
silver chains, of native
manufacture, are also given as presents, or used in these

ceremonies, for which no particular reason
is
assigned.
of the
The implements
when
it
are perhaps used chiefly as

it
emblems
occupations in which
is
expected the infant will engage

;
arrives at maturer years
and the whole may be

activity,
regarded as expressing the hopes cherished of his

wealth, and enjoyments.
One
of the first acts of the father, or a near relative,
is
to report the birth of the
child to the native divines or
astrologers,
who
is
are required to work the sikidy for the

its
purpose of ascertaining and declaring

the destiny
destiny
and when
child
is
declared
to
be
favourable, the
nurtured with that tenderness and affection which nature

inspires,
and the warmest gratulations are tendered by the
friends of the parents.
The
it is
proportion of the sexes appears to be equal at birth,
though, in consequence of the destructive ravages of war,
supposed by the Missionaries, that in some of the pro-
vinces there are,

five,
among
the
fi-ee
portion of the inhabitants,

to
and
in others three
women
one man.
The
adult
slave
sexes.
population presents a more equal number of both
The
children, particularly those of the Hovas, are

fair
said to
be exceedingly
at their birth,
and
to
assume
those in
but very gradually the dark

riper years.
or olive tinge of
At
the expiration of the second or third
53
month from the
birth of a first child,
on a day declared
to
be good (lucky) by
the sikidy, a peculiar kind of ceremony takes place, called
"scrambling."
The
is
friends
and relatives of the child
assemble
a portion of the fat taken from the
hump
on the
back of an ox
minced
in a rice-pan, cooked,
and mixed
up with a quantity of
called
rice, milk,
honey, and a sort of grass

is
voampamoa
a lock of the infant's hair

;*
also cast
into the above
melange
and the whole being thoroughly

which
is
well
mixed
in a rice-pan,
held by the youngest

is
female of the family, a general rush

pan, and a scramble for
its
made towards
the
contents takes place, especially
by the women, as
it is
supposed that those who are fortunate
enough
of
to obtain a portion
may confidently cherish
the hope
becoming mothers.
Bananas, lemons, and sugarcane are
also scrambled for,
under the belief that a similar result
may be anticipated. The ceremony of scrambhng, however, only takes place with a first-born child. The head of the m-other is decorated
during the ceremonial with silver chains, while the father
carries the infant, if a boy,
and some ripe bananas, on
his
back.
The
rice-pan used on the occasion becomes in their
estimation sacred by the service, and must not be taken
out of the house during three subsequent days, otherwise

the virtue of those observances
is
supposed
to
be
lost.
With regard to names, the parents bestow such as they

think proper on their offspring
;
but usually among the

tribes, the
Malagasy, as among most uncivilized

descriptive,
names are
and are bestowed without any ceremonies.

cut on the left side
lock of hair
is first
of the
child's
head, and
in order to
is
called sonia ratsy, " the evil lock ;" this
must be thrown away,
avert calamity
another lock
is
then cut, on the right side, this

is
called
sonia soa, " the fortunate lock," and
used as above described.
154
first
The names
given are by
many retained through
life,
but are by others exchanged for names descriptive of some

particular circumstance, relationship, or event.
also certain generic
There are
which
names applied
to children, for
they often receive others in after years; thus, for example, a
boy
is
called Ikoto, or Rakota, " the lad ;" a female,
Rakeis
taka,
" the
girl."
The
first-born
female in a family
generally designated
last Ra-fara-vavy,
Ramatoa, " eldest female," and the
" last born female."
The
first-born male,
Lahimatoa, "first-male," and the

Andriampaivo,
or
last
Ra-fara-lahy,
or
Lahi-zandrina " the

first
younger
is
;"
any
female born between the
and the
last
called
Ra-
ivo " the intermediate," and any male between the eldest and
the youngest, Andrianivo "intermediate male," or Lah-ivo.
As
these
terms
respectively
signify
the
circumstances
stated, the children
do not necessarily take the name of
the parents, and from this cause also, almost every family
in a
town has children of the same names.
Parents some-
times assume the
name
of their children, especially should
they rise to distinction in public service, as Rai-ni-Mahay,
" Father of Mahay," Rai-ni-Maka, " Father of Maka."

In
connexion with the above usages, referring to the
periods of infancy and childhood

is
among
the Malagasy,
it
requisite to notice others of an opposite
and melancholy
practice of
character
the
destruction
of
life,
and the
infanticide.
In families above the lowest grade in society,

is
as little expense
incurred in providing for the maintelittle
nance of children, and but
trouble
occasioned by
additions to the domestic circle, children generally find a
welcome, even though a merciless and gloomy superstition,

professing to divine the future destiny of the unconscious,
unoffending infants, should, shortly after their entrance into

the world, require
them
to
be destroyed.
It is not,
however,
after birth alone that the destruction
155
takes place.
of
life
This species of murder
is
effected at times for the purpose
of avoiding the disgrace to which the violation of moral
propriety would expose the guilty parties, and in

instances from the
some
same shameful motives which occasionally operated formerly among the natives of the South Sea
islands
the
life
fear of having too large a family
the destruc-
tion of
before birth, from the latter consideration, occurs,

is
however, but rarely, and in general a numerous offspring

source of
rible
much
in
satisfaction.
Notwithstanding
this, the hor-
crime of child-murder has prevailed from time imme-
morial,
and
some parts
of
of the country
is
perpetrated
still.
During the reign
Radama, the inhuman
practice of
infanticide received a powerful

cially
and salutary check, espepresented
near the seat of government, and within the range of

influence.
it
his
personal
He
own
an instance of
opposition to
in his
family, as
an example, and
humanely promulgated laws

penalties, a practice alike
prohibiting, under the severest

to the highest interest
opposed
of the
nation
and the best and
strongest
feelings
of
humanity.
He
manifested on this occasion the strong and
shrewd faculty of wisdom with which he was so eminently

endowed, and proceeded to the accomplishment of his
object in a
manner
of all others
most adapted
to
remove
the superstitious prejudices, and engage the assistance of

the parents themselves.
This barbarous murder was only
committed on
those infants
whose
fate the
it.
pagan
astroloin
gers of the country declared
required
Radama,
his,
prohibiting their destruction, declared that all the infants
doomed
to death
by the astrologers became
and that
whoever destroyed them destroyed his children, and should

suffer death for the
murder
of the children of the king.
156
This enactment not only furnished the parents with
abundant ground
diviners, but,
for
disobedience to the dictate of the

their
by giving to
offspring
the flattering
designation of
the king's children, gratified their vanity,
and
secured their co-operation.
During
the
reign
of
Radama, the practice was generally discontinued, except in Imamo, where, in surrendering their independence and
acknowledging his supremacy, the inhabitants stipulated
for the
unmolested continuance of
this
unnatural crime,
according to the custom of their ancestors.
The
extensive
revival of the ancient superstitions of the country,

this
and
of
among
the rest, since the death of

the
Radama, has not
diminished, but increased
number thus prematurely

to regard
to
hurried to the grave.
The
superstitions of the
Malagasy lead them

for
certain days and hours as unlucky, and
an infant
be
born at such times

" astrologers."
is
considered
fatal.
These periods are

called Panandro,
calculated and declared by a class of
men
To
these the relations or the parent of

it
a new-born infant repair almost immediately after
has
entered the world, to learn from them the vintana^ or destiny of the child, as
if
they could not give free current to
the tide of their joyous and aifectionate feelings until they
had ascertained whether those feelings must be suppressed, and the object of
express towards
their kindling
emotions be recklessly
torn from their embrace, or whether they might venture to

it
their tenderness
and
love.
In some cases
it is
considered sufficient to
make
a pre-
scribed offering with a special view to averting the evil

of the child's
destiny.
The
parents' hopes being
by
this
confirmed, they return to indulge in the overflowings of

their joy over the dear object of
which a murderous super-
stition
157
has not deprived them.
In other cases there must

inflicted. *
:
be exposure to death, or death must be
The
child
decisions of the panandro are three-fold
either a
evil
;
faditra, or offering,
must be presented,
to death,
to
remove
the
must be exposed
must be put
to
by being placed
in
the
narrow path at the entrance to a

or
is
it
village or a cattle-fold;
to death.
When
the vintana or destiny-
declared
be
favourable, no
ceremony
follows.
If
the decision be unfavourable, (a not unfrequentcase,) there

is
ground
for
but very feeble hopes of the infant's
life
yet
still
the affectionate parents fondly cherish these hopes as

is
long as there
the least prospect of their being realized.

of all the systems of absurd
afflict
The tendency
superstition
and degrading
is
which enslave and
mankind,
to tri-
umph
in fiendlike despotism over the first, the strongest,
and tenderest
dictates of
its
humanity
yet, perhaps,
amidst the
it
various exhibitions of
malignant domination,
affecting
does not
is
unfold a scene
of
more
wretchedness than
presented on these occasions.

fectly
An
infant, a new-born, per-
helpless,
is
unconscious infant,
smiling
perhaps
in
to
innocence,
village, or
laid
on the ground in the narrow entrance

which there
;
a fold, through pass
is
scarcely
room
which
enough
the
for cattle to
several cattle are then driven

to pass over the spot in
violently in,
child
is
and are made

placed,
while
the
parents
with agonizing
feelings stand
If the
by waiting the
result.
oxen pass over without injuring the

propitious, the powerful
infant, the
omen
is
and
evil destiny is
removed,
their
the parents
may
without
it
apprehension
embrace
offspring, and cherish
as
one rescued from destruction.
*
in a
Further explanation respecting the calculation of destiny will be given
subsequent part of the work.
158 But should

less victim
the delicate,
frail,
be mangled and crushed

oxen, which
is
and tender body of the helpto death by the rugged

fi-equently the case, the
feet
of the
most
parents return to
mourn
in bitterness of grief their loss,
with no other consolation than that which the monstrous

absurdities of their delusions supply
infant survived,
it
that,
had
their beloved
to the influ-
would have been exposed
ence of that destiny which

destruction.
now
required
its
exposure to
Distressing, however, as this
is, it is
in
some respects
less
so than the practice which remains to be noticed.

refers to the instances in
This
which
it is
declared that exposure
will not be sufficient, that there
is
no
possibility of avoid-
ing the
doom pronounced, and

sacrifice
that death
for
must be
inflicted.
;
No
labour would secure exemption
the hapless victim
no offering or
could
propitiate
its
the powers on destruction

;
whom
who
its
destiny depended, and avert

it
no
treasures could purchase for
permission to live
it
and those
otherwise would have cherished
with the tenderest
affection,
and have fostered
it
with unceasing care through
infancy and childhood, are reduced to the dire necessity of

extinffuishinof that Hfe
which the dictates of nature would
have taught them to regard as equally precious with their
own.
When
this
inhuman decision
the
of the astrologers has

is
been announced, the death of the innocent victim

effected
utensil,
usually
by suffocation
slightly
rice-pan, a circular
wooden
concave on one side and hollow on the

It is filled
other,
is
generally employed.
is
with water, and

in the water,
is
till
the infant
life
held with
;
its
face
downwards
becomes extinct
child's
sometimes a piece of cloth

to
placed
on the
speedy.
mouth,
render
its
suffocation
more
are
The remains
of the infant thus murdered,
buried on the soutli side of the parents' house, that being
superstitiously regarded as the part appropriated to
is
159
what
ill-omened and fatal.
The
parents then rub a small

clothes,
off
quantity of red earth into
their
and afterwards
shake them, as
if to
avert
or shake
from themselves
the evil supposed to attend their slight and transient contact
with that which had been
doomed
to destruction.
this
Another mode
of perpetrating
to
unnatural deed
is
by taking the infant
a retired spot in the neighbourhood
of the village, digging a grave sufficiently large to receive

it,
pouring in a quantity of water slightly warmed, putting

it
a piece of cloth upon the infant's mouth, placing

grave, filling this
in the
up with
earth,
and leaving the helpless
child, thus buried alive,
a memorial of their
own
affecting
degradation, and the relentless barbarism of their gloomy

superstition
a trophy of the dominion
of the destroyer of
our race, and a painfully conclusive illustration of the truth

of that word which declares that the dark places of the
earth are full of the habitations of cruelty.
These heart-rending transactions are generally performed by the parents themselves, or some of the nearest
kindred of the family, frequently by the father, while the mother, anxious to press her infant to her bosom as long as
possible, holds
it
while preparations for the savage deed
are going
to
forward, and
when
it
is
taken from her arms,
be consigned thus prematurely to the earth, gives vent
to her anguish
and
distress
by lamenting and weeping,

kindred and
procession
in
which she
panions,
dwelling.
is
joined by her female

in sad
comto her
who return with her
It is affecting to
contemplate the extent to which the
unnatural practice of child-rnurder prevails in almost every

nation
in a state of heathenism,
whether learned or
illi-
terate, civilized or barbarous, and to notice the resemblance
160
in motive
and end, as well
as in the
manner
of effecting
it,
which appear among communities the most remote, and
in
many The South Sea

of
its
respects dissimilar, fi-om

islanders
each other.
to
seem
have been much more

:
addicted to infanticide than the Malagasy

perpetration by the
;
the chief cause
former was pride, and their

to
abominable licentiousness
some
extent, however, they
were influenced by the motives which operated on the

latter
the sanctions
of their heartless superstitions,
and the
desire to avoid the trouble of taking care of their offspring.
The mode
also of accomplishing their
purpose was
fre-
quently the same, but there was one peculiar feature in

the infanticide of the South Sea islanders, from which the
Malagasy were exempt; among the
latter,
no distinction
;
appears to have been made on account of sex

to
both appear
have been alike exposed to the merciless decisions of

astrologers.
the
Among
the former, the relentless deed

to
was regulated frequently by considerations that tended

destroy
crime.
the female sex, and add
to
the atrocity of the
far grearer
number
of females than of males
were
destroyed by the islanders, and
often
the
circumstance
which decided the guilty parties in the accomplishment of

their purpose, before undetermined,
was the
fact that the
innocent victim was a female.
The
stition
infant
which a barbarous and sanguinary superis
has spared to the Malagasy parents,

;
cherished
with indulgent tenderness
its
aliment
its
is
supplied, with
;
exceedingly rare exceptions, from

it
mother's breast
and
is
generally nursed by a grandmother, or some other
relative.
The mothers
in
;
Madagascar often suckle
their
children for several years
the latter thus continue " chil-
dren at the breast" after they are able to walk, and

often
may
be seen running after their mothers, and, without
any hesitation, calling out and asking
indulgence.
for their
161
accustomed
Nothing can exceed the

is
affection with
which the infant

of the family
to excess
treated by
its
parents, and other

is
members
the indulgence
more frequently carried
than
otherwise; and
those
it is
pleasing to record the testimony of

the people, that instances
who have dwelt among
are numerous, in which the affection of the parents has
been reciprocated by the children, many of been known

old age.
to love
whom
have
to
and honour their parents even
The
fathers generally carry their little boys
on their
shoulders, where the latter are seated erect, and held by
the father's hand.
Mothers carry
their children,
accord-
ing to the usages of the country, on their backs, or at

their side, resting on their hip
;
and a custom prevails
in
the island, which marks in a pleasing

of
filial
manner the operation
affection
children are
in the habit of occasionally
presenting their mothers with a piece of
money
called
fofon-damosina,
sort of grateful
" the remembrance of the back," as
acknowledgment
for the kindness of the
parent in having so often borne the infant on the back.
Though
fested,
filial
affection is rarely seen
where enlightened
and judicious parental

the
latter is
is
discipline is not uniformly mani-
almost
unknown
it
in
many
parts of
Madagascar, and
lax.
even, where
prevails, exceedingly
The
children are not subjected to the least restraint,
but are, as soon as able to act for themselves, allowed to

follow their
own
inclinations, except so far as their daily
wants render them dependent upon their parents, by

the wishes or caprice of the child
resisted or controlled.
is
whom
rather
humoured than
Lax, however, as parental restraint

is
certainly
I.
is,
continued stubbornness and disobedience
162
sometimes severely punished. The power of parents over the

liberty of their child, is universally
acknowledged; and
sell
parents are permitted by the judges to
disobedient and
of
stubborn children into slavery

occurred.
instances
which have
Whatever jealousies may render the wives of one husband miserable, or whatever envying and
between the children of the wife and those
it is
strife
may
exist
of the concubines,
pleasing to contemplate the Malagasy
home
as one that
is
imbittered by few quarrels between parents and children.
The
as
it
former maintain the authority of their relation, so far

is
exercised, without sufficiently, or,
in
many
cases,
at all curbing sions

:
the
early
development
of
youthful pas-
the children, however, are taught from their infancy
to cherish respect for their parents,
and the aged, as one
of the
first
obligations in society.
of the children are few,
adults.
The amusements
one of those held
in
and resemble
is
on a smaller scale those of the
Bull-fighting
highest estimation
their
among
the latter
and the children spend many of

setting beetles to fight,
hours in cruelly
and
in
watching them while em-
ployed in destroying each other.

the pastimes of childhood
girls are
is
The
period devoted to
but short, and the boys and
accustomed, at a very early age, frequently before

is
the sixth or seventh year
completed, to engage in the
occupations of their parents respectively.
At
girls
the ages above referred
to, viz. six
or seven years, the
may be
seen fetching water for domestic uses, and
the boys assisting their fathers in agricultural pursuits,
carrying
rice-plants,
manioc, sugarcanes, and other proor
ductions for the
field,
bearing towards their villages

lu
bundles of dried grass, &c. used as fuel at home,
Imerina many about that age were, while the schools were
](;3
patronized by the government, placed under instruction,
and when approaching what
is
deemed among
the people
the age of maturity, viz. from fourteen to eighteen years,

great
numbers were taken

case,
into the army.
Where
this is
not the
as soon
as a
youth
is
is
able to serve the
purposes of the government, he
expected to form his

all
own domestic
establishment, to perform his share of
public services, and bear his portion of the taxes, and other
public burdens of the people.
When
this
takes place,
is
if
the lands of the father are sufficient, a section
given to
the son as his portion
but when the possessions of the

is
father will not admit of this, land
purchased
for the son,
usually at a low rate, the price seldom exceeding six or
seven dollars per acre.
The
quently
practice of betrothing children at a very early age
prevails to a great extent in
Madagascar
the parents fre-
make an arrangement
for their children
with a
view to their marriage, before the latter are capable of

thinking for themselves on the subject.
These are
consi-
dered as voa-fofo, " betrothed" or " pledged."

cases,
In other
themselves.
young persons think and judge

most Oriental countries
for
Domestic manners in Madagascar do

restraints usual in
not
;
impose the
very frequent
opportunities therefore occur in the social intercourse of

families, for
young persons of both sexes

as
to see
each
other,
and,
elsewhere,
love
and
courtship
precede
matrimony.
Usually, however, such alliances are formed
on the arrangements of the parents, and not unfrequently

through their influence.
Many
of both sexes are married
at the age of twelve or fourteen.
These sometimes con-
tinue to live with their parents, though they
more frequently
Shortly after
form separate establishments
for themselves.
the ages above specified, they frequently
become parents.
; ;
164
in marriage are neither
The ceremonies
imposing, neither
numerous nor
is
the
bond
indissoluble.
Certain ranks are not permitted under any circumstances

to
intermarry, and affinity to the
sixth
generation also
forbids intermarriage, yet the principal restrictions against
intermarriages respect
descendants on the female side
Collateral branches on the male side are permitted in
most
but
cases
to
intermarry, on
the
observance of
is
a slight
prescribed ceremony,
which
supposed to remove the
impediment or
disqualification arising out of consanguinity.

for preserving
This preference
line,
uncontaminated the female
and the custom of tracing the genealogy of the sovea censure on the existing morals of the country
its
reign and the nobles by the female, and not by the male
line, involves
since they proceed on the supposition of

sible in
being impos-
any given case
to ascertain with certainty the
male
parent of a child,
or, that
parentage
is
more
easily
and
obviously identified on the mother's than on the father's

side.*
Among
be noticed.
the parties prohibited from intermarrying,
may
First, as to caste, grade, or

1.
rank
2.
A noble may not marry a Hova. A Hova may not marry a Zaza-hova, A
Zaza-hova
i.
e.
Hova
slave
reduced to slavery.
3.
viz.,
may
not marry an Andevo,
i.
e.
a slave not originally a Hova.
A
to
freeman cannot marry a

state of
slave,
but he can raise her
freedom by redeeming her, and then he may
* An unmarried queen is supposed to have the right of having a family by whom she may think proper. The children are recognized as legitimately royal by their relation to the mother, and no question made as to
paternity.
marry
her.
lOo
He may
afterwards divorce her, but in that
case she continues free.*
Secondly, as to consanguinity
1.
Brother and
sister
by the same father and mother.
2.
Children of a brother and sister by the same parents,
(unless the ceremony, already referred to, be performed.)

3.
Grandchildren of a brother and
sister
by the same
parents, (under a similar restriction.)
Their descendants may intei'marry ad libitum.

4.
The
children of two sisters by the same mother cannot

viz.
:
intermarry, nor their descendants,

5.
6. 7.
Grandchildren.
Great-grandchildren.
Great-great-grandchildren.
Great-great-great-grandchildren.
last
;
8.
These two
are
i.
respectively
called
Zafindokalika
and Zafimpaladia " descendants of the
e.
" descendants of the knee," and
sole of the foot." to
Mothers
in
Madagascar being usually anxious

this kind, therefore,
have
their daughters married while the latter are very young,
most connexions of
which take place
among young persons, may be

marriages.
appropriately designated early

their daughter
in
Sometimes the parents give with

cattle, slaves, or
is
a dowry consisting of
the event of a divorce,
This, however,
occasionally,
is
money; which,
claimed by them on her behalf.
not always the case, as the bridegroom

his circumstances or those of his parents
when
as
are
more
affluent than those of the bride, gives such portion
to his wife
may have
been previously agreed upon
between his friends and her parents.
The ceremonies
*
observed on entering into the marriage
relation are not uniform, though always exceedingly simple
Exodus
xxi. 7,
10; Deut. xxi.
IK
14.
66
they depend, in a measure, on the rank and wealth of the

parties.
Feasting generally accompanies every Malagasy
marriage.
When
viz.,
the preliminaries are determined, and the
time fixed,
sikidy,
a good or lucky day, according to the
the relatives of the bride and bridegroom meet at
the houses of the parents of the respective parties.
All
are attired in their best apparel, and decorated with their
gayest ornaments.
At
the appointed hour, the relatives
or friends of the bridegroom

of the bride.
settled,
accompany him
to the
house
These pay or receive the dowry, which being

welcomed by the bride
husband and wife
as her future husband;
he
is
they eat together, are recognized by the senior

the
family
as
;
members
is
of
a benediction
offered
to
prothat
nounced upon them, and a prayer

they
God,
may have a numerous offspring, abundance of cattle, many slaves, great wealth, and increase the honour, of their respective families. They then repair to the house
of the parents or friends of the bridegroom,
and again eat
together,
when
similar benedictions are

of the family, or the
pronounced by the
of the village,
senior
members
nuptial
;
head man
who is The
usually invited to the ceremony.
bond
is,
in
some
instances,
now regarded
as complete
general feasting ensues, after which the par-
ties return to their respective
homes, and the newly-mar-
ried couple to the residence prepared for them.
But
if,
as
is
generally the case, the houses in which the

is is
parties have
is built,
met
below the
hill
on which their village
the bride
placed on a sort of chair under a
canopy, and borne on men's shoulders up the sides of the

hill to the
centre of the village.
Occasionally the bride-
groom
is carried in the
same manner.
The
relatives
and
friends of the parties follow in procession, clapping their
hands, and singing, as the bearers ascend.
On
reaching
the village, they halt at what
is
167
called the parent-house, or
residence of the officer of the government; a hasina, or

piece
of
money,
is
given
to
the attending
is
officer
for
the sovereign, the receiving of which

official
considered a legal
ratification
of the
engagement, as the marriage
cannot afterwards be annulled, except by a legal act of

divorce in the presence of witnesses.
No
ring, or other
emblem
married
in
of the married state,

;
is
used on such occasions, or
worn afterwards
nor
is
there any badge by which the
may be
distinguished from the unmarried
women
:
Madagascar, when their husbands are at home
but
during the absence of their husbands, especially in the

service of government, a necklace, of silver rings or beads
or braided hair,
is
worn, to denote that they are married,

their persons are
and that consequently

the
sacred.
late
Thus
to
wives of the officers
composing the
embassy
England were distinguished during the absence of

husbands.
theiv
The
painful
early marriages of the
Malagasy are attended with

to
and disastrous
effects
the
female;
especially
those contracted in consequence of betrothments arranged
by the parents,
parties
totally irrespective of the inclinations of the
themselves, and often before
they v.ere
able
to
understand the nature of the engagement, or

preference for or aversion to those with
feel either
whom
they were
pledged to sustain one of the most binding and sacred

relations of
life.
The consequence
is,
the
unhappy
wife
soon ceases to please, the affections of the husband are

fixed on others,
and unfaithfulness or divorce

it
is
the result.
Notwithstanding^this,
is
stated by those
who have had

to
the best opportunities of
studying native society, that a
number may be found

each other through
faithfully
and devotedly attached
life.
Instances of this kind, however,
168
are
comparatively rare
all
its
:
and concubinage, or polygamy,

train
with
inevitable
of
miseries,
prevails
very
generally.
The
very term by
vi'hich
polygamy
evils of
i.
is
designated in the
it
native language implies the

ful source
which
is
the fruit-
famporafesana,
if
e.,
" the means of causing
enmity ;"* as
referring to the interminable jealousies
and
hostilities created
among
the several wives of one husband.

evils,
With
all its
admitted and numerous
polygamy, how-
ever, exists
under the sanction of the highest examples and

a native can appeal
to.
authorities
Every monarch
is
complimented as having twelve wives: and most of the

nobles or chieftains,
of wives,
who can
afford to maintain a plurality
deem
it
essential to their rank
and honour,
wife.
if
not
to their happiness, to take
more than one
The only law to regulate polygamy seems to be, that no man may take twelve wives excepting the sovereign. And while very many have but one, the cases are, however, comparatively few, in which a man has more than three or
four.
Custom has
is
established various rules as to the

wife.
manner
in
which a husband takes an additional

given
as an
illustration.
The
following
sketch
It
will not strictly
and
literally
apply in every individual case, but such course

it, is
of proceeding, or something extremely analogous to
usually followed.
The husband
knowledge of
to the latter,
tells
*
disposed to take an additional wife, selects
his favourite, obtains

his wife.
her consent privately, without the
He
then communicates his intention
probably at
first in
apparent jest; he afterwards

title
her plainly, calling her, Rafotsy, (a
of respect,)
enmity;
enemy; Mamporafy, to cause Mpamporafy, a causer of enmity, a polygamist; Famporafesana ihe cause of enmity, polygamy.
Rafy, signifies enmity; Rafy-lahy, an
you are
to
169
have a younger
;
sister.
I shall still
make you
happy, adds the husband

dollars, 'tis
here
is
a present for you
five
a large sum.''
When
is
the
money
is
mentioned, the
:
woman
finds the affair
earnest,
and then objects

let
" No, I shall not be one of
two wives,
me be
;
divorced."
The husband employs

affection,
pacific expressions,
endeavours to abate her anger, and to
obtain her consent
he assures her of his
and that
he can by no means part with her, and expresses his

astonishment that she could talk of a divorce.
holding her consent, he reminds her that
prerogative to have
it
Still
is
with-
the man's
many
wives,
and a
fine large
house built
on a
hill,
to
remain there as a monument of his respecta-
bility.
" Those
who
are inferior," he tells her, " wish to are equal to

for two,
become
that he
equal, and those who who has one wishes
become
superior,
and he who has two
wishes for three."
The poor
that she
is
wife
now
finding
it
best to be pacified, says

is
so,
and replies, " Well, that
sufficient, since
you are determined on the measure.

proverb,
'
'Tis like the old
Where
the hill
is
long, there is
room
for thinking.'
;
Since I
am
tired of refusing, I
have consented
yet I wish
you
to consider, that I prefer
speaking to you face to face
rather than complaining of you to others. I shall not ask you

to give
me all I want,
me, to give
;
but I ask you, as pledge of your attach-
ment
one
to
me
a slave
whom
may
give to any
I please
then you
may
take any one you like as
my
junior, wiiether from a near or a distant tribe."
little
bargaining takes place about the demand for a slave, and

the wife repeats, that she merely asks, lest her children
should cease to love her

then adds.
*
if
she were poor.
The husband
sold or redeemed.
" Here
is
half a slave for you,* but you are not

if
That
is,
H riglit over half his services or half his value,
170
to
him
give
away
if
you
continue
beloved
by your
children.
These preliminaries arranged, the parents,
if living,
and
relations of both parties, are invited to assemble,
and the
husband's brother usually states the terms of the agreement.
" You are

sent
all invited,
that
you may be informed of the pre-
made
to Rafotsy,
namely, the half slave."
The
husband's
daughter-
father then adds, "half the slave belongs to

in-law.
my
Do
you agree to that?
Half a
slave, for
which you
father,
have not toiled nor laboured
this is thine."
The
mother, and relatives of the wife express their assent, and
compliment the husband.
pleased with what you have said, and

the donation.
consent,
The husband rejoins, "I am now I shall add to

Three
dollars."
herself,
^'
How much?
All parties
unanimity prevails, Rafotsy

liberality,
much kindness and

seem
to
remarks,
won by so That will do, I

All the
call
have a father indeed to
my
children."
family join then in
some
exclamations of thanks,
and
east,
on
god, and heaven and
earth,
sun and moon,
west,
and north, and deceased

his wife.
relations, to bless the
man and
The husband then

day when
say,
I
adds, " I shall give
you
all
notice of a
intend to marry
my second wife,
silent,
lest
it
you should
Why
it is
have you been so

?"
and done
so suddenly,
without telling us
on,
A lucky
day being accordingly fixed

brothei-,
mentioned by the husband's
and the party
breaks up with expressions of mutual
good-will.
The
first
wife
generally
makes
additional
efforts
to
obtain a further
succeeds.
donation from her husband, and often
On
the day fixed for introducing one wife to the other,

village are requested to act as the
to the
the head people of the
inter-messengers.
They proceed
house of the
in-
171
tended bride, who is called the vady kely, " the httle wife."* We have come," say they, " for the young lass open the
door."
The hneage and
ancestry of both parties are then
being presented, the related, and the donation of clothes sent

parties eat together as a token of friendship.
The husband's
brother brings the
new
wife, part of
a sheep having been
father previously presented to her, and another part to the

of the first wife, with
all
an apology that
it is
a mere
trifle,
but
that can be afforded.
The new
wife is then taken to the

is
house of her intended husband, and

of the house,t
tion
is
met in
the court, west
by the husband and

all
wife.
This pubhc situa-
chosen, that
may
witness the engagement, and

the spectators, saying,
that the husband
may address
The
terms of this marriage-covenant are half a slave

dollars."
and thirteen
and three
feasting.
Eight had been

is
named five
is
at first,
afterwards the rest
expended in clothing and
In some instances, money

his representative;
taken to the sovereign, or
and when
this is received, the
engage-
ment
is
considered as ratified or legaUzed.

;
The
spectators
then leave
and the polygamist, with both
his wives, either
continue to Uve in the same house, or a separate establishGenerally, too, the ment is formed for the new wife.
custom obtains of the husband's

of his first wife's rice-ground,
soliciting
a small portion
which he presents to his
vady-kely, and in return gives her another piece sometime

afterwards, as a compensation.
Polygamy
here, as
elsewhere,
It
is
is
demonstrated to be
all
a system of evils.
the
chief source of nearly
the domestic disputes and
jealousies existing
among
the
Malagasy
husband
*
wives become jealous of one another, and the
suffers
from the jealousy of
all.
first,
A name given to every wife a man has, except the faces the west. t The front of the house, as the door
172
children by different wives are frequently the sub-
The
to
jects of secret heart-burnings, or in
open variance give vent
their malevolent feelings and recriminating animosities.
Divorces are multiplied, and, with them, envy, hatred, and

interminable family resentments.
claimants are multiplied,
Property
is
also wasted,
and
litigations
frequent.
its final
In a
extinc-
word, polygamy
tion is a
all
is
a curse to the land, and

to
consummation most ardently

prefer peace
to
be desired by
to
who
wrath,
affection
bitterness,
domestic comfort to domestic

to the jealousy, malice,
strife,
and
christian virtues
and uncharitableness of the excited

of depraved
and turbulent passions
human
nature.
is
One
gamy
great evil consequent on polygamy
the frequency
of divorce.
is
This may naturally be expected where poly-
sanctioned
and
encouraged.
The
former
may
indeed be permitted under some circumstances where the

latter is not, as in
European
countries, but
the
latter so
it
necessarily produces occasions of the former, that
per-
haps could not exist without
it.
The term used for it in bady. The verb misaotra,

thank or
giving to
bless,
the native language
is
fisaoram-
" to divorce," strictly signifies to
and
is
used even as an expression of thanksIts
the
Divine Being.
use in
forming
the
to
compound word
and
as above, (fisaorana
and vady) seems
imply a benediction on the wife, thanking her

so gently dismissing her as one
for the past,
whose services are no
longer required.
The immediate causes of divorce are numerous, and often very trivial. One cause for which a wife is heartlessly
divorced has been already noticed
;
besides this, if a wife
be cruel towards the step-children in a family, or children

by another wife, or children
adopted, or
if
whom
the husband
may have
she be extravagant, or
idle, or inattentive to
her husband, or
if
1713
she be suspected
of infidelity to
her
to
if
husband, or of gadding about too
much from house
house, or of receiving attention from the other sex, or

she accuse her
husband justly or unjustly of

if
infidelity
towards his lawful wife or wives, or

consent to his taking another wife
is
she refuses her
in all such cases she
divorced, and frequently on occasions of far less import-
ance.
Usually when a dispute has taken place between the
husband and
vvdfe,
and a reconciliation has not been
effected,
the wife runs away to her parents or relations.
Unless the
husband be desirous of a separation, he employs persuasive
means
to
induce her to return.
In the event of not sucfor,
ceeding, or the separation being wished

his brother or a friend to divorce her.
he commissions
Having obtained
to
call
an interview with the female, he desires her
her
parents and relations, as he has some business to transact.
On
their
arrival,
and the customary salutations having

visit,
passed, he announces the object of his

briefly
and sums
it
up
by saying, " I
am
sent to divorce this child," 8cc.
Then
addressing the woman, he says, " Your brother," (meaning
her husband, but now designating him by a relationship
which implies the impossibihty of marriage,) "your brother

says there
is
no more dispute nor difference between

count what property
is
us,
remember and
your own, you
may
receive your
own
is
share."
The
father of the
;
woman
he
live
answers ?
" This
:
worthy of a husband
us.
worthy of a
friend indeed
to
he does not impose on
May
grow old With
!"
this
the ceremony terminates, and the relations
afterwards fetch the share of property belonging to the
divorced party.
The
support and guardianship of the chil-
dren of the divorced wife are made the subjects of arrange-
174
ment by
the friends of the respective parties before the
is
separation
pubhely announced; sometimes

the
they
are
divided, sometimes left with

at other times taken
relatives of the father,
by those of the mother.
The woman
instance
is
at liberty to
marry again as soon as she
pleases, after the lapse of twelve days.
Though,
is
in the
mentioned, the divorced wife
permitted to
marry again
husband
after the lapse of twelve days, the divorcing
has, according to law, or usages
which have equal
authority, the
power
of divorcing his wife in such a
manner
as to prevent her ever marrying again.
On
these occasions
she
is
often treated personally with extreme cruelty, and,

first
during the formal process of being divorced, receives
a black fowl, expressive,
it is
supposed, of the wish of her

to
all
husband that she may ever be

object
;
others a repulsive
that
for
second, a ivalking-stick,
is
indicating
is
the
future she
to
have no home, but
to
be an outcast on
the roads
is to
third,
a small piece of money, signifying that she

is
be dependent on what
given by others
and
fourth,
a piece of ivhite gun-wadding, to signify that she

tinue in that state
till
is to
con-
her hair
is
white with age.
A
if
widow
forfeits all
claim to respectability of character,
she marry within twelve months of her husband's decease,

to act,
and would, were she thus

society.
be marked and shunned in
Though
the females in Madagascar are not reduced to the
humiliating state of degradation in which they are found
among some
uncivilized portions of the
usages here noticed shew, that, as
human race, the among all other com-
munities unblessed by the elevating and softening influence

of the gospel, she
is
far
from being esteemed as the equal,
the companion of man, excepting in his humiliation and

disgrace.
If the
husband be guilty of any crime
for
which
he
is
175
reduced to slavery, his wife, however innocent she

been,
is
may have
also deprived of her hberty.
Woman
is
held in estimation chiefly as the creature of convenience to
man, and often
suffers
as the victim
his sordid
of his caprice
and
ungoverned passion, or of
and heartless
avarice.
to
The
state of native society in
Madagascar, in reference
the females, adds another to the already extended catalogue

of facts which
tian religion,
shew the obligations

and prove that
it
of the sex to the chris-
is
only where the principles

is
of divine revelation prevail, that

tion in the social relations of
woman
for
raised to the posi-
life,
;
which she was intended
and qualified by her Creator

have followed
while the happy results that

principles
of
the partial diffusion of the
Christianity, the introduction of christian marriage,
among
the natives of this interesting country, as well as the choice
and abundant
fruits in social
peace and hallowed affection,
which they have brought

civilized,*
forth
among communities
lost
still
less
shew that they have

and
of every
none of their power
to
refine, to elevate,
to enrich with the highest privileges
the
female portion
community
in
M'hich
they
prevail.
The South Sea
Islanders and
some of the aborigines of South
Africa.
176
CHAP.
The
rite
VII.
of circumcision
Appointment of
the time for
its
obsei*vanee
for
Consecration of the vessel for the holy-water

the holy water and other requisites for the
Procession bringing cei-emony Bull-baiting and
Platting of baskets Slaughter of a Measuring the children Planting the banana stemBenedictions pronounced on the children Public addresses delivered to them The The strong water Slaughter of the or offering to bear away ]jerforming red bullock The father's address to the son while the Conduct of the mothers on the occasion Feasting at the close of the ceremonies The custom of forming brotherhoods by drinking of blood thus enter into solemn covenant Symbols used Form of Parties oath or engagement The mouth of the heart The drinking of each binding Existence other's blood Extent to which the engagement
other amusements at the festival
sheep
faditra,
e\'il
rite
is
v'ho
is
of a similar custom in Borneo

lot of the
Nature and operations of slavery Hard
slave-mother Mode of redemption from slavery
Bondsmen
of the government
Hospitality of Madagascar.
is
Before a youth
considered
fit
for the
army, or capable of
rendering any service to the government, and hence before
any domestic establishment can be formed, he must undergo

a ceremony practised by many nations of the earth, and
variously estimated
circumcision.
by
different
tribes
this
its
ceremony
is
No
date can be assigned for

It
introduction
among
the Malagasy.
was either brought by the original
settlers, or
introduced by Arab or other traders of African

Tradition
states,
descent, at a very early period.
that
Andriamanelo estabUshed the custom in the

island,
interior of the
and
that
Andrianjaka added to
its
observances.
Those
chieftains,
however lived
in a period comparatively
modern.
Flacourt describes the ceremony as practised in
HISTORY OF xMADAGASCAR.
the island
177
two hundred
;
when he wrote
his history, nearly
years ago, and as having then existed for a long time

his testimony is confirmed
and
by the accounts of the pirates

different parts of the coast.
this
and other
earlier settlers
on
Although the Malagasy regard
ceremony somewhat
no moral con-
in the light of a religious rite, they assign
siderations for its observance.

cal reasons adverted to.
it is
Scarcely, indeed, are physi-
They
occasionally intimate that
regarded as in some way essential to manhood.

if
In
general, however,
why he observes " Our ancestors practised it, and we do the it, he replies, same ;" and should he be still further importuned, "But why did your ancestors do it?" the trenchant reply is
a Malagasy be asked
thrown back on the too inquisitive inquirer,

tell
"Who
can
that ?"
The
following account of the ceremonies, as generally
observed, has been furnished by those
who were eye
wit-
nesses of the proceedings described.
On some
classes of
occasions,
and among
different famiUes
and
the people,
deviations from the particulars stated are observable, but
they are too
trivial to
merit distinct notice.

all
The
time of performing this ceremony does not at

;
depend on the age of the child
and nothing analogous
to
the Jewish observance of an eighth day exists.
All depends
is,
on the
will of the sovereign, as the
ceremony
in
some
respects, an initiation into the rank, privileges,

tions of the
and obliga-
members
of the
body
politic,
and, in a sense,
transfers the subjects from the jurisdiction of the parent to
that of the king.
The
sovereign, in consequence of an
appUcation from the parents or the friends of any number of

children in a given province, appoints a time, and orders the observance of the
rite.
When
1.
the announcement has been made, that a general
178
rite shall
observance of this
take place, the parents and

for the
relations make their arrangements
day
this is ne-
cessary, because the different branches of the
same family
assemble for convenience in one house on the occasion.
As
chanting and singing form a considerable part of the proceedings,
these exercises are practised by the people, in
their respective villages, for
some days before the
arrival
of the time for the circumcision.
The
females employ
considerable time in preparing ornaments and decorations

for their persons, particularly in plaiting their hair in the
finest
manner
possible.
Slaying of oxen, and feasting in
each other's houses, generally occupy the

diately preceding the ceremony.
week imme-
These preliminaries adjusted, the " binding the calabash

or gourd," fehi-voatava, follows.
A
is
gourd or calabash,
selected,
used
in
for fetching or
holding water,
and carried
procession by a number of men
to the sovereign, or his
representative, on the occasion.
sion carries a spear and a shield.

to
The leader of The calabash

is
the procesis
intended
be used in fetching the

in the ceremony,
water called holy or sacred,
employed
and
carried in this formal
manner
sists in
to the king,
it
who
is
also high-priest
on
this occasion,
in order that
may
be consecrated.
off,
Its consecration con-
the king's striking
with his spear, the top of the

it
gourd, and afterwards binding

ticular kind of grass,
in cross plaits with a par-
and the slender branches of a native
shrub.
In performing this part of the ceremony, the king,

left
holding a shield in his
hand and a spear
in his right,
imitates the action of a warrior, and exhorts the fathers

of
those children
who
are about to undergo the
rite,
to
enforce on their attention the duty of loyalty and devoted-
ness to their sovereign, that they
may
serve, honour,
and
do homage
to him.
HISTORY OF lAJADAGASCAR.
The
husina.
179
in
usual fee or acknowledgment

is
money,
according to the rank and ability of the party,
then pre-
sented to the sovereign, as presiding master of the cere-
monies, by the father or guardians of the children

sovereign
is
and the
in the habit of lending to his personal friends,
or chieftains of high rank and station, on these occasions,

silver chains of different size
and value,
vi^hich
are used in a
subsequent part of the proceedings.
The
vessel having been, as they suppose, consecrated,

olBTerings
and the customary
or dues paid, the calabash
is
carried in procession, amidst the shouting
and dancing of the
people
the pageant being rendered increasingly grand and
imposing in their estimation, by the numerous ornaments,

large hats, and bands across the shoulder, which are
worn
by those who now proceed

saered or holy water.
to obtain w^hat is
designated
As
and
the leader of the procession exhibits with his shield

his
spear,
as
he
moves along, the

asks repeatedly,
this ?"
!
attitudes
and
actions of a warrior, he
itoy ?
rano inona
"
What water
is
To which
" This
is
others answer,
rano masindrano manory
the holy water
that wearies."
On
is to
arriving at the spot in the fields from which the water

is
be taken, a stem of the banana-tree
planted in the
earth
a tent
is
erected near the spot
and under the shelter

it
of the latter, the party remain for the night, as
would
interfere with the required sanctity of the ceremony, for the
holy water to be conveyed into any house excepting that in
which the ceremony

purchased
is
to
be performed.
fattened ram,
for the occasion, is killed
and eaten with bananas,

is
sugarcane, &c. during the time the party

the water
waiting for
deemed
sacred, the
obtaining of
which
is
so
important a part of the ceremony.
N*2
180
is
While one party

party
is
procuring the holy water, another
preparing the house in which the chief part of the
rite is to
be performed.
All the furniture, the mats, the
cooking utensils, &c. are removed, and the inside of the
house lined with new mats to the very

of bullocks, sheep, poultry, rice, fruit,
roof.
A distribution
is
and vegetables
also
made
to the strangers
who maybe
visiting at the time;
and
thus the engagements of the day on which the party went

for the water, close.
As soon
fields
as the morning dawns, those lodging in the

is to
proceed to the pool whence the water

they reach
it
be taken
when
its
margin, one of their number, (and
it is
necessary that
still living,)
should be a
man whose
parents are both
descends into the water
Avith the
gourd or calatill
bash in his hand, and lowers himself in the water

vessel
is filled.
it
the
Another standing opposite to him poising

as
if
a spear, hurls
intending to
kill
him, but takes care
merely to strike the earth near the place where he stands.
When
the calabash
is filled
with water, the bearer leaves
the pool, and the procession
moves towards the
village,
decorated with
all
the finery and ornaments which those
who compose
of the
it
have been able to procure.
The stems
banana -tree, ripe bananas, sugarcanes, bamboos,
small canes, and silver chains, with various articles used
during the course of the ceremonies, are also borne in the

procession.
From
daylight the same morning, those in the village are
usually busy in preparing to go forth to meet the procession.
The
chiefs
and nobles array themselves in
their
silk
and
and
scarlet robes,
and are decorated with beads, and

silver chains are also
silver
gold lace.
fusion,
Gold and
worn
in protale."
and trinkets of various descriptions " without
The
females also appear in their rich and many-coloured
dresses.
181
Their natural hair
is
curiously plaited, and their
heads are decorated with a varied profusion of ornaments.

Besides beads, rings, chains, &c., they wear as a part of
their head-dress a large quantity of the rofia,
split
into
exceedingly small fibres, and dyed black, so as to resemble

artificial hair
;
the neck, hands, and feet are also loaded with

Dollars, strung together
ornaments.
line
by means of a strong
passed through a hole on opposite edges, are worn like

fillets
bands or
on the heads of the females, and over the
shoulders of the men.
This
latter
ornament
is
used as an
indication of the wealth of the wearers or their families.
In the order observed in the procession, fathers take prece-
dence
the
mothers follow
fiiends,
relations,
and others
bring up the rear.

village,
They proceed about
half a mile from the
where they meet those bringing the sacred water;

slowly, dancing as they
the latter procession advancing
proceed, the leader with his spear and shield asking what
the water
is,
in
the
manner already mentioned.

!"
The
females then advance, dancing, and singing,

water, the consecrated water that wearies
"Bless the
On
reaching the village, the whole
procession moves
is
three times round the house where the ceremony
to be
;
performed, bearing the holy water and

after
its
accompaniments
till
which they enter the house, and remain
the
amusements commence.
These
consist
of bull-baiting,
dancing, singing, beating drums, &c., and are kept up by

alternate parties with considerable energy
and
hilarity until
about sunset, when the people again enter the house.
Odd
as the combination
may
seem, and
little
as the rite
to be performed
may have
to
do with bull-baiting and platting
baskets, the preparing of the last
comes next in order.
Having entered the house, the females employ themselves in platting split-rushes, for the purpose of forming
182
small baskets; they sing and chant during the time they
are thus employed
;
and the baskets, when

extending northward,
finished,
are
suspended in a
line
the
basket
intended for the eldest child being placed
first.
While the females are employed making the baskets,

the master of the ceremony kills a sheep in front of his
house.
This
is
called fahazaza.*
After cutting oiF the
head
of the animal, the
body
is
given to the multitude,
who scramble for it, and in a few minutes tear the whole The use of a knife or any sharp instrument to pieces.
is
forbidden, as
contrary to
the order of the ceremony.

is
Every female obtaining a portion

with
it
supposed to obtain
the blessing of fruitfulness.

is
No
sheep, however,
possesses this potent efficacy, that
not of a certain kind
and colour decided by the
sikidy, or divination.
The
next
children on
whom
the rite
is
to
be performed are
led across the blood of the animal just killed, to
which some idea of
sacredness
is
attached.
They
are
then placed on the west side of the house, and as they

stand erect, a man, holding a light
cane in his hand,

at
measures the
first
child to the
crown of the head, and
one stroke cuts
off
a piece of the cane measured to that
height, having first carefully dipped the knife in the blood
of the slaughtered sheep.
This knife
is
again dipped in
the blood, and the child measured to the waist,
when
the
cane
is
cut to that height.
He
is
afterwards measured to
the knee, with similar observances.

is
performed
on
all
if
the
children
The same ceremony successively. The

all
meaning
to
it,
of this,
indeed any meaning can be attached

evils to
seems to be the symbolical removal of
which the children might be exposed,
first,
from the head
Causing
fruitfulness.
to the waist
183
finally,
then from the waist

now dug
is
to the
foot.
knees
and,
from the knees to the sole of the
A
in
hole
is
in the north-east corner of the house,

is
which a stem of the banana-tree

fixed, to
planted, and on
it
an
earthen lamp
attention
is
burn during the night.
Great
paid to the fixing of the stem, that the height
may be
banana
proper, and the lamp

is
made
fast.
The stem
of the
consecrated by water, sweetened with honey,
being poured into the hole and upon the stem.

silver chains are
Large
now placed
in the rice-fan,
is
and a portion
of the sacred honey and water
poured on them, by which
they are supposed to be consecrated or separated for the
ceremony.
The
rice
pounder
is
also introduced.
is
small
quantity of the honey and water

the children,
then given to each of

it
and the person presenting
pronounces
benedictions on them, the silver chains in the
mean time
being rattled in the rice-fan.

kind, "
The
benedictions are of this

!
May
the children prosper in the world

filled
may they
!
have spacious houses, well
with silver and slaves

for their folds,
may
their cattle be too
numerous
!
their property be great
and may
if
I
stones are thrown at them,
may they
escape uninjured
and
if
stoning others,
may
they
they effect their purpose they elude

fasten on
if
attempted to be seized, may

seizing
others, others,
the grasp
and
if
may
!
them ! if pursued by
if
may
they not be
caught
and
pursuing others,
may
they take them

!"
and
how-
may they be beloved by The benedictions are

ever,
the king and the people
repeated several times
not,
by direct words, but by the more expeditious mode

(like the
of
numbers,
easy
mode
of praying by counting
three, four
units.
beads,) merely saying, one, two
two, three
hum and
up
to ten,
all
and frequently repeating these associated

this time, the
During
people
repeat, prolong
184
oo, oo, oo," in
and repeat, the national sound "
one con-
tinued note, as long as the breath can sustain it
This
is
a usual expression of pleasure, the significant sound of

approbation, and conveys as
much
to a
Malagasy as the
heartiest thrice-repeated cheer does to

It is also
an Enghshraan.
repeatedly asked during this part of the cere-
mon}^,
"Is
?
it
not well?
Is it not
admirably well?
Is
it
not good
Is it not exceedingly
good?" with many other
detached and equally important exclamations and inquiries.
Having advanced thus
far,
some one, accustomed
to
speak in the public assemblies of the people, then addresses all who attend on the occasion, and charges them " to behave with proper decorum during the proceedings, to avoid
levity of conduct,
and
to enter the
house with their heads
uncovered, lest by any neglect or impropriety they should

desecrate
what
is
holy,
is
and so render
unavailing
the
ceremony."
The lamp
then lighted, the drums beat, and
dancing and singing commence, which are continued during

the whole night.
The next morning

to
the fathers of the children
who
are
be circumcised, fetch the baskets platted on the preced-
ing day, and in which bananas were placed as offerings

to avert future evils.
These
offerings (called Faditra) are
placed
first
on the children, and are then carried away by
the fathers,
who
prostrate themselves, as they leave
the
house, to a spot at a short distance from the village, where
they are cast away.

they are
No
one dares to touch these bananas

are
deemed accursed, and

of
devoted
to bearing
away
evil.
The ceremony
the
fetching
the
water
called
the
Rano-mahery, " strong water,"
now
takes place.
is
Early in
morning the double calabash

is
brought out of the
house, a hole
struck through the centre, and silver chains
are put
in.
185
It is
then carried to a running stream, and

in
carefully filled
by passing the vessel up the stream

the water
sloping
fetching
direction, that
it,
may
flow into
it.
In
the bearers
must run with the utmost
rapidity,
having
first
girded up their loins.
also carries a spear
and a
shield.
The leader of The people
this party
collect at
the entrance of the village, and await the return of the

water-bearers, each one holding reeds and stones in his
hand,
assault
with
the
which, in a playful manner, they pretend to
water-bearers
on their return.
song
is
repeated on this occasion, consisting of these few simple

expressions
;
Zana-boro-mahery, Manatody ambato, " the

lays her eggs
young eagle
like
on the rock ;" implying, that in

will
manner the children

and deposit
attain places
now deemed
inaccessible,
their property
beyond the reach
of danger and spoliation.
After walking round the house
three times, as before, the party enters, bending forwards

as they approach the door.
young bullock
of a red colour, selected for the occasion,
being now brought into the court-yard of the house, the person who
is
to
perform the
rite
advances, cuts a
slit in
the animal's ear, and dips his knife in the blood which flows
therefrom.
At
the dropping of the blood from the ear of
the animal, the children are supposed to be placed under a
guarantee from
all
future harm.
small
drum
is
then
placed near the threshold of the door, and the child on
whom
upon
the ceremony
it,
is
now
to
be performed, being seated
is
firmly
held by several
men, and
his
ears
stopped by the fingers of those around him.
The
father
stands close to the door outside, with his spear in his right
hand and
shield
in
;
his
left,
performing with
at this
them the
actions of a warrior
is
and while
performed,
the father
exclaims,
"
moment the rite Thou art become a
186
;
man
may
mayst thou be loved, loved by the sovereign and by

!
the people
may the sovereign continue

!"
to reign long
there be mutual confidence between thee and the people,

facile of instruction,
be of good report among the people, be
and of a docile disposition
to take courage, declaring,
The father exhorts the child that now he has become a man,
shield,
he should have a gun, a spear, and a

follow the king
;
and should
that,
now he belonged to the king, he
should henceforth serve him, and do homage to him, but

that
if
he
cried,
he should not be the child of the king,
but would be stigmatized as effeminate, and respected by
no one.
The
exhortations addressed to the children of the slaves
at this season are of a diflferent description.
A man
with a
spade in his hands exhorts them to serve their masters

well, to collect fuel, to attend to the culture of the ground,
to take care of the cattle, &c.; adding, that
if
they did not
serve their masters well, they would be sold, &c.
The rano-mahery, "strong water"

ployed in
forming,
is
immediately emrite
is
washing the children.

the
While the
perfloor,
mothers are
crawling
about on the
touching the earth with their hands, and throwing dust and
ashes on their hair, as tokens of humiliation on account of
their children.
Each mother
nursing
it
rises
from the ground at the
moment her
assuage
its
child has received the rite,

grief,
and endeavours
to
by the
side of a fire
made
of
the reeds which have been already mentioned.
tion
The rite being now performed, there is usually a distribumade by the chiefs of the district, and by the heads of
number
of oxen, to be killed
the families, of a
and divided and some
among
to
the strangers and visitors.

several
The
parties then return

is
their
homes, when a fowl
killed,
bananas
given to the children.
Abstinence
is
187
enjoined on both the parents of each child
that receives the rite, as well as on the nurse, and on those
who prepare
its food.
In the course of two or three weeks the whole ceremony

terminates by feasting, and other rude signs of rejoicing,
accompanied with dancing and singing.

dancing
is
peculiar kind of
called
practised
on
the
occasion,
soratra,
which signifies " writing," and consists in the parties wearing

respectively dresses of different colours, white, blue, red, &c.
forming themselves into columns, each column having
its
own
colour, and then dividing, and passing each other at
right angles.
In the year 1825 the ceremony occupied the attention of the inhabitants of Ankova during the months of June, July,
and August, and was attended with a vast expenditure of time and property. Subsequent poverty, thefts, and murders,
to a
most
fearful extent,
were the deplorable consequences.
Another popular engagement

is
in
use
among
the Malagasy
that of forming Brotherhoods, which, though not peculiar to

is
them,
one of the most remarkable usages of the country.

its
The
design of this custom might almost justify
being
that
:
designated the freemasonry of Madagascar.

institution,
rites
From
however,
it differs in
two essential respects

but public
;
its its
and ceremonies are not

is
secret,
and
object
to
cement two individuals
in the
bonds of most
sacred friendship, and not

secret society.
to constitute a mysterious
and
they
More than two may

is
thus associate,
if
please, but the practice
usually limited to that number, and

individuals.
It is
rarely embraces
called fatidra,
is
i.
more than three or four

e.
" dead blood," either because the oath
taken over the blood of a fowl killed on the occasion, or

is
because a small portion of blood
drawn from each
indivi-
188
dual,
to
when thus pledging
friendship
is
friendship,
and drunk by those
whom
pledged, with execrations of vengeance
on each other in case of violating the sacred oath.

obtain the blood, a
slight
To
incision
is
made
in
the skin
covering
the
centre
of
the
bosom, significantly called

Allusion
is
ambavafo, " the mouth of the heart."

this in the
made
to
formula of this tragi-comical ceremony.

or
When two
bond
more persons have agreed on forming
this
of fraternity, a suitable place
and hour are determined
upon, and some gunpowder and a ball are brought, together

with a small quantity of ginger, a spear, and two particular
kinds of grass.
cut
off;
fowl also
is
procured;
its
head
is
nearly
and
it is left
in this state, to continue bleeding
during
the ceremony.
of imprecation
The
parties then
pronounce a long form
and mutual vow
to this effect
" Should
either
of us prove disloyal to the sovereign, or unfaithful to each

other, then perish the day,
is
and perish the night.*
Awful
to
that,
!
solemn
is
that which
we
are
!
now both about
perform
O O
the
mouth
of the heart
this is to
this ball!
be
cut,
and we
shall drink
!
each other's blood.

!
this
!
powder
it it
this ginger
this fowl weltering in its
blood
shall
shall
be
killed, it shall
be put to excruciating agonies, be speared at this corner of
be killed by
us, it shall
the hearth, (Alakaforo or Adimizana, S.W.)
And whoever
our
or
if
would seek
to kill or injure us, to injure our wives, or
children, to waste our
money
or our property
either of
us should seek to do what would not be approved of by the
king or by the people
should one of us deceive the other

is
;
by making that which

accuse the other falsely
*
unjust appear just; should one
should either of us with our wives

siniilHr
!
An
expression
tlie
remarkably
I
to
that
of
the
patriarch Job,
'
" Perish
cliild is
day in whicli
!'
was born
and the night which shouted

iii.
inaii-
brought forth
"
See Dr. Good's Translation, ch.
ver. 3.
and children be
lost
189
and reduced
lot
!)
to slavery, (forbid that
such should ever be our

out of
it
then, that
good may
;
arise
evil,
we
follow this
custom of the people
and we do
for the
purpose of assisting one another with our families,
if lost in slaver}',
by whatever property either of us may
possess, for our wives are as one to us,
and each other's

property
:
children as his own, and our riches as
common
!
O the mouth of the O the ginger O this

!
heart
the ball
the powder
its
miserable fowl weltering in
blood
thy liver do
we
eat,
thy liver do
we
eat;
and should either
of us retract from the terms of this oath, let
him
instantly
let
become a
being
fool,
let
him
instantly
:
become
blind,
this
covenant prove a curse to him

:
let
let there
be no heir to inherit
float
him not be a human after him, but let him

its
be reduced, and
let
with the water never to see

;
source
it
him never obtain

;
what
is
out of doors,
it
may
never
little
enter
and what
is
within,
may
never go out; the

it,
obtained,
may he be
deprived of
and
let
him never
!
obtain justice from
the sovereign nor from the people
we keep and observe this covenant, let these things bear witness, O mouth of the heart (repeating as before)
But
if
!
may
this cause us to live long

;
and happy with our wives
may we be approved by the sovereign, and beloved by the people may we get money, may we obtain property, cattle, Sec, may we marry wives, (vady kely,) may we have good robes, and wear a good piece of
and our children
;
cloth
on our bodies,
are the things
since,
amidst our
after.*
toils
and labour,
this
these
that
we seek
And
we do
last.
we may with
incision
is
all fidelity assist
each other to the

;
The
*
then made, as already mentioned
a small
quantity of blood extracted and drank by the covenanting
knowing what was

se(!k."
confession that confirms the declaration of tJie Divine Teacher, who, in man, said, " After all these things do the gentiles
190
it,
parties respectively saying as they take

last words,
"
These are our

town they
body
We
will
be like
rice
and
water;*' in
do not separate, and

another
if
:
in the fields they
do not forsake one
we
will
be as the right and
left
hand
of the
one be injured, the other necessarily suffers and sympait."
thizes with
The terms
literally
;
of the covenant are not regarded as binding
the respective possessions of the parties, such as
cattle, slaves,
money, &c., are not considered as common pro-
perty; but the

for
engagement involves a sort
of moral obligation
:
one to
assist the other in every extremity
and, however
devoid of meaning some parts of the ceremony of forming
brotherhood
barity of
may
appear, and whatever indications of barin others, it is less exceptionable
feehngmay appear
than
many that prevail among the people. The design of the engagement which is
in fact a cove-
nant to render mutual help in seasons of peril or need

highly commendable
in
;
is
while the limited niniiber embraced

its
the same fraternity, prevents
ever threatening, as
combinations so permanently binding are sometimes sup-
posed to do, the peace of society.
So
far as those
its effects,
who
they
have resided in the country have observed
appear almost invariably to have been safe to the community,
and beneficial
to
the
individuals
by
whom
the
compact was formed.
The
practice of a similar
mode
of entering into the
most
sacred engagement, by the inhabitants of the
large but
extremely remote island of Borneo, especially by the Dayaks,
one of the chief aboriginal tribes of that country, adds

greatly to the opinion generally entertained, that
Madaamong
This
is
a natural, simple, and beautiful allusion, in
common
is
use
the MaL.gasy, to denote an inseparable association.
The
water
rice is planted in
water
grows
in
beverage taken with
water is it when
boiled in water
eaten.
and
the universal
191
gascar was, at least in part, peopled from the same source

as that from which
most of the islands of the Malayan

the
archipelago derived their inhabitants.
This
similarity, particularly in
ratification of
the
is
friendship by the parties drinking each
other's blood,
strikingly exemplified in the subjoined account, furnished
by the Rev. W. Medhurst, a Missionary of the London

Missionary Society, who has resided
in describing a late visit
many
years in Java,
made by
his assistant,
and a Mis-
sionary from the Rhenish Missionary Society, to the

in
Dayaks
Borneo,*
* After speaking of the attention paid by the chiefs and people at a village called Gohong, Mr. Medhurst continues :" They wished, therefore,
to establish a fraternal agreement with the Missionaries, on condition that
the latter should teach them the ways of God.

that if the
The
travellers replied,
Dayaks became the
disciples of Christ, they
would be
consti-
tuted the brethren of Christians without any formal compact. The Dayaks, however, insisted that the travellers should enter into a compact, according
custom of the country, by means of blood. The Missionaries were Dayaks meant to murder them, and committed themselves to their heavenly Father, praying that, whether living or dying, they might lie at the feet of their Saviour. It appears, however, that
to the
startled at this, thinking that the
it is
the custom of the Dayaks,
when they
enter into a covenant, to draw a
little
blood from the arms of the covenanting parties, and, having mixed it with water, each to drink, in this way, the blood of the other. Mr. Barenstein having consented to the
ceremony, they
all
took off their coats, and
came forward with small knives, to take a little blood out of the arm of each of them this being mixed together in four glasses of water, they drank severally each from the glass of the other, after which they joined hands and kissed the people then came forward, and made obeisance to the Missionaries, as the friends of the Dayak kings, crying out with loud
officers
;
:
two
voices,
'
Let us be friends and brethren for ever, and may God help the
Dayaks
to obtain the
'
knowledge of God from the Missionaries
chiefs then said,

;
Brethren, be not afraid to dwell with us, for
The two we will do
you no harm and if others wish to hurt you, we will defend you with our blood, and die ourselves ere you be slain. God be witness, and this whole assembly be witness, that this is true.' Whereupon the whole company shouted, Balaak ! or good,' be it so.' After the ceremony was over,
life's
'
'
the travellers bade

to Benjarmasin, as thev went."
them
farewell, and, going on board their prow, returned
accompanied by the chiefs and people shouting and cheering
192
the
Among
Malagasy few
classes derive
more
benefit
from the covenant of brotherhood than the
slaves,
its
who
very
generally avail themselves of the advantages

afford,
provisions
severity of
and thus,
in
some degree, mitigate the
their lot.
Its influence is also
acknowledged by the highest

his career of con-
ranks
the late
Radama, when pursuing
quest on the western shore, confirmed his treaty of friendship with a shrewd and powerful chieftain near Tamatave, by
the covenant of brotherhood
in ratifying which, the high-
contracting parties drank each other's blood.
From the
that
it
notices already given of the social institutions and

it
usages of the inhabitants of Madagascar,

is
has been shewn

its
a country in which slavery has accumulated
guilt, entailed its degradation,
and
inflicted its misery.
Of
the nature and extent of the slave-trade formerly carried
on
in this country,
and the means which led
to its abolition,
an account
will be given in
a subsequent part of this work,
but a brief notice of domestic slavery in the island
may
not
be inappropriately introduced in connexion with the foregoing account of native society.

Slavery appears to have existed in Madagascar from a
very early period of

curse of
ther
it
its
history.
Whether
this greatest
human
soiciety is of indigenous growth, or
whe-
was imported by any of the early emigrants from

is
Africa or other countries,
uncertain
but from the date
of the earliest correct accounts that have been given of
the people,
island.
it
appears to have been general throughout the
Captives taken in war, and the wives and chilbattle,
dren of those vanquished in
were retained in
slavery,
and sold by
their conquerors, being regarded as the
most
valuable part of the spoils of victory.
Free persons sometimes become slaves by

viz.,
their
own
act,
by
selling themselves,
when reduced
to a state of abso-
lute
193
also
sell
poverty,
into
slavery.
father
may
his
children into slavery in

slaves
certain cases.
Many
are
made
of the
by the sentence of the judges, or the edict

Slavery
is
sovereign.
to capital
the heaviest penalty of the law next

it is
punishment:
always attended with confis-
cation of property, and involves the wives and children of
the party on
whom
it
is inflicted.
it
In the hands of a weak
and vindictive government,

oppression and cruelty
;
is
an instrument of
severity
fearful
and
all its
and bitterness
in recent
have been repeatedly

years, to
felt in this
unhappy country
an almost incredible degree.

final,
Sometimes the
slavery
is
and the bondman rendered irredeemable

is
in other cases a price
fixed on the slave, on the
payment
of which he
is
restored to liberty.
of the
;
The
children
slaves
are
the
property
of the
owners of their parents
and from
this source, as well as
by purchase, the Malagasy families obtain a succession
of
home-born
slaves
these are at any time liable to be sold
to another master,
and taken
to
distant
part
of the
country.
The
treatment the unhappy slaves receive, differs with
the dispositions and manners of their owners.

cases that treatment
is
In
many
unjust
comparatively mild, the yoke of

heavily oppressive, the
bondage
is
not
felt
to be
and unnatural
in that of the
relation of proprietor
and owner
;
is
absorbed
head of a large household

in
and there have
been rare instances,
which a slave has been so well
treated as to prefer remaining in slavery to being set fiee.
Such
individuals, of course, continue with their proprietors,
although no custom of " boring the ear," similar to the
Jewish practice,
is
known
to exist.
In some cases a poor freeman has been known to offer

himself as a slave to a family of respectability and kindness
J.
194
Ije
of disposition, only requiring to
fed
and clothed.
Chil-
dren follow the condition of the mother, to whatever owner

the father
may
belong, or whatever
may be
his rank.
is
The
people.
principal
employment
rice,
of the slave
is
in the culture
and preparation of
which
the staple food of the
During the season
for digging the soil, sowing,

is
transplanting,
field
:
and reaping, the slave
employed
in the
on him also devolves the thrashing and housing the

;
grain
to
pound,
sift,
wash, and clean the

is,
rice,
is
also
their daily
employment, and
in
fact,
one of the chief
occupations of the slave, together with fetching water from

the
springs.
The
latter
is
exclusively the
business
is
of
females, excepting that for the sovereign, which
always
carried by men.
When
cattle
;
slaves in a family are numerous,
some attend
to
others are employed in cultivating esculent roots

:
others collect fuel
and of the females, some are employed
in spinning, weaving,
and making
nets, washing,
and other
domestic occupations.
Some of the In many cases,

numerous,
allot
nobles have two or three hundred slaves.

the masters, particularly where they are
them pieces
of
ground
for
themselves.
families
These
they cultivate,
;
and thus provide
for their
food and clothing

rally possess
of the latter, indeed, the slaves gene-
but a very scanty portion.

it
In the army,
is
usual for slaves to accompany the

(i.
owners, to carry their bedding,
e.
mats,) with provisions,

or campaign.
and
to
cook
for
them during the journey
Confidential slaves are also employed by

trade,
some owners
capital.
in
and are of course entrusted with a small

is
Half
the amount of profit obtained
allowed to the slave, as an

for fidelity.
encouragement
to industry,
and a reward
by
Some
families wholly support themselves
this
means.
Among
tlie
195
slaves,
marriage
is
honourable, as in other
classes of society.
Its
bond
is,
however, loose, and exceed-
ingly liable to disruption, being not unfrequently dissevered.
regarded more as a matter of convenience than of any moral obligation. The parties frequently belong to diiFerIt is
ent owners, and sometimes exchange owners, occasioning not merely a removal fi-om one part of the town to another,
(a circumstance of very little
importance,) but from one

to a dis-
town
to another, or fi-om
one part of the country
tant one.
sity,
This
tie
local separation dissolves, as if
by neceswife.
live
the
which had united the husband and

they no
longer choose
to
Others separate because

together
;
and as no form or ceremony beyond their own agreement cements their union, none is deemed necessary
to their separation.
They agree to separate, or the one party ceases to frequent the other, and by a tacit understanding the connexion is broken. There are, however,
honourable exceptions.
mutual attachment
is in
some
cases the basis of the conjugal union, the pledge of conjugal

fidelity
man and
and of permanent connexion, and the parties remain wife till death, which dissolves all human ties,
bursts this, the closest and best of all earthly bonds.

is not permitted by law to marry a slave, but a freeman may redeem the slave he wishes to marry and
;
freeman
when thus made

The
service
lot of the
free,
she cannot be sold into slavery again.
In the event of a divorce, the

slave-mother
at
all,
woman
is
goes forth free.*
not an enviable one.
Her
is little, if
diminished by the circumstance of
her having a family. The infants must crawl about on the ground, or are carried at her back while performing her daily routine of labour yet such is the force of custom,
;
This merciful provision corresponds

subject, already noticed.
witli the
Mosaic
regiihition
on the
o 2
196
that a child at the back, secured by the mother's lamba, or
outer garment, and stretchhig

sides,
its
little
legs around her
seems
to occasion but
slight inconvenience to
the
parent, whether carrying a load on her head, fetching water
from the springs, or discharging other domestic duties.
No
slave.
term of service necessarily secures the liberty of the
master
may
grant freedom
it.
if
he pleases, but no
law compels him to bestow
Slaves are, however, at
times redeemed by their relations,
when
the latter are in
circumstances to advance the required sum.
Masters have
to
life.
full
power over
act towards
their slaves, excepting as
They may
them
as they please,
and
punish them
as they judge proper for any offence they are
guilty of; the sovereign reserving to himself the right of

inflicting
the punishment of death.
Trial by ordeal
is
administered to slaves by permission of the judges.

flogging,
Beating,
and putting
in
chains are
punishments in the
from severe
hands of the proprietors.
slave's security
treatment consists chiefly in the national
usages and the
national spirit, both of which, in regard to the treatment

of slaves, are mild rather than cruel.
Between these bondmen and the absolutely

exists
free,
there
what may be termed an intermediate

to
all
class,
who,
though not exposed

liable to
the bitterness
of slavery, nor
be sold or given in exchange from one owner to
another, yet taste few of the sweets of liberty.
Among
governor
these
may be reckoned
especially
those
who labour
in
for the
ment,
those
employed
felling
timber
burning charcoal.
capital,
In one of the great forests near the
the
woodcutters, called
to
" the
twelve
hundred,"
though these are supposed

are
be two thousand in number,

in
felling,
employed through
or
life
and preparing
for
building
other
purposes, timber for the government.
HISTORY OF :\IADAGASCAR.
They
their
197
build their huts, and rear their families, in the recesses
of the forest, cultivating suitable portions of the soil for
scanty
subsistence.
The male
life
;
children
of
these
people are regarded as woodcutters from their birth, and

labour at their avocation through
without any wages or
remuneration from the government

to
and were any of them

forest,
abandon their occupation, and leave the
they would
if
be pursued by soldiers, treated as criminals or deserters

overtaken, and shot or otherwise put to death.
ship
is
This hardall
not confined to the woodcutters, but extended to
the natives regularly employed by the government.
These
amount
to a considerable
number, as there
are, besides the
fellers of
timber and burners of charcoal, smiths or general
workers in iron about four hundred in number, gunsmiths
and spear-makers, carpenters, gunpowder manufacturers

cluding those
riers,
in-
who prepare nitre and sulphur, tanners and cursoap-boilers, tailors, and sempstresses. The numbers
in these several avocations vary,
engaged respectively
all
but
are required to labour at
them during
for their
life
;
for the sove-
reign, without
true,
any payment
labour
they are,
it is
exempted from the taxes levied on the freemen, but

which they generally
;
they are obliged to provide for the support of themselves
and
families,
effect
by the
cultivation
of a small portion of rice-ground
but should the labours of
their several avocations not allow time for this, the govern-
ment makes no provision

be supplied, as
relations,
is
for their support,
and
this
must
the case with those in the army, by their

families
to
or
the
which they may severally
belong.
of
No
individual appointed by the sovereign to any
the above occupations could
leave the
same
for
any by
other, or
remove
to another part of the island, excepting
the consent of the government, without being subject ta

the penalty of death.
198
There
is
another
class, inhabiting the
eastern districts,
all
the Bezanozano,
who
are required to carry
merchandise
or other goods for the sovereign from the coast to the capital,
a distance of three hundred miles
an
unrequited service,
which they dare not
refuse,
on pain of
forfeiting their lives.

is
The
disastrous operation of such arbitrary exactions

fail
too
apparent to need any remark, and cannot
greatly to retard
the progress of improvement and civilization.
No
traits of character or
general feature in the domestic
habits of the Malagasy, are
more conspicuous and pleasing

of perhaps
than their universal practice of hospitality.
Throughout the country, with the exception

one or two of the portions but
visited,
little
known and seldom

his journey enters a
and where the inhabitants are suspicious or reserved,
whenever a stranger in the course of

village,
and
if
he only proposes
is
to
remain and rest for a
short season, a present

rice, poultry,
almost invariably brought him oJ
and
fruit,
or whatever other refreshment the
village
till
affords;
and
if
disposed to
delay his departure
the next day, he will experience no difficulty in attaining
the best accommodations in the village.
WTiatever house
is
he approaches,
if
the proprietors are within, he
politely
invited to enter,
and
is is
cordially welcomed.
mat
is
spread, on which he
is
directed to
sit
or recline, and he
provisions,
if
either assisted in preparing his
own
he
carry these with him, or solicited with respectful courtesy

to partake of the best
is
which the house may contain.

civilities,
This
which
the
is
followed by a succession of attentions and

fail to
cannot
convince him, that
if
he
is
not
among
most polished and refined portions of human

not
society,
he
among rude and unfriendly barbarians. The hospitality of the people is in part to be
ascribed to
re(|uire
their customs in regard to their chiefs,
who always
to be entertained with the best that
\0i)
can be provided, when-
ever they travel
among
the people.
Of
this
custom the
government has not been backward to

it
avail itself; while
has encouraged, and to some extent enjoined, the observrites of hospitality.
ance of the
In the latter part of his
reign, the late king issued a proclamation, declaring that,
while
all
the provision and other kinds of property belonged
to the subject, all the houses in the country
belonged to
to
the sovereign;
and calling on the inhabitants
furnish
lodgings to his servants or soldiers whenever they might

require them.
In order to satisfy himself as to the degree
of attention paid to his proclamation, he
went shortly
after-
wards in disguise to a village at some distance from the
and towards evening entered one of the houses, and solicited shelter and accommodation for the night.
capital,
This was not refused by the heads of
the family,
but
rendered in a way that prevented the guest from concluding,
by any possible mistake, that he was welcome.

left,
He
soon
and travelled
yield
to
the next house that appeared
likely
to
the
shelter
he required.
Here he was
cordially welcomed,
and hospitably entertained with the
best that the host could provide.
On
the following morning,

less to
when taking
known, and
be forgotten.
his leave,
Radama, not
the surprise
than consternation of the whole of the family, made himself

left
them with assurances that they should not

his
He remembered
word
and soon
after
his return to the capital, sent his officers to the village,
with a severe reprimand to the man under whose roof he had found himself an unwelcome guest, and a handsome
present for the peasant family by
rously entertained.
whom
he had been gene-
200
firSTORY OF MADAGASCAR.
CHAP.
Facility with
VIII.
which the means of subsistence are obtained in Madagascar Flesh of the ox, sheep, and goat, monkeys, and hedgehogs Poultry Fish Eggs of the crocodile Locusts and grasshoppers Silkworms in their chrysalis state Vegetables and grain Rice,
Different kinds of food
maize, manioc, arrow-root, yams, sweet potatoes, &c.
Additions
to the
above by the introduction of European vegetables

Irish potato
Increasing use of the

a
&c.
Fruits Pineapples,grapes, oranges, peaches,citrons, lemons, Manufacture of bread Methods of dressing their foodrice-boiling Cooking of meat Limitation of the number of meals in day Custom of washing the hands before meals Manner of taking food Beverage of the people Distillation by foreigners By natives Uses of tobacco
Expedients used in preparing Malagasy snuff
snuff by the mouth
General
mode of taking
Intoxicating quality of the native hemp Longevity of the natives Number and nature of diseases The Malagasy fever symptoms, progress, European and native remedies State of the of diseases Cures healing among the natives Supposed attempted only by divination Native medicines Use of the vapour bath Of cold bathing Superstitious observances The Malagasy god of
;
its
art
oi igin
medicine.
The
riant
soil of
Madagascar, though
fertile, yields
spontaneously
is
but few roots that are suitable for food. Vegetation
luxu-
and
diversified
yet the shrubs and trees that
grow
of
without culture,
include
not the
prolific
bread-fruit
Polynesia, nor furnish the inhabitants with
more than a very

These, however,
small portion of the
means of
subsistence.
are obtained with comparative ease, in sufiicient abundance

to supply every
soil
want
of the people
while the extent of the

fully
and resources of the country are
adequate to
sustain a population vastly greater than
its
present amount.
The means
of subsistence which the country affords, though
they exhibit less variety than prevail in some countries of
the
201
same zone, are most valuable

to
in kind,
and highly conherds of
ducive
vigour
and health.
The numerous
cattle, which constitute the chief viêalth of the Malagasy,
supply one of the most constant and serviceable kinds of

food to
all,
excepting the very poorest classes in society.

fish,
The
animal food of the Malagasy comprises the flesh of
fowls,
and beasts
all tribes
the latter including those esteemed the

of men.
best by
The
productions of their
soil
comprise vegetables, roots, and
fruits.
Among
the ox
is
the several kinds
of animal food,
the flesh of
is
most valuable and abundant.
Beef
termed, by
way
of eminence, horn,
meat
all
other kinds of meat being
distinguished by affixing
the animal's
name.
The
dis-
tinction probably arose from the flesh of the ox being the
the
first,
and
for
a time the only, as
it is
of animal food used
by the people.
now the chief, The ox is the

;
kind
only
animal that
goats,
is
slaughtered for sale in the markets

others,
sheep,
and
all
are sold alive.
Besides beef and
mutton, veal and lamb are sometimes used.
No
is
pigs are allowed to
come
to the capital
but pork
eaten in the Sakalava country, and other parts of the
island inhabited by the dark-coloured tribes,
who
also eat
the flesh of the wild boar.

are also
Goats are eaten by some, as

of
monkeys and hedgehogs,
many kinds and
degrees
of delicacy.
The
poultiy of the Malagasy comprises turkeys, geese,

fowl.
and ducks, with tame and wild
Fowls are abundant.
They have
pheasant
;
also
a species of wild fowl resembling the

;
guinea-fowl, tame and wild
various kinds of
birds, especially
one in shape
like a partridge,
but smaller.
all
Tortoises, turtles; eggs of hens, ducks, and
birds, as
ell
as those of the crocodile.
In their estimate of eggs

to
used as food, those that contain chickens are said
be
202
The eggs
in of the cro-
considered the greatest delicacies.

codile are taken in large
numbers
food
some parts
of the
five
island
and the Missionaries have seen as many as

for
hundred eggs gathered
by one family.
Their
lighter kinds of animal food, like that of the Africans on
the adjacent continent, comprises locusts and several sorts

of grasshoppers.
Large swarms
in the spring
of locusts are often seen in
Madagascar
and summer.
They
generally approach the
central parts of the island from the southern and western

quarter, and pass like a desolating scourge over the face
of the country, leaving the trees
less,
and shrubs entirely

of rice
leaf-
and destroying the plantations
and manioc,
and whatever the gai'dens contained.

on
approaching
is
Their appearance
of considerable
like
a dense
is
cloud
extent, the lowest part of which
about two feet above
the ground, while the upper part rises to a great elevation.
The
natives,
on the approach of the
locusts, fly to their
gardens, and, by shouts and noises of the most tumultuous

kind, endeavour to prevent their alighting.
In the uncul-
tivated parts of the country, they often dig holes, of large
dimensions, and nearly a foot deep, in which great quantities

are collected and taken
;
or they arrest
them
in their flight
by means of wide shallow baskets, or by striking them down

with their lambas, after
baskets by the
which they are gathered up

children.
in
women and
The
locusts form at
times an important article of food;
for this
purpose they
are caught as above described, slightly cooked, and eaten,

after the legs
and wings have been picked
off;
or they are
partially boiled in large
iron or earthen vessels,
dried in
the sun,
and repeatedly winnowed,

;
in order to clear the
bodies from the legs and wings
they are afterwards packed

the market for
sale,
up
in baskets,
and
carried
to
or
JODE OF GATHERING AKD WINNOWING LOCUSTS USED FOR FOOD EY THE
MALAGASY.
Vol.
i. {).
202
MLlllOO or UKATING KltK FOR THE PURPOSF.
01
SEPARATING THE IU\<K

Vol.
i.
FROM
TUJi GRAIN.
\l.
-Oo
kept
use.
in large sacks or baskets in the
203
for
house
domestic
Locusts are usually cooked by frying them in an iron or

earthen vesseL
Shrimps are not unknown in the
island,
and
the natives say that in taste the locusts resemble them.
An
of
equally singular, but scarcely less frequent article
food
among
state.
the
Malagasy,
is
the
silkworm in
of
its
chrysalis
Considerable
quantities
these
are
gathered, and exposed in large baskets or sacks for sale

in the
markets of the Betsileo country, and
in
some
of the
districts of Imerina,
more
particularly
Imamo, where the

and abun-
tapia edulis, the plant on which the silkworm of Madagascar

feeds,
grows spontaneously
in great luxuriance
dance.
Silkworms are cooked and eaten by the natives of
Betsileo and Imerina as grasshoppers and lish are prepared
and taken by the inhabitants of other provinces.
The
fish
eaten by the natives are not numerous.
A spe-
cies resembling trout in
form and
size,
with a considerable
variety of smaller fish, especially a kind of the size and
appearance of sprats, taken in the canals or branches of

the rice grounds, and in the inland ponds, are
Eels,
much
used.
some
of
them remarkably
large, crawfish,
and oysters
are also used in different parts of the country.
The
First
tious
vegetable productions are numerous and valuable.
among
these
may be
properly reckoned the nutririce.
and wholesome vary, or native

article
It
is
the the
most important and general

Eastern countries, the
rice
of
support
to
whole population, and may be justly regarded, as in many

staff of life.
The
to
else,
natives consider
alone
as
mahavoky,
" able
appease hunger, or
even the round of
satisfy the appetite."
Every thing
buffalo beef,
is
regarded only as an accompaniment to
the rice.
In ancient times, in some countries, the invita-
204
was
to eat bread
consist,
so,
;
tion to a feast
and
in
to take refreshment,
of whatever
it
may
is,
the language of the

rice
country,
to
take bread:
in
Madagascar, to eat
is
signifies to take a
meal
whatever
taken besides,
is
called
laoka, (the inei of the Polynesians,) something eaten with

rice, their chief or staple food.
Next
to rice, the
most valuable kinds of food
are, the
maize, or Indian corn, the manioc root, arrow-root, and

several varieties of yam.
potatoes,
To
these
may be added sweet
French beans, and most of the European esculent
vegetables; besides
many
valuable roots that grow in the
plains, woods, or valleys, without culture.
The
Iêeks,
Irish potato
has
also
been introduced, and

food.
is
becoming a favourite
pumpkins,
article of
Onions are
exotic.
melons,
with
many
agreeable and wholesome vegetables
resembling greens or cabbage, and others that have thick
and pulpy
leaves, are eaten
by the people.
Capsicum, or
are
Chili ginger, in a moist state,
and
saffron,
salt,
used as
spices or condiments,
together with
or
obtained by a
coast,
process
already described,
brought
from the
where
it is
formed by evaporation.
eaten by the people include pineapples, oranges,
citrons, peaches, wild figs of several
The fruits
kinds
ries,
lemons of various kinds,

;
bananas and plantains, muscat grapes. Cape mulber-
several kinds of berries which
grow without
culture.
fruit
resembling an unripe orange in appearance, the outer
part of which consists of a shell of a pale yellow or straw

colour, the inside being of a
pulpy substance, inclosing
a number of small seeds, and bearing a great resemblance

to the
guava; also sugarcane and sugar.
kind of bread called
ampempa
made
is
used by the inha-
bitants of
some of the
districts, particularly
Imamo.
It is
a sort of unleavened bread
of Indian corn,
which the
natives call katsaka.
205
To
;
the above
is
found in the forests

natives.
milk, which
may be added honey, not much used by the
Very
recently, butter
families.
and cheese have been made
for use in the
Mission
The Malagasy methods of dressing their food are few and they have not many compounds or made dishes. The
most important part of
their rice,
their cookery consists in preparing
which
is
generally boiled in a large round earthen

;
or iron pot, with a very broad base
which
is
placed on
the stones, fixed in the hearth, in the centre of the house.
The
is
rice,
which
for
is
kept in the husk in a sort of granary,
made ready
use in such quantities only as the daily
consumption of the family may require.
The
rice is pre-
pared with great care, and involves considerable labour:
when
first
brought from the granary,
it is
put into a large

or two feet
it is
stone or
wooden mortar, about eighteen inches
deep, and twelve or eighteen inches wide.

fully
Here
care-
beaten in a peculiar manner, with a large wooden
pestle,
about
five feet in length, so as to
break and remove
the outer husk without breaking the grain.
The
rice is
;
then taken out, and separated from the husk by winnowing

it is
then beaten in the mortar a second time, for the puris it
pose of taking oiF the inner skin, which
also
is
removed
without breaking
the grain,
after this
again sub-
mitted to the winnowing-fan, and the pieces of earth or

small stones
third time
carefully picked out.
The
rice is then
submitted to the operation of the pestle, to
remove any remaining portion of the inner covering of the

grain
;
this
being done,
it is
tossed in the winnowing-fan,
washed
in fresh clean
water two or three times, and finally
put into the earthen or iron vessel, and covered with water
when
boil
fuel
is
supplied until
rice,
it boils.
The water is allowed

is
to
slo\vly until the
which
never disturbed, gra-
206
dually swells, absorbs the water, and encrusts on the inside

of the vessel
the
rice in the
middle becoming dry, though,

It is
towards the outside, the grains adhere.
then pro-
nounced masaka, "done, ripe."
in
Meat is either boiled, a manner somewhat

up
roasted, fried, or stewed

different
though
from that practised in

is
Europe and other

before being cut
flesh of
countries,
where the animal
skinned
into joints or steaks,

is
and cooked.
The
most animals
cooked with the skin and hair on

is
which (excepting at
their beef:* the skin
festivals)
is
invariably the
case with
so peculiarly palatal)le, that square
pieces of
it,
with a portion of fat adhering to them, are

till
frequently boiled
they form one
gelid
or
glutinous
mass,
when they
constitute a dish in high repute with the
Malagasy epicures.
greatest delicacies.
The
thickest parts of the skin are the
Their meat
is
boiled or stewed in an earthen or iron
vessel, or fried in
one of the same kind
and when roasted
or baked,
is
suspended or fixed
in the blaze of the fire, or
placed
among burning embers
of the hearth.
feast, is
The jaky,
and torn
shreds
food,
meat, eaten at the great annual
cut
into long strips or slices, dried in the

to pieces,
till
smoke
it
of their houses,
in appearance
resembles burnt
of
cloth or leather.
fried or
Before being served up for

fat.
it is
stewed with
* This is an exceedingly primitive
mode,
if
we
;
are to receive the testi-
mony
of a Chinese writer,
who
states, that " in
high antiquity
human beings
inhabited the dens and caves of the wilderness
and, free from jealousy or
opposition, cultivated the friendship of animals.

exercise wisdom, beasts
became
their enemies,
But when men began to whose claws, tusks, honis,
and venomous properties, rendered them exceedingly formidable. Habitations were built of wood for protection, and the human species began to study the art of self-preservation. From ignorance of agriculture, and
want of
skill to
procure
fire,
they subsisted on grass, wild
fruits,
and raw
tlcsh, A\'hich
thev ate with the hair on."
Locusts are stewed, or fried in the same manner
;
207
their
wings being
first
removed by shaking them together in
order to detach the legs and wings from their bodies, and
then winnowing in the manner already described.
Vegetables are
roasted.
usually boiled.
root
is
Yams
are boiled or
Manioc
it
boiled, roasted, or dried in the
sun
till
resembles pipe-clay.
Eggs are boiled
hard.
into a
Maize
is
roasted or boiled,
excepting
boiled.
when made
sort of bread.
salt,
Arrow-root
is
is
^'VTiatever
pepper or
&c.
is
used,
thrown
in during the cookini; process,
and not taken with the food afterwards.
The manner
is
of
taking
meals
among
be,
the
Malagasy
the rice
is is
remarkably simple and primitive.

it
When
cooked, and the laoka, whatever dressed in a separate vessel,)

is
may
(which
always
read)-, the family,
guided
by the position of the sun

their
in the heavens, generally
wend
way
to the house.
All classes, excepting the aged, the sick, and infants,

or
young
children,
take only two meals in the day; the
first
about noon, and the second after sunset, usually from
seven to eight o'clock in the evening.
When
the
household, including slaves,
meet
at
their
meals, the master and rest of the family seat themselves, in
a kind of squatting position, on mats spread
for the
pur-
pose, on the west and north sides of the fireplace, leaning

their backs against the sides of the
house
the slaves form
themselves in a line on the gi'ound, on the east and south

sides of the dwelling.
The hands
This
is
of all are
washed before
they begin their meal.
done by a slave going round
with water in a zinga, or horn, which he pours on the
hands of each individual, who thus prepares to take his

repast.
When
all
are ready, earthenware plates, or rather basons,
208
fixed on a broad pedestal about a foot in heigbt, are then

filled
by the slaves with

is
rice,
and on the top of the

it
rice
the laoka
placed.
If
meat,
is
always previously cut

the
be,
into pieces or portions, according to
number
to
be
provided
fowl,
for.
fish,
Whatever the laoka may

soup,
rice.
whether meat,
it is
or
honey,
or
vegetables,
always
placed on the
If the plate contain
a portion
for
only one individual,

rice,
a
is
spoon
is
put into the
and
it
placed by a slave before the person for
whom
it
is
designed.
Sometimes the
portions for two or three individuals are
deposited in one basin,
number
of spoons
when an equal made of horn are
"
fixed in the rice.
No
serve
forks are
as
used at the Malagasy meals; the hands

substitutes, in
excellent
the
estimation of the
people in general.
is
There
is
generally but one knife, which
used by the slave who divides the portions of meat, or
other laoka, for the several
members
is
of the family.
A
same
separate vessel of rice

fire
in general
cooked at the
for
the
slaves
but when the number of the

is
latter is
small, sufficient rice
boiled for
them as well
their
as for their masters in one vessel,

either at the
and they take
meal
same time or immediately

as
after the family.
As soon
resembling
the
is
rice-dishes
are emptied, a
beverage
into
coffee
made
rice
.by
pouring water
boiled,
the
pan
in
which the
the
rice
had been
and
to the inside
is
of which
for
burnt
had adhered.
of
it,
This
boiled
a short
is
time,
when a portion
poured into a
it is
rice-basin,
given to each individual, by
whom
drunk
without sugar or milk, being esteemed a wholesome pleasant drink.
The
natives
209
wash
their
;
hands
after
each meal in the
manner already described and the teeth are cleansed with water poured into the mouth from a horn, which is not
allowed to touch the
lips.
The
meals.
people are not accustomed to
sit
long over their
The
dinner
is
usually despatched in half an hour,
when all immediately return to their several avocations. The meal at the close of the day is not terminated with
equal despatch, as they seldom leave the house afterwards,
excepting in the long evenings of summer.

It has
been already
stated, that the

;
Malagasy are not
addicted to excessive drinking
the exceptions chiefly occur
on the
coast.
The
general,
is
and indeed almost universal,
beverage of the natives,
water.
They can
any
thing:
scarcely be
said to have the habit of drinkin^
with their
210
meals, as
is
customary among Europeans.
to render
A
it
part of their
meal
is usually of a fluid rather than a solid nature,
and
this eaten with their rice
seems
less necessary
for
them
to drink at the
spirit,
time of eating.
the
distilled
is
known under
general
name
of
" toaka,"
occasionally used throughout the island, but
only as a luxury, not as a
common
beverage.
To
tives
the parts of the coast visited by Europeans,
rum and
arrack have been principally imported, and sold to the na-
by the bottle or cask.

for rice,
These drugs are
also taken in
in
exchange
and ruin.
and have involved many famihes

years ago on the eastern coast.
want
was
It
is
very large
distillery of ardent spirits
established a few carried
on by the agents of a mercantile house having

its
extensive connexions at the Isle of Bourbon, and

tion threatens serious mischief to the people.
opera-
The
ties
use of ardent spirits

is
is
prohibited at the capital
the
law, however,
frequently evaded.
Considerable quanti-
are used there, though for the most part within the
precincts of the palace-yard, whence the laws emanate, and
whence
tors
also indulgences are obtained, since, in a state
of
society resembling that prevailing in Madagascar, legisla-
do not ahvays
feel
bound by
their
own
laws.
How
long the art of distillation has been
known
in the
island, cannot
be ascertained.
inferior,
But
in various
parts of
Madagascar, an
able spirit
is
and
to
a European palate disagree-
prepared, from the sugarcane, or from honey,
or from the berries of the Buddleia MadagascareJisis^ and
some other native productions.

by the
and
is
is
juice
is
also produced
rolia-tree,
which
is
much
natives
relished by the natives,
obtained in a manner similar to that in which toddy
obtained in India.
The
make
a hole in the tree

it,
extending to the centre,
tie
a bottle to
and leave
it
short time to
fill
211
which
is
by the oozing out of the
liquid,
perfectly clear
and mild.
The
cane,
native
still,
by which
simple.
spirit is
obtained from sugarthe
is
rude
and
After
cane
has
been
crushed by rolhng a trunk of a
tree,
or heavy log, over
another log of wood laid upon the ground, and in which a
groove
is
formed
to carry oiF the juice into
some pan
is
or tub,
and fermentation has been allowed, the liquor any large vessel the natives possess
is
;
boiled in
while boiling, the steam

if
carried through a piece of bamboo, or a gun-barrel

is
they
possess one, to the outside of which cold water
applied, for
the purpose of condensing the steam; and the spirit drops

into
some
reservoir, not unfrequently the
open mouth of a
till
native,
whose impatience forbids
his waiting
the reser-
voir is filled.
In preparing the toaka, they usually put into

is
the liquid, while the fermenting process
going on, a small
quantity of soot, for the purpose of imparting to the drink
an agreeable bitter flavour,

than a few bottles of this
family seldom possess
more
spirit,
which
is
generally drank
visit,
on occasion of some social entertainment, as a friend's a return home
from a distance, a marriage, or a purification
by the ordeal.
French wines are
also
known, where the natives have had

is
commerce with Europeans, and the word " divay"

cing the French
intro-
duced into the language as the native mode of pronoun-
"du
vin."
The wines
are not generally

to the stomach, or
is
esteemed.
of a
Something " mafana," warm
more powerful and stimulating kind,
preferred.
Malt
any
liquors have also been introduced, but are not used to
extent by the people.
Milk
is
also
drunk by man 3-, but cannot be
called a
general beverage.
The
people prefer allowing to the calves
the benefit of the supply which nature affbrds, and hence
pa
212
till
butter and cheese were unknown,
made on
the spot
by Europeans, and, though highly esteemed by many of

the natives, have not yet been brought into general use.
Tobacco
is
cultivated
it is
to a considerable
extent by the
Malagasy, but
countries.
not smoked, or used alone, as in other

medicinal properties the natives are
it is
With
its
acquainted, and in their medical preparations
frequently
snuff.
employed, but
In
the
it is
chiefly used in the manufacture of

article,
preparation of this
which
is
taken as a
luxury and a stimulant, the leaves of tobacco are dried and

pulverized
;
to this
powder
is
added the ashes of the leaves

of two-thirds
of a sweet-scented herb, in the proportions

;
powdered tobacco, and one third ashes a small quantity of potash or salt is thrown in, and the whole well mixed is
may be remarked, own mode of The prefer taking it at the nose Europeans doing it. Malagasy, perhaps less wisely, prefer the mouth. The
considered
fit
for use.
The Malagasy,
it
take great quantities of snuffj but have their
former deposit the grateful narcotic in the
nostrils, the latter
pour as much as the space

thence to suck
will conveniently hold
between
the teeth in the lower jaw, and the inner surface of the
under
lip
it
leisurely, they think renders
the pleasure
sniff
more
or
lasting than a
mere
is
hasty, evanescent
could afford.
to
Which custom
is
really
most conform-
able
nature,
best answers the purpose for which
tobacco was originally designed,

essential at present to decide.
a point which
it is
not
The
use
of
the
rongo7ia, or
native
hemp, a powerful
;
stimulant, usually smoked, was formerly very general

fi'equently taken before going to battle,
it
was
on the same prinspirits is
ciple that
an extra allowance of ardent

in
served
before
out to
men
the army
its
or navy of our
own country
going to action, but
use has lately been prohibited by
the government under the severest penalties.
213
There
is,
however, every reason to beheve that

as a
it is still
used secretly
means
of intoxication, especially in the districts
and
villages at
a distance from the capital.
The
ease,
habits of
life
among
the Malagasy being in
many
dis-
respects exceedingly simple,
exempt them from much

life.
and favour the dui-ation of

is
And
though the
healing art
existence
is
comparatively unknown, the period of
not,
on the average, shorter than
human among those
nations in which the study and practice of medicine and
surgery are pursued on the most enlightened and scientific

principles.
Though
of
their
towns and
villages, their
markets
in
and places of public

the
resort,
shew a great disproportion
number
men compared
with the women, and fewer
children than an equal adult population would generally

exhibit in other parts of the world,
it
has been observed by
those
who have
resided long in the country, that there are, in

island,
most sections of the

persons.
an unusual number of very aged
Many
appear, from the
number
of times at which
the festival of Fandroana has occurred exactly at the same

time, (an event which takes place only once in three
thirty years,)
and
and from
their recital of events within their
recollection, to
have numbered on earth nearly one hundred
years; while there are others

attained a
still
who
are
supposed to have
greater age, and who, free from any particuto
lar disease,
seem
be gradually sinking under the accumu-
lated weight of years.
period to which the

vigour,
in
it
As an indication of the protracted human constitution retains its tone and

is
life
is
remarked, that baldness

it is
rarely seen
but
extreme age, and that
late in
before the hair

coast,
becomes gray.
Excepting therefore the swampy

in
and those parts of the island
which, from stagnant waters-
214
miasma produces the
fever
or other causes, the baneful
and
ague so
fatal to
numbers
of the inhabitants, the climate
may
be regarded as conducive to health, vigour, and longevity.
But though the Malagasy are thus favourably situated, they are not exempt from a large measure of disease and
suffering, the universal fruits of sin; while the inveteracy
of
the
one,
and the severity of the
other, are
greatly
increased by the vices to which they are addicted.

their diseases are not
Though
numerous, one of the Missionaries
had, during his residence
among them, not fewer than

brought
between
fifty
and sixty
different kinds of disease
under his notice. Very few of their maladies are acute, they
are chiefly chronic
;
and though many of the

suddenly.
afflicted pass
considerable portion of their lives under various degrees of

suffering,
but few are carried
off"
Many
of the
diseases are
peculiar to
common to other countries, while some are among the latter, the most alarming islands
and destructive
is
the Madagascar fever.

fever, or rather fever
is
The Malagasy
is
and ague together,
called tazn.
in the
This
the most prevalent and destructive
malady
whole island, especially to the Hovas and
Europeans.
Ankova,
Fort Dauphin, and some of the
northern provinces, are the only parts of Madagascar which

are throughout the whole year ravages.
in
exempt from
its
formidable
;
Other parts are exempt

it is
at certain seasons
and
some provinces
so destructive, that certain districts
are said to resemble,
during the months of December,
January, and February, the fabled valley of the deadly
Upas, where the whole atmosphere was loaded with poison.
To
these districts in Madagascar,
condemned criminals are

Mr. Hastie describes
sent,
and seldom survive
for
any length of time, their
arrival in these regions of
death.
a district of this kind, over which he travelled in 1822, as
being
hilly,
215
nearly destitute of wood, and having but few

it
parts covered with stagnant water; yet he states that
was customary
to
send persons who had been supposed to

;
merit death to be confined near the place

the prisoners have always, as
place.
and adds, that

in the
was intended, died

is
The
part to which Mr. Hastie refers,
about two
days' journey from the capital, in a n.n.e. direction.

It is stated as
a singular
fact,
that the fever, (which few
Europeans, or inhabitants of other parts of Madagascar

itself,
it
escape, and to so
many
of
whom among
who
both classes
of,
proves
fatal,) rarely seizes

in,
those
are natives
and
it it
constant residents
prevails.
the parts of the island in which
Some
of the Missionaries are of opinion that
preys exclusively upon strangers and foreigners.

renders
it
This
necessary for foreigners to avoid arriving on the
coast during any of the months in which the fever prevails.
The months
to arrive at
of the
year in which
it is
best for Europeans
Madagascar, are July, August, and September.

this period less likely
Generally speaking, they are during

to
be attacked with fever than in any other part of the year.

is
This
a circumstance of great importance to Europeans
proceeding to Madagascar.
The symptoms
considerably in
early
of the tazo, or
Madagascar
fever,
vary
its
different individuals.
In some cases
symptoms resemble those

This
it
of a violent inflammatory
its
disorder.
is
always considered
worst appearance.
In others
assumes the form of a remittent, and afterwards

fever,
an intermittent This
that
is
attended with chills and shiverings.

its
regarded as
most favourable appearance, and
which
encourages the greatest hopes of recovery.
When
the former
symptoms are strongly marked, there
is
always greafe danger; but when the latter only are present,
recovery
is
generally expected.
216
HISTORY" OF MADAGASCAR.
of the fever, in its inflammatory state, are
The symptoms
a severe head-ache, languor, pain in the eyes, especially on

being turned upwards, dry and hot skin, vomitings, pain in
the
right
side, great thirst,
quick and hard pulse, a very
foul furred tongue, aversion to food, flushing of the face,
restlessness especially at night, loss of sleep, sometimes
dread or
fear, anxiety,
hypochondriasis, delirium, an appa-
rent improvement, and

pectedly.
then death suddenly and unex-
In
its
most unfavourable appearance, the symptoms are
cold and chills in the back, shoulders, and loins, stretching,

lassitude,
and a disposition
to lie
down, with great fatigue

debility, anxiety, loss of
on the least exertion, a feeling of
appetite, thirst, uneasiness of mind, rigours,

stupor.
and sometimes
This form
is first
remittent, and soon changes into

is
an intermittent
cold, hot,
fever,
which
fits
divided into three stages of
and sweating
in a severe degree.
The
sensa-
tion during the shivering
fit is
like being pierced with darts.
This
is
followed,
if it
continues long, with hypochondriasis,
dyspepsia, hepatitis, and dysentery; and unless the fever
ceases with these symptoms,
it
speedily afterwards termi-
nates in death.
In regard to treatment,
if
the patient be robust, and has a

to bleeding,
hard quick pulse, Europeans have recourse

other
thirst
and
means
of reducing the system.

skin,
When
there
is
much
is
and a hot dry
an anodyne antimonial draught

If after this
is
sometimes found
better
useful.
no change
for
the
to
be
observed, mercury
administered,
so
as
produce ptyalism as speedily as possible, which in general

diminishes
or
removes
every
unfavourable
symptom.
Tonics, such as cinchona bark or the sulphat of quinine, are
afterwards administered, and the patient recommended to
drink plentifully of rice-water, or some acidulated beverage.
In the native
217
mode
of treatment, the remedies are few

is
and simple.
When
made
a person
seized with the fever, the
remedy
is
directed by the sikidy, or divination.

is
Inquiry in
such cases
of the sikidy, in which house the patient
must dwell.
Then
they
make
his couch, that

fire,
he may
lie
on the west of the hearth, near the
and administer
to swallow
plenty of rice to eat; yea, they compel him
boiled rice, or any food, as they believe this to be essential

to his recovery.
The most
disorder
is
beneficial
remedy
in
the early stage of the
supposed to be rice-water, which produces peris
spiration,
and
supposed to nourish the system during the
season of aversion to food.

or a
fit
When
the skin
is
dry and hot,

;
of fever
comes
on, the vapour-bath is used

qualities,
leaves,
supposed to possess medicinal
being
first
boiled in
the water. This diminishes the force of the fever, and some-
times checks
it
entirely, if it
be used half an hour before
the regular time of the appearance of the paroxysms which
come on every other

thus
salutary, the
day.
When
the effect of the bath
is
patient will then have an interval of
ninety-six hours in which to recruit his strength, instead of
only forty-eight.
fortified
He
will
thereby be proportionably better

Besides rice-water, an
against the next attack.
infusion of herbs possessing aperient qualities are adminis-
tered
to these they
is
sometimes add a decoction of leaves,

bitter,
which
exceedingly
supposed to act as a
tonic.
In addition to the use of the vapour-bath half an hour

before the paroxysm comes on, they take the
warm
bath
every evening, which, with a quantity of

fails to
warm
drink, never
produce moisture on the skin, and gives the patient
rest in the night.
Capt.
Le
Sage,
who visited
the island on a special mission
from the government of Mauritius in 1816, and proceeded to
218
men by
the ravages of the fever,
the capital, lost most of his
from which his own

relates, in
life
at
one time seemed in danger,
speaking of the treatment he received from the

so
ill
natives,
when
in
as to be unable to speak or
move
" In
this state.
Hector (a native servant) made
me
swallow
;
some water
was very
which different herbs had been boiled
it
bitter,
and made
me
vomit, which I had before
done
in the
morning.
The Ovahs
took
me
fi-om
my
bed,
then, covering
me
well with blankets, placed a pot of boiling
water with different herbs under the blankets, and thus
kept
me
bed,
;
in
the
steam until
was nearly suffocated.
It
having brought on slight perspiration, they replaced

the
me
in
and some time

it
after I
found myself somewhat

I
better
three hours after,
was repeated, and
found myself
greatly relieved.
In three hours more they laid
me
on
my
back, and poured over
me
the same, rubbing
me
well with
the boiled herbs.

fever left
I passed the night
without sleep, but the
me
in the
morning
the fumigation was repeated,
and, after having kept myself well covered for two or three
hours, I
fast."
It
is,
felt so
well as to be able to get
up and
eat break-
from general observance and experience, considered

cheerfulness,
;
that hope, and
with a proper regimen, are

fear, grief,
among
the best remedies
and that
and
fretful-
ness, have a tendency to bring
on the
fever, to increase the
violence of all
it
its
symptoms, and
its
to protract its duration, if
do not promote
in
fatal termination.
I renchman at
Tamatave was,
with the fever
in five days.
:
consequence of
fright,
suddenly seized
he gave himself up to despondency, and died
When
the
efforts are
successful,
symptoms assume an inflammatory character, made to induce a remittent form if these are hopes of recovery are cherished. But if the
;
inflammatory symptoms increase instead of diminishing,
219
little
hope of recovery
is
entertained,
and nature sinks rapidly and death terminates
delirium, deafness, insensibility ensue,
the scene.
Among
in
the diseases to which the Malagasy are exposed
common
with the natives of the adjacent continent of
Africa,
and other parts of the world, the small-pox, which

is
they call nendra^

fearful scourge,
the most formidable.

fatal
How
long this
whose ravages are so
among
is
uncivilized
communities, has existed in Madagascar,

it
not known, but
was found there by the early missionaries, was reported

have been
to
known long
to
before
that
period,
;
and has
of the
recently prevailed
natives, of
an alarming extent
life,
many
every period of
and of
all
ranks, from the

their
highest in authority, to the lowest slave, bearing in
persons the unquestionable marks of the virulence with
which
it
sometimes
prevails.
Apoplexy, epilepsy, and
paralytic
diseases but seldom occur, nor are pulmonary
disorders frequent.
Inflammatory affections of the bowels
prevail at certain seasons, while, as might be expected from
the free use of unripe fruits and vegetables, and unsuitable
meat, few of the natives are exempt from stomach disorders,
produced generally by the crude and unwholesome nature,
and the large quantities, of

frequently occur, and
their food.
Dropsical complaints
many
are afflicted
with a hard and
painful internal swelling in the diaphragm.
Leprosy, which
this
they call 5o^, prevails,
though the unhappy victims of
hopeless disease are not numerous.*
restriction respecting lepers prevails in Madagascar, resembling that
enjoined by the Mosaic code.

ijortions of the
They
are not allowed to
mix with other

all
community, or
to live in the
towns or
villages of the people,
hut in separate houses erected expressly for them at some distance from
others.
220
Tumours
bling what
of various kinds
prevail,
and a disease resemis
is
termed the white swelling,
also occasionally
seen, as well as
tiasis,
more
fi-equent instances of the elephan-
lehibe tongotra.
Instances of deafness or dumbness
rarely occur, though

eyes,
numbers
suffer
from diseases of the
and not a few are
totally blind.
This calamity
is
supposed in many instances to occur from the winding of

silk.
The
toothache
is
not
the
uncommon, while
scrofulous
ulcers,
boiboik,
and
many
of
and
cutaneous
diseases, are general,
and frequently exhaust the patience and European doctors.
and
baffle the skill of native
The
general neglect of cleanliness perpetuates

this class.
many
is
diseases of
Common
;
catarrh and cough often prevail to a
great extent
and though the hooping-cough
not known,
a disease resembling the measles, designated kitrotro, pro-
duces great ravages when

children.
it
makes
its
appearance among
Few
instances of insanity have been
the island, though several cases of idiotism have been

with.
Syphilitic affections are almost universal,
known in met and many
are afflicted with

lives
;
them from
their birth to the
end of their
while few of the inhabitants, either infant or adult,
appear exempt from the sufferings produced by worms.

Scarcely any cripples are to be seen in the island, and
there
is
reason to fear that infants exhibiting any deformity
or obvious defect at birth are secretly destroyed.

It
has been already stated, that the Malagasy are almost

with
the practice
of medicine
entirely unacquainted
or
surgery
and
as far as enlightened or scientific views of the
one or the other are concerned, the healing art may be said
to
be unknown.
There
to
are, nevertheless, a
number
with
of simple remedies,
which they are accustomed

or
casualty,
to resort in seasons of sick-
ness
frequently
the
most favourable
results.
221
is
Many
of their
applications,
there
reason to
believe,
would be much more
efficacious,
were they not so
frequently accompanied with useless and often injurious

superstitious observances.
All diseases
are
supposed to be
inflicted
by an
evil
spirit, either in consequence of evil destiny, the incanta-
tions of
some enemy,
or the neglect of
some required
rite
or ceremony.
of the
Hence, when disease appears, the friends

to
sufferer repair
the nearest
mpanao
ody, who,
by the
sikidy, or divination, professes to affirm the
cause
and nature of the malady, and specify the means that These sometimes consist are to be used for its removal.
simply in change of
air,
by the removal of the patient from

at other times
one dwelling or village to another, or to some particular

spot distinctly specified
:
by a
faditra, or pre-
scribed offering, for the purpose of taking
away the
evil,
which
it
is
imagined or pretended
has occasioned the

in
disease.
this
Whatever injunctions the sikidy may enforce

are
respect,
most scrupulously attended

if
to,
as they
would deem recovery almost impossible

faditra
the prescribed
were neglected.
been instructed
to apply to the
Frequently, in connexion with the faditra, the patient,

in recent times, has
Mis-
sionaries for foreign medicines, with the efficacy of which,
and superiority over
their own, the natives near the capital
have lately become very generally acquainted.

nary practice, however,
native remedy.
is to
The
ordi-
direct the apphcation of
some
The
;
native practitioners in Madagascar
seem
to
be utterly ignorant of the nature of the circula-
tion of the blood
and in the formation of

their
their opinions,
and the prescribing of

ever
is
remedies, no
regard what-
paid to the state of the patient as indicated by the
pulse.
222
of the Malagasy,
The pharmacopceia
limited as
it
though simple and
regards the substances embraced, admits of
considerable variety in their
mode
of administration.
No
mineral preparations, excepting such as have been brought
by
foreigners, are ever employed, unless in this class certain
kinds of red and white native earth, occasionally used, be

included.
Gunpowder is sometimes used. Animal substances

cliicfiy
are employed, but the Malagasy remedies are
vege-
table, consisting of roots, stalks, leaves, flowers,
and seeds
of diiFerent plants,
trees,
or the bark of different
shrubs and
aromatic gums, of which their forests furnish
many
and
of the
varieties,
and several kinds
of
moss and
grass, tobacco,
capsicum.
With the medicinal
qualities of
many
indigenous productions of the country, the natives, especially the
mpana
ody, (Malagasy physicians and diviners
seem
to
be correctly acquainted.
Barks, gums, leaves,
roots, &c., possessing
an aperient, cathartic, diuretic, tonic,

generally
or sedative
property, are
applied in
cases
in
which they are
specifically required.
sometimes to arrest the progress of
Hence they are able the fever, when the

and
decisive.
symptoms
of inflammation are violent
The
remedies taken internally consist of decoctions or infusions.
External applications are in the form of

poultices, or ointments
fomenfat of
tations,
made by heating the
animals.
As a
general practice, the natives bathe less frequently
than those of
many warm
in
climates where water
is
equally
is
abundant as
Madagascar, but the vapour-bath

sick,
fa-
vourite remedy with the

stages of the fever
it is
and frequently
in the early
most successfully applied.

is
The manner
and
in
diflfers
of procuring the vapour-bath

this
singular,
from that ordinarily pursued in

is
country or
Russia, where the steam-bath
in
more general use
HISTORY OF :madagascar.
223
Europe, and where the than perhaps in any other nation of water on a room for baths is filled with steam by pouring
heated stone
simple
;
it
differs
scarcely less from the rude
and
fix
mode
adopted by the South Sea Islanders,

chair,
who
the patient in a sort of open-bottomed red-hot, him in that position over a pile of stones heated
and place
with water. but covered with herbs and grass saturated over a large earthen or The Malagasy seat the patient
several other pan containing water, spreading over him steam large native cloths, and then produce the quantity of
required by casting pieces of iron, or stones heated red-hot,

into the water.
Cold-bathing
is
occasionally resorted to as a
its
means
of
cleanliness, or for the sake of
refreshing effect in a state
of exhaustion
ino-
and
fatigue, but not with a view to its improv-
or nreservinor the general health.
The
natives do not
appear to have recourse to friction in cases of local disease,

but resort to a practice resembling shampooing, as this is employed in the East, and among the South- Sea Islands, viz.
pressing the muscles
of
the
limbs with the hand,
and
pulling the joints during the incipient stages of disease, or

at times of debility
from fatigue.
Native medicines, in great num-bers and variety, are to be
bought in the markets.
The mpanao
ody,
" makers of
charms," are the preparers and venders of medicines. The nostrums are brought either ready for use, or so mixed up
with herbs, barks, and
gums
as to prevent the uninitiated
from discovering of what they really consist. This arises from the anxiety of the respective venders to preserve to
themselves the exclusive advantage arising from the extensive
of medicine
use
that
may by
accident become
popular, and be regarded as a specific in any particular

disease.
Hence
also,
though each nostrum
is
designated
224
for which,
if
by a particular name, and the disease

venders are to be beheved,
distinctly stated, with
it
the
is
an
infallible
its
remedy, are
an enumeration of
virtues almost
equal to the puffing of quack-medicines in more civilized

countries, its composition is kept a profound secret as long as possible.
Besides the remedies applied

present,
when
disease
is
actually
the
Malagasy have what they consider as pre-
servative medicines, which are taken with a view of fortify-
ing the system against any pestilential atmosphere through
which they
may be
called to travel,
and are always taken

to
as a precautionary
measure when they are going
any of
the districts in which the fever prevails.
The
is
chief and only sources
whence
relief or preservation
expected, are from the infallibility of their sikidy,or divi-
nation,
and the
efficacy of the faditra, or offisring, to
remove
malady
they
the
to
evil,
or cause of suffering, as they suppose every

infliction
be a judicial
by the god or gods
whom
to
have offended, or the

of sorcery
their
effects of the spells
and incantations
procure
this
employed by some malevolent enemy

Surrendering
destruction.
themselves, under
impression, to the guidance of their diviners, they dispense
with the
application of any medicinal remedy, and confi-
dently expect a pain in the head or the face, or any affection of that part of
the
body, to be removed by simply
wearing an amulet of stone or wood on the forehead, or a
charm on
the
breast
suspended from a string of beads
around the neck.
Their preservation from pain and disease, though they

use
the medicine prescribed, they also ascribe to their
imaginary gods.
Ramahavaly, the great national
idol of the
Hovas,
is
is
their Esculapius, and,
among
other appellations,
addressed as " The Doctor," or curer of diseases.
When
the
225
army
is
about to pass through a country in which
either the small-pox, or fever, or other disease, has prevailed,
the idol
is
carried
through the ranks, attended by the
idol-keepers or priests,
sprinkle holy-water on
who
oiFer
him
their prayers,
and
the troops, as a
means
of security
against the infections to which
they might be
exposed.
vil-
Whenever any
pestilential disease
breaks out in the
lages near the capital, or
makes
its
appearance among the
inhabitants of the latter, the people repair to the place

of
pubhc
resort
and when assembled, the
idol is carried
it
in a procession similar to that
which attended
through
sprinkled
the ranks of the army, and the people are
all
with holy-water in the
name
of
Ramahavaly, and afterwards
return to their respective habitations, assuring themselves

of security from disease, until
some neglect
of enjoined
observances, some offence against the evil

to the
spirit, or offering
sorcerers, should expose
them
to relentless
ven-
geance and destruction.
226
CHAP.
Practice of surgery
fractures
IX.
among
the natives
Feast on occasion of his recovery Treatment of the sick in general Influence of divination in the selection of means of recovery The or offering to remove pollution The sorona, or supplicatory Usages in reference to death MourningAddresses to the deceased Watching the corpse Presents of money to the chief mourner Method of disposing of the body Manner of interment Cusdote of
Tooth-drawing Native
faditra,
Method of treating wounds and mode of cupping Bleeding Anec-
Radama
oflêring
toms
at funerals in the southern part of the island described
by Drury
Property deposited in the tombs

corjjse
Badges of mourning Period of

rite
Imagined
its
pollution from touching a
duration
or slaughter of bullocks, to avert evil from the deceased
allowed the
of burial Places of sepulture Size and nature of their Costly and gorgeous ceremonies of mourning on occasion of the mausoleum, &c. death of Radama description of of money buried with him number of Cenotaphs Singular
The manao afana, Criminals not

;
tombs
his coffin
silver,
cattle slain
custom of bringing home to the family the bones of those
slain in
war
Monumental
pillars.
In the judicious and successful practice of surgery, the
Malagasy have scarcely advanced further than

pensing of medicine.
in the disless
Their operations are certainly
rude and perilous than those of the South Sea islanders, but
are scarcely performed on better principles.
Many
have
perished, whose lives, operations the most simple and easy

to a scientific practitioner, there is reason to beheve,
might
reduce
;
have preserved
such operations as those required

relief in dropsical
to
a dislocation, or to give
complaints
but
notwithstanding these deficiencies, a simple kind of what
may be termed
them.
native surgery, has long been in use
among
227
Inoculation in case of small-pox, with a view to abate the

virulence of the disease, was introduced
early foreign residents in the island, but
by some
of the
under circum-
stances so disadvantageous as to excite strong prejudices against

its
continuance, or the introduction of the more
effectual antidote to its fearful ravages, vaccination,
which
was subsequently attempted.
We may
and
gather some idea of their heartless cruelty,
of the dreadful apprehensions with

terrific
which the Malagasy
regarded the approach of this

that
it
scourge, from the fact
was their practice formerly, when the small-pox

appearance in the capital, or in any of the towns
made
its
or villages in the provinces, to drive the

afflicted therewith, to
unhappy man
first
a distance from their dwellings, and

bury him alive in a grave
a view to prevent the
either stone
him
to death, or
previously
dug
for the purpose, with
spread of the contagion.
In the reign of Radama, this

its
barbarous practice was discontinued, and in
place, as a
measure of
safety, all
who were
affected with this frightful
malady were removed
to a distance
from the
villages,
where
they were lodged in temporary habitations, and furnished with food until perfectly recovered,
mitted to return to their

aries
when they were performer dwellings. The Missionno other cause,
have great reason to believe, that during the periods
in
which the small-pox has prevailed,
excepting those wars in which the adult population was
exterminated, has destroyed so

tensive
tracts of the country,
and exmany lives now almost without inha;
bitants, are said to
have been depopulated by
its fearful
ravages.
Wounds from a spear or bullet, even where the latter may be lodged in the body, they attempt to heal by washing
the
wound sometimes with a decoction
of herbs, but chiefly
q2
228
parts, without
by closing the apertures, and bandaging the

attempting to extract the substance that
within.
may be lodged
In setting fractures of the limbs, particularly of the arms,

they were generally more successful than in other operations.
When
the skull or the thigh was broken, which

in battle, the
was occasionally the case

to
wounded were
left
perish, without
any attempt
to preserve hfe;
but in
other cases the bones were drawn carefully together as near

as possible in their original form
;
splints of
bamboo were
it
applied to the limb for the purpose of confining
in the
proper position, and the whole

native cloth.
cessful.
carefully
bandaged with
This method of treatment was often suc-
Dislocations of the joints were occasionally reduced; and

it is
stated
by the
natives, that
amputations have been suc;
cessfully performed by the mpanao ody
no instances of
notice
of the
the kind, however, have

Missionaries.
come under the

is
Tooth-ache
of frequent occurrence, for
which
all
the native remedies were generally ineffectual
but after an instrument had been made by Mr. Chick, the

smith connected with the Mission,
the removal of the diseased tooth.
many were reheved by
In general, the natives manifest great aversion to bleeding, although not unacquainted with the beneficial effects by
which
it
has been followed
and occasionally they have

effect
re-
course to a rude sort of
cupping process, which they
by
placing the wide aperture of the end of a horn on the part

affected,
and then drawing out the
air
with the mouth

;
through a small perforation at the point of the horn
and,
having by this simple means raised the skin, they remove

the horn, and puncture the skin in two or three places witli
the point of a knife, repeating the operation until a
suffi-
cieut
229
Whether
quantity of blood
has been
discharged.
this practice is
one of their own inventions, or merely an
imitation of cupping
which they have seen practised by

;
Europeans,
benefits
it
is
not
known
it is
a last resort, and whatever
may be supposed
to confer, its application to
any
whose
lives are
considered of importance, excites the most In illustration of

this,
painful alarm.
the following occurfirst
rence, which took place shortly after the arrival of the
may be adduced. In the year 1820, when Mr. Jones was residing at capital, Radama fell from his horse, and, though seriously injured, great confusion prevailed among the
Missionaries,
the
not
at-
tendants on the king's person, and the inmates of the palace.
The
him
INIr.
domestics ran for the Missionary, but were
all
too
much
alarmed to state what they wanted, or do more than inform

that
the
king
was
injured,
and
perhaps
dying.
Jones follo\ved them, and entered the palace, where the

floor,
king was lying on the

covered with blood.
his face
and
neck being
Fearing the worst consequence from

if
the loss of royal blood, especially
the supply was not
kept up, a number of
live fowls
were brought, and some of
the attendants were busily employed in cutting off the heads

of the fowls,
and pouring the blood from their decapitated

others were
trunks into the king's rnouth;
making loud
lamentations, embracing and kissing his feet; and others
were fanning him, and wailing over him as already dead.
Mr. Jones recommended

king.
their not
adding any more blood
from the fowls, and proposed, instead, to take some from the
Violently opposing
!
this,
the attendants exclaimed,
What so much
was
his
"
take away more blood,
when the king has

be consulted."
lost
already? no
let the sikidy
The
iu
king, though feeble, heard what
was going on; and such

that
confidence
in
the Missionary,
he
said,
; :
230
me
;
a low tone, " Bleed

bleed
allow,
let
the sikidy not be consulted
me
and
immediately."
still
This, the attendants refused to
continued cutting off the heads of the fowls,
and pouring their blood into the king's mouth. by Messrs. Robin and Brady, foreigners residing
capital, the
Aided
at the
king was placed in a chair facing the door, and

to bleed
officer,
Mr. Jones prepared

the vein, a principal
him
but when about
to
open
standing by, seized his arm, and

his
prevented
fixed,
it.
Mr. Jones, however, kept
hand so firmly
released,
that
the
moment
it
his right
arm was
he
accomplished his purpose.

cry was raised to stop
When
the blood appeared, a

fainted
the king and the cry was repeated with gestures

this
was refused
indicating frantic
distraction.
better,
Radama, however, soon

to rest.
revived, appeared
and was put
The
sikidy was then consulted,
to ascertain
who might
enter the house, and approach his

the sikidy directed
majesty.
The
diviners declared that
that none should enter but

ers,
Mr.
Jones, two other foreign-
and
about twelve attendants,

of his
including the king's
mother and three

recover
;
wives.
The king
continued to
and when the benefits resulting from bleeding were
thus apparent, the people poured their benedictions on the
Missionary as heartily as they had before opposed him

and, in order that the advantage
solely
might not be enjoyed

to
by the king, they strongly sohcited Mr. Jones

in
bleed them,
anticipation of a
it
fall,
or other
accident
which might render
necessary.
In a few days the king appeared to have completely

recovered from the effects of his
fall,
and gave,
in
the
course of the ensuing month, a public entertaiimient on

occasion of his restoration.
A large tent was erected in the palace-yard, beneath which

tables
and
seats
were
fixed.
The
feast
was amply supplied
with provisions, wines, &c.
illuminated with lamps.
;
231
brilliantly
and the whole was
The
guests were admitted by tickets, and entered at a
signal given
by the
firing of
cannon.
For the king and

;
part of his family, a table was arranged in the centre

his wives, a table to the north
;
for
and
for the
Europeans, one
to the
south;
the female guests were placed east and
west ; the king's maroserana, (an order of nobles who have

the privilege of access to the sovereign at
all times,) to
the
north; and the judges of the capital were seated to the

south.
Dinner was brought in by the mihtary, every one
putting
down
;
his dish "
by word of command,"
All were
in high glee
spirits,
and Radama, enjoying the most buoyant

festivity
till
kept up the scene of mirth and
cock-
crowing announced to the guests the propriety of bending

their
way homewards.
In cases
to
illness,
But, to return to their treatment of diseases.

of
serious
the
utmost attention
is
paid
the
patient by the
members and
relations of his family,
some of
In this
whom
always remain to nurse and attend on him.
respect their conduct presents a pleasing and striking contrast to that of the
South Sea
islanders,
is
and other uncivi-
lized communities.
No
one
carried
down with
is
cruel
apathy to a river's brink, and
left to
perish there.
The
sikidy is repeatedly consulted, though this
attended with
with some expense ; and its directions are promptly obeyed.
" Change of
air,"
seems an important recommendation

its
with the sikidy, as patients are frequently removed, by

instructions, from
one house to
another, and from one
vil-
lage to another.
No
trait in the
character of the Malagasy
is
more
credit-
able to their humanity,
and more
gratifying to our bene-
232
than the kind, patient, and affectionate
sick.
volent feelings,
manner
in
which they attend upon the
Every thing
within the compass of their means, that can administer to

their comfort, mitigate their sufferings, or favour recovery,
is
provided.
Wives frequently watch on the same couch

fever,
on which their husbands are suffering under the

until the dreadful
malady
seizes them, when, on account of

fatigue, they frequently
their great exhaustion

its
and
become
victims.
The
futurity
superstitions
of
the INIalagasy unfold

all
no bright
beyond the grave, but leave
in
gloom and
uncertainty.
Hence
the relatives, out of kind regard for
the sufferer, carefully abstain from the mention of death,

until its speedy
approach seems inevitable.
Sometimes, besides the application of medicine, change

of
place, &c., the sikidy directs that a faditra be

is,
made
is
that
an offering
for the
removal of the
evil
which
supposed to have occasioned the disease.
The
must be
faditra
is
frequently in itself of
grass, or
a very
trifling
nature, perhaps a
little
an herb, the name of which
carefully specified;
perhaps a small quantity of
earth, taken
from the ground at a spot measured by a given

feet
fi'om
number
of
the patient's door
or
it
!
may be
These
merely the water with which he rinses his mouth
being simply thrown away, according to the direction of

the sikidy, are supposed to bear away with them, in some
inexplicable manner, the causes of the malady in question,
or else to counteract the spell by which, from sorcery or
some unknown cause, the malady has

In addition to the
arisen.
faditra, the sikidy
generally directs
some
is
offering to be
made
of a supplicatory nature.
This
called the s5rona,
and consists of a few beads, or orna-
233
ments, or herbs, and, in some cases, the singing of a child.
In these
to
offerings, prayer is presented,
addressed to God,*
spirits,
the Vazimba,
and
to the
manes, or
of their
ancestors.
And when
the
symptoms assume a decidedly

is
unfavourable aspect, and the post of observation
dark-
ening
every hour,
and hopes of
life
are
surrendered,
arrangements are usually made for the disposal of property

the heir
is
appointed, and the dying man,
if
a parent, com-
mends
the
his children to surviving relatives, frequently
under
evident anxiety, from the gloom and uncertainty surrounding
unknown
future,
is is
upon which
his reluctant
and often
agitated spirit
to
about to enter.
Unlike the Christian,
whom
death
the portal to immortality, the faint and
feeble
Malagasy meets death as an unwelcome doom, which

ascertained that death has taken place, the
he can neither avert nor delay.

After
relations
it
is
and friends maintain the absolute control over

till
their feelings, as the law requires,
evening,t
when they
give unrestricted vent to their grief in weeping, accom-
panied by the
most
frantic
wailing
and lamentations.
Whether from custom

only
side,
or sympathy, or both, so
many
of the
friends of the deceased attend on those occasions, that not

is
the house
filled,
but
many
others
sit
around
it
out-
expressing their sadness by tears and the most melanAll wear their hair dishevelled.
choly cries.
tives also
The
rela-
throw ashes upon their heads, and, though they
do not
their
literally clothe themselves in sackcloth, wear only most coarse and worthless garments, making their
grief in appearance at least the
most piteous and
affecting.
An account
of the ideas attached to this term and service by tha
Malagasy, will be given in a subsequent part of the work. f Should a person die at noon, or even in the moniiiig, no one
to
is
allowed
mourn
till
after sunset.
234
Some
also
of the natives actually tear their hair from their
heads, and violently smite
upon
their breasts.
They
are
accustomed to address themselves in an impassioned

to the
manner
"
deceased in terms resembling the following
fetch
me,
my
relative,
my
beloved relation,
let
me
accompany you
I
in your path;
I
come
for
me,
for
now am
wretched indeed, and
have no one here to be what you
were to
me
!"
As soon a number
as the first paroxysms of grief have subsided,
of the friends present
confer
respecting the
is
interment, the quantity of cloth in which the corpse
to
be folded, and the number of

deceased
cattle to
be
killed.
it
if
If the
have
left
property
of
his
own,
is
taken
for the purchase of the cloth,
&c. required:
not, they
borrow, and immediately send a person to the market to

obtain the articles.
In general, the quantity of cloth used, and of bullocks

killed,
and the number of muskets
fired, all
depend upon
the
amount
of property the deceased has died worth.

lies is
The
and
is
house in which the corpse

clean matting
is
now
lined with cloth,
spread on the
floor.
No
kind of work
performed in
it till
after the interment,
and the termination
of the family mourning.
An
ox
is
usually killed in the evening after the death

it
has taken place, and certain portions of

slaughterer of the animal, to the slave
allotted to the
who
cuts
it
up, to
the owner of the axe used on the occasion, to the owner of
the cord by which the animal had been tied, and then to
the assembled relatives of the deceased.
An
them.
adjoining house
is
appropriated to the use of the
guests during the
night,
is
and meat and
rice provided for
portion
also prepared
for
those
who
are
for
appointed to watch the corpse during the night, and
those on
235
whom
the duty of mourning will devolve in the
morning.
For those appointed
to
watch the corpse, the meat
is
minced, cooked in a large vessel, and then brought into

the house.
The mourners assemble
in the morning,
retire
and the females,

the
having wept over the deceased,
to
adjoining
house, called "Tranolahy," to partake of the provisions.
The
men
collect a little
money
i.
to present to the chief

e.,
*'
mourner, In pre-
called the fahankanina,
causing food."
:
senting
it,
they offer some apology of this kind
" Do not
which
attach any blame to us on account of the
mere
trifle
we
offer
in wiping
away the
tears
of the family."
The
is
person accepting the donation, replies, "

blame, no censure whatever
befall
;
No
there
no
and may the
like calamity not
you
!"
This
finished, the
men
retire to partake of the

it
provisions,
and then send
to the grave, to prepare
finally
for the interment.
In the greatest number mean time wrapped in the

or shroud, which
is
of instances, the
body
is
in the
cloth used as the grave-clothes,
always a red lamba, or cloth.
The
corpse
is
then placed on a bier, and carried to the grave.

it is lifted
As
it is
taken out of the house,
over a bullock
recently killed for that purpose, and over another, (sup-
posing in both cases the party can afford the expense,)

before
it
is
immediately lowered into the grave.

is
The
females sing a funeral dirge as the corpse

the grave
;
carried to
and
at the time of the interment,

is
on reaching
the place of sepulture^ the corpse
placed in the grave

It is
without any further observances or delay.

covered with earth, so
that
it
then
resembles a newly-made
grave within the tomb, and a quantity of fresh charcoal

placed on the corpse to
resist
the too rapid process of
236
The
bier itself
is left
decomposition.
grave, and a
is
by the side of the

occasion.
It
new one prepared on every new

;
considered ceremonially polluted
no one would venture
to
make use of it even for fire-wood. Drury, who was wrecked near St. Augustine's Bay, and
in the south-western part of the island,
to
was sixteen years
from
which he returned
England
in 1717, gives the following
account of the general observances at burials in that part

of the country
:
"
When any one

to the
is
;
dead,
the
all
the relations and neighbours

doleful lamentations,
come
house
women make
and the men

funeral.
coffin
:
assist in the necessary preparations for the

first
In the
place, they pitch
upon a
tree for a
after that, a
cow or an ox
upon
it,
is killed,
and some of
the blood sprinkled

their forefathers,
imploring at the same time

to
and the demons and demi-gods,
aid
split
and
assist
them, and take care that the tree does not
in the falling, or that any one be not hurt either
by cutting
it
or felling
it.
When
the tree
is
down, they cut
about
a foot longer than the corpse, and

wise, (for they always
split it directly length-
make
this
choice of a tree which they
know
will
split
after
manner,) and dig both parts

then carried to the house,
hollow like two troughs.

the corpse being in the
It is
mean time washed, and wrapped

and sewed together.
like
it,
up
in a lamba, or frequently in two,

is
There
frankincense, or a
gum much
burning
all
the time in the house.
above one day, especially
They seldom keep the corpse in hot weather. They put the
it
corpse in the troughs, closing them together, and carry
upon
six
men's shoulders.
Every family has a buryingenclosed

they
place of their own, which no one dares infi-inge or break

into
;
nor does any one indeed attempt
it
this is
and fenced round with
sticks like palisadoes.
When
come near the
place, the corpse is set
;
237
down, and then they

this is
proceed to the rest of the ceremony

fires,
to
make
four
one at each corner, on the outside of the burying-
place.
On
these tires they burn the cow, or ox, which was
killed before for that
purpose
then they divide

in the flames.
it
into
this,
quarters,
which are
all
consumed
After
they sprinkle frankincense upon the coals, and spread them

all
about.
This being done, the chief or eldest of the
family goes close to the entrance of the burying-place, and

halloos aloud several times
;
after a short pause,
he
at
calls
upon
by
is
all
the
dead there deposited, commencing

to the last,
the
earliest
and proceeding
;
and each one
distinctly
his
name
and
in the conclusion tells them, that there

lie
a grandchild or near relation come to

will receive
amongst them,
and that he hopes they

the gate
is
him
as a friend.
Then
opened, and two or three persons are sent in to

is
dig the grave, which
made,
for the generality,

is
seven or
eight feet deep, and the corpse
placed in
it,
and covered
over with the earth, without any further ceremony.

are permitted to enter here, but
tions,
None
some
of the nearest relais
and the bearers
and the door
immediately shut
of people without,
fast again.
There
is
commonly a crowd
who
are busy in carving
up and dividing among themselves

if it
the oxen that have been killed for distribution,
be a
great and rich family that can afford it;
but the poorer
sort cannot gratify their friends in so bountiful a
manner.
They
it
generally visit this burying-place once a year, to clear

it
from weeds, and make

first
clean
but never enter

it."
it
till
they have
It
is
burnt a cow or bullock before
customary at the interment of any of the royal
family, or of the nobles, to deposit large quantities of pro-
perty in
articles
the
as
tomb with the
corpse,
especially
to
of such
the deceased was
known
be attached to
238
during
life.
Affection
prompts
to
this,
as
a means of
administering comfort or affording gratification to the departed.
On
returning home, the chief mourner,
who
is
the nearest relative of the deceased, immediately washes
himself;
some particular kinds

in water, in
of grass are also brought^
and dipped
which the several members of the
family wash themselves.
The garments which have been

also
worn on the occasion must

is
undergo
purification,
which
effected
by dipping their corners in water.

of mourning,
During the season
which in some of
its
requirements continues twelve months, the bereaved family

absent themselves from dances and other public amuse-
ments
but the only badges of mourning, excepting the use
of inferior clothing, already referred to, consists in putting

off all
hair,
ornaments, and neither anointing nor braiding the

it
but allowing
state
it
to
remain loose and dishevelled,
in
which
is
never seen but on the members of the
family in which a death has recently occurred.
The Malagasy seem
to
is
imagine that some degree of
humiliation and self-denial
becoming during the season

it
appropriated to mourning for departed relatives, which,
appears, varies in continuance according to the rank of the
deceased, or the relationship of survivors
hence, while, for
some, mourning
is
continued twelve months, for a son or

is
daughter six months
the usual time.
Not only
is
the
hair dishevelled, all oils or perfumes neglected, the lookingglasses in their houses turned towards the wall, but they avoid
sitting
on a chair, as that
is
by many deemed an unsuitable

grief.
indulgence during this season of
The
national
mourning
for the sovereign
extends through
twelve months, unless the period be shortened by a special
order of the government, as was the case after the death of
Radama.
During the season
of national mourning,
all
labour excepting the culture of the
soil is
230
all
suspended,
amusements are prohibited, and
all
;
means
no one
of indulgence in
is
ease or gratification are laid aside
allowed to ride
;
in the sedan kind of chairs, or to sit in a chair

is
the nation
required to assume the aspect and adopt the habits of
mourning and sadness.
A
sists
ceremony called the Manao afana, takes place

principally in killing a
in
general a short time after the funeral.
The ceremony conof oxen, distributing

it
number
the meat
among
the relatives and visitors, and eating

idea, that in
under an indefinite
the
some way
this service
is
means
of averting evil from the deceased, or preserving

effects of
him from the

contribution
any malevolent feeUngs which may

life.
have been entertained against him during his

of
A small
the
chief
money
is
again presented
to
mourner, accompanied with an apologetic address similar

to those
used at the time of interment

i.
This money
;
is
called the Fialana,
e.
token of departing or leaving either

final leave,
implying the famil^s taking a
last
adieu of
the deceased, or the relations by this ceremony closing the

funeral obsequies, and bidding adieu to the chief
as the representative of the family.
mourner
On
the occasion
now
under consideration, the chief mourner
offers portions of the
meat
in return to those
If the contribution of
who have presented money has been large,

;
the Fialana. the distribuis
tion of
meat
is
large also
if
small, the return
the same
and
it is
generally evident that some
who
attend on these
occasions express their pretended sorrow for the gratification of sharing in the provisions distributed,
and not from

hena
sympathy
vnth. the survivors in their affliction.

is called,
it
Meat
ratsy,
i.
given away on account of the dead

e.
meat unholy; and not any portion of
may be
given to the dogs.
What
is
not eaten must be buried.
240
it
Should any persons be carrying
on the high road, they

of the royal
must
retire out of the
way while a member

article
family passes them, or the bearers of any thing belonging

to the court, or of
any
intended for the use of the
royal family.
At the ceremony
of
Manao
afana,
it is
usual for a senior

children
of
relative of the family to address to
the
the
is
deceased, an admonitory and impressive speech.
This
delivered with considerable formality and apparent gravity.
The
children are formally arranged, the eldest being placed
to the north,*
and the youngest towards the

"
south, a senior
relative
commences, and continues
his exhortation generally

I
in something like the following terms.
am
about to
address you,
arranging a few words to deliver a kabary

;
(message) to you
let
blame be taken from me,
let
me
not
to
be censured
am
rising first to speak,
and am not able
sustain censure, for
blame
is like
fall,
the rain above us, which,

us, 'tis as
it,
though we see
road where
it
not,
may
and injure
a smooth
'tis
we may
slide
without perceiving
as a
stone in a path, against which
we may stumble without
being aware
wherefore do not blame
me
in saying, "
;
Let
not the father be disgraced by his descendants

not be a failure in due service
;
let
there
let
not the young ox be
always lean and small

stunted in their growth
just
let let
not the young rice-plants be

not the performance of what
is
and right be neglected."
The speaker
then expresses
some customary
salutations to the king and royal family,
and afterwards proceeds.
" Here are the relations come
from the north and south, from the east and west.
What
In the interior of the island, particularly in

is
Ankova, a feeling of veneravisit their
tion
associated \\ath the north side of the houses, as the part sacred to
their ancestors.
Should the
spirits
is
of the departed
former abodes,
the northern part of the house
the place in which they would be heard.
you have done
is
241
highly proper and gratifying.
Ye have
and
made no
delay.
Ye have borrowed what was
deficient,
ye have shewn no partiality, but in your respect for the

dead, ye bury the poor equally as the rich."
The
son replies to the address.
"Take ye
confidence
my
father has left
me; and whatever he did towards you,

it
I shall persevere in adhering to
in the steadiest
manner,
and preferring
the heads
left
to
do more rather than withdraw.

the
Here
are
here
mother
here the
its
sisters
take
the
confidence, for ye have me."
The
its
speeches having terminated, the eldest son,
now
representative of the family, the bearer of

responsibihties, presents
honours and
the largest
bullock he can
obtain as a donation to the company, and to the relations
who may not

homes.
It
is
yet have received a gift at his hand.

all
Each
one takes his share, and
retire
to
their
respective
evident
like the
from
various
circumstances,
that
the
Malagasy,
Jews, and some other nations, attach
ideas of ceremonial uncleanness or pollution to a corpse.
No
corpse
is
permitted to be carried to the grave alono- the
high road or principal thoroughfare in the capital, which is thought to be in some measure sacred. Nevertheless, the
same road
is
frequently saturated with the blood of bullocks
killed there for the adjacent market, or with the blood of
human
victims destroyed in obedience to their false and
cruel divinations.
No
one who has attended a funeral

till
is
permitted to
enter into the court-yard of the palace

elapsed, and then he
ted.
eight days have
must bathe before he can be admita total

or partial
In
all
cases,
ablution
of
the
garments of the mourners must take place on returning from a ofrave.
242
one except the sovereign
is
No
ill,
permlttecl to continue,
if
within the precincts of the palace, in case death should
ensue.
No member
corpse, excepting
family, or
may approach any be the corpse of a member of the one recognized as a most intimate friend. Radama
of the royal family
it
waived these national observances in his own attentions to

the late James Hastie, Esq., during his illness, and forming-
part of his funeral procession
but this was a mark of that
monarch's particular esteem
for the British agent,
and was
equally honourable to the king and his deceased friend.
The
tion of
rites of burial
simple and soothing

to the
as the expecta-
them may be
benighted mind of the dying

belief,
Malagasy, who, from his superstitious
cherishes a
hope
that, if
duly performed, his ghost
will
not associate
with wild cats and owls, creatures of

evil spirits,
ill
omen, and with
but enter on a state of repose or enjoyment
are not always rendered.
And
consolatory as the perform-
ance of them
may be
to survivors,
and high as may be the
respect which their due observance secures for the children
and
relatives,
their
who expect the same honours to be paid to own remains cases in which the sanguinary and
heartless usages of
the country do not allow them,

to
ai*e
frequent.
reign,
Criminals sentenced
death
by the sove-
and those pronounced guilty of witchcraft by the

thrown
steep rock, or
ordeal, after being barbarously put to death, are
down a
been
left
on the plain on which they have
killed,
a prey for the hungry dogs which prowl about
the capital or village, and mingle
among
the crowd
is
who
led
throng the path along which the miserable culprit

to execution.
These animals are frequently seen contendferocity,
ing with
their
savage
strengthened
by
hunger,
or
for
prey, before
the
spectators
have
retired,
the
shades of night cover as with a
veil
the revolting scenes
A\hich their voraciousness presents.
243
It is seldom, if ever,
that
more than part of the bones
of the
unhappy wretches
the protection of a grave, remain on the ground on the followinsr mornina-
who have been denied
Another unhappy and
pitiable class are the lepers;
though
they are buried, yet no rites or ceremonies are allowed on the occasion. The grave is dug, not among the tombs of their
ancestors, but in
fully
some unenclosed
place,
and the body, carein
bound up,
is literally
rolled or
thrown
it.
any manner
that can be done without touching
Sometimes, after
being in the earth for twelve months, or a longer period, during which it is supposed it has been undergoing a purifying process,
it is
dug up, when the bones are cleaned,
wrapped
nies,
in cloth,
and deposited, with prescribed ceremo-
among
the sepulchres of the family.
In the case of the bodies of those to whom the greatest respect was paid, and whose tombs are regarded as the most sacred places, the Malagasy do not appear
to
have
had recourse
to
embalming the whole body, or even pre-
serving the heads of the deceased, as is practised in some parts of the East, or in New Zealand and the South Sea
islands.
of the
They are members of
nevertheless able to preserve the bodies the royal family for a considerable time
after death, chiefly
other
powerful aromatic gums,
by the plentiful use of gum-benzoin, or of which abundance is
found in the forests of the island.
Few
of the general indications of the peculiar custom.s of
more remarkable than their places of of their graves are family tombs or vaults. In their construction, much time and labour, and somesepulture.
the Malagasy are
Most
times considerable property, are expended. regulated by the wealth of the proprietor.
The
latter is
In erecting a
tomb, the
first
consideration
is
the selection of an eligible
r2
244
spot.
sites.
Publicity and elevation are their two principal requi-
Sometimes a tomb
is
placed immediately in front of
the house of the person by
whom
it is
built, or it
occupies
a conspicuous place by the road-side.
At
other times,
tombs are
built
on an
elevation in the midst of the capital,
or village, or Avhere two or
more roads meet, and very
frequently they are built on the outskirts of the towns
and
villages.
site
The
made
is
having been
earth,
chosen, a large
excavation
is
in the
and the sides and roof of the vault

slabs of stone.
are formed of
often
immense
Incredible labour
employed
in bringing these
is to
slabs from a distance
to the spot
where the grave
be constructed.
When
tliey are fixed in their
appointed positions, each side or
wall of a vault or tomb, six or seven feet high, and ten or twelve feet square,
is
often formed of a single stone of

sort of subterranean
the above dimensions.

built; which, in
room
is
thus
some parts
of the country,
is
lined with
rough pieces of timber.

earth to the
The
stones are covered with
height of from fifteen to eighteen inches.

is
This mound of earth
surrounded by a curb of stoneis
work, and a second and third parapet of earth
formed
within the lower curb or coping, generally from twelve to
eighteen
inches
in
height,
each diminishing
in
extent
as they rise one above another, forming a flat pyramidal
mound
facing
of earth,
composed
of successive terraces with stonein
and border, and resembling,
appearance, the
former heathen temples of the South Sea islanders, or the
pyramidal structures of the aborigines of South America

the summit of the grave
rose or white quartz.
instances, very
is
ornamented with large pieces of

stone- work exhibits, in
The
many
good workmanship, and

the native masons.
reflects great credit
on the
skill of
Some
of these rude
structures are stated to be twenty feet in width, and
feet long.
245
fifty
The
large slabs used in forming the tombs, as described
already, are usually of granite or sienite.
The
natives
have long known how to

the mountain mass by
detach blocks of
of burning
stone
from
means
cow-dung on the
part they wish to remove, and dashing cold water along

the line on the stone they have
heated.
Having been
layers,
thus treated,
the
stone easily separates in thick

of levers.
and
is
forced
up by means
to
" Odies," charms,
are employed in marking out the desired dimensions of the slab,
and
their
virtue
is
foolishly attributed
the
all
splitting of the stone,
though they well know that not

split
the " odies" in the
kingdom would
one stone,
is
if
the
usual heat were not applied.
When
the slab
detached,
246
it,
bands of straw are fastened round

in
to prevent
breakage
slab,
the removal.
Strong ropes are attached to the
and, amidst the boisterous vociferations of the workmen,

it is
dragged away from the quarry.
In ascending a
hill,
they place wooden rollers under the stone, and
move them
in drag-
forward as
it
advances.
five or six
Sometimes
hundred men are employed
ging a single stone.

acting as
man
usually stands on the stone,
director or pioneer.
it,
He
holds a cloth in his

to
hand, and waives
with loud and incessant shouts,
animate those who are dragging the ponderous block.

his
is
At
shout they pull in concert, and so far his shouting

of real service.
Holy water
is
also sprinkled
till
on the
stone as a
after
its
means
of facilitating its progress,
at length,
immense shouting,
the
sprinkling,
and
pulling, it reaches
destination.
When
tomb
is
erected for a person deceased, but not

is
yet buried, no noise

construction.
made
in dragging the stones for its

is
Profound silence
regarded as indicating
In some cases a corpse
till
the respect of the parties employed.

is
buried in a dwelling-house pro tempore,

is finished,
the
new
to
tomb
its
when
it
is
disinterred,
and removed
final resting-place
with the usual ceremonies.
It has
been already observed, that lepers are not interred

;
in the burying-places of the families to which they belong
but after they have been under ground a year, the relatives
are permitted to take their bodies up, and deposit
them with
the customary ceremonies

ancestors.
among
the sepulchres of their
The tombs
are occasionally washed with a mixture of

;
lime or white clay
and, though literally " whited sepul-
chres," furnish to the eye of a traveller a pleasing variety

in the objects
around him.
The
entrance to the vault
is
covered by a large upright block of stone, which
is
247
removed
when a corpse
at
is
taken
in,
and fixed
in its
former position
the termination of the ceremony. are
Small native fans
(fikopana)
used in driving insects
from the corpse
while
it
;
remains in the house, and on the road to the

these are
left
grave
stuck in the earth over the grave.
High poles
the
are fixed in the earth around the grave, and
horns of the bullocks killed at the interment,
are
suspended on the tops of the poles, to indicate the wealth

of the family, or
the value of the tribute thus rendered
by survivors
to the
memory
of the departed.
In some cases the horns are stuck in the earth at the corners of the tomb, or fixed in the form of a fence in the
earth round the edge of the parapet.
This
is
considered
248
highly ornamental.
pole with a white flag at the top,

in the funeral procession, is also
which had been carried
frequently placed at the east end of the tomb.
Formerly
the flag consisted of plain white cloth, but since the
know-
ledge of letters has been introduced, the flags in

instances have the
many
names
of the deceased,
and the dates
of their death, exhibited in letters of blue or other dark-
coloured cloth.
Those who are desirous
of paying great respect to their
deceased relatives, and of preserving their tombs in good

repair,
keep the ground immediately around the graves
in neat
and excellent
and
free
order, preserving
it
perfectly
smooth
and
level,
from weeds.
At
coast
the capital, and throughout the interior, the tombs

;
are unenclosed
but the tribes on the greater part of the
surround their graves by a strong, but neat and
durable, paling, or other fence of wood.
Many
early
life,
of the
Malagasy begin
to
erect their tombs in
and make
their completion through a series of
years one of the most important objects of their existence,
deeming a splendid or
bodies, the
costly depository for their mouldering

in
most effectual means of being held

posterity.
honourable
remembrance by
This practice induces the
belief, that in the
creed of a
Malagasy, the most complete preparation of a grave constituted the best preparation
for
it,
the grand
reverse,
means
of
securing bliss beyond the tomb.
The
however,
is
we know
life
to
be the
fact, so far as
a future state
con-
templated by the aid of that revelation which alone brings
and immortality
to light
but an immortality of fame
was the only immortality

taught to aspire.
worthier object.
after
which the Ma'agasy
A\'ere
They knew no
higher, and pursued no
The
249
sentiments of the nation on this subject, the im-
portance attached to profusion of expenditure, and gorgeous
and imposing pageantries

In the number of oxen
in
mourning, are most distinctly
exhibited whenever the death of a sovereign takes place.

killed,
and amount of property
consumed, the funeral and mourning ceremonies observed at the death of Radama's father probably exceeded all that
had previously taken place in the country, as it is supposed that about 10,000 head of cattle were slaughtered on that occasion. But the observances on that occasion were greatly
surpassed by those which followed the decease of the late
monarch Radama, which took place
at the capital in the
month
of August,
828.
On
the morning of the
3d
of August,
it
was
officially
proclaimed that the king had retired," had gone to his fathers ;" and it was ordered that all, of every rank and
age, male
;
and female, with a few exceptions, should shave the head that the females should weep that no showy dress nor ornament should be worn that no perfume or unguent
;
;
should be employed; that no dress but the lamba should be It was worn, and that not allowed to trail on the ground.
further ordered, that no one should ride on a horse, or be carried in a chair; that the work at the ordinary handicrafts
should be suspended
that no one should salute another on
meeting, nor play on any instrument, nor dance, nor sing that no one should sleep on a bed, but on the ground that
;
no
one should sit on a chair, or use a table
that no one
should use ardent spirits and the punishment of decapilast tation was threatened to those who should violate this
prohibition.
The
walls of the palace,
and of Besakana, a house
called
white cloth, the throne of the kingdom, were covered with crimson and splendidly ornamented within with tapestries of
250
and purple
cloth
silk.
and pink
silk.
The gateways were hung The roof of the house
with scarlet
in
which the
;
king had died was covered with crimson cloth
besides
which, large quantities of rich gold lace and fringe were em-
ployed in the decorations.

the court-yard.
Troops were stationed round

and band wore a white lamba
The
officers
over their uniforms, white being the mourning colour in
Madagascar, and crape on the arm.
were
fired every half hour.
were distributed by the
Cannon and musketry Immense numbers of bullocks queen among the people.
and continued
every
On
the morning of the 11th, the firing of cannon and

at daybreak,
;
musketry commenced
half hour through the day
and
at eight o'clock the military
assembled in the palace-yard, every avenue towards which
was thronged with the tens

the greatest order prevailed.
tirely occupied,
of thousands assembled; but
The
space within was enleft
excepting a narrow passage

officers.
for the
entry and exit of the
Troops in
full
uniform lined
the passage from Trano-vola, where the king had died, and
where the corpse

v/as
still
remained, to Besakana, whither

state.
it
now
to
be conveyed in
The
;
place was
filled
with
the tsirondahy,
or king's body-guard
;
the female singers

of females holding
kneeling to the ground
and a number
the fans usually carried to the grave with a corpse.
The
youths in personal attendance on the king, and the principal

officers
conducting the ceremonies, were also present.

o'clock, the relatives of the king, the
left
About nine
princesses,
young
and the wives of the judges,
the palace.
They had been

of the departed
to take their last farewell of the
remains
monarch
and
retired,
according to the
their ser-
custom of the country, carried on the backs of

vants,
weeping
of
bitterly the
whole way, and unquestionably

sincerity of feeling.
many
them with the utmost
Tlie
great
251
to beat in the
drum was then

at
struck,
and continued
manner usual
European
military funerals.
out, covered with
lace.
By eleven
o'clock the
pall,
body was brought

richly
a splendid scarlet
ornamented with gold
This was carried towards the throne by sixty

rank.
officers
of
The
corners of the pall were held by Mr. Brady,

;
major-general
Corroller, prince
and general
Louis Gros,
All
king's architect;
and the Rev. D. Jones, missionary.
the Europeans were present, and joined in the procession.
The
sight of the coffin, at the
moment
it
was brought out of and wailing,
the palace, awakened afresh the lamentations of the people,
and renewed their loud and

if
frantic groans
as
they had a second time lost their sovereign.
The
carried,
v.hole of the passage along
which the corpse was

;
was carpeted with blue cloth
a fine bull was also
killed near the throne, just before the arrival of the
body;
the
and over the expiring animal, weltering

corpse was carried.*
in its blood,
The
queen, surrounded by a strong
guard, stood at the door of
Maso Andro,
while the body
was carried
to
the throne, and appeared
much
sat,
affected.
Kaketaka, the infant daughter of Radama,

the
dressed in
European manner, with her nurse,

coffin,
at another door.
pall,
The
covered with the scarlet
was placed on a
bier in the house, which was strongly
perfumed with fragrant
gums, and surrounded by a guard kept on duty through the

night
*
The
origin of tlie
custom of
killing the bull
on the occasion,
is,
like
that of
many
It
others practised by the Malagasy, involved in impenetrable
obscurity.
does not appear to be a
sacrificial serxice,
;
as there
it is
is
no
prayer nor invocation offered, nor any priest to officiate
merely
shedding blood.
in
it.
But the natives have an idea of something emblematical
The lion being unkno\vn in the coimtry, a bull is with them the recognized emblem of courage and strength, and hence becomes with the people an emblem of the monarch. One of the most noble is selected
for the occasion, and over
it,
while just expiring,
tlie
corpse
is lifted.
252
the following day, the 12th, the ceremonies were re-
On
newed.
The
Missionaries and foreigners were admitted to
the palace-yard, to unite with the natives in paying their last

tribute of respect to the
memory
of the deceased
and they
joined the bearers in conveying the body to the tomb.
The
side
ground was covered with blue cloth

feet of the distance
;
for
about two hundred
and the whole passage on each

under arms.
was lined with

finest bulls
soldiers
Seventy-two of the
belonging to the late monarch were killed at
the time, and the corpse was carried over

described.
them
as already
The
singing females, prostrate on the ground,
occupied almost every foot of the side of the passage along
which the body was borne, nor would they move, though
nearly trampled to death by the bearers and attendants.
The yard
by the
in
which Trano-vola stands was thronged with

square a magnificent cata-
mourners, excepting a square in the centre, which was kept

military.
Within
this
falque had
been prepared, surrounded by a balustrade
covered with white cloth, and with pillars at each corner covered with scarlet cloth and gold embroidery.
pillars
To
the
were attached purple cords, on which were suslustres used
pended the lamps and

scarlet cloth
by Radama.
The
plat-
form supporting the body was splendidly
hung with
rich
and gold and

the
silver lace
the whole presenting
a gorgeous and imposing spectacle.
The members
within
of
royal
family placed themselves
the balustrade;
and a large
number
of
females
dressed in white, wearing long black sashes, and having

fans in their hands, surrounded the canopy.
A large
dollars
silver coffin
was prepared by the native
silver-
smiths, in the manufacture of which about fourteen thousand
were expended.
in
It
was about eight feet

in height.
in length, four
and a half
width, and the same
The
dollars had
been melted, and beaten into
silver rivets.
253
plates,
which were fastened with

its
Its
workmanship was rough, and
appear-
ance clumsy ; but the feeling which dictated so liberal an

expenditure of wealth, as a tribute of respect to a prince
who deserved
able.
it
so well, was gratifying and highly honour-
An
:
inscription
was made on a
silver plate,
is
and
fastened to the coffin, of which the following

lation
a trans-
Tananakivo
August, 1828.
RADAMA MANJAKA,*
Unequalled among the Princes.
Sovereign
Of
the Island.
The
natives
had been occupied
for several days in pre-
paring a large tomb, or mausoleum, consisting of red earth
and roughly-cut blocks of stone.

thirty feet square
The
building
is
about
and sixteen
feet high.
A
it
small apartin
ment has been subsequently

style,
built over
European
interior of
table,
which
is
surrounded by a veranda.
is
The
;
the upper
room
elegantly ornamented
and a
two
chairs, a bottle of wine, a bottle of water,
and two tumblers,
are placed in the room, conformably with the ideas entertained by most of the natives, that the ghost of the departed
monarch might occasionally

ashes,
visit the resting-place of his
meet with the

to
spirit of his
father,
and partake
of
what he was known
be fond of in his lifetime.
About
six o'clock in the evening of the 12th, the corpse

its last
was removed to
in the tomb.
resting-place in the silver coffin
which had been previously placed on a framework of wood
prodigious quantity of the most valuable
personal property belonging to the late king, was buried
Radama,
Kinj^.
254
Of
these,
with the body.
one of the Missionaries has fur-
nished a catalogue, amounting to upwards of one thousand

articles, including,
among
others, the following

1
49 Hats and caps.

155 Coats and jackets.
Gold spoon.
Silver plates. Silver salad-dish.
Silver curry-dish.
2
1
96 Waistcoats.
171 Pairs of pantaloons.
1
1
Some of
the above articles were richly ornamented with
Pair of silver candlesticks,
4 Fine writing-desks,
1
gold lace.
Glass chandelier.
Pair of crystal decanters.
53 Pairs of gloves. 47 Neckcloths or cravats. 54 Pairs of stockings.

37 Shirts.
24 Looking-glasses.
1
4 Crystal dishes. 1 Gold-headed spear.
38 Pairs of boots and shoes.

9 Pairs of gold epaulettes.
1
gold vase, present from George IV.

in 1822.
2 Superior gold sword-sashes. 2 Pairs of pistols, richly ornamented with gold. 10 Swords and sabres.
1
2 Gold musical boxes.

18 Gold rings for the fingers.
Fowling-piece with
paratus.
all
its
ap-
3 Watches. 2 Gold Avatch-chains. 1 Silver tureen and ladle. 2 Silver dishes.
24 Muskets, ornamented with gold

and
1
silver.
Air-gun.
spears.
24 Native
Six of the king's favourite horses were killed

of wine was
cask
buried
opposite to his
tomb
and a brass
cannon was burst and buried.*

10,300 Spanish dollars were buried with the king, and
13,95*2
oxen distributed among the mourners assembled in
the capital.
The
articles
distribution
of the
oxen, and the
burial
of
the
of apparel, might be designed
to testify
respect
The cannon was loaded
as that on
so heavily as to burst, on the same principle which they killed the favourite horses of the king, either from
an opinion, that having once belonged to the king, they could not with pro-
by any other person ; or that the spirit, in visiting the place where the body was laid, might be satisfied on perceiving that the survivors had not appropriated to themselves the treasures of their predecessor.
priety be used
for the
255
it
memory
of the departed sovereign; but
seems
scarcely possible that
the immense sums
of
money were
governwith the same view consigned to the grave. The ment probably took advantage of the popular sentiments
of the of the nation in favour of the inviolate sacredness of its treasure in a thus to deposit so large a portion
tomb,
place, in
which
it
would be
safe
amidst any
civil
commotion
it
that might ensue, and
to which, in
any emergency,
might
have the readiest access.
The
violation of the royal
tomb
was one of the highest crimes that could be committed,

as was
shewn
it
in the fate of
in
an unhappy man who was
convicted of
Radama's
reign.
Whether Radama's
not, is not
father
had
all his
specie
marked
or
known, but the dollars buried in the tomb with had each a peculiar mark. On one occasion, during him the early part of Radama's reign, a dollar was brought to
the mother of
Radama, then
living in the palace.

I
On look-
ing at the dollar, she remarked, "
have seen
this before !"
and then declared
be one that had been buried with investigation proved this the corpse of her royal husband some of to be the fact that the tomb had been entered, and
it
to
the dollars
stolen;
and the man who was detected, was
put
to
death by a slow process of the most cruel torture
that the native ingenuity could devise.
Besides tombs, there are also cenotaphs

consist of a low wall, built
is
these generally
intended for
on three sides of a square. This the ghosts of those who die in battle, and
whose bodies have not been found.
Their ghosts,
it
is
supposed, are allured to repose in sacred spots, thus reared

for
them by the hands
of friends,
and thereby
find that rest
which otherwise they would have
sought in vain, while

ill
wandering with the owls and animals of
omen
in the
256
forests, or
paying unwelcome
visits to their
former dwellings,
and disturbing their survivors.

All possible means are employed by the friends of those
who
fact,
die in battle, or during a campaign, to ascertain the
and then
to have the
bones of the deceased carefully
brought home
it
for interment.
Hence, on setting
off to war,
is
customary for friends to give a mutual pledge,
that,
should one of them

obtain,
die, the survivor will endeavour to
and convey the bones of
the
deceased to
off
his
relations.
In such cases, they carefully scrape
every
particle of flesh from the bones, bring the latter with great
labour and fatigue from the most distant

country, and deliver
parts of the
them with great care

they are
to the friends of
the deceased, by
whom
;
received
with
all
the
expressions of mourning that attend those
who
die in the
midst of their families
the bones are afterwards buried with
the usual funeral solemnities.
The Malagasy have

pillars, of
also
a custom of
erecting
stone
considerable height, as memorials, though with-
out any kind of
mark
or inscription on them.
These are
called fahatsiarovana,
is
"causing to remember."
their
name
also given
them derived from
position, mitsan-
gambato, " an elevated stone."
No
particular intention is
proposed by these, beyond that of perpetuating the memory

of the fact, that such an one
(known
to his family) erected
such a stone to
commemorate
himself.
During the
latter years of the
Mission in the island,
several of the native Christians were
removed by death,
;
and were interred with the
rites of christian burial
the
Missionaries attending, and engaging in services resembling

those performea on similar occasions in England.
257
CHAP. X,
Native expressions of thankfulness
Different forms of
siilutation
Customs
cattle
observed on the return of the sorereign to the capital Prevalence of common swearing among the natives Their use of abusive language
Smoking Feasting Hunting wild by Drury Hunting the Description of the mode of taking wild
Amusements of the Malagasy
cattle,
Fishing Mode of catching the crocodile Games at kicking Throwng at the target The katra or drafts Musical instruments The lokanga and valiha, drums, Singing Character of the songs
wild boar
fifes
Song for the dead Dress of the Malagasy Materials of which composed Manner of wearing The salaka The kitamby The lamba or mantle Different kinds of lamba manufactured by the natives Coverings for the head Native sandals
Specimens of native poetry
it is it
Articles of foreign manufacture used as clothing in Madagascar
Fond-
ness of the natives for ornaments

shells
Tragical occurrence among the

innovation.
Ornaments of ivory Artificial flowers Perfumes, native and Ornamenting the body with scars Mode of dressing the hair The European mode of wearing the hair, introduced by Radania
foreign
Silver
chains
Silver
rings, beads,
native females in consequence of the
The
prevailing character of a people
is
often
more
distinctly
seen in their sports and pastimes than in their occupations

the latter they generally follow from necessity, the former
always from choice
the latter
is
often in opposition to all
their inclinations, the former
is
always in accordance with
the spontaneous bent of their tastes and desires.

also in general a striking resemblance
There
is
between the habits
and the amusements of nations:
the
;
amusements
and
to
of the
Malagasy, we are about to notice
them a few
remarks on the mode of acknowledging favours, exchanging

salutations, with other social customs, as the latter are often
peculiar and characteristic, will form an appropriate introduction.
258
feeling of gratitude has
Whether the noble and generous
much place amongst the Malagasy has been questioned. Though often characterized by extreme apathy, they are
certainly susceptible
of tenderness
of feeling,
and their
customs furnish various modes of testifying their sense of any

acts of kindness
shewn them, and
their
language contains
many forms
live to
of speech expressive of thankfulness.

:
The
fol-
lowing are among those in most general use
"
May
you
grow old
may you
to
live
long
may you
live
sacred*
may you
ple
see, or obtain, justice
you be loved by the sovereign
may you be raised

all their
is
from the sovereign may may you be loved by the peothe highest rank and, not
least in
"
!
their estimation,
may you be
blessed with a large family
With
action
as
if
expressions of thankfulness, considerable
used: sometimes the two hands are extended open,

;
to present
or the party stoops
down
to the
ground,
the
and clasps the
legs, or
touches the knee and the
feet, of
person they are thanking.
of
The Malagasy have many different forms of salutation, which they make liberal use in exchanging the ordinary civilities of good neighbourhood, and the common transactions of
life,
and which form an important part of the
etiquette regarded by
them
as essential to good behaviour.

is
Hence
stiff,
in their general intercourse there
much
the
that
is
formal,
and
precise, at least
much
that appears
so
is
to a foreigner; while
amongst themselves
of
whole
merely an
intimation
politeness
and good breeding,

of
whereby they maintain a higher degree

society not
courtesy and
in a
state
mutual respect than might be anticipated
of
more
refined than that of Madagascar.
When
upon the
the natives meet each other, instead of observations

state of the
*
weather, which they would consider
Secure from the power of charms or sorcery.
259
wholly superfluous, they generally propose some kind of

inquiry which a stranger to their habits would regard as
impertinent.
Their forms of salutation vary with the

on which they are called
the road, one
is
different occasions
forth.
On meeting upon
is
man would
say to another,
" Sara, sara tsy ambaka,'' which

intended.
an assurance that no fraud
Females sometimes use the same expressions

it is
but there are forms peculiar to the sex, which
deemed
more
correct for
them
as.
to
adhere
to.
variety of questions
?
then follow, such
Whence
are you from
Whither are
in
;
you going ?
all
which are generally answered

as.
the most
or,
vague and indefinite manner,

yonder, to the east.
From
the north
Goin"-
On
say,
returning after a long absence,

:"
it
is
customary
to
"Tongava soamantsara
"
Have you
arrived safely
" Tahin andriamanitra, azo ny saotra nareo :" and well ?' " Blessed of God, your blessing (or benediction) is obtained."
The
questions as to the object of the journey then become

if
more minute, and the answers more vague, as

to baffle rather
intended
than allay the curiosity of the inquirer.
In that part of the island where Drury was a captive, he

states that the usual
form of salutation from wives
to their
husbands, and from slaves or vassals to their chiefs, was to

crawl upon the ground and lick their
feet,
on
their return
home from
is
battle or from a journey.

first
In ordinary intercourse, on
usually asked
if
entering a house, a person

to which, of course,
he has arrived;
he
answers in the afiirmative.
He
:
is
with the charge to the inmates

for the stranger
!"
then asked to come in " Behold, spread a mat

salutations
Having entered, the usual

asks.
pass;
and then the stranger
How
are the family?
We
are even here, the family, even
Veloma,
"
all well.
To which is answered,
live 1"
s
260
retiiniing to his
The customs observed by Radaraa, on

capital after war, or on
any other important occasion, which
had called him from home, may not be deemed unworthy

of notice.
While
still
at a considerable distance
from his
capital,
he
usually sent a messenger or letter to announce his arrival
"And I, saith Lahidama Manjaka, tell you, the twelve

(that
is,
females,
the twelve wives of the sovereign), and the judges,
and
all
the heads of the people, that I
am coming home;
I
on
Friday, (should that day have been selected),

this place,
depart from
and on three returns of Friday
I shall arrive at
Tananarive
well, for I
so
inform you.
Tell
all
the people to dress
am
coming."
On
would
receiving the message, the twelve wives and judges
send a crier
to
tell
the
markets, saying, "I, saith

of
Lahidama Manjaka,
the
day.
the Ambaniandro, (subjects
Hova government) that I am coming to town on such a The brown cloth is to appear (meaning, that they
are not to dress beyond their ability
which injunction
is
received as implying that they are to dress as well as they

can.)
let it
Come up
;
to
Tananarive, that we
will attend
may
salute
him
place
be seen who
on Friday
at his
own
in
Andohalo
say the judges and the twelve wives."

till
When
the king had advanced
within about twenty
miles of the capital, cannon were
fired, to
announce the
circumstance, and orders sent to Tananarivo, with directions

as to the salutes, the marshalling of the troops, sending
palanquins, and other preparations for a public welcome.
Prior to the king's entrance into his capital, a vast concourse

of people, assembled from the districts, v/ere seated on the
ground with much order, awaiting the appearance

sovereign.
of their
The judges occupied
their
own
station
on the
occasion, giving orders that those
who were
to cheer should
cheer, and those
261
while
00."
all
who were to clap their hands should clap, were humming or singing the national " Hoo-oofemales
The
sang some detached
expressions in
praise of the monarch, such as,
Ny
Andrianay Ehe
king.
Tsara Andriana
Ehe
O our God.
O our
nay
is
a good king.
Ny Zanahary
a good king.
Tsara Andriana
is
While the vast concourse of people were thus occupied

shouting, clapping, hooing, and singing
air
till
the earth and
seemed
to reverberate
with their demonstrations of joy,
the king advanced amidst the shouts and singing of his
own immediate
attendants, the roar of cannon,
and the
music of his band.
Whether he arrived on
his horse, or in
a chair or palanquin, he must alight on the holy stone in
Andohalo, and from thence proceed to the temporary stage

erected for the day, where on taking his seat the national
air
was played.
The
people then saluted the king
twenty,
thirty, or forty
thousand voices uniting in one shout.

consists
The
the
tulate
salute
of a few
is
words, merely to assure
monarch that no deceit
intended, and to consfra-
him upon having obtained the kingdom. Radama then rose and replied. "Well well
!
beloved,
even well." After which he recounted his pedigree, repeated

his inalienable
right to the throne,
assigning reasons for
remaining absent so long, and recounting his achievements
and the progress of the war.
The customary
after which,
hasina, or tribute, was then presented,
amidst shouting, singing, and music, he withstage,
drew from the
and retired
to his palace
on entering
which, his troops saluted him, presenting arms and saying,
may
O
you
live to
become
old,
sire may you not
suffer
affliction.
Veloma
(replied the king, ) ry malala
live long,
beloved.
Corresponding ceremonies usually attend the
public or state
movements
of the sovereign of Madagascar.
262
swearing
is
Common
a
almost universal, yet swearing of
much
less
profane character than that too frequently
heard in more civihzed countries.
In familiar conversation,
and
especially in
making
sales in the markets,

is
an oath,
meant by way
sentence.
of confirmation,
uttered with almost every
The
chiefly
people swear neither by
God nor by
their idols,
but
by
their
mother or by the sovereign.
During the
time of the late king, the general custom was for the males
swear by the king's mother, and the females by the king. Radama, however, disapproved of this, and sent a sharp
to
kabary, or
official
message, to the markets to forbid
it,
desiring that the
name
of the king
and
his m.other should
not be used on every

to
trifling occasion,
but only appealed
on
affairs of
importance, and in a solemn and delibe-
rate manner.
The
people were
still
allowed to swear by
parents, sisters,
and brothers.
In abusive language the Malagasy are not deficient, and,

lest it
should
fall
into disuse, a
common
practice exists, by
way
of
amusement,
for persons to
form themselves into two
parties in order to abuse each other in the
most virulent
languao-e their imaginations can invent

in the
and those who excel
most abusive vituperation, obtain the plaudits of the
spectators.
Of
the
amusements
of the
Malagasy, as they consist
chiefly in bodily exercises, a brief notice will suffice.
Many
an hour
is
spent by them,
when not occupied with

for observing the
business, perched
their houses, or on
upon
their
heels on the walls around
any convenient spot

is
monotonous
the
little
that
to
be seen.
To
take a walk for
mere
gratification of the exercise, or, in other words, to

sit still,
walk about when a person might
would be regarded
by them as an approximation to insanity.
The Malagasy
think
it
263
much
most
wiser not to wear}^, or even to exert them-
selves for nothing.

of the
Yet some
of their
amusements
of repose.
consist
violent athletic exercise,
which would seem
incompatible with their apparent love

truth
is,
The
that, like
most other human beings, they are acted

presented to their notice, their
it
upon by immediate excitement, so that when an object with

which they are pleased
is
energies are roused, and they pursue
with great avidity
but
no sooner does the excitement subside, than they

existence, scarcely distin-
return to their quiet, inanimate
guished from the repose of the mere animal.
Highly consistent with
this state of inanity is their love of
smoking
in
an amusement to which those who are deficient

it is
mental resources, and whose object
to
surrender
themselves as passive recipients of a sort of animal dreaming, yet
most unproductive of enjoyment, are particularly

In one part of the island a practice of smoking
addicted.
rongona, or native hemp, prevails, which Drury describes as

a plant that grows about five feet high, and bears a small long leaf with a pod, which contains about a dozen seeds
like
hemp-seed.
These
leaves
and
seeds
are
mixed
together,
and
laid in the
sun
for three or four
days succesfit
sively until they are very dry, and, thus prepared, are
to
be smoked.
The
pipes used for this purpose are
made
of
reeds, or rather small canes.
Sometimes a long
is
shell is
used.
The
and
his
quality of the plant
such as to produce
intoxication, while the eyes of the

fiery,
smoker look red and

and savage.
for,
whole appearance
fierce
It is
easy to distinguish those

the effect
lasts,
who smoke
the rongona,
while
they are more vigorous and resolute, often
acting like
madmen.
The
is
effect of the plant
thus used
is
so strong, as in the
first
instance to produce a state border-
ing on delirium, which
followed by a total prostration of
264
tlie
strength, inflammation of
eyes,
and other unfavourable

are incapable of any
symptoms.
Those who are much addicted

curiosity (says
to
it
exertion, except during the time they are intoxicated.
My
Drury) led
me
to try
the experiment upon
myself; but
it
made my head
it
so giddy, that I was intoxicated

as
for the space of three
days, and so sick
never to be
induced to meddle with
any more."
When
the Malagasy receive friends at their houses, their

consist in visiting,
amusements
accompanied by their guests,
the neighbouring chiefs; and
when
sitting in their
own
house, they recount the deeds of their ancestors, which are
handed down from father

topic of their conversation.
to son,
and form the principal

also consult
They
on the best
means
future
of annoying their enemies, and arrange plans for
expeditions; during the day, they

in
entertain
each
other
a sumptuous
manner, and
were
accustomed
formerly
on
these
occasions to
drink copiously of an
intoxicating beverage, while songs, dancing,
and merriment
were kept up during the night.
The
chiefs in
some parts
of the island never go abroad
without a fowling-piece, and a stick tipped with iron at one

end, the other being ornamented with a tuft of cow's hair.
They seldom
hostile army,
take
any part
in
ordinary manual labour,
excepting that, after the country has been scoured by a
and the rice-grounds have been devastated,

exertions to those of his slaves, in order
or have been destroyed by extensive inundations, the master

will
add
his
own
to prepare the ground for sowing.
The
cattle,
favourite
amusements
of the
men
are hunting wild
and occasionally, though very
rarely, fishing.
The
following account of their

is
method
of killing the wild cattle
given by Drury.
He
describes the wild cattle as being
in all respects like the cattle
265
he had been accustomed to

their horns are
see
in
England, except that
somewhat
shorter, and their bellowings deeper.
They
or
are without
cattle
the
hunch pecuHar
and
to
the
buffalo
tame
of
Madagascar, and, when wounded or annoyed, are extremely

ferocious
terrible in their attacks
upon
their enemies.
The
darkest nights are always
made
choice of for this kind
of hunting. "
The people permitted me," says Drury, " at my

ordered
request, but
first
me
to
wash myself as they
did, in
order that
we might be
all
entirely free
from the smell of

I
smoke, as well as of
other effluvia.
could have taken
two lances, according to custom, but they

leave one behind,
lest
obhged me
rattle in
to
two together might
my
hand.
The cattle
feed only in the night, and,
if all
these precau-
tions were not taken, could never be surprised, for they are
always on their guard, snorting with their noses, and listening as

if for
the approach of an
enemy
we could hear them

till
roar and bellow a great
way
off,
by which we knew where

they
otherwise they would have
cattle
all
they were, and were always obliged to go round
were nearly to windward of

scented us.
us,
As soon
as
we had got the wind and
right ahead, and were within hearing, we walked with
the circumspection imaginable, cropping the tops of the

grass with our hands as close as possible, to mimic, as well
as
we could, the noise made by a cow moment they heard us, they were all
them bellowed
or grazed, but
in grazing.
silent,
The
the
not one of
seemed
to hsten with
all
utmost attention, which when we perceived, we

still
stood
likewise, without a whisper, while three or four, best
acquainted with
the
art,
continued cropping the grass.

till,
When
the
for
cattle
had listened
of their
as
we imagined, they
to
took us
some
own
species, they returned
266
their
grazing, and
mimicking them as " At length we got amongst them, so that one of our men
we walked with caution we moved softly along.
still
nearer,
was able
to
approach so near to a cow as to
strike a
lance into her body.
When
thus wounded, the animal will
give a spring from the ground, and perhaps as

if
hurt by the horn of another

is
but
this is so
make a noise common

it.
amongst them, that the herd
no way disturbed by
Our people
therefore struck three or four in this manner,
with an intention to come the next morning, and track
them by their blood, for it is very dangerous to come near them in the night. As soon as they find themselves sorely
wounded, they run from their companions, and
the
first
will attack
man
they see.
They
if
are generally found the next
morning actually dead, or

shelter
fallen
down
in
some wood
or
of bushes, as
they had been endeavouring to
conceal themselves.
"
day or two
after this,
we had a
diversion of another
kind.
Our dogs had

thicket,
got the scent of some wild hogs that

it,
were in a
and were very busy running round
but
could find no entrance for a considerable time.
At
length,
however, they found the path m.ade by the swine, and
attempted to enter the wood by
it,
but the passage was
defended by a large boar, who fought the dogs with great

fury,
and wounded one of them in a dangerous manner.

the one hand, and the swine on
Now, what with the dogs on
the other, there was such a yelping, grunting, and howling,

that the woods rang with their noise, so that one would
have imagined "
all
the hogs in the island had
met there by
us.
consent, in order to revenge their quarrel
upon
of us
We
laid
down our burdens, and some

lances.
went up
to
them armed with guns and
The
boar was shot bv
one of our party whose dog had been wounded, whereupon
207
another in an instant defended the entrance, and fought

so resolutely, that neither the dogs nor
we
ourselves could
come near the animals
that were within the wood, until
we
had made a passage behind them with our hatchets and lances, and then fired upon some of the most resolute who had then turned upon
us.
The
rest,
perceiving themselves
attacked from behind, fought their
and ran away, with the

describe the noise there
way through the dogs, dogs after them. Words cannot was, especially after some of them
were wounded.
"
We
found seven dead, besides several others so maimed
that they could not escape.
We
picked out only one or
two of the
fattest, their flesh
being very seldom eaten here;
and the eating of

ible, I
this
kind of food being deemed contempt-
declined taking the share which might have fallen

lot."
to
my
The hunting
baiting,
of wild cattle, as well as bull-fighting, bull-
and cock-fighting, appears to have been a favourite amusement in later times, and in other parts of the island
In 1824, when Mr. Hastie was in the Sakalava country,
than those described by Drury.
on the borders of Iboina, with the king and his army, he

writes in his journal, under date of October 11th of that
yeav: " The

soldiers
store of rice being very low,
and the wild
cattle
numerous, Radama was induced
to halt for
a day, that the
might
kill
and drysalt a stock of

for this purpose,
beef.
Two
batalin
lions
were ordered out
and went forth
four divisions.
" Agreeably to the custom of the country, on the
first
herd being seen, the party halted, laid down
their arms,
with the muzzles of the guns and the points of the spears
turned to the rear, and an aged chieftain implored for
268
:
success on their enterprise in nearly the following terms

'
thou great Rangora

it
master of these superb plains

to
and herds, be
known
thee, that
the mighty king
Radama, attended by a formidable army, is thy visitor; and it will only be consistent with thine own dignity, and
his exalted
rank as governor of the earth, a king unequalled
by any other king, that thou shouldst present him with a

part of thy superabundant stock, for the use of his attendants.
Be
it
known
is
to thee,
Rangora
that the wants of

is
the mighty king are bounded, but his liberality
without
bounds
he
slow in accepting, but lavish in bestowing
favours.
in amity.
He
comes not
in hostile array, but, as thy visitor,
you Kotofotsy and Taihana! guardians of

flocks, let it
your great master's innumerable

to
be your care
do him honour in the selection of the presents that he

order for the use of his royal visitor, so that we, his
may
attendants,
may
partake of such fare as will induce us to
make
favourable representations of your attentions to our

entitle
mighty king, and thereby

sideration.
you
to his beneficent con-
We
again repeat,
we
are visitors in amity, and
only claim your hospitable entertainment during our sojourn
with you.' " Before the troops returned, three hundred and forty-six
head of
cattle
were
killed, besides the

;
number wounded and
followed by the spearmen
two days afterwards, four hunking Radama,

to
dred and thirty-one more were killed by the soldiers."

In the month of February,
18"25, the late
accompanied by the British agent, made an excursion

Manerina, upwards of 100 miles west of the
capital,
having
about 3000 soldiers with him, for the purpose of carrying
on the sport on a large

were
day.
killed,
scale.
Immense numbers
than
at
five
of cattle
first
not
less, it is said,
hundred the
The
troops,
stationed
suitable distances,
sur-
rounded a large
received
plain,
209
and then either shot the animals, or

of the spear.
is
them on the point
The tamer pursuit of fishing

in
occasionally followed
many
parts of the island

is
rarely,
however, by angling
sometimes line and hook

ever
;
used, but the rod seldom,

of fish
if
they take several kinds

of cords
;
by means
of nets,
eels
others by snares
frequently they take
of
a very large Fishing

is
size, often
grasping them
with their hands.
much more
it is
frequently resorted to as a
means
in the
of obtaining a supply of food, than for
amusement
women.
former case
chiefly followed by the
The
superstitious opinions of the natives in
reference
to the crocodile,
have been already adverted
to.
In some
parts of the island these
seem
to
have been
less general or
powerful than in others.
Drury describes a mode of killing alligators, which constituted a favourite amusement of a young prince or chiefThe weapon used for this purtain with whom he resided.
pose was a harpoon, with a head fixed upon it, and a rope " Being thus furfastened both to the steel and the staff.
nished," he observes, " they paddle along the water towards the alligator, which they generally espy at a distance, as
they are accustomed to keep their noses above water, and appear like a floating mass of earth or matted weeds. When
they come within ten or a dozen yards of the animal, he stops sinks to the bottom, and crawls a good way before he
but his course

these remain
is
discovered by bubbles that
rise,
and where
on
its
they strike, for the alligator will lie flat

its
body
at the
it
bottom of the stream, with
sides pressed out,
when
hears a noise, so that they are often pierced through

;
with the harpoon
though, should the harpoon strike upon imprestheir backs or their heads, it will make no more
sion than
it
would upon a rock."
Drury further
states, that
270
they are sometimes caught also, by the Vazimbas, with a net

of ropes, of large meshes, or with snares
sticks, to
made with spring

which are placed
draw up a noose
in a rope,
at the
mouth
of a rivulet, or small canal.
By
these means,
as
many
as twenty or thirty alhgators are often killed in
one day.
favourite, but cruel
and cowardly amusement of the

it
Malagasy, and one in which
might be thought there would

is risk,
be as
little
excitement as there
consists of throwing
stones from a given distance at the head of a fowl, on pay-
ment
of a trifling
sum
to its owner.
The poor animal

its
is is
it,
buried in the earth, with the exception of

left
head, which
above-ground as a mark; and he who can strike
obtains the prize, perhaps for the value of a farthing, while

the chances being in favour of the owner, he generally
obtains a good price for his fowl.
game
frequently carried on,

is
when not prevented by
any public mourning,

ing backwards,"
or,
" striking blue with
Mamely dia manga, " kickwhat may be literally translated, the sole of the foot." The game
called
consists in the parties
kicking one
another in the same
manner
as horses, asses, or other animals.

is
This accom-
plishment
sedulously cultivated from youth to manhood,
and many become desperately expert in the amusement,

if
amusement
it
may be
called,
where the accidents

are not
of
sprained or broken ankles and legs
unfi'equent
accompaniments.
this noisy sport,
Hundreds
at a time occasionally join in
forming themselves into parties, as at an
English cricket-match, and rushing upon each other with
amazing
position,
force,
each one seeking to maintain his advanced
and repel his antagonist by kicking backwards.

iron,
Throwing bamboos, tipped with
at a target, is a
method of accustoming youth
to use the spear,
and serves
as an
271
amusement
to
many.
Trials of strength are also

as
in the
made by lifting stones, and sometimes by throwing them game of quoits.
Seizing calves, and sometimes bullocks, however fierce,
by the
they
hump on
the back,
and clinging
to
them
until
is
fall,
in defiance
of all their efforts to escape,

skill,
popular amusement, requiring

agility.
strength, courage,
and
play with pebbles, by throwing them up and receiving

of the hand, throwing
them on the back

this
them again from
the back, and receiving
them on the palm, and repeating

times without dropping beyond
a given number of
is
a certain number,
also a popular
amusement with young

kites
people of both sexes.

introduced.
Tops and
have also been
Fire-works are scarcely known.

of,
Boxing and
fencing have been heard
but do not seem to accord

;
with the genius of the Malagasy
and whoever should
attempt to
render them popular, would probably be treated
by the police as disorderly and quarrelsome persons, and

compelled to find some other occupation
hours.
for tlieir leisure
Another game, of a more sober character, and more

general than any of these,
is
called katra,
and somewhat
is
resembles
drafts.
large
stone or board
prepared,
with a given number of divisions, and small pebbles or

seeds, about the
dice. size of nuts, are
used as the drafts or

is
The
is
notice
of this
game
attended with some
degree of pleasure, from having advanced one step nearer

to
what
intellectual in the
amusements
Boards of
in
of the Malagasy.
Thirty-two small square holes are cut in an oblong board,
used in playing at this game.

in
this
kind
is
kept
is
many
of the houses;
and
some places the game

holes are cut
followed out of doors, and the square
in
272
FIISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.
flat stone,
the surface of a rock, or smooth

dwelling.
near the native
Small stones are used in playing, and the art of

consists in
the
game
moving them from one hole

in the children's
to another,
as the pegs are
moved
entire
game
of fox
and
geese,
until
one
row
is
emptied.
Dealers and
traders resorting to the ports on the coast, or the capital,
have, in recent years,
made some
;
of the natives acquainted
with the use of cards
and with many of the people who
have been associated with foreigners of the class above

referred to, playing at cards has
time,
become a
to
favourite pas-
though they do not appear
have staked large
amounts on the game.

included in
the
Card-playing
of
may
therefore
of
be
the
catalogue
the
amusements
Malagasy.
In speaking of music, we advance
of music, both vocal
still
further; and
and instrumental, the Malagasy are
extremely fond,
though in neither have they yet made

of music, the valiha
much
progress.
There are two native instruments

and the lokanga, to which
valiha
is
may be added
the drum.
The
its
a bamboo, having eight small slips cut from

its joints,
rind between two of
and then by means of small
pieces of wood, used as bridges in a violin, elevated about
a quarter of an inch.
The
is
player holds the instrument
before him, and uses both hands in twitching the cords.
The music
thus produced
soft
and
plaintive; the tunes
few, short, and extremely monotonous.
The lokanga
is
somewhat louder, and more generally

It is
used by the slaves than the valiha.
formed of a piece
of wood, notched at one end so as to form three or four

rests for the cord or string.
One
string
is
stretched
upon
it,
and attached
to the
head of a hollowed calabash or gourd.

is
The
music, as might be supposed,
extremely feeble and
dull.
273
No,
1.
marks the lokanga
in the
accompanying wood-
cut,
No,
2.
the valiha, and No, 3. the drum.
Drums made
trunk of a
the
tree,
in
a form somewhat resembling those of
Europe, are sometimes used.
They are made
of the hollow
and are covered with untanned ox-hide,

together by thongs of the same
ends being drawn
material.
They
are beaten at one end with a stick.

fifes
few inferior
are also used,
as well
as
drums,
of the
but neither are

latter are
well
made
or musical.
Many
beaten upon the knee, or placed between the
knees, and beaten with the hands instead of drumsticks,
while the players are seated on the ground.

chiefly
They
are
used as an accompaniment to the females' clapping
of hands
to
and singing, and answer the purpose of

time.
assisting
keep the
Those
Few Malagasy voices can be considered good of the men are generally powerful, but
;
or musical. harsh, and
sometimes strongly nasal

habit of singing than the
I.
they are, however, less in the

In the public assemblies
women.
T
-^74
some of the speakers exhibit immense powers of voice, and are able, though in the open air, to command the
attention of several thousands of people.
In speaking they
use considerable action, which
is
frequently bold, energetic,
impassioned, and sometimes graceful, though at other times

it is
excessively awkward.
The
voices of the females, though better adapted for
singing than
deficient in
those of the
men, are
for
the
is
most part
indeed a
sweetness and melody.

of
There
softness in
some
if
them which
pleases,
and might be made

according to
in
to charm,
scientific
well cultivated, and
regulated
They are most efifective Very few can gratify when heard singly and
rules.
;
chorus.
hence, per-
haps,
the
usual
practice
of
singing
in
chorus.
if
The
beating
if
constant and regular clapping of the hands, as
time to their notes,
is
to the ear of
a foreigner,
not
exactly discord, a miserable

flute,
substitute for the harp, the
or the violin.
The
sovereign has a large band of female singers,
who
attend in the court-yard, and who accompany their monarch
whenever he takes an excursion, either

or a distant journey.
for a short airing
The songs are principally composed of detached sentences. They are highly figurative, but not so highly sentimental. In general, they may rather be characterized as tame and
insipid;
the Malagasy language being itself too deficient
in descriptive epithets, in adjectives

to
and adverbs
of quality,
admit of any fulness, richness, or luxuriance in their
songs.
Their
festive songs are neither
rhyme nor blank
verse;
yet they are not destitute of a sort of cadence,
partly arising from the
number
laid
of syllables admitted, and
partly from the emphasis
on corresponding stanzas.
The
characteristic feature
of
most Malagasy singing
in
chorus,
is
275
alternate recitation.
its first line,
The
;
subject of the song

for the
being usually
of the tune,
is
which serves also

to
name
proposed in chorus
which a leader replies
and so on alternately to the end of the piece, which contains

from twenty to
fifty
is
or even sixty lines.
The
following
:
a specimen of a song in praise of the
sovereifirn
Chorus.
Rabodo does not tread upon

walk, but
is
the ground,
(i.e.,
does not
carried.)
Leader. Chorus.
The Rabodo of Andrian-Ampoin-Imerina. Rahodo does not trample on the country. Long
great
life
!
live the
(i. e.
the sovereign.)
In a number of the country villages, where singing
is
much
more practised than

greater eminence
:
in the capital, the natives have attained
and
it
is
thought that in some of the
provinces of the south^ the compositions, the singing, and

the music are superior to those of the Hovas.
Singing
may be heard
is
in
most houses in the evening, when music

to the feelings;
most congenial
and when
it is
moonlight,
the villagers often assemble, and pass a few hours in the
amusements of
can produce.
singing, dancing,
and clapping
their hands,
accompanied by whatever musical instruments the village

Occasionally a travelling bard
there
is
may be met
with,
and
reason to believe that some of the compositions
sung by them contain more genuine poetry than any other

specimens in the country.
The
following verses were sunovisited the capital,
by a bard from Ambohimanarina, who

request of some
where they were taken down as he recited them,
at the
members
of the Mission.
To
one of these
Mr. B. added an English

the same
translation, confining himself to
number
of lines
and
T 2
syllables as in the original,
276
so as to afford the English reader a better idea of Malagasy
composition and poetry.
A Song concerning the Dead.

Vain man observ'st thou not the dead ? The morning warmth from them has fled,
!
Their mid-day joy and
toil are o'er.
Though
near, they
A gate
of entrance to
meet fond friends no more. the tomb we see,
But a departure thence there ne'er will be. The living waves his signal high, But Where's his dearest friend's reply ? Ah where are those thus doom'd to die
!
Vain
man
observ'st thou not the dead?

their dreary bed,
Sweet words forsake
There's none the mould'ring silk* around his fellow folda,
Or north or south again their visits gay beholds, Then shall re-echoing vales no longer cheer, For them the hills no lofty signals rear. Their shrouded heads unmoving lie, Unknown the friends that o'er them sigh. Ah where are those thus doomed to die ?
!
man observ'st thou not the dead ? No more their homeward path they tread. The freeman lost may ransom'd be, By silver's magic power set free But who these lost from death can buy?
Vain
!
Ah, where are those thus doomed to die ?

Let
me
prefer true goodness to attani.
Or
fool or wise I'm

rice,
deem'd by transient fame.

your cheerful blessing,
receive.
g'v-e.
New
my
friends,
So from Razafilahy+ you thanks
The degree of civilisation attained by a people, and many of the distinguishing features of their popular character, are seen in the dress
and ornaments
in use
among
to
them.
scribe.
Those of the Malagasy we now proceed
de-
Tlie corpses are wrapt in silk.
The
bard's
name.
Considering the distinct sources
277
it is
whence
the
evident
Madagascar has
been
of
peopled,
and
comparatively
diflferent
is
modern amalgamation
and independent
any large portion of the
tribes
under one government^ there

all its
great similarity in the dress of
inhabitants.
This
uniformity appears the more remarkable, v^'hen
we remem-
ber the variety of articles suitable for different kinds of

apparel, which the island
silk, of
produces.
Cotton, hemp, and

in the country,
the most valuable kinds,
abound
and
to
the arts of spinning and weaving have long been

the people.
known
silk,
To
the
garments
prepared
from
these
materials,
may be added
importations of cotton,
and
wôollen cloth
by merchants and traders from the East
Indies, as well as from
Europe and America.
In some of
the provinces, stuffs manufactured from the stem of the
banana are
fine
and
light,
equal in beauty to those of
silk,
and woven in the same manner.

for the
The
cotton cloths
made
governor of Anosy are the most esteemed, being
the finest and strongest that are to be found in the island.
The
ordinary dress of the Malagasy
is
not only uniform,
but simple.
It consists generally of two,
and
at
most of
three garments, which are chiefly of
hemp
or cotton, varied
among
either
rofia,
the slaves and poorer classes, by a cloth inferior to

of these,
and manufactured from the bark of the
the banana, and
some other
and costly
trees
and among the
rich,
by the more
soft
silk,
or foreign cassimere
five or six
and broad-cloths.
Children of either sex, under
years of age, in Madagascar are not pressed by the w eight,

or fettered in the free use of their limbs
by the confinement
worn
of clothes of any kind ; nor do the articles of clothing
by those of more advanced years subject them
to
much
inconvenience by their number, or the tightness with which

they are fitted to the person.
278 The two

race are,
principal articles of dress
worn by the Hova

worn
in a
first,
the salaka, or piece of cloth about a yard in
width, and two yards long.
The
salaka
is
man-
ner similar to the maro of the South Sea islanders, being

fastened
round the
loins,
passing
under the body, and
having the extremities in front reaching to the knees. This

article of dress is generally
cloth,
of white cotton,
hemp, or
rofia
ornamented
at the
ends with borders of various
colours.
The
salaka worn by the nobles, the chiefs, and

is
the more wealthy of the natives,
of the purest silk.
The kitamhy
of the females resembles the

It is of the
pareu
of the as the
South Sea islanders.
same materials
and
is
salaka, but considerably broader,
worn round the
person immediately below the breast, and reaches nearly to

the
feet.
The
females of the Betsimisaraka, Batanimena,

especially
and
other
tribes,
those
bordering upon the
eastern coast, wear, in addition to the kitamby, a sort of
upper garment, which covers the breast and

the elbow, and in others to the wrist.
dress,
descends
sometimes to the ankles, clothing the arms, in some to

This part of
their
which
is
called the
in
akanzo,
is
of white
hempen
or
cotton cloth,
foreign
cloth,
made
the island, or of variously coloured

of the dark indigo-coloured
either
Indian
cottons, called
Pondicherry cloth, or white or

cloth
coloured
linen or cotton
of
European
;
manufacture.
The
rank
akanzo
is
worn by the females only

it
is,
and
for those of
or wealth,
like the salaka, often
made
of silk from
India or Europe
The most
important and characteristic part of the native

is
dress of the people,
the
lamba or mantle, which
varies in
dimensions and quality with the rank and circumstances

of the wearer.
classes,
The lamba
is
worn by both sexes and

;
all
both adults and children
for adults it is usually
HISTORY OF AJADAGASCAR.
279
three or four yards in length, and two or three in breadth.
The
royal lamba, which
is
held in highest estimation,
is
of fine scarlet
English broad-cloth,
lace,
bordered and richly
ornamented with gold

in its rich
imparting to the figure arrayed

a splendid and imposing appearis
and ample
scarlet
folds,
ance.
The
lamba
state
worn by the king on sacred

is
festivals,
and other
occasions; scarlet
the royal
colour in Madagascar, and though the nobles and others

are allowed to wear robes in which scarlet
is
intermingled
with other colours, the use of the lamba or other dress of

entire scarlet is the prerogative of the sovereign alone, to
whom
brella.
belongs also the distinction of using a scarlet um-
The other kinds of lamba are the kasena, which is of or foreign silk, woven by the inhabitants in their
looms.
It is rich, durable,
native
rustic
and beautiful in appearance,

its
presenting a series of broad stripes throughout

length, amongst which
entire
bright
scarlet,
crimson,
;
purple,
it is
orange, and white are the most frequent colours
also
ornamented with a rich and variegated border, and deep and

curious fringe.
Next
in value to the
kasena
is
the totorano^
which
is
of white cotton, with a
deep border of dark blue
at each end.
The
third kind of
lamba
is
the roronga,
which
cloth.
is
made
of the native
is
hempen
or white
European
cloth,
fourth kind
of native cotton or
hempen
dyed of a rich chesnut brown or black colour, with a fringe

or border of the
same
colour.
Among
the Betsileo, this
kind of lamba
is
frequently used with a sort of beads
made
of a composition of silver or lead.

is
The remaining lamba

rofia,
the jabo, which
is
the coarse native cloth or matting
manufactured from the dyed bark of the useful
which
supphes a large portion of the poorer classes in the country

with their ordinary and almost only clothing.
dress of
280
this material
may be
obtained for about one shilling English
in
money, and multitudes
Madagascar
possess, from the
cradle to the grave, no superior attire.
Many
of the slaves
rofia,
wear scarcely any other clothing than a girdle of

other coarse cloth, but
all
or
above the very poorest wear the

is
salaka and the lamba, the latter of which
the almost
universal robe of the living, and the shroud of the dead. In
some parts
and poorer
of the country, the

classes
is
only clothing of the slaves
a loose piece of cloth, from twelve to
eighteen inches wide, of a dark-brown colour, and

the bark of the hibiscus, simply beaten out after
of
made of the manner

shoulders,
making
cloth practised
is
by the South Sea

all
islanders.
The lamba
whence
worn by hang
classes over
the
its folds
loosely, reaching nearly to the ankles,
the ends being drawn together in front of the wearer.

the persons of the men,
it is
On
adjusted so as to hang princi;
pally over the left shoulder
as
worn by the women, over
the right
The
Betsimisaraka use the lamba and salaka as
well as the Hovas, and, from the circumstance of their dwell-
ing near the coast, are able to procure with greater facility
European and other foreign
cloths.
many of the men, when employed in driving cattle, wear a frock with sleeves, made of the common rofia cloth, and in shape resembling the frocks used by husbandmen and carters in England. The women also wear a sort of spencer, or short dress, made of fine foreign silk, Pondicherry cloth, or printed
Among
the inhabitants of the interior,
cotton
under
this they secure the
lamba, wearing
it
round
them
as a skirt,
instead of
its
being throM'n over the
shoulders as a mantle or shawl.
The
serandrana^
or
sash, is
used by the nobles and
others for binding the salaka, or other

the person of the wearer.
under garments, to
often of costly
This
article is
materials,
281
and rich
in its appearance, being frequently of
red
silk,
with beautifully variegated borders.
Girdles of
fre-
different patterns,
and beautifully
fine
texture, are
quently
made
in the island.
Coverings for the head do not seem to have been generally
used by the natives, and are
now worn
chiefly
by the
nobles and richer portions of the community at the capital,
and
at the ports
on the coasts.
On
Caps
the coast, the chiefs
and some of the people wear a
sort of hat or cap of neatly
woven rushes, or coarse
grass.
of
more
costly
and
durable materials, of foreign manufacture, are used at the

capital.
Radama
frequently
;
wore a cap of
velvet, with a
band
of broad gold lace
and many of the
officers,
following
his example,
wore a similar covering
for the head.
Hats
of foreign manufacture are also in frequent use, the naval or military cocked hats being generally
in the
is
worn by the
and
officers
army
or at the palace.
common
red worsted cap

chiefs
also very frequently used
by secondary
others,
in different parts of the country.
Since the residence of
the Mission families at the capital, ladies' caps, similar to

those
in
worn by the wives of the Missionaries, or by females
Europe, have been adopted, to a Umited extent, by the
chief
women
of the capital.
Excepting a rude kind of sandal made of bullock's hide,
and used when travelling over a rugged path, no covering

or protection for the feet was used by the Malagasy
;
but
shoes and stockings have been introduced, and are used by

the officers and others
who have
the
means
of obtaining
them.
Furs of different kinds might be procured in the
island,
but they have never formed any part of the dress of the
natives; nor do they
clothing, at
seem
to have
used for purposes of
any period, the skins of animals either tanned
282
Skins of animals of different kinds appear
or with hair on.

to
have been universally worn by the several races inhabit-
ing the African continent, from the earliest period of our
acquaintance with them
and the circumstance of
their
never having been used by the natives of Madagascar,

although animals whose skins would have been in every
respect suitable to the purpose have always been
in the island,
numerous
seems unfavourable to the opinion that the

first
present inhabitants were at

the adjacent continent,
a colony from any part of
while their using so generally cloth

the rofia or other trees, either
of their
made from
the bark of
woven or beaten, furnishes increasing evidence
having emigrated from the Asiatic archipelago, and having
one common origin with the races now peopling the eastern
island of the Pacific.
Cottons, linens, and woollen cloths, of foreign manufacture, Indian or
European, have long been used as

;
articles
of clothing by the natives

in the
and
in recent years, dresses
made
The government employ

tailors
European form have greatly increased among them. constantly several hundred
and sempstresses
all to
in
making up wearing
apparel.
These are
and
with their
a certain extent slaves; and their bondage
their occupation are alike perpetual, terminating only

lives.
The judges and
chiefs
wear the same
kind of dress as others in similar circumstances.

office is
Rank
or
but rarely indicated by dress, with the exception of
the chief ministers of the sovereign, or the officers of the
palace
these wear a sort of household uniform, consist-
ing of a frock or surtout-coat of dark blue colour, tastefully
decorated with black or dark-coloured braid, a cap of the
same kind of
hat,
cloth, with
a band of gold
lace, or
a cocked
and
in general trousers of blue
ornamented with broad
sold lace.
283
Prior to the year 1821, a distinction prevailed, by which
no person was allowed

of state,
to ride in the native chair or palan-
quin, except the royal family, the judges,

called Maroserana
;
and
first officers
but
this,
with other customs
of a similar kind, was afterwards abolished by
the recommendation of the late

distinctive
Mr. Hastie.
Radama at The only

in addition
marks
of office
amongst the Malagasy,
to the dress
and arms of the body-guard, are such as have
been introduced by Europeans, and already noticed.

exception, however, must be
One
made
in favour of venerable
men, or
elders,
who
often wear a large heavy silver ring

ear, its
hanging from each
weight being such as to pull

until
down
the
ear
like a
cord,
the
ring
touches
the
shoulders.
Few
apparel
of
:
the natives are entirely clothed in
European
seen
those
who have adopted
it
are
usually
arrayed partly in foreign, and partly in native costume.
The
silk,
present queen frequently appears in public with the
large folds of the white native
lamba spread over a
rich
or other
European
dress.
:
The Malagasy
worn are of
classes are
are fond of ornaments
those generally
All
gold, silver, ivory, bones, beads, or shells.

to
accustomed
wear necklaces, earrings, and rings
on the
head.
fingers, with
ornaments in the hair and on the fore-
Bracelets, chains, and charms of various descrip-
tions, are
used
but flowers, which have been so frequently
adopted by other nations, as congenial to a simple and

unsophisticated taste for the beautiful in nature, they never
wear by way of ornament

and some of the
silver chains
The Hovas adorn
themselves
with large silver rings on the fore -arm, round the wrists
tribes wear,
on public occasions, large
round their waists.

silver,
Besides the rings and chains of
large
r'nigs
of
284
cotton or hemp, covered with small beads, arranged after

various patterns, are
worn by both sexes on the arms above

Anklets of the
of gold are few,
the elbows, or as bracelets on the wrists.
same kind are

and next
to
also
common.
Ornaments
them those
of silver are held in the highest
estimation.
In addition to the chains and rings already
noticed, an article of silver, from one to four inches in

length,
hollow, and slightly curved at the point, bearing

to the crocodile's tooth, (the
is
some resemblance
which
it
name by
is
called,)
in very general use.
Sometimes
these silver teeth are fastened, with the points upwards, to
fillet
worn round the head
at other times they are fixed
to the armlets, bracelets, or anklets of the people, or they
are fastened to a necklace or bolt
hung over the
shoulder,
and passing across the

are
breast.
The
extent to which they
worn may be inferred from the number on the person of the chieftain whose portrait forms the frontispiece to the
present volume.
Necklaces of beads are frequently used

from these, on a
silver.
and suspended
breastplate of
silver chain,
many wear a
is
Sometimes the necklace
formed of dollars fastened
together at their edges; at other times, a bandage of the
same kind, fastened
in a similar way, is
worn round the head.

one
The
Sakalavas seem to be exceedingly fond of ornaments of
silver or ivory,
and are occasionally seen with a ring
in
of the nostrils, as well as a circular

silver,
ornament of ivory or
which they wear on the forehead.

at the
Although natural flowers are not worn, the natives

capital have lately imbibed a taste
for
artificial
flowers
and
at
public dances,
or other
occasions of
festivity,
number
lands of
of females are generally seen decorated with garartificial
flowers on
their heads, or flowers
and
feathers in their hair.
285
Foreign perfumes are highly prized, and tseroka, (castor

oil,)
with various other unguents, one of which
is
made
from the feet of cattle, are used for anointing their bodies.
For
their hair, the tseroka
(mixed with a powdered leaf
of the Ravintsara, in
scent
Hke the nutmeg)
is
in
high
repute amongst the more privileged classes; whilst the
poor seem to find equal satisfaction in the liberal use of the
unperfumed
fat of
the ox or the cow.
Instances are very rare, in which any kind of colouring

is
used
for the face, or other part of the
person
a custom,
however, prevails among the Hovas, of preparing from the
akondro (banana plant) a kind of white plaster, with which

they smear their faces.
or three days
is
After this has remained for two

skin,
it is
upon the
washed
off,
when
for
the face
considered fairer and more beautiful than before.

occasions also,
On
some
when decorating themselves
a public
dance, or similar festivity, young persons are accustomed

to prepare a sort of
pink paint, with which they mark

different parts
their faces,
spots,
by imprinting on
are
small
pink
their
which
supposed
greatly
to
heighten
charms.
Tatooing can scarcely be said to exist among the Malagasy

;
yet
many
of the people are in the habit of
making
deep
incisions, of various forms, in different parts of the
body, chiefly on the arms and chest, regarding the cicatrices
formed by the heahng of the wound as highly ornaLittle uniformity prevails as to the form or
mental.
num-
ber of these incisions.
The
natives of the
Mozambique
by the
and hence
nor
shore, on the adjacent continent, are recognized
numerous and deep scars upon their faces

Madagascar, though the
latter
probably the practice has been derived by the natives of
do not cut the
face,
infuse any colouring matter into the incisions.
286
The
only other colouring matter the natives ever applv
is
to themselves
in the form of a dentrifice.

laingio, is
The
juice of
a shrub, called the
rubbed on the
this, after
teeth,
which
produces a deep black stain; and

or three days,
is
remaining two
carefully
rice.
washed
off
with water mixed
with powdered burnt

the
beautiful
By
their
this
means they preserve

in
colour of
teeth,
the
whiteness
strength,
To
and preservation of which they certainly excel. one of their customs, worthy of general imitation,
that of rincing the

this excellence
moath with cold water

in part
its
after every meal,

:
may
be attributed
and so strong
Euro-
are their opinions in
favour, that in observing
peans neglect
this practice, they
have been known to com-
pare them to the inferior animals,

in a
who
eat, as
they think,
most uncleanly manner.

plaiting of the hair was, until very lately, considered
to personal beauty, and, from
The
by the natives as essential

the time
their
it
occupied, might have been accounted one of
favourite
amusements.
The
dress
;
Betsimisaraka
and
side,
Betanimena dress
and one behind. and
their hair in five tufts,
two on each
The Hovas
it
in
numerous
plaits
one over another, on each side

silver pins in
the
women
placing gold
front,
one or two particular
plaits in
above the forehead.
The
Sakalavas have also a pecuhar
way
of dressing their hair,
and ornamenting
it
with croco-
dile's
teeth, bones, gold, silver, or shells.
They may be
generally distinguished by having a small shell attached to the tuft of hair which hangs
forehead.
dovm
to the middle of the
In this
mode
of wearing the hair, the Betsileo,
Bezanozano,
and Antsianaka assimilate partly with the

the
Hovas, and partly with

wearing
it
Betsimisaraka,
sometimes
tufts.
plaited,
and
at other times
formed into
Those
of rank
and property amongst the Malagasy
fre-
287
quently have their hair braided, and arranged in such a
manner
as to present a beautiful
and elegant appearance,
being formed into a large number of knots and ringlets,
which are
tastefully arranged in rows, circles, or sections,
and richly supplied with valuable unguents.

ten or twelve different
There are
modes
of plaiting,
and of arranging
the plaits, having their distincd;ive names.

is
difl'erence
sometimes, though very rarely, observed between mar-
ried
and unmarried women,

;
in this part of their personal
ornament
the former wearing their hair twisted up, and

it
secured on the top of the head, while the latter allow

flow negligently over the shoulders.
to
The European method

was introduced only
of cutting
and wearing the hair
in the year 1822,
when
the king, being
disposed to adopt the fashion, tried

brothers.
it first
upon one of
his
The
people wers astonished at so novel an
occurrence; but when, in the course of two or three days,

the king himself was seen to have parted with his plaits
and
curls,
the
mere dressing
of which
silenced,
had sometimes
and, whatever
occupied three days,
they were
they thought, none durst express their dissatisfaction.
The
example of the monarch made the measure popular, and

scissors
and combs were
in universal
demand.
The army
mode,
fort-
and scholars were allowed

but the rest were
still
to follow the
European custom,
compelled
to retain the native
and these badges of distinction

night after this change in the
still
remain.
About a
mode
of wearing the hair

tragical nature
illustrates the
had been introduced, a circumstance of a

occurred in connexion with
character of the people,
their history.
it,
which, as
it
may
not be unworthy of a place in
Against the above public innovations, a

opposition was evinced by a
spirit of
daring
number
of females in a neigh-
288
bouring
district,
and a large meeting was held,
to
which
the discontented repaired.
Information of these proceed-
ings soon reached the capital.

diers
About two thousand

;
sol-
were immediately summoned
they renewed their
oaths of allegiance, promising that whoever should be found

guilty of creating a disturbance, even
if
their
own parents
should be implicated, they required but the king's order or

permission to put them to death
fidelity,
:
after these assurances of
the
soldiers
were ordered
to
guard the
capital.
On
the following day, four or five thousand females assem-
bled at Ambatoroka, a village to the east of Tananarivo,
and sent a kabary, or message,

his people to
to the king,
complaining of
his having adopted foreign customs,
and having allowed

In reply,
;
be taught by Europeans.
Radama
sent to ask
them what were

if
their grievances
if
they were
too heavily taxed, or
they were displeased at having their

;
sons employed in the army

not,
whether he were their king or

in his
and whether they had chosen some other king

?
stead
They
replied to these questions in the negative
but
said,
they were the nurses of the king, and complained
because he had adopted the customs of the foreigners
had allowed them

had cut
off his hair,
to
teach him
his
and
his
;
people
had
changed the customs of
ancestors
and, finally, he
and drank spirituous

if,
liquors.
Radama
sent back a message to ask,
being king, he had not
a right to do as he pleased with his hair without consulting
women
that
reminding them,
to
it
was the inalienable right
of
the twelve monarchs
do as they pleased, and added,

this,
he would presently give them a proof of
by
taking care that their
Having ascertained
were
selected,
own hair should never grow again. who were the ringleaders, five of them
to the soldiers of their
it
and orders were given
districts
and families so
to cut off their hair that
should
never grow again.
289
The
order was mournfully obeyed, and
they perished under the bayonets of the soldiers in sight of

the multitudes of females, and a vast concourse of people fi-om
the town.
told
to
His majesty immediately sent
for the
Europeans,
them that a number of persons who were fools, and wished

I
remain such, had created a disturbance.
have ordered
;
five of
them, said Radama, to be put to death
but don't
you be alarmed.
of the five
I am here to protect you. The bodies women who were put to death, remained upon
the
spot until they were
devoured by dogs and birds.
The company
by
troops,
of rebellious females
were detained where
they had assembled during the space of three days, guarded
and without food or
shelter.
They
entreated to
be released, and
mercy, they must
said, that unless the

all perish.
king should exercise
He
then sent word that they

theii'
might return to their respective homes, and attend to
domestic duties, but must leave the business of government

to himself,
and not
It is not
interfere again in the affairs
of the
kingdom.
supposed that Radama regarded one of

viz.
the charges they brought against him,
the drinking of
spirituous liquors, as belonging to the business of govern-
ment
though they were not the most proper reprovers.

silence,
This he passed by in
and punished them
for inter-
fering with the public regulations which he

fit
had thought
to introduce.
290
CHAP.
Occupations of the Malagasy
XI.
Division of labour Professional employ Officers of the palace Head-men or elders Extent hereditai-y General division of the people into freemen, peasantry, and soldiers Native farming Culture of rice Pre Sowing and transplanting the grainModes of paration of the gation General appearance of the country immediately before harvest Quantity of the grain Causes of the occasional failure in the crop Reaping Manner of thrashing Storing the grain Description of the granaries or rice-houses in different parts of the country Culture of the used growth Extent to which manioc Period required for Failure of attempts to introduce European modes of agriculture Rearing of silkworms Native methods of manufacturing iron Situation and character of the mines Manner of getting and preparing the ore Description of the Malagasy fiunace, bellows, &c. Nature of the fuel Process of smelting Native blacksmiths Native forge, tools, and articles of native manufacture Introduction of the art of shoeing horses Arrival of Mr. Chick from England Astonishment of the natives at beholding
ments The judges to which offices are
soil
irri-
its
it is
the apparatus of an English forge, and the strength of Mr. Chick
of strength between the natives and Europeans
Improvements
Trials
in the art
of working iron, manufacturing cutlery, and wire-drawing
Native gold
and
silver smiths.
During
the early periods of a nation's existence, while the
elements of society retain their simple and primitive forms,

the members of the community have their occupations in common. If they dwell upon the shores of the sea, every man is his own shipwright, his own mariner and fisherman
and
his
if
they inhabit an inland country, every

house, cultivates his
man
builds
his
own
own weapons, pursues his for This is the state of society the wants of his own family. in South Africa, among the aborigines of America, and in
own land, manufactures own game, and provides
the Islands of the South Seas,.
29.1
The
division of labour,
the classification of pursuits, and their distribution

different individuals,
among
is
belong to a state of society that
more
or less organized, while the extent to which these
arrangements are carried, and the proficiency attained in

science
or
art,
mark with
distinctness
and fideUty the and rude and

till
progress of improvement and civilization;
simple as native society was in Madagascar
within the
last twenty-five or thirty years, the process of social organi-
zation had
commenced, the advantages of a
division of
labour, and a distribution of talent and effort, were to
some
extent understood and practised

agricultural
classes,
skill to
and though, in general,

all
and pastoral occupations were followed by

their attention,
numbers devoted
industry,
and
one particular employment, in which they excelled,
and from which they derived the means of subsistence

for themselves
and their
families.
In these early stages
of a nation's progress towards civilization, the
Malagasy
little
had made considerable attainments, when Europeans,
more than twenty years ago,

their country
;
first visited
the interior of
in consearts of
and since that period, they have,
quence of the introduction of many of the useful

Europe, the employment of
letters, the
encouragement of
education, and the extension of commerce, advanced with
accelerated speed.
At
of
the time
now
referred
to,
or even prior to the visit
any European
to their capital, to their
engagement
in
any treaty with our government, or
to the formation of their

this great principle
army upon
the
European system,
of
successful organization of society was in operation
among
them, and they had not only mechanics and
artificers,
but those who were devoted to what might be regarded

as the higher or professional occupations.
These are in
u 2
292
clearly distinguished from the occupations
to the labour of the
some instances
which belong
cases the
hands
but in
many
men
of professional skill not being fully
employed
in their official capacities, follow the ordinary pursuits of
agriculture, mechanics,
and trade.
is
The
two
highest profession
that of judge, of
in the capital,
office
is
whom
there
are always a
number on duty
and one or
in the lesser towns.
The
not hereditary.
The
judges are appointed by the sovereign, and hold their
appointments only during his pleasure.
The next
in office is the Farantsa,
whose duty
it
is to
preserve the general tranquillity and order, and promote

the well-being of the people.*
are appointed by the sovereign.
In every
village,
head-men
from
to
The
jurisdiction of these
district,
men
extends over a certain portion of the
amongst the inhabitants of which he enrols from time
time such as have reached the age of manhood, and are

suitable for the army, or other public service.
Under
the
head-men,
inferior officers are placed
the system of obe-
dience to elders or superiors being very extensively enforced.

It is
estabhshed under the idea that seniority necessarily
confers authority, and as their
own
proverbial saying affirms,
" Evil
is
the land without elders."

to this brief Ust of civil professions is the army,
lately
Next
enforced
of the
where the principle of subordination has

;
been
strictly
and
to
both these professions
may be added
those
mpanozon doha, administerers
of the ordeal of tangina;
mpisikidy, diviners; mpanala vintana, discoverers of fate,

or astrologers
;
and the mpanao ody, makers of charms or
medicines.
The
specific duties of the Farantsa will be noticed in the following
chapter.
293
These professions are not hereditary; but as the son

generally assists the father while living, acting constantly
under
his direction,
on his death he
is
generally chosen by
the king to the office held by his father,
and enters
fully
upon its
duties.
Sometimes the son

office
is
excused fi'om taking
upon himself the

causes
or profession of his father, even

if
though appointed by the king,

induce him to
decline
disinclination or other
it;
and occasionally, an
adopted son, brought up to the profession of his patron,

succeeds him in the discharge of
It will
its duties.
be seen that amongst these professions, poetry

;
and music are not specified

in a rude
fessionally.
state,
not because they do not exist
but because they are not practised prois,
There
to
however, a singular class of
men who
ought not
the
in a
be omitted here, as professors of prophecy

after looking earnestly
mpaminany, or prophets, who,

man's
face,
pretend to foretell some propitious event
as sure to occur to him, for which agreeable intelligence
they expect an immediate reward.
Having noticed what may be regarded

of Madagascar,
as the professions
we proceed
to consider the
more general
divisions,
occupations of the people, who, in Ankova, have, in regard

to their occupations,
viz.,
been lately classed in two
soldiers
and bourgeois^ or townsmen.
The former
are
generally called sorodany, a corrupt native pronunciation

of solclat, but they have lately
been designated miara-mila,
a native compound word, signifying " united in seeking."
The
in to
bourgeois are called borizany, a corrupt pronunciation
of the
word bourgeois, which is employed at the

of the provinces, to designate all
capital,
and
many
who do not belong
the army, and are not employed by the government.

of
Both names are
modern introduction, having been used
only since the formation of the army in 18'22.
294
account of the army will be given in a subsequent
it
An
chapter,
would therefore be superfluous here

in
to describe
the occupations of the soldiers duty.
war and on garrison
The
individuals following the professions, oi sustaining
the offices already noticed, comprise but a very small portion of the entire
community
the great body of the people
depend on
for the
their
own
exertions, or the labours of their slaves,
means
of support.
Their occupations may,
to a
certain extent, be said to divide

classes, viz. the agriculturalists
them
into
three distinct
and herdsmen or shepherds

;
those that are engaged in handicrafts or manufactures

the traders, and hucksters or pedlars.
and
Tlie former are the

if
most numerous and important; indeed there are few,

of the people
any
cul-
who
are not
more
or less
engaged in the
tivation of the
soil,
or the feeding of cattle.
The most
is
important and general department of native agriculture

the growth of
rice
;
in
which
is
probably occupied a larger
portion of time than in all the other employments combined,

especially about the
commencement and
the close of the
rainy season
the former being the
season for planting
the grain, the latter for gathering in the harvest.
From
which
the extent to which the nation

of this valuable grain,
it
is
dependent on the supply

of the
some account
in detail
manner
in
is
cultivated,
more
than might otherwise be
necessary, will not be considered as inappropriate.
Many
capital,
of the
Malagasy
in
the neighbourhood of the
and more particularly in the Betsileo provinces, are
very attentive to their rice-grounds, preserving them wdth

great care, and keeping them remarkably clean.
the crop
is
After
removed, the ground
is
generally
it is
left
untouched
for three or four
months, after which
dug up with the
native spade in large clods, twelve or eighteen inches square,
which are piled up
like
all
295
may be
bricks or peat, that they
thoroughly dried, and
the weeds destroyed ; the period
immediately following the rice harvest, being the driest

season of the year.
state, the clods are
After remaining some time in this

field, is
spread over the
and mixed with a

then
let into
suitable proportion of manure.

field,
Water
the
and soon softens the
clods,
to
which when moist are
easily broken,
is
and reduced
a very fine earth.
The
field
then
made
as level as possible
its surface.
by a thin sheet of water

It is
is
being conducted over

for
now deemed ready

upon the
the seed, which in sowing
literally cast
water.
The
shrub,)
bursting of the buds of the ambiaty (a
common
of
which generally takes place in

is
the
month
This
September,
the time
regarded as the commencement of spring,

seed-rice
is
when
prepared for sowing.

for
is
done by steeping the grain in water
one or two days,

it
and afterwards keeping

to sprout.
is
it
in a
warm
place until
begins
In this state
off,
it is
sown, after which the water
drained
and instead of harrowing the ground, some

is
very fine manure, generally of wood or grass,

over the newly-sown rice.
scattered
to
The
field is
now allowed
'of
remain a day or two without water, until the young shoot,

causing the earth to crack, indicates the approach
blade to the surface.
the
The whole
After
is
then again covered to

is
the depth of about two inches with water, which
shortly
afterwards drained
off.
this,
the tender blade soon
appears above ground.
The
seed
is
sown very
thickly,
and the growth of the

till
rice
in this stage requires great attention
about
five or six
fit
inches above the ground,
when
;
it
is
considered
is
to
be
transplanted to other fields

until after the
this,
however,
seldom done
October and
rains have
begun
to fall in
296
November.
The
but
fields to
be planted require to be care-
fully prepared,
this is often
done
in
an inferior manner,
and without manure.

rice,
In preparing the low grounds for
the natives often employ cattle.

field,
Twenty
or thirty
oxen are driven into a

to drive
and two or three men employed

surface, to
them over the whole

This
is
break and soften the
moistened sods.
extremely laborious, both for cattle
and men, but
it is
found to be the most valuable and effectual

soil.
method
for the
of preparing the
When
the fields are prepared

is
young
rice,
each single plant
put in the ground at
a distance of from six to nine inches apart, the ground

being then in a state resembling
mud
rather than earth.
This part of the labour

is
is
generally done by
women, and
is
it
astonishing with what rapidity their work
performed.
The
plants are held in the left hand, and with the right are
put into the ground at the rate of two or three in a second.
bushel of rice
when
the ground
is
prepared in an inferior
manner, without drying the earth in the transplanting

ground, will on an average produce
clods are well dried,
it
fifty
bushels.
If the
if
will
produce seventy; and
the
ground
is
particularly well done,
and manured,
it
is
no
uncommon
thing to take
home one hundred bushels

Avhen properly dressed
is
for the
bushel sown.
ingly fertile;
The
and
soil
if
exceed-
the season be favourable,
and the
crops escape the ravages of insects, and the destructive

effects
of
blight
or
mildew,
the
ground
is
everywhere
thickly covered with the prolific grain.
One
both as
of the
most agreeable objects
in the
neighbourhood
of Tananarivo, and in
it
many
parts of the Betsileo country,

to
fill
gratifies the eye,
and tends
the
mind with
delight in contemplating the bounty of the Creator thus
providing support for a numerous people,

in
is
the rice-fields
the
months
of
January and February.
An immense
plain, of
297
many square
miles in extent, unbroken except by
here and there a tree or cottage, divided into several thou-
sand
fields,
all
varying in size from half an acre to six or seven
acres,
covered with luxuriant growing, or healthful
yellow and ripening grain, the large-bearded ears of which

shine and rustle as they
wave beneath the passing breeze,

half-
and bend from the weight of the grain sometimes
way
to the
ground, while the cluster of stalks produced by

is
a single seed
often so large, that the reaper cannot with

it
one grasp gather
into his hand.
Each
field is
divided from the rest by a small
bank about
six or nine inches wide, the top of
which being generally
raised six inches above the
field,
forms a smooth foot-path,
affording great convenience to the labourer
employed
rills
in
the
field.
By
the side of these paths,
little
are led
over the entire plain, so that every
field
may be watered
when
necessary.
These
rills
are
supplied from canals,
which, in the neighbourhood of the capital, convey water to

the remote parts of the plain, extending from the Ikiopa, a
large
and winding
river,
which flows around great part of
the capital, adorning the landscape, and clothing the valleys
with fruitfulness and verdure.

is
The channel
fields,
of the Ikiopa
defended on both sides by strong banks

feet higher than the
its
of earth, so that
though several
they are seldom

times, however,
calls forth all
injured by any irruption of
waters.
At
such an accident occurs, and the occasion

the inhabitants,
who rush
in a
body
to the place, carrying
with them whatever they can find in their way, to assist in
stemming the
torrent, willingly
sacrificing at such times

its
houses and garden walls, to confine the water within
accustomed channel, and prevent the inroads of the inundation,
which would,
in all probability, destroy the greater
part of the crop.
298
The
canals are cut around the bottom of the hills adjoin-
ing the fields of rice, the proprietors of which take the
quantity of water required along the course of the canal,
which, in some places, extends for several miles.

canals are led,
plains,
Other
when
necessary, through the centre of the
and from these also the adjoining planters draw
their water on both sides.
Every
to cover
field is
it
a perfect
level, it
being necessary at times
with water several inches deep.
There are
throughout
some
plains containing a square mile of rice-ground, the
level of
its
which probably does not vary two
feet
whole extent.
In the more hilly parts of the country,
small streams are intercepted as near as possible to the

tops of the
hills,
on the sides of which the rice-grounds
are formed in long narrow terraces,
which are supplied
with water from the stream already mentioned.

terraces vary in size
These
and number, being frequently not
more than three
or four feet wide, and often rising one

hill,
above another on the sides of the

twenty or thirty in number.
to the
amount
of
When
covered with water
preparatory to sowing or planting, they present a remarkably singular appearance, resembling an
immense aqueous
causeway, or
flight of steps,
hills.
from the level ground towards
the tops of the
The
ment.
as too
cultivation of rice in the interior of the island
is
not unfrequently attended with considerable disappoint-
The much
failure
may
little
arise
from various causes, such
or too
water, from the depredations of

insect,
the locusts, or
into the stalk,
more frequently a small

and destroys
it
which eats
so completely as to leave
whole
fields to
present a withered or blighted appearance.
Sometimes
also a
shower of
hail passing
over a field of
it
rice nearly ready to
be cut down, destroys
entirely;
and
strong winds also occasion great
loss,
299
by shaking the ripe
grain out of the ear.
Should no calamity of the kind occur, and the season

favour the gathering in of the ripened grain, the family
are
all
on the
alert,
and active
in securing the plenteous
harvest,
some working up
rice,
to their middle almost in water.
In cutting the
instead of a
the reapers always use a large knife

sickle,
;
hook or
and lay down the corn
in
handfuls on the stubble
women and
children follow after,
and
tie
up the handfuls
in small sheaves
which are set
up
to
dry for two or three days before being carried away.
Besides the rice grown in the manner

there
is
now
described,
another kind grown on high ground, usually the

hills.
gently-sloping sides of the the latter, the

of
it
In preparing the
soil for
wood
is felled,
and the
least valuable parts
burnt on the ground.

the
ashes,
The
rice-seeds are planted
among
and,
watered by the heavy periodical

a harvest as that planted in
rains, generally yield as rich
the low lands, and so frequently covered with water.

latter
The
is
kind
is
called horaka, the former tavy.
There
no
difference in the appearance of the grain, and the same
price
is
obtained for both kinds in the market.

natives of
The
to
Madagascar have never attempted
to
accustom the oxen, which are so numerous in the country,
any kind of work, except that of trampling the

it
soil
to
prepare
for planting
they have neither wagon,

;
cart,
is
sledge, nor beast of
burden
the produce of the fields
therefore carried in large bundles on the heads of the

slaves from the field, to
threshing-floor.
It
what may be called the Malagasy

ground should, during a part
has been already stated, that the growth

the
of rice requires that
of the year, be covered with water, and be generally kept

in a
moist or soft state
till
the grain
is
ripe.
At unequal
300
distances from each other, in every large tract of country

laid out in rice-fields, a portion of
ground of considerable
extent
is
left solid,
on which one or two houses or shed^
are erected, and occasionally a tree or two planted.
Here
an open space, generally near a fragment

stone, is
is
left,
of rock or large
as a general threshing-floor, on which the rice
beaten from the stalk or straw, before carried

its
home
to
the granary or store-house of
owner.
The mode
gular.
of threshing,
if
such
it
may
be called,
is
sin-
No
flail
or stick
is
is
used, but the floor, of hard clay,
being cleaned, the rice
taken in large handfuls, and beaten

till
till
against a stone or on the floor,
the grain
is
separated
finished,
from the straw
this is
continued
the whole
is
when
it is
winnowed
to separate the grain

;
from the beards
and fragments
of straw
after
which
it is
carried in baskets,
holding about a bushel each, on the heads of the slaves, to
their master's
301
house, frequently two or three miles from

loads are heavy, and this part of the labour
the
is
field.
The
often exceedingly severe.
The
straw
is
preserved for
fuel or fodder for the cattle.
The
secure storing of
in
the rice
;
is
an object of great
importance
Madagascar
and
different
means
it
are
employed by the several
tribes, or races, for

its
keeping
from
mildew or damp, and preventing

indolent or destitute
being stolen by the
among
themselves, or being destroyed

villages.
it
by the
rats
which abound in the
The Hovas, and inhabitants

ground, keeping
it
of Betsileo, preserve
under-
in circular excavations five or six feet in
diameter, and seven or eight feet deep.

rice-pits greatly
The form
;
of these
resembles a bee-hive
the sides are lined
with
stiff clay,
from the
floor,
also of
is
left,
hard
clay, to the
is
summit, where a small aperture

covered with a stone.
which
usually
Through
this aperture the grain is
poured when brought from the
field,
and through the same
the quantity required for daily use is obtained.
These sub-
terranean granaries are constructed with great care, and

rice is often
kept in them
for a
long time, apparently with-
out being in the least degree injured.
The
rice granary
is
usually near a country-house belonging to the owner, or in
the court-yard of that in which the family resides.

cruelty of the rulers of this
to apply
The
unhappy people has led them

different purposes,
them
to other
and vastly
making
them a
a larger
sort of hlack-holes, in each of
which
six or eight, or
number
of people, have, for
some
real or pretended
till
offence against the sovereign, been shut up,
they have
died by suffocation.
Some
They
of the tribes construct their granaries above ground,

in
and make them resemble
shape those already described.

;
are conical, or formed like a bee-hive
and
often
302
rise
fifteen
or
sixteen feet from the ground.
The
walls
are thick, and are of clay,

vious.
carefully wrought, and impersides,

is
No
opening
is
is
formed in the
and only one

closed with a
small aperture
slab or stone.
left at the top,
which
By means
its
of a rustic ladder, (generally a
pole with notches cut on

up,
upper
side,) the grain is carried
and poured through the aperture.

is
WTien the
rice
is
wanted, a slave-boy
usually let
down through
the hole, and
the requisite quantity drawn up in baskets.
The
Antsianaka, the Betsimisaraka, and the Bezanozano,

it
preserve
in houses raised six or

pillars, in
seven feet above the
ground by large wooden

is
one part of which there
usually a projection, very smoothly polished, to prevent the
ascent of rats.
to
The rice-houses
often afford shade or shelter

to
the
people.
of
ladder, similar to that used
reach
fixed
the
summit
the conical-shaped
houses,
is
also
against the door of the elevated granaries.
This kind of granary, or storehouse,
is
303
generally erected
;
near the dwellings of the owners of the rice

to the greater security of this, one
and
in order
is
end of the building
frequently used as a lodging-place for a slave.
Hence a
female
may sometimes be
seen ascending towards the door,
with a young child, secured only by the folds of the lamba,
hanging at her back, apparently experiencing no inconvenience from the rugged and narrow ladder or stair by which
alone she can gain admittance to her dormitory.
The growth
of rice
is
the most important agricultural

;
occupation of the Malagasy

of the manioc, called
second to
this, is
the culture
i.
by the natives mangahazo,
e.
purple
usually
wood, from the colour of the stem.

cultivated in enclosed fields
;
The manioc
is
the fence consisting of a
bank
of earth about three feet high,
and planted with songo-
songo, euphorbia spleiidida, or a

is
mud
wall, the top of
which
thickly set with splinters of bone, in a manner resem-
bling that in which fragments of glass are fixed on walls in
England.
When
the ground has been well dug, pieces
of the stems of manioc, about a foot in length, are pro-
cured, either from the redundant branches of crops ready

for gathering,
or from crops recently gathered.
These
are simply thrust into the ground in a slanting position,
leaving about a third portion of each stem above the
soil,
which
is
gently trodden
down upon
the plant with the foot.
The
slips are fixed
about twelve inches from each other.

is
When
field
the plants begin to grow, which

is
generally in about
soil.
a fortnight, manure
scattered over the
After the
has been planted nine or ten months, the weeds are
carefully removed,
is
and a few months afterwards the manioc
ready for use.
From
fifteen to
eighteen months
may be
required between the planting and the harvest, so as to

allow two rainy seasons for the crop
;
the
first
about the
304
time of planting, and the other about the time of ingathering.
The whole
field is
seldom gathered at once, but
is
collected by the family as required for use or for sale.
The
and
roots are usually from eight to twelve inches in length,
three inches in diameter.
They
are prepared for use by
scraping off the outer rind, washing them, and boiling them
well.
Occasionally, the roots are baked in hot embers.
Manioc-roots are also sold in the markets, cut into small

pieces,
and dried in the sun, in which state they are more
easily preserved,
and require
less cooking,
than when
first
taken from the ground.
The
roots are sometimes eaten
without cooking, as raw turnips are eaten in our

try,
own coun-
by persons passing through the fields
and a custom
by force
similar to ours prevails in Madagascar, of permitting a per-
son to gather and eat in such circumstances, as

of hunger
;
if
but to gather and carry out of the

theft,
field,
would
be considered
and be punished accordingly.

;
The
natives are extremely fond of manioc
and though they
prefer rice, the former

as
it
is
extensively cultivated, especially

hills,
grows well on the sides of

is
and on ground higher
than
suitable for rice.
Its
appearance, when cooked,

it is
resembles that of parsneps, to which vegetable

altogether dissimilar in flavour.
not
In the Mauritius, the manioc
is
scraped, dried, and afterit is
wards made into cakes, in which form
extensively used
on most of the sugar plantations.
To these,
the chief departments of native agriculture, the

late
growth of wheat and oats were added by the
Mr. Hastie,
oats, grow-
and by some of the Missionaries, who taught the natives
how
to
sow and use them.
These, especially
well in Imerina, where crops have been seen to equal those

of England.
The plough and harrow were

in,
also introduced,
and oxen broken
to cultivate the ground, to the great
astonishment of the natives.
But, Uke the people of
305
other countries, they preferred their
many own slow methods of
preparing the ground, to the adoption of readier plans and

superior implements.
Besides the growth of other edibles, and the care of their

gardens, cotton
is
cultivated to a considerable extent in

in Betsileo.
Ankova, Antsianaka, and
The The
fed
rearing of silk-
worms occupies a
large portion of the attention and time of
many
of the inhabitants of Imerina,

different kind
silk-worms of
;
Madagascar are of a
from those of India
they
of
are larger, and very hairy.
They are
upon the leaves
the pigeon-pea, cytisus cafau, called ambarivatry.
The
pea,
is
seed of this plant, which resembles the
common
generally sown in a space of ground from three to four

acres in extent.
When
the plant
is
grown, and in
full leaf,
the silk-worms are introduced, they feed upon the leaves,
and then spin out
their silk in the
open
air.
The manner
up,
in
which the natives prepare arrowroot,

for food, is to dig it
which grows in the Sakalava country,
wash
it,
and rub
poured
it
upon a rough
it
stone, in a vessel
containing water.
the
Here
remains for some time, when

leaving
water
is
off,
the
arrowToot at the
bottom.
It is
then taken out and dried upon a mat in the

it is
sun, after which

in milk,
ready for use.
It is generally boiled
which abounds
in this province.
Next
to the cultivation of the soil, the occupations at
present most important to the Malagasy, though perhaps

of comparatively
modern
origin, are those
connected with
the working of iron. Their attainments in this useful depart-
ment
of labour,
though exceedingly imperfect, yet exhiingenuity and perseverance of
bit in a favourable light the
the people. It has been already stated, that iron abounds in
every part of the interior of Madagascar, especially in some
306
of the central
and northern provinces. Whether the natives
this valuable
is
were acquainted with the properties of
metal
prior to their intercourse with Europeans,
not known,
it.
but they have long been accustomed to prepare and use

It is stated
first
by the
natives,
that the working in iron
was
practised in Imerina about a century ago, viz. in the
reign of the grandfather of
Radama.
It
has certainly been

island,
used during a longer period in other parts of the
as the native foundries for smelting iron are noticed by
Rochon, and
accounts.
is
also
mentioned by the writers of
still
earlier
In the Betsileo country, and in some of the

is
other provinces, the iron ore
found in large quantities on

it is
or near the surface of the ground, whence

in baskets,
fifty
gathered up
within
and smelted
for use.
In several
districts,
miles of the capital, considerable quantities of ore are
procured in this manner.
The
iron used in the capital, or

is
obtained for the service of government,

jfrom the north
procured chiefly
forty
and west parts of the country, between

the iron mines of
for
and
fifty
miles from Tananarivo.
may be termed
Here are situated what Ankova but though they

;
appear to have been worked

has been made, even
surface.
in
many
years, little progress
examining them much below the

visited
Mr. Hastie, who
one of these mines
in
1817, states, that upwards of a hundred different openings

to the
mine had been made, each
in size being about three

feet
feet square, but that
none of them were twenty
deep
the mine, therefore, can scarcely be said to be opened.
Mr. Hastie was informed

this
that about four miles farther west
a mine of richer ore had been discovered, and that, from
more recently-discovered mine, the

visit,
natives, at the time
of his
easily obtained all the ore they required.

is
Most
found
of the iron used in the central parts of the island, in the
mines of Antsianaka
large quantities of ore are also
obtained in the district of Ambatolehivy, about
fifty
307
miles
from the capital in a westerly direction, and near the lake

Itasy.
\Mien visited by the IMissionaries, the natives have been

found either gathering the ore from the surface of the
ground, digging for
tain,
it
in the plain, or at the foot of a
mounTheir
but seldom penetrating above

it is
five or six feet deep.
Their method of smelting

foundries,
if
exceedingly curious.
such they
may be
termed, are always situated

;
near the bank of a

this
river, or
running stream of water
sites of
kind are selected on account of the convenience of the
water in washing and purifying as

before
it is
placed in the furnace.
much The
as possible the ore
ore
is
washed, and
;
then broken into small pieces not larger than nuts
it is
then repeatedly washed in the river, for the purpose of

separating, as
much
as possible, the earthy particles from

is
the iron, which, after repeated washings,

in large coarsely- wrought baskets,
gathered up
till
and kept
its
submitted
to the action of
fire.
The
furnace and
appendages are
;
exceedingly rude and simple in their construction

ore, at best, is
and the
but imperfectly smelted.
In building the
furnace, a hole about six feet in diameter,

feet deep, is
and one or two
sometimes dug in the ground, at other times

only levelled.
the earth
is
The
walls of the furnace are of

feet,
rude stone-work, built up to the height of three or four
without mortar, and thickly plastered on the outside with

clay.
No
aperture
is
left in
any part of the wall
for the
purpose of drawing
is
off the
metak The
blast for the furnace
obtained by a singular and ingenious contrivance, very

in
much resembling those eastern Asia. Two rude
use
in
some parts
of south-
cylinders, about five feet long, the
aperture of each from four to six inches in diameter, are
formed out of the trunks of trees of hard wood; these are

x'2
308
made
tion,
air-tight at
one end, and are planted in the earth,
about a foot apart, in an upright or slightly-inclined posiwithin about eighteen inches or two feet of the furis
nace; a hole
made
in
each cylinder,
few inches
above the ground, into which one end of a bamboo cane

is
inserted, the other entering a hole

;
made
in the stone
is fitted
or clay wall of the furnace

to
a rude sort of piston
each of the cylinders, and the apparatus for raising

is
the wind
complete.
No
is
coal has yet been found in Madagascar, and charcoal
the only fuel employed in smelting the ore.
On
this
account, the furnaces are generally built in those parts,

of
what may be termed the iron
districts, that are

is
nearest
to the forests
where the charcoal
made.
is
In the pro-
vinces remote from the capital, charcoal

is
burnt,
or
and iron
worked by the
chiefs
and
their people,
;
by native
labourers for their
own advantage
but in Imerina and

is
in Antsianaka all the iron obtained
for the service of
the government, hence five or six hundred

stantly
men
are con-
employed by the order of government in burning

the
of charcoal for
oundries in the province, and the
smitheries at the capital.
The
only return these
men
receive, in the shape of compensation for their labour, is
exemption from certain taxes levied on other members of

the community.
The
charcoal burners, as well as the
miners and founders, are, however, a sort of government

slaves
;
they live in the forests, or near the places where the
ore
is
found, and they dare not leave their occupations on
pain of death.
The
charcoal, as well as the ore,
is
brought
in large baskets, in
which
it is
kept near the furnaces.

kindle a
fire in
In smelting the iron, they
first
the bot-
tom
of the furnace;
over the
fire
they spread a quantity
of charcoal,
and then throw
in the ore, either
mixed with
charcoal, or spread in alternate layers,
till
309
it
reaches the
top of the walls.
Over
this,
a sort of covering of clay, in

is
a conical shape, with an aperture in the centre,

sionally spread.
occa-
In procuring the
blast,
the pistons are
sometimes worked by a
man
sitting
on the inner edges of
the two cylinders, holding the shaft of one of the pistons

in each hand,
and alternately raising and lowering them
by the action of his arms.

them.
Sometimes the man working
the cylinders stands on a low
bank of earth raised behind

each furnace;
There
are,
in general,
is
two cylinders
it is
to
but when one only
used,
of
much
larger dimensions
is
than those already described,

with both hands.
to a white heat,
and the piston
worked
The
contents of the furnace are brought

in this state
for
and kept
a long time;
after which, the fire is allowed to

is
go
is
out.
The
or a
covering
taken
off;
and the
iron,
which
described as being
partially melted,
and forming one
solid,
number
is
of
smaller masses, at the bottom of the furnace,
removed,
beaten with a hammer, and then again submitted to the

fire,
prior to its being conveyed to the capital for the use
of the native smiths.
Rude
as the processes of
mining and smelting are at

from the number of
present in
Madagascar,
yet
men
employed, the nature and variety of their occupation, the

value of the mineral which they are rendering available for
many
of the purposes of civilized
life,
and the
activity with
which the natives pursue their respective departments of

labour, few scenes in the country are in
many
respects
more
interesting to a foreigner than those exhibited on a
visit to
the mines in the province of Ankova.
In the working of iron, the natives seem to have

greater advances than in smelting the ore
;
made
how-
the art,
310
ever,
may
still
be regarded as but in
its
infancy
among
them.
In some parts of the island the smiths reside in
different villages,
and mingle promiscuously with the other

;
portions of the
community
are the
but near the capital, where

of
many hundreds
servants
government,
they
sometimes congregate together, and

of the inhabitants of a village.
form the majority

this is the case,
When
they sometimes erect one or more sheds, in convenient

spots adjacent to their dwellings, and pursue their
work
together;
is
but in general, the forge of the native smith

usually at
fixed in his house,
the
is
south
end of the
building.
The whole
which
is
apparatus
exceedingly simple.
is
The
lire,
kindled on the
floor,
surrounded by
is
three or four stones, through one of which a hole

forated,
to
per-
admit the end of the bamboos, fixed in the
cylinders, that answers the purpose of bellows.
These are
smaller, but
in
other respects
resemble those used in
smelting the ore.

or a slave.
The
anvil,
pistons are worked by an assistant
The
is
which
is
about the size of a sledge-
hammer,
either fixed in the
ground near the
fire,
or
fastened to a thick and heavy board.

is
The
water-trough
placed near, and the smith,
when
;
at work, sits or squats

his assistants
on a
times
piece of board on the ground

sit,
some-
but more frequently stand, on the opposite side
of the anvil, ready to strike with larger to his directions.
hammers, according
Until the arrival of the artisans

Missionaries to the capital in
who accompanied
the
1822, the articles in iron
manufactured by the people were exceedingly few, and

the workmanship clumsy and unfinished;
chiefly of spears
they consisted
and
javelins, knives, hatchets,
and spades, and

files,
chisels
and hammers, a rude
sort of plane-irons,
pots, spoons, and lamps.
Shortly before the arrival of the
Missionaries, they
had begun
to
make
nails
but of the
excepting
methods of making hinges, screws, and
nails,
those of a simple round form, they were ignorant.
In confirst
nexion with this subject, Mr. Jones, one of the

sionaries
in
Mis-
the
island,
mentions an occurrence, which
places in a striking point of view the advantage which a
Missionary
may
derive from even a slight acquaintance
with some of the most

native land.
common and
useful
arts of
his
Speaking of their
nails,
Mr. Jones remarks, " They

I
made
the
nails,
but they were round, and not square.
was
nail.
first, I
think, that taught
them
to
make a square
Towards the end
of 1820, a favourite horse, sent to

in the charge of
Ra-
dama by
Sir
R. T. Farquhar,
Mr. Hastie,
in the previous year, lost
one of his shoes, and there was
no person
in the capital
who knew how
to shoe a horse.
Seeing the anxiety of the king, I said to him, If you will

trust me, I will
nail
on the old shoe.
The king was

it.
exceedingly pleased, and wished
ma
to
do
model of a horse-shoe
nail,
and the native
made a smiths made

I
officers,
some
nails exactly
hke the model.

;
The
horse was brought
into one of the royal houses
and the king, his
smiths, &c. assembled, to witness the novel transaction.
While I was driving the
nails into the animal's hoof, the
king frequently cried out. Take care, take care, don't hurt
the horse
nails,
don't hurt
the horse
continued driving the
clinched them, rasped the foot, &c., and the horse was
led out unhurt, to the great astonishment
and delight
of all
present,
who appeared, from
this trifling circumstance, to
attach increased importance to our residence

I
among them.
should not have attempted

I
it,
had
not often nailed

father's horses to
on old shoes when
used to take
my
the blacksmith's shop in Wales.
After
this,
the
Malagasy
312
smiths
made
these sort of nails,
as well as horse-shoes,
it
and shod the king's horses, though they did

" Formerly they had no locks
but clumsily
until the arrival of the smith sent out from England.

:
but Europeans, since the

the natives
commencement
to
of
the Mission, have taught
make
several kinds of locks.
very clever smith once
borrowed a patent padlock from me, which he opened, and

having examined
it
thoroughly,
made one
first
exactly
hke
it."
Mr. Chick, an excellent artisan sent out by the London

Missionary Society in 1821, was the
European smith
;
who
settled in the
interior of
Madagascar
and
to
him
the natives of
Ankova
especially, are indebted for their
improvement
where he
in the art of
working in
iron.
He
it
reached
the capital in 1822, and fixed his residence at Amparibe,
erected
his
shop,
and
fitted
up
in
the
European style, as far as circumstances would admit. Mr. Chick was himself a powerful man; and the tools,
the bellows, the anvil, and the large sledge-hammer which
he used,
ment.
palace;
filled
the
natives
with
the
greatest
astonish-
The
report of his great strength soon reached the

after
and shortly
he began his work, the king,

paid him a
visit.
with a number of his
officers,
Mr. Chick's
boys were at work at an anvil of a middling

one, of considerable weight,
size.
spare
was standing on the
floor in
another part of the shop; and the king, after looking about
with admiration for some time, told his officers to
anvil that
lift
the
was standing on the
floor:
each in his turn

it
put forth his utmost strength, but could not raise

the ground.
from
conit
"What!"
said the king,
"are you
all
quered
with
Let
me
try."
His majesty then

tried to raise
it
laid hold of
all
his might, and
from the ground,
but with no better success than his

(said the king,) avelao
officers.
Aoka
izay,
mba
atao ny vazaha ankehitriny
HISTORY OF IVJADAGASCAR.
"Enough;
let
313
the white
man
try now."
Mr. Chick then

it is
lifted the anvil to
a considerable height from the ground,
to the great surprise of all present;
and
singular to
notice
the
first
impression which this

of
evidence of the
superior
strength
the
Englishman produced on the

:
minds of the king and

declaring that
it
his suite
they
all
concurred
in
would be dangerous
to fight with such
men.
number
of youths
were placed, by order of the sove-
reign,
under the charge of Mr. Chick, as apprentices, and
were carefully instructed by him in the several branches

of his art.
When
the king
commenced building
for
it
;
the palace,
Mr. Chick furnished the iron-work

pied,
while thus occunative smiths
he had about two hundred and
fifty
employed under him, and from that time may be dated the improvements made in smithing by the natives. Mr.
Chick's work at the palace entirely ceased
died.
when Radama
was employed by the present government to furnish the iron- work for the mills erected by Mr. Cameron
and had under him about two hundred persons, who had every opportunity of improving themselves, and
at Alakaly,
He
learning the
more
difficult
branches of the business.
Many
used in
of the native smiths are
now
able to
make
hinges,
screws, and a variety of the most valuable articles of iron

civilized
life.
They have
also attained considerable
proficiency in wire-drawing.
In making brass or iron wire,
they beat the rods

required,
till
they are nearly reduced to the size
when they
is
are heated, and

till
drawn through holes

size.
in a plate of iron or steel
brought to the proper
The
drawn through the holes by a rude winch, turned by one or two persons.
wire
It is
skill in
sort of
a subject of deep regret, that in recent years their

the manufacture of cutlery and hardware has been
314
employed
in
the fabrication of implements of war,
fatal
more
for-
dangerous and
than the assagai or spear which
merly constituted their chief weapons.
Great numbers of
swords and bayonets have been made by the native smiths,

in obedience to the orders of the
government
and a short
time before the Missionaries and the

island,
artisans left the
the queen entered
into
arrangements with some
natives of France to establish a manufactory of muskets in
the vicinity of the capital.
The
native
goldsmiths
and silversmiths exhibit conof rings,
siderable ingenuity in the manufacture
chains,
and various ornaments of the precious metals, which are

obtained from foreign traders.
other drinking vessels,
Silver dishes, mugs,
and
and
spoons, for the use of the
sovereign and others, are wrought by them in a manner highly creditable to their
dishes,
skill
and perseverance.
lead,
in imitation
Bowls,
of those
and plates of
tin
and
taken from Europe, are manufactured to a small extent
among them.
silver,
The
wire for their chains, both gold and

is
which are exceedingly fine,

it
made by
first
melting
it
the metal, beating
into long thin rods,

iron,
and drawing
through holes in a plate of
by a process similar
to
that employed in drawing wire of brass or iron.
SIT)
CHAP.
Felling of timber
cutters
capital
XII.
Number of persons constantly employed as wood Amount of labour required convey the timber to the Native or bearers of burdens Method of planks or boards Introduction of the use of the saw Native carpenters Character of their work Masonry Madagascar Native potteries Articles manufactured Native kilns Anecdote of Radama Introduction of brick-making Malagasy rope-making, twineto
coolies,
splitting
trees
for
in
spinning, and basket-making
Introduction
of the art of tanning
Im-
mense quantity of hides provided by the government Native methods of spinning and weaving Simplicity of the Malagasy loom Excellence of the native cloths Preparation of indigo Methods of dyeing Domestic occupations of a day in Madagascar Native hawkers or pedlars Fondness of the Malagasy for traflSc Native markets Number, designation,
order,
&c.
Value of labour
Prices of of moneys Foreign commerce Chief exports and imports.

articles
Money-changers Table
Intimately connected with the occupations described

the preceding
chapter,
in
and
equally
important to the
in
Malagasy,
wood.
is
the felling of timber,
and the working
Forests of varied extent abound in different parts
of the country,
and an immense belt of
forest,
of two or
three days' journey in width, surrounds the interior of the

island.
These
forests yield
abundance of timber, of
dif-
ferent colour
and texture, and of various degrees of hard-
ness and durability.

capital,
Timber
is
exceedingly dear at the
being brought from the extensive forest of Angavo,

to a great distance
it is
which stretches
on the north and south
of Antananarivo, from which
about forty miles distant.
Multitudes of the natives are constantly employed in cutting
wood
ging
in the forests for the

it
government, and others in drag-
to the capital.
316
fell
To
ment.
the timber in the forest, for the use of the sove-
reign, is a service devolving
upon the woodmen

seven hundred."
of govern-
This work employs about seven hundred men, who
are, consequently, called
"The
is
To
drag
all
the timber from the forest,
an occupation in which
the districts in the neighbourhood are
required by pro-
clamation to engage, with the exception of the privileged

classes,
who claim some patent

of this service
is
of immunity.
The
super-
intendence
committed to one of the
judges, who, as occasion

to
may
require, issues his directions
the head people of the districts and villages;

stating the
these
give their orders to the peasantry,
quantity
demanded, and the time specified

at the capital.
for its
being delivered
The whole
length
of
population
is
always liable to be employed

for
on government work, without remuneration, and

time.
any
Hence
for
it
has happened,
that
many
and
have become
government smiths,
life.
carpenters,
&c.
have continued such
In connexion with these

native
:
occupations, those of the
marmittes,*
coolies
or
bearers
of
burden,
may be mentioned
they
belong
almost exclusively to the race of the
Bezanozano, the
extent and situation of whose country have been already

described.
Numbers
felling
of the people are
employed through
life
in
and
splitting of trees as
a means of subsistence.
trees
They
convey, with
immense
labour, the
or thick
planks which they cut in the forest, to the timber-markets,

of which there
are several about
midway between Anta-
nanarivo and Angavo, and to which the builders and others

repair for the
purpose of
making purchases.
As
the
natives of Madagascar have never employed their oxen

* Maro-mila
many passing or crossing
to
and
fro'.
as beasts of burden, or trained
317
them
to the yoke, their to drag
heavy trees are
all
conveyed by
to
men employed
places
them from the

used
;
forests
the
where they are
and
it is
to this cause that the high price of timis chiefly to
ber at the capital
be ascribed.
Many
of the
split
trees are brought to the capital

into planks.
islands,
whole, others are
Formerly, like the natives of the South Sea

parts, the
and some other
Malagasy never thought

or boards from a single
be.
of obtaining
tree,
more than two planks

the tree
in
however large that tree might
This they effected

hatchets and
by
splitting
halves with their
chisels, or
till
wedges, and then chopping away the outside

sufficiently
it
was
it
reduced to answer the purpose
for
which
was intended.
The
woodcutters
still
obtain the
thick boards they bring to market for sale in the
same
have
manner
but
many
of the natives at
the
capital
been taught to use the pit-saw, and obtain as many boards

as the dimensions of the tree will admit.
Prior to the settlement of Europeans in Ankova, the
carpentry of the natives was as rude and simple as their
work
at the forge.
The
the
use of the saw was

first
unknown
their
tools, in
1820,
when
Missionaries arrived amongst

sizes,
them, consisted of a hatchet, chisels of different rude sort of plane, a wooden

borer,
hammer
or mallet, a drill or
worked by twisting
it
between the palms of the

used by workmen in
hands, and a rule, or graduated measuring-rod, six or eight

feet long.
Since that time,
tools,
Europe, have
been introduced,
and have been readily

Their work was often
adopted by the native carpenters.

strong,
and usually
neat,
and
in appearance well finished.
description of the native houses, the construction of
which formed the chief occupation of the carpenters, has

been already given.
They
were, in some parts of the island,
318
means
raised eighteen inches or two feet above ground, by
of low posts driven into the earth
the frame of the house
was joined together by mortise and tenon, notches and

pins, with fastenings of the fibrous roots or
bark of tough
and durable
plants,
and were often ingeniously and firmly
bound
together, though the entire building did not contain
a particle of iron.
The
sliding
doors and windows of the Malagasy houses generally
consisted of a single board, and were opened or closed
by
them backwards and forwards
in a groove, at the
top and bottom.
The
sides
and ends
of the
house were
boarded
the boards were fastened together by the edge of

fitted into
one board being

the next.
a groove formed in the edge of
The
chief article of furniture in ail the houses

posts,
was a bedstead, supported by four

the side or end of the house.
pins, or tied together with the
and fixed against
This was fastened with

tough elastic fibres of a
native plant.
The
only remaining
employment connected with the

it is
construction of the native dwellings, which
necessary
to notice as affording occasional occupation to large bodies
of the people,
is
the putting on the roof or thatch, and the
preparation of the stems of reeds for the structure of an

inferior
all
kind of hut.
to
But
so essential
is it
considered for
men
be acquainted with thatching and rice planting,
and
for all
of these arts
women to be skilled in weaving, that may be considered not as distinct
the practice
handicrafts,
but as the ordinary v/ork of the whole population.
The
open
native carpenter formerly pursued his
work
in his
ordinary dwelhng-house, or squatting on the ground in the

air.
In 1821, the saw was introduced to Madagascar,

of
it
and the natives taught the use

a French carpenter,
by Monsieur Le Gros,
in
who introduced many improvements
the native methods of working in wood, and taught
319
them
how to make glue, and The manufacture of

and cleaning the
of
to use
it
in joining boards together.
large dishes, or fans for winnowing
rice, of
wooden bowls, and the preparation
wooden handles
for their spades, occupied
many
of the
native carpenters.
Lathes have within the
last
few years
been introduced, and many of the natives had made considerable proficiency in the art of turning,
sionaries
when the Mis-
and the artisans were obliged
to leave the country.
In the year 1826, Mr. Cameron, an intelligent artisan, whose

scientific
attainments were highly respectable,
and who
was acquainted with building and machinery

joined the Mission, and instructed
in general,
many
of the natives in
the most approved methods of working in wood; and by the

buildings he erected for the government, and the
of natives
number
whom
he taught as apprentices, would have
greatly promoted the civihzation of the people, had not the
cruel and bigoted persecution of the
Christians
leave
by the
heathen government obliged him
to
the country.
Many
of the natives have, however,

in
made
respectable pro-
ficiency
building,
carpentry,
and joinery, under the
instructions of
Monsieur Le Gros and Mr. Cameron.

masonry
is
The
chief works in which
employed
in
Madaaround
gascar, are the walls
and pavement
in the court-yard
the houses of the sovereign, at the capital, and the chiefs in

different parts of the country,
and in the construction of

of the dead.
the tombs and other
monuments
The
stone-
masons quarry
their stones not
by boring and blasting

fire
them with powder, but by heating them with a
kin-
dled along the line in which they wish to detach a piece
from the rock, and then dashing water on the parts they
have heated.
their stones,
The masons were not accustomed to saw but hewed their surfaces perfectly smooth and
320
hammers.
In paving, or erecting
level with small pointed
their structures of stone,

for
they used a kind of red earth
cement,
until
1828,
when Mr. Cameron discovered
lime in the province of Imerina, and taught the people to
burn
it,
and prepare excellent mortar.
Many
of the
tombs
and cenotaphs of the nobles and warriors are durable monu-
ments of the industry, perseverance, and

masons, and promise
skill of
the native
much
for the nation, with the great
advantage which the discovery of excellent lime will afford

them.
Another important occupation, which has been long

lowed by the people,
is
fol-
the manufacture of earthenware.
Earthenware
found
all
is
used in every house,
and potteries are
over the island.

it
The
large jars used for holding
water, or for fetching
from the streams, and other kinds
of coarse earthenware, are well
made and durable;
it
is
polished with a substance resembling plumbago, found in

several of the provinces.
Their lighter earthen or crockery

than that of England, but
;
ware
still
is
much more
brittle
is
highly serviceable to the natives

this useful
art,
and the progress they

far
have made in
shows that they are
advanced above a state of barbarism.
Large quantities of
found in considerable
earthenware are made in the eastern parts of Aanradrano,
where a very suitable kind of clay

abundance.
are employed.*
is
In this department of labour, females chiefly
When
the articles are sufficiently dry, a
sort of kiln is prepared
by digging a hole
in the earth, or
building a circular wall on the surface, on which husks of

*
curious circumstance
female potters.
is said to have occurred with regard to some At the time of Radama's accession, orders had been issued,
agreeably to former usages, that during the time of public mourning for his
father,
no pottery should be made.
Seven females, however, were found
at
work, in disregard of the king's orders. Radama resolved not to put them
but sentenced them to work incessantly.
to death,
And
as they chose not
rice are strewn
kiln,
;
321
the vessels are then placed in the hole or
and covered with rice-husks, which are kindled, and

to
suffered
blaze.
burn
gradually,
without
being
till
allowed to
the contents
burnt,
Fresh husks are added to the

kiln
is
fire
of the
are
considered as
sufiiciently
when
the
fire
gradually extinguished, and
the vessels after-
wards removed.
The
walls of
many
of the houses in the capital,
and
but
throughout the provinces, are of clay, as are also most of

the granaries for their rice, and their native furnaces
until
;
they were taught by the Missionary artisans, the
natives do not appear to have used bricks, either burnt or
dried in the sun.
was found
and
in the
making bricks, many parts of Ankova year 1829, Mr. Cameron succeeded in making
Clay, well adapted for
in great
abundance
in
excellent bricks, which were burnt in a kiln, resembling
those in England.
The
bricks were used
in
the con-
struction of furnaces for the manufacture of soap, potash,
and other valuable purposes,

arts taught
in
connexion with the useful

is
by Mr. Cameron
life
and there
reason to believe
that
had Radama's
all
been prolonged, he would have
given
the encouragement in his power to the

bricks,
making
been
and burning of
and that the mud-walled dwellings
of the capital would, in a short space of time, have
very generally superseded by the clean, comfortable, and

substantial brick-built cottage.
The making
of rope
and twine
is
another occupation in
which many of the people are occasionally employed. They

to conform to the tokens of general mourning on the death of his father, he ordered that they should not be allowed to leave off work to mourn for their own parents, nor for the death of any of their relations. When the late
king died, they were consequently compelled to work during the ten months of mourning observed by all other classes.
322
use no wheels for this purpose, but spin or twist the hemp,
or other material of which their cordage
is
made, with the
hand.
Besides the native hemp, the bark of the hibiscus,

plants,
and other native
and a species of long and tough by the natives and their

;
grass, are used for these purposes
twine and cordage, which they use in the manufacture of

fishing-nets
and
lines,
in
tying together
the framework
of their houses,
and many of their
articles of furniture, are
both strong and durable.
By
the
same process
as that
employed
in
making
their smaller cords, they manufacture
the large and strong ropes employed in dragging the im-
mense
and
stones they use in the construction of their tombs,
in conveying their largest timber from the forests to
the capital.
Numbers
employed
in
of the people, chiefly
women, are
also at times
for beds, for
;
making mats, which are used
covering the floors, or lining the walls of their houses

are
they
made
of rushes, or fine grass, and are
woven by the
hand, after the manner of the South Sea islanders. Closely

associated with this
is
the making of baskets, which are
manufactured of
general use
the
same
materials,
and are
in
very
size,
among
the people.
The
baskets vary in
;
the largest holding rather more than a bushel
in shape,
they are usually round or square, and are seldom consi-
dered completed until
fitted
with a cover.
To
the occupations already noticed, as recently introartisans,
duced by the Missionary

facture of leather.
may be added
the
manu-
It appears singular that the natives should never have
thought of using the skins of their oxen for any other purpose than for making a rude sort of sandal, and covering
their
drums on the
shields.
In these instances the skin

in the state in
was used with the hair on, and nearly
which
it
323
had been taken from the animal.
In 1822, the London
Missionary Society sent out a number of artisans to pro-
mote the industry and

tanning and currying.
civilization of the people,
and among
the art of
cordially
them Mr. Canham went
to instruct
them
in
His proposal was very
acceded to by the king; but lime not having been at that

time discovered in the interior, his operations were delayed
until the year 1825.
In 1828, the
vats,
and other parts of
the required apparatus, being complete, the king issued
orders that every ox slaughtered at the great festival should
be skinned, and the skin, and two feet from each ox, from
which
oil
might be extracted, taken
to the tanyards,
which
were situated at Ambohimandroso.
The rump
of every
ox killed by the people has, from the time they began to

feed
upon the
cattle,
;
been considered as belonging
to the
ruler or sovereign
one half of the rump the king ordered
the people to retain as a compensation for the skins which he
now required them

only the
oil
to give
up
instead of bringing the feet,
the people were afterwards directed to boil them, and bring
they contained.
this occasion,
Upwards
of 16,500 hides
were
brought on
and on about half that number
the process of tanning was

April, 1829.
forest:
commenced
in the
month
of
Bark, suitable for tanning, was found in the
great difficulty, however, was experienced in ob-
taining the required supply; and on the death of

his successor
Radama,
seemed but
little
disposed to encourage the
undertaking.
small quantity of excellent leather was
made.
The
natives are able to tan, not only the hides

calf,
of the ox, but also the
sheep, and dog skins; and
should a change in the government take place favourable

to industry
and
civilization,
the manufacture of leather
would, undoubtedly, form a valuable addition to the productive labour of the people.
324
chief occupation of importance that remains to be
The
noticed, is the manufacture of cloth.

cultivation of rice, perhaps the
This
is,
next to the
most general employment
of the people.
Woven
cloth
is
made from
silk,
cotton,
is
hemp, and the leaves
of the rofia.
still
coarser cloth
it
made from
is
the bark of a tree by simply beating
out with
a wooden mallet, in a manner similar to that in which cloth
made by many of the inhabitants Malayan archipelago, and the islands of

Spinning and weaving are regarded
the
of the Asiatic or
the South Sea.

in
Madagascar as
and
their
appropriate
employment
of the
females,
manner of performing, appears to a European exceedingly

tedious
;
but time with them
is
not a matter of
much
consi-
deration.
The
materials are cleaned and pulled by the

of
hand,
instead
being
carded.
The
is
only implement a spindle, which

the ampela or
is
employed
is
in spinning
yarn or thread
used in the following manner:
Holding
spindle in the right hand, and twisting the thread, which
drawn out from a piece

separated.
of carded cotton, held in the
left,
they pull out a thread as long as the two hands can be
This they wind up around the ampela, and

till
then repeat the operation
the spindle
is filled.
One
woman
in the
with the ampela
is
not able to spin more than a
fourth of the quantity that would be produced with a wheel
same
time.
Much
time
is
therefore required for
spinning a sufficient quantity to

yards long.
make a
piece of cloth five
Threads made by
slitting the
long inner leaves

sel-
of the rofia resemble those of flax or
hemp, but as they
dom exceed
three or four feet in length, the natives are

tie
accustomed to
them
together,
till
they are sufficiently
long to admit of being woven into cloth.
The
cloth is
always woven in the house in which the family reside, and

the loom
is
generally fixed near the door.
325
In Ankova, the looms, which are extremely simple, are

placed so low in the
floor, as to
leave scarcely
more than four

Tpeadles
or five inches between the warp and the ground.

are not used in the interior, but on the coast
to
it is
common
feet, so
have both looms and treadles worked with the
as to
open the warp

the
after the
is
manner
the
of the Europeans.
When
thread
ready,
Hovas warp
it
by
driving four pieces of
wood
firmly into the ground, and
wind the thread around two of them, and between the

other two,
according to the
pattern
laid
before
them.
Having
finished this process, they tie together the threads
of the several colours which form the pattern, and remove

it
into the loom, or
put
for for
it
up
in a basket, until required.
If the
warping be
if
it
common
white cloth,
it
is
easily
done; but
attention
threads.
is
be
diamond or coloured work, great
required in counting and changing the different
The Malagasy loom

side over
is
very simple in
its
construction,
consisting of two strong pieces of wood, rounded on the
which the threads of the warp are passed.
These
pieces are called voditenona, or ends of the warp.

are the
They
made
warp
of the branches of the rofia,

in order to stretch
it
and are put through
out at both ends.
One
of
these pieces of
wood
is
passed through the warp at eacli
end, and fastened to posts in the floor.
They
are drawn
nearer together, or removed further apart, by cords tied

to posts,
two of which are driven firmly into the ground
at each end.
By
this
means the Aveaver can tighten or

is
slacken the warp, drawing up towards her what
done,
and bringing the remainder nearer as the progress of the work may require.
The
shuttle used by the
Malagasy weaver
is
a piece of
round stick, pointed at one end for the purpose of being
326
The knocker
of
passed more easily between the threads.

the weft, called tantanana,
a scythe.
is made of wood, and resembles The woman employed in weaving puts this
between the threads of the warp, in order to open them,
and then,
after
throwing in the shuttle, knocks the threads

it
two or three times before she draws
out; and in this
manner, with the assistance of a moving rod in the warp

to
open the threads, and the pressure of her

is
left
hand, the
process of weaving
continued.
The
there
small rod placed across the warp, to regulate the

is
width of the cloth,

are other the
called tohatenona;
for
besides which,
two rods,
the purpose of keeping

also
separate
threads.
The weaver
uses
a small
of the
bodkin, called tofy, for the same purpose.
Most
females in Madagascar are supposed to be able to weave.
In
327
the
many
instances, the garments used
by
all
members
of a family are home-made, being spun and woven by the
female members of the same; and
when
the comparatively
rude apparatus and simple process of their spinning and
weaving are considered, their attainments in

art are truly astonishing.
this valuable
The
threads of their cloth are
even and well twisted, the weaving regular, and the patterns in their
silk,
and other variegated cloths remarkably

and often no ordinary
regular, exhibiting great attention,
measure of fancy and good
taste.
In 1822, the Missionary Society sent out two artisans

to introduce the English
wheel and loom; but though the

appeared delighted with
;
king, and
many
of the natives,
the operation of both, the endeavour did not succeed

the death of
his
and Mr. Rowlands, the weaver, and the return of companion to England, left the people still dependent
for the
on the spindle and the simple native loom,
manu-
facture of the chief part of their ordinary apparel.
few native dyes are prepared in the country; but the
chief part of those used by the people are purchased from
European and Arab

skill in
traders,
and used with considerable

amongst
colouring the silks, cottons, and rofia cloth.

arts
There are many
and manufactures
to
in use
the Malagasy, which
seem
belong to the more advanced
stage of civilization than

intellectual condition.
is
indicated by their moral and

following ingenious
The
methods
of
making indigo dye are
of this description.
The
plant
is
first
gathered,
it is
;
then cut in pieces, and
pounded.
place until
After which
it
allowed to ferment in a
damp
becomes
fetid
and the moisture would conwhich
sequently be dried up, but that they use a preparation

of another
in hot
plant, called beravina,
is
first
steeped
this
water until the liquor becomes blue.
With
328
they moisten the fermented indigo once a week for the space
of a whole year, by which time, they say,
it
if
properly done,
will
be excellent.
roots
of the
In this state
it is
called fatobra.
The
little
banana are
also cut
and
dried,
and
then burned to ashes.
These ashes are pounded with a

;
of the water used in sprinkling the fatobra
after
which, they are formed into cakes, and dried before the
fire.
The name
fatobra
of this composition
is
fondrana.
The
and the fondrana are mixed together, and
boiled in water for a whole day.

sufficiently boiled,
is
The
vessel,
liquor, after
it
is
put into a
which
must be
warm, and
it
placed near the

the thread
is
fire
so as to be kept gently
then put into the Uquid dye, where
remains
until the colour is sufficiently strong.
There
is
also another
method
of preparing indigo dye,
by stripping
off the leaves
from the plant, and pounding

is
them
and
into a soft
left
smooth mass, which
put into a basket,
in a
damp
place for three or more weeks, until
caterpillars
appear in the mass.
These
caterpillars
are
allowed to spin for themselves silky-looking coverings of
a reddish colour.
situation, or
it
The
basket
is
then placed in an airy

;
even in the sun, so as to be well dried
and
may then
dye in
either be used immediately for dye, or kept
for
any length of time.

this state.
The name
it
of fatobra
is
also given
to the
In order to prepare
for
imparting the colour, they

;
take of the dried roots of the banana, four parts

dried vegetable, called vato-fosa, one part
;
of a
and of a shrub
any
rate,
called tanantanampotsy, about one part, or, at

sufficient to kindle the others,
and
assist
them
in burning.
These three are then reduced

flat
to white clean ashes.
Two
cakes of the fatobra, about eight inches in diameter,

vessel,
and one inch thick, are then put into a
which contains
about six gallons of water.
as above, are then
329
A quantity of the ashes, prepared

warm
place for three
added to the cakes, and more water
poured on.
days and
The
nights.
vessel is kept in a
peeled switch, of a kind of wood

well, is
which takes the colour

liquid for three
then used in stirring the
days more, or until the switch appears

is
tinged with the precise shade of blue that
wanted.
The
again,
thread
is
alternately steeped in the dye for half an

it
hour at a time, and then dried ; after which
is
steeped
and
this is
repeated for the space of from three

these
to six days.
By
means a hght and a dark blue
may be
beautifuL
produced, which are both at times exceedingly
The manufacturers
ferent materials
;
of the dye do not

to
appear to pay
difit,
any very minute regard

those
the preparations of the
who
are accustomed to prepare
being able to guess at the proper quantity without

difficulty.
much
The
roots of the
banana are found
to
contain a con-
siderable quantity of potash, with the addition of a large
proportion
of neutral
salts.
The
vato-fosa contains a
quantity of very good potash; and the ashes,

plant
is
when the
tanan-
burned, are of a fine white colour.

is
The
tanampotsy
soft
wooded or spungy shrub, and, when
dried, is suitable for
burning with the banana.
Amongst
is
the
occasional occupations of the Malagasy,
that of washing the
Unen must not pass unnoticed.

slaves,
This
performed by the
and in the following simple

clothes are taken to a brook,
but effectual manner.
The
or to the bank of some river, and there washed by being
dipped into the water, and then beaten on a large stone

with a smooth surface.
in the markets.
Soap,
if
required,
is
purchased
clean, the
After being
made thoroughly
330
clothes
are
spread out to dry in the

beautifully blanched.
sun,
and
in
this
manner are
basket,)
They
for use.
are then neatly

(a
folded, taken
home, and
laid in the wardrobe,
box or
where they remain ready
A
may
description of the occupations of a day in

serve
to
illustrate
still
Madagascar
more minutely the general

and
in order to
habits and
manners
of the people.
;
The
IMalagasy rise early
do
this, it is
customary to have a cock roosting in the south-east corner

of the house, that he
may
give warning of the
first
ap-
proach of the morning.
He first
crows about three o'clock,
which
is
much
too early to begin the occupations of the

is
day in a country where there
but
little
twilight,
and
where the sun does not

call,
rise before six.
He
repeats his
however, about
five,
when,
if
any doubt should exist
as to the actual
dawn
of day, the master of the house
or one of his slaves opens the door, and, after glancing
towards the eastern horizon, exclaims, "It
is
morning."
The
necessity for doing
this, arises
from the circumstance
of the
house having no glass windows, and being therefore
entirely dark, except
where a ray of
light is admitted
by
an
accidental crevice.
stick,
The door
has no other fastening
than a piece of
in like a
about four inches in length, stuck
wedge
at the bottom, or let into a small groove
made
for that purpose.
As soon as the family has risen, the master, and other members of the household, squat themselves down beside
the fire-place, or outside the building, and stretching out
their
naked arms,
and
call to
a slave to bring them water.

left
slave then advances,

pitcher,
carrying in his
hand an empty
with water,
in his right a zingia, or bullock's horn, with

it
a stick fixed into
for a handle.
This
is filled
which he pours upon the hands of his master, who rubs
them together, and dashes some
In the same
of the water
331
mto
his face,
v.hile the slave holds the pitcher or
wooden bowl beneath.
manner the
rest of the family are attended

it
upon, the zingia being replenished by dipping

siny-be, or large water-jar.
into the
The
slaves then assist each
other to wash in the same way, none using the napkin to
wipe
off the water,
but some rubbing

it
it off
with the lamba,

After this ope-
and others leaving

ration, the
to dry in the sun.
master
dismisses his servants, or
accompanies
them
to their respective occupations.
At home
greater
the mistress ordinarily employs herself in ar-
ranging her room, and weaving.
There are
ordinarily a
number
of servants than can
be constantly employed
where the wants of the people are so few.

corner of the house, by driving them out
lease the calf from the post to which
it
One
of these,
perhaps, will remove the pigs or other animals from the

;
another will retied within the
is
house
while another milks the cow.
These, and other sim-
ple employments, with long intervals of squatting on the
ground, occupy the slaves until the time of preparing for

the
first
meal.
This
is
not ordinarily taken until eleven

is
or twelve o'clock, and the hour

of the
computed by the length
shadows on the ground.

in
Out -door labourers

from the morning
till
Madagascar continue
at
work
sunset, when, about six or seven in
the evening, thousands
may be
seen returning from the

fields,
rice-grounds,
markets,
and distant
bearing their
spades on
their
shoulders,
and bundles on their backs,
sometimes cheered as they pass along by a native bard,

who,
seated
on
the
ground,
will
chant
his
short but
lively songs, descriptive of the pleasure of returning
home
after the toil of the

ing,
day
is
is
over.
On
reaching their dwell-
another meal
spread,
exactly resembling that of
332
is
the morning; and while this

it is
preparing, as well as after
dismissed, the family
amuse themselves with cheerful

often
closes with
conversation.
The day
dancing and
singing; after which they spread upon the ground their
simple bedding, which consists of one or two mats, on
which they repose until chanticleer awakes them in

morning.
tlie
The
traffic
occupation in which the people especially delight,
is
carried on by
hawking
different things about for sale.
Some go down
to the coast,
and obtain
articles of British
manufacture from the merchants.
Others purchase articles
manufactured by their own countrymen, in the hope of

realizing
some
gain
profit
by
selling them.
Perhaps no
certainly
class
of
men
less
than
these
hawkers,
none
endure greater hardships; yet none are so devoted to

their
employment, and so unwilling to exchange
it
for
another.
The
native
songs often describe the mpiva-
votra, hawkers, sitting patiently all
day at the market, or
travelUng from house to house until the sun sets upon

their path, yet unwilling to
cook a meal of rice until their

profit
hearts have been encouraged by obtaining some

their goods.
on
To
a corresponding feeling, in
all
probability, is to
be
ascribed the excessive fondness of the Malagasy for the public markets
;
these are the most favourite places of
resort for all classes.
There
is
not only a market con-
taining a general assortment of goods, held daily at the

capital,
but three or four large markets are also held at
different distances
from Tananarivo and
fi*om
each other,
every day in the week in rotation, in different parts of the

province.
They
are always attended by a vast concourse
of people from the adjoining districts, like the great annual

fairs
held in England,
To
these markets
all
333
the productions of the country,
animal and vegetable, and the various native manufactures
and foreign importations, are brought

slaves are publicly
for sale.
cattle,
Here
also
bought and sold like
and public
kabarys, or messages from the sovereign, are announced.
The
ample
situations selected for these

fields
markets are usually

fi'om
of level ground,
it
at
no great distance
some
principal town, and
is is
called
by the day of the
week on which the market

familiar expression, "
held there.
Hence the
You
can buy your timber at Thurs-
day"
that
is,
at the
market held on Thursday.

stalls,
No
kets.
shops, booths,
or sheds are used in the mar-
Every
article is
spread upon the ground usually

is
on mats.
No
regular order of squares or rows
observed,
and the purchasers must be content

in all perplexing directions
to thread their
way
through this labyrinth of com-
modities and sellers.
The
only order
is,
that persons
who have
similar articles
of
for sale, usually sit
near one another.
Some
them have
one or two of the
articles they sell, fastened to the top of

is
a long pole, which
fixed in the
ground near the place

This
is
on which their goods are spread
out.
used as a
kind of sign on the part of the dealers, and serves to

guide those
Cattle are
who
are in search of the articles thus exhibited.

in
collected
large
numbers
for
sale
at
the
extremities of the markets, and the butchers usually take

their place near them.
will
Then
in the
body of the market
be found the dealers in spears, spade-handles, and

;
cutlery
next in order, the sellers of cloth, of lambas, of

;
cotton and silk for spinning and weaving
adjoining these,
snuff",
perhaps, the sellers of sugar, tobacco, and
then of
honey,
salt,
and soap, earthenware, wooden bowls, and and ornaments

;
silver chains, beads, necklaces, silks,
then
334
rice,
charms, medicines,
fruit,
poultry; and then money-
changers, and the sellers of scales and weights.
There
are sold also pieces of meat ready cooked, boiled manioc,
and draughts of fresh water.
The
natives
call
make use
their
of a hollowed
block of wood,
;
which they
a vata, for measuring out their rice

cloth
and
two
they measure
by stretching out their
hands
to the extent of a fathom, or
two yards, which meaalso
sure they call refy.

refy,
But they have

finger's breadth.
a rod equal to
which
is
divided into quarters, and even into measure-
ments as small as a
Oxen
are sold
in the markets, but
horses by private
idols,
agreement.
Goats are not allowed by the
any more
than pigs, to enter Imerina, but they are numerous in the

southern Betsileo, where they are sold and eaten.
had some goats brought
to his country-seat,
Radama called Mahato their
zoarivo; but after his death, they
were driven back
former territory by order of the queen.
Animals are exhibited

markets of London.
for sale, but,
except on the day of
the annual festival, they are seldom seen so fat as in the
On
the day of their mandro,

that
i.e.
new
year's
day,
bullocks
have been fattened for
twelve months or more, are sometimes seen of so prodigious a weight as scarcely to be able to support themselves.
In making purchases, the Malagasy are adepts in the

art of bargaining or disputing.
To " miady
varotra," or, in
other words, to dispute the price, seems to be as essentially
connected with a purchase, as opening the eyes

vision.
is
with
Every one asks
for
more than he intends
to accept,
or ever hopes to obtain.
All are aware of this, and
therefore all contend. for an abatement.
The
seller
and
the purchaser then generally concede something, until they
gradually approximate, and at last agree. length of time
is
335
An immense
frequently spent in a wordy contest for
the value of one penny.
Bargains are usually concluded

selling
by the
parties
buying and
exchanging the salutation,
Soavatsura, "
may it be good and well." The Malagasy have no circulating medium

known more
of their own.
;
Dollars are
in
or less throughout the island

is
but
many
of the provinces trade
carried on principally by
dollar,
an exchange of commodities.
with the two
pillars,
The Spanish
is
stamped
bears the highest value.
For sums
Dollars are
for
below a
dollar, the
inconvenient method
resorted to in the
interior, of
weighing the money in every case.
cut
up
into small pieces,
and four iron weights are used
the half, quarter, eighth, and twelfth of a dollar.
Below
even
that amount, divisions are effected by combinations of the four weights,
and
also
by means of grains of
down so low as one plump grain, valued

part of a dollar.
single grain
" vary iray venty,"
rice,
one
at the seven
hundred and twentieth
The
following
No.
1.
is
a table of the moneys thus used:

One-half
One-fourtli
Dollar.
Loso
Kirobo
Sikajy
2.
3.
4.
One-eighth
. . .
Roavoamena
One-twelfth
These four are estimated by the
single weights, above

their specific
named;
Voamena
Lasiray
Lasi-roa
Lasitelo
other,
and smaller amounts, have

:
denominations as annexed
.
.
Twenty-fourth of a Dollar, made by putting No. 4 wt. against No. 3. Sixteenth . Half a sikajy.
. .
lasiray
and a voamena.
lasiray
and a roavoamena.
Venty
....
.
Sixth of a dollar, sikajy, and a voamena.

Sikajy and a roavoamena.
Raimbilanja
Sasanangy
Kiroba and
ditto.
33G
. .
Small sums are the ilavoamcna
one-half voamena.
one-third ditto,
eranambatra
latsa-paheuina, less by a sixth than a voamena.

then, as ten rice-grains are coimted to one eranambatra, sums under an eranambatra are counted one grain, two grains, &c. up to nine dollar That is, 720 grains one
And
360
..
sions; fuel, by the bundle; thatching,
337
Gundollars.
by number.
powder
is
sold
by the government by weight of

according
to their
Slaves are
sold
age,
strength,
and
beauty!
either
In
this iniquitous
traffic,
a good-looking slave,
male or female, always fetches a few dollars more
than one not favoured in that respect.

Prices vary in different parts of the island.
Near the
coast provisions are dearer than in the interior, in conse-
quence of fi'equent purchases made by the captains of

vessels.
of food
At a distance from the may be obtained at low

sterling,
coast, all
prices.
common
articles
On
the average,
about a bushel of the best picked white rice

for
may be had
about one-
one shiUing
and common red
rice at
third less.
Of
poultry, ducks
and fowls may be purchased
at about a dollar for eighteen or twenty; six geese
may be
had
for the
same sum; and

fit
of turkeys, four or five.
good
young horse,
fifty
to ride,
cannot be bought under forty or
pounds, but there are others as low as twenty.

costs
bullock
from three to eight

four.
dollars.
cow and
young cal^ three or

one
shilling,
Sheep and pigs are about

to two, each.
and from that
In the season,
about twenty or thirty good pineapples cost two or three
pence
and a peck of grapes, or of bananas, may be had
for
the same money.
There are few other native
fruits to
be
valued in the interior, except limes.

articles
The
prices of all
have greatly increased during the

rice.
last ten years,
and especially that of
The
value
of labour
this
amongst the Malagasy may be

It is
judged of by
scale of prices.
for their rice
extremely low.
of
Many work
" laoka''
merely
and a small quantity

it.
any kind
of
meat given as a rehsh with

is
If
paid in money, about two-pence per diem
the
amount
Smiths
commonly
I.
given, in addition to the labourer's food. z
333
When work
and carpenters obtain about double the sum.

is
done by
hire, it is
most frequently by contract.

at the
A master
dollars,
will often hire out his slave
rate
of five
rather
more
than twenty-one shillings sterling per
annum,
with provisions and clothing.
The
natives are in the habit of lending their slaves to
assist their
neighbours and friends in dragging stones for
graves, removing their houses, &c.,

in their turn.
and they borrow again
They have
thus less occasion to hire labour
than would otherwise be requisite.

also in the habit of assisting
The
free people are
one another by their personal
labours.
In
all
such cases the parties requiring aid find
provisions
during the time of labour,

of feast, or
and then usually

of meat,
at its
give
some kind
distribution
termination.
Foreign commerce has long been carried on with Madagascar.
Arabs from Muscat have

to trade with the
for
many
years been
accustomed
people of Mojunga on the

formerly maintained a
frequently
eastern coast.
The Imaum of Muscat

at this port.
deputy,
who governed
Many Arabs
brought their merchandise, which generally consisted of
raw
silk, cloth, earrings, finger-rings,
beads, necklaces, pre-
cious stones, swords, powder, white cloth, &c. to the^capital

for sale.
The
last
party of merchants arrived in
18*29,
before the queen's coronation.
The
fine river
Betsiboka
fifty
being navigable for canoes from Mojanga to within
or
sixty miles of the capital, gives great facility for a regular
trade between this port and Ankova.
Numbers
for
of the natives of India, chiefly from the Presiat different periods visited
dency of Bombay, have
Mojanga,
the purpose of trade, and
have brought their merto
chandise to
the
capital,
where some have remained
dispose of the goods, while the rest have
returned in their
HISTORY OF IVUDAGASCAR.
ships to India, generally to
339
Bombay
at the
or Surat, for a further

capital have
supply.
Those remaining
usually
opened a house
for the sale of their goods,
and employed
the natives to carry their articles through the city and
neighbourhood
for sale.
Though they went
to
see the
Hova
their
markets, yet they confined the sale of their goods to
own
houses, or to the natives
whom
silk,
they employed
as hucksters.
They
generally brought
Indian shawls,
white cloth, beads, precious stones, and necklaces.
Americans have sometimes traded with the inhabitants

of
Mojanga
for hides,
beef,
and gums, giving
in
exchange
cloth,
muskets, powder, swords, hats, clothes, chairs, and
cast-iron pots.
In recent years the chief foreign trade has been with

Mauritius, the Cape of
Good Hope, England, and America.

is
The
proximity of Mauritius to Madagascar favours frequent
intercourse,
and a considerable trade
carried on between
them, excepting during the unhealthy season on the coast

of Madagascar.
Large numbers of excellent

fish,
cattle,
and
occasionally rice and dried
are sent from Tamatave,
Vohimaro, and other
ports, to INIauritius
and Bourbon.
in favour of foreign
The
taste
and habits of the Malagasy

;
commerce are increasing

manufacture
in those
to those
they prefer articles of foreign

in their
made
own
country, excepting
things in which they endeavour to imitate the

viz.,
works of their ancestors,
in the production of articles
that are purely native, and are esteemed as such.
During
the reign of
in greatest
Radama, the
articles of foreign
manufacture
demand, and
for
which the highest prices were

cloth,
paid,
were horses, saddles and bridles, scarlet broad
gold lace of various breadths, red satin, purple, green,
and
yellow
silk, silk
handkerchiefs, fine silk in skeins for mixing

in
with their
own
weaving the kasena, or green, purple,
z2
340
and red
silk velvet,
hats and caps
fine calico for shirting,
and coloured
prints, gloves, sewing-thread
and
silk,
haber-
dashery and hosiery.

rings, v^âtches,
Epaulets of gold, earrings, finger-
and small musical boxes.

cutlery
;
Next
to these
may be named hardware and

glass.
such as penknives,
earthenware, and
scissors, needles, cast-iron pots or kettles,
To these may
salt,
be added, blue and white Pondicherry
cloth,
arrac,
and rum, introduced among the inha-
bitants of the provinces near the coast.
Large quantities
of salt are carried
up
into
Ankova, and sold at a very high
price in the markets.
Madagascar
its
is
rich in valuable articles of export, but
resources are yet comparatively unknown.
During the
of
reign of
Radama, the demand

has declined
for
articles
European
Since
manufacture increased with astonishing rapidity.

his death
it
;
and the policy of the present
government seems
to threaten the entire cessation of all
trade with the English
Should a more
liberal policy
be
pursued by the native government, the favourable situation

of the island,
its
and the amount of
its
population, would render
commerce an
object of vast importance to the manufac-
turing and mercantile interests of our country.
341
CHAP.
Government of Madagascar
the will of the sovereign
to
XIII.
is
monarchical and military Extent to which absolute Instance of personal devotedness

in
the
sovereign Duties of the sovereign Importance
hereditary rank
Gradations
rank
Members
attached
to
of the royal family
Civil and military officers The king's household Native police Number and dignity of honours connected with the public service Nature of ancient military tactics and fortifications Formation of the army after
the European model

singing
Military pimishment
women
during a
of burning Employment of campaign Revenue of Madagascar Enume-
ration of the sources
whence it is derived Veneration of the natives for the popular traditions and usages supposed to be derived from the pracof their ancestors Combination of the regal and sacerdotal character sovereign National festivals The feast of the new
tice
in the person of the
Number
the ceremonies observed Benedictions pronounced of the cattle slaughtered at the feast Modes of administering the oath of allegiance Animals slaughtered on the occasion Formation of new laws Proclamations and edicts Different modes of
year Description of
punishment
crucifixion, binning alive, flogging to death, fines, banish-
ment, or reduction to slavery The sovereign's decision final Operation of native laws on foreigners National councils Office and duties of the judges Public mode of conducting trials Code of laws promulgated by the present queen in the year 1828.
The government
potic
of
Madagascar
is in
theory neither des-
nor monarchical, but a mixture of both, with a

It
preponderance of the former.
might with propriety be
termed a modified despotism
there being on one hand too
many pubHc assembUes

to justify
of the people, under the pretended
necessity for consultation
upon the
aifairs
of the nation,
the designation despotic;

is
on the other hand,

authority,
the sovereign
invested with too
much
beyond
the control of fixed and definite laws, to be considered
342
to the definitions of
merely as a monarch agreeably

tesquieu.
Mon-
The
sovereign of Madagascar claims nominally a

life
right to do whatever he pleases with the
and property
of his subjects, and so far he
is
a despot.
But customs
will of the
have in some instances the force of law

people
is
the
is
respected
and so
far
despotism
modified,
and
of-
the despot becomes a monarch.
This modified kind

on a limited
scale,
supreme authority
the
chieftainship
is
applicable,
to
of an independent province,
and on a
broad scale to the sovereignty of the island.
For some
been
years past, however, the increasing power of the military

officers,
and the extent
to
w^hich the troops have
employed by the sovereign, have rendered the government

almost a pure military despotism.
Succession appears
to
;
lie
hereditary in
for the simple
Madagascar,
but
sufficient
but not necessarily so
and
reason assigned by the people, that cases
may
occur in
for
which the eldest son may not possess talents

verning.
go-
The
sovereign nominates his successor, he being
supposed
both to
have the right of
such
nomination,
and
to
be best qualified, by his knowledge of his kingdom
and
his family, to decide
upon the exigencies

latter.
of the former
also
and the capacities of the

all
His nomination has
the importance derived from the popular idea that the

that,
king can do no wrong, and
according to his
own
assertion, as well as the belief of his people, the
wisdom
of his ancestors, called roambinifolo manjaka, "twelve kings,"

is
united in him.
The
cessor,
sovereign accordingly appoints his immediate suc-
and frequently extends his appointment
to
three
or four successors, or fixes the line for future generations.
Should he
foreseen
fail
of
making the appointment,
or should un-
circumstances prevent the appointments taking
eflFect,
343
jthe
the
nomination to the succession rests with

this case the decision
nobles,
and in
would most probably
rest with the strongest.

exist, the eldest
is
Unless positive disqualification
son
is
usually chosen.
The
rule,
however,
not invariable.
divided his
Andriamasinavalona, Radama's grand-
father,
kingdom equally between
his four sons
and a nephew.
while he was
to the
Radama's father put
to death his eldest
son for ambitiously aspiring to his father's government

still
living
and he himself had been chosen
government
in preference to the lineal descendants

It is said that the line of succession
of his predecessors.
by Radama was limited by
his
father to the issue of a
certain marriage, appointed for
him by parental
authority.
By
this
nominal marriage, he, however, had no issue, and
the crown was placed on the head of the nominal widow.
So devotedly attached are the people

observance
of
to
the religious
for
such
appointments,
its
that
a struggle
ascendancy, without
support, could be maintained only
by force of arms.
Females are not excluded by law from

it is
holding the reins of government, though

in
not exactly
to
harmony with the
feelings of the
Malagasy
admit of
female domination.
The power
soil,
of the
monarch
is
nominally absolute, and to

so.
a very considerable extent really
He
is
lord of the
owner
of all
property,
and master of his subjects.

:
Their time and services are at his command

either,
to refuse
would be resented not merely with displeasure, but

life
with the loss of
and the confiscation of property.

Malagasy, and long-established
But the genius

usage,
of
the
seem
to require at least the
show of
justice in the
to
servility,
proceedings of their sovereign.
Accustomed
subjects might submit for a time to the enaction of
mea-
sures however arbitrary and capricious, but
disaffection
344
would necessarily be generated, and rebellion ultimately

follow.
It is
tile
possible that the long-conflicting claims of hos-
chieftains
have
afforded
so
many
opportunities
for
the exhibition of loyalty or disaffection on the part of their

respective adherents, that a national lesson has been taught,
and a national feeling
inspired, in
which rulers and subjects

sovereign
have equally participated.

his
The
who would hold

justice,
kingdom
securely,
must
therefore reign in the affections
of his people
by the steady administration of
and
and
the mild but firm execution of laws which approve themselves to
the judgment
of
the
nation
as
salutary
equitable.
Madagascar
slaves,
is
therefore not such a land of degraded

inviolably
safe.
as
to
render a tyrant
is
But a
paternal monarch
hailed and adored by the people,
who
are
were accustomed
to call
Radama, Andriamanitra,
(god.)
The Malagasy
sufficiently
are
not impatient of control.

of
They
aware of the value
a regular government,
as securing their
to its restraints. to authority
own
safety, to
render a willing submission
To power
blended with beneficence
tempered with mildness
by persuasion and reason,

of the
and right enforced there are perhaps few people,

who could be found more
same grade
in civilization,
disposed to concede respect, to render submission, or to
perform service, than the Malagasy.
As
is
a proof of the veneration with which their sovereign
regarded by the Malagasy, the following circumstance,
related by
insertion.
Mr. Cameron, may not be thought unworthy

close of
of
Towards the
lona,
the
reign
of
Andriamasinava-
when he became
sickly
and
feeble, the sikidy
was
consulted, with a view to the
restoration
of his
health.
The
345
following result was the consequence of the directions
of the oracle.
oiFering great
speech was
first
delivered to the people,
honours and rewards to the family of any

freely offer himself to
individual
who would
be
sacrificed,
in order to
the king's recovery.
The
people shuddered
at the idea,
and ran away
in different directions.
One
man, however, presented himself for the purpose, and his

offer
was accepted.
The
sacrificer
girded up his loins, After which,
sharpened his knife, and bound the victim.
he was laid down with his head towards the east, upon a
mat spread
ceed with
for the purpose, according to the
custom with
animals on such occasions, when the priest appeared, to proall
solemnity in slaughtering the victim by cutting
his throat.
A
to
quantity of red liquid, however, which had
been prepared from a native dye, was spilled in the cere-
mony
and,
the
amazement
of
those
blood seemed to be flowing
all
;
around.
might be supposed, was unhurt
but the
who looked on, The man, as king rewarded him
and his descendants with the perpetual privilege of exemption from capital
punishment
for
any violation of the laws.
The
class,
descendants of the
called
man to this day form a particular Tay maty manota, which may be translated,
Instances frequently
"Not
rice,
dead, though transgressing."
occur, of individuals of this class appropriating bullocks,
and other things belonging
to the
sovereign, as
if
they were their own, and escaping merely with a repri-
mand, while a common person would have

or be reduced to slavery.
to suffer death,
The
has no
office
of sovereign in Madagascar, though main-
tained with considerable
pomp and
barbaric
splendour,
difficulties.
;
common measure of toils, anxieties, and The monarch may consult with whom he pleases
is
and he
the pretext in the habit of assembling his people under
346
and laying before them plans
of consulting them,
from
He
is
which, however, they never dissent

sibility of the affairs of
is
but
the final respon-
government
rests with himself.

its
the father of his kingdom, and
numerous and
diver-
sified officers
are under his independent control.
He
invested with the legislative and executive authority.
All
laws emanate from him.

are appointed by him.
The army
is
raised,
and
its officers
Peace and war are made by him.
All important civil cases are finally decided by
him
and
In
death can be inflicted or remitted only by his decree.
some instances he goes out to war in person, and then takes

as a right the
command
the
of the army.
In right of precedence, the members of the royal family

hold of course
next rank to the sovereign.

if living,
The
mother of the reigning prince,

highest rank next to
usually takes the
her son;
the king's wife, or the
queen, next;
seniority;
and
the other
wives,
their
according
wives,
to
their
chil-
then brothers,
and
sisters,
dren, &c.
As
the Malagasy are extremely tenacious

is
of
the honours due to their rank, great attention the strict rules of etiquette in
all
paid to
that pertains to pre-
cedence.
So many of the prejudices of the Malagasy with regard

to
rank or precedence, are derived from traditions of their
former chieftains, that some mention of them here
may
not
be out of place.
The most
mentioned in
important amongst the ances-
tors of the royal family,
appears to have been Rabiby, or

all
Ralambo, who
is
proclamations as the father
of the present race of princes in Imerina ;
and whatever may
be the collateral branch from which he descends, the reigning

prince of Madagascar must be able to trace his descent to
Ralambo.
He
it
is
to
whom
tradition assigns the
honour
of having first given his preference to that particular part
of
347
of his
the bullock which
is
still,
in
commemoration
decision,
festival
set apart for the
monarch
at the great annual
of the
new
year.
The
descendants, both of the

to
eldest
and the second sons of Ralambo, seem
have been
people of high rank, holding

trict
many
privileges.
is
The
still
dis-
occupied by those of the eldest son

i.
called
Ambohimalaza,
e.
" the illustrious village."
Both these
clans or castes have certain privileges, which they maintain
with extreme tenacity.

the
They
burying
only are allowed to
perform
ceremony
of
kings
and
nobles.
Another chief of
importance
first
was
Andriamasinavalona,
king of Tananarivo, who
reduced under his authority
the whole province of Imerina.

sons.
This chieftain had twelve
He
first
instituted
;
the
custom of each monarch
having twelve wives

to
and
his descendants,
who
is
are reputed
be of royal blood to the present day, possess various
privileges,
amongst the principal of which
the liberty of
intermarrying with the royal family.
The
bers
nobles, or Andriambaventy, rank next to the
mem-
of
the
royal
is
family.
These are
also
the judges.
Their number
not fixed,
but usually there are about

Their business
to
is to
twelve residing at the capital.

causes,
hear
of
and decide by what appears

In important
affairs
them the equity
the case.
their decision is taken to
the sovereign, whose word
is final.
They
are also employed
in delivering messages from the sovereign to the people.
This duty always devolved on them, prior

of
to the formation
the army upon the European model.
After that period,
Radama sometimes sent communications through the medium of a military officer of high rank. In this he
might have two objects
;
one, to diminish the authority and

;
importance of the nobles
and the
other, to elevate the
character and flatter the vanity of his military officers.
348
Most
estates,
of the judges possess a
menakely (feudal
estate) in
different parts of
Ankova; and the people
living
on such
though
free,
are not only obliged to work for their
feudal lord, but are dependent upon
him
for his decision
as a judge in all cases of dispute between
them and
are
their
neighbours.
The
country.
officers
immediately under
the judges
the
Farantsa,
who may be regarded

Their duty
from
is
as the civil police of the
to take charge of the taxes,
money due
to
to the sovereign
fines,
and confiscations;
receive the rice and other productions falling to the sove-
reign from the land
and, in fact, to undertake the custody
of whatever contributions the law requires for the govern-
ment.
Another class of
the messages from
villages,
civil ofl&cers
consists of the Vadintany.
These are employed

on
as the king's couriers.
They
carry
of
the
government
to the
head-men
all
public business,
and constitute a
sort of
general watch, as constables of the peace throughout the

country.
These messengers, immediately on hearing the proclamation from the king's ministers
and judges, hasten with the

which
royal
mandate
to their respective districts, in each of

is
a large market
in rotation.
held weekly, one every day of the week

the markets are held, there
is
Where
usually
a mound, on the top of which the Vadintany stands, and

fires
a gun as a signal for the people to listen to the pro-
clamation of the king.
Should there be no market held

to
on the day when these orders are

Vadintany deUvers
his
is
be made public, the

heads of the
district,
message
to
to the
it
whose duty
it
then
make
known
to the people.
The
proclamations sometimes relate to the prohibition of
certain articles, such as intoxicating liquors, tobacco, pigs,
and the use of
silver plates
affairs.
349
and
forks,
but frequently to
more important
The
They
only class of
civil
officers
remaining to be noticed,
hundred," or centurion. consists of the Ambonin-jato, "over a

with the are the immediate organs of communication to the Vadintany, The judges deliver their orders people. All directions and these convey them to the Ambonin-jato. conveyed in the same for attending to public service are
manner.
were those heads of to Radama and his districts who had submitted willingly themselves by father, and others who had distinguished without disciplined their bravery in war, while the king was
The Maroserana
(military officers)
troops.
class.
Some of the royal blood were also amongst this They were men of greater influence and weight in
;
the court than the judges
most
of
them possessing
larger
menakelys
vassals.
and a greater number were not only more wealthy, but more exThey
(estates),
of tenants or
adoption of pert in war, and exhibited superior taste in the was in the habit Radama dress and customs.
European
of conversing frequently with
them about the

to his table,
affairs of the
kingdom
many were admitted
and he occa-
were never sionally dined with them; while the judges

admitted to an equal degree of favour.
great influence over the people, in request of the carrying any new plan into execution at the royal proking, or in preparing their minds to receive any privy council clamation. From this distinguished body his the principal officers of was formed, and they constituted
The Maroserana had
his
undisciplined army.
When Mr.
first
Brady,
an English
in 1816,
sergeant,
began
to discipline the troops of
Radama,
the maroserana were the
men
placed under his care,

the chief officers of the
and were thus qualified
to
become
350
army.
But the king afterwards becoming jealous
placed them in garrisons
of their
in
influence and power,
the
fell
unhealthy parts of the island, where most of them
victims to disease, and others being cut off after the de-
cease of Iladama, the
title of
maroserana
is
now
extinct, or
merged
in that of military officers
who have
obtained dis-
tinguished honour.
The
court of the queen
is
now composed
of the andriam-
baventy, or judges, and the principal officers of the army,

called manamboninahitra, or possessors of honour.
During the reign
of
Radama, the king acted

him
in
the
capacity of commander-in-chief as well as that of sovereign.
No
official
council of ministers was held under
farther
than might serve to maintain the appearance of a public

consultation.
But he was accustomed

in view
occasionally to ask
the opinion of his officers separately without explaining to
them what he had

all,
and
after
having heard them

to
he would decide upon the measures

divisions,
be adopted.
His army consisted of four

districts of
according to the four
Imerina; and the commander-in-chief, next to
the king, resided at the capital, for the purpose of executing
the orders of his majesty.
Since the death of Radama, there has been, by the ap-
pointment of the queen, a commander-in-chief of
all
all
the
the
army; and he, aided by the military

and
of appointing
staff",
has
responsibility of conducting the wars, of suppressing rebellion

revolt,
garrisons
and governois
This an
around the
coast,
and of protecting the country.
commander, therefore, and
his military officers, form

;
important part of the queen's council

in their civil capacity,
geois, constitute the
while the
judges,
representing the citizens, or bourpart.

It is, howêver,
remaining
not
unfrequently, that the commander-in-chief, with the officers
of his
staff,
351 own forming
carry into execution plans of their

of the queen.
without the knowledge
The
free,
tion.
king's household was
composed
of
male and female
servants.
Those who were the

assisted
principal domestics, being
served him for honour, without pecuniary remunera-
by persons from among the Tsiarondahy, a clan of liberated or redeemed slaves of the government. These servants were appointed to different
They were
departments in the economy of the palace

charge of the king's jewels, clothes, and
some taking
wardrobe;
private property
some having the preparation and care

prepared the food.
of the royal
while some attended to the king's table, for which others
Some
of
his principal
confidential
male servants were occasionally employed orders to the civil and military officers, from
also carried back messages
to the king.
in
conveying
whom
they
These servants
out, consisted of
were called the
officers of the palace.
The
king's body-guard,
when he rode
about forty or sixty Tsiarondahy, some of
whom
Of
carried
loaded guns, others swords, and others spears.
these a
number walked
before
him
to clear the road, while the rest
followed in his train.
These, however, were but his ordi-
nary body-guard, while he remained at home.
When
he
went out to war, or appeared in a pubUc assembly on the

martial
field,
the
army
of
of the capital, consisting of three
thousand men, most
whom
were dressed in the British
uniform, composed his honourable guard, or Tsimandoa, in

addition to that of the Tsiarondahy.
An
extensive system of internal
pohce was instituted

civil
by Radama, in 1826, combining the

character.
and military
nature.
The service performed is principally of a civil The rank and title of the officers are strictly mili-
tary, consisting of corporals, sergeants, captains, colonels,
and generals.
352
in
Honours are conferred

the dignity.*
Madagascar by the nwnher

the lowest.
of
Rank
first
is
conferred
is
by number, from one
upwards.
The
honour
The
first
scale
ascends thus:
Privates
of the line
occupy the
rank,
and field-marshals the thirteenth or highest.

nities
Higher dig-
may
;
be created as
marks
of favour
and rewards of
service
but at present the arrangement stands thus

the
the
1st
Voninaliitra voalohany Voninahitra fahaova the 3rd Voninahitra fahatelo the 4th Voninahitra fahefatra the 3th Voninahitra fahadimy Honoiu' the 6th Voninahitra fahenina Honour the 7th Voninahitra fahafito Honour the 8th Voninaoitra fahavalo Honour the 9th Vaninahitra fahasivy Honour the lOth Voninahitra fahafolo
Honour Honour Honour Honour Honour
2nd
llonoiu: the
Privates.
Corporals.
Serjeant.
Serjeant Major.
Lieutenant.
Captain.
Major.
Lieutenant Colonel.
Colonel.
Colonel
]
folo.
11th Voninahitra faharaikambini folo
Honour the 12th Honour the 13th
Voninahitra faharoambinifolo Voninahitra fahatelambinifolo.
Q^jjgj.
Field Marshal. Field Marshal.
The word " folo," annexed

signifies ten,
to colonels of the tenth rank,
and intimates that those colonels are the
highest,
and hold an intermediate rank between colonels

are applied, as already
and generals.
The same names and numbers

remarked, to the
person,
officers of
the
civil
department; so that a
who
or,
is
no
soldier, if
asked, "
What number
I
is
your
honour ?"
swer, "
"
What degree your

colonel.'
it
voninahitra ?" might an-
The
;
seventh
the ninth," &c., or "
am
a captain
a major
or a
but
This might seem
to create
some
confusion
secures considerable order in the arrange-
ments made
for the internal
government of the country,
and probably supersedes the jealousy and dissatisfaction

*
The word
for
its
honour
vanity
mural lesson on
" Voninahitra,
in
Malagasy
is
highly significant, and conveys a .'" i, e. " Thejlower of the yruss
353
which might pervade the bosom of many a liege subject of

the realm.
Until the year 1816,

services of
when Radama
availed himself of the
Mr. Brady
in disciplining his troops, the armies
led to the field by the princes or chieftains of Madagascar,
appear to have been irregular bodies of men, fighting
more
father
for the
sake of booty than with any union of purpose.
Fire-arms were in Imerina during the time of Radama's

;
but how
much
earlier is not
known with
certainty,
and they were too expensive

native
to
be in general use.
of
The
sticks
weapons
originally
employed consisted
and
stones, shields
and spears. and

to
With these they were able
to defend themselves,
make
their attack
on their
opponents
and
in the absence of the

to perfection
more
effective instruciviliza-
ments of war, brought

tion,
by European
the native weapons were found sufficiently annoying

destructive.
and
at
The
sticks
were usually sharp-pointed

iron,
one end; their spears were made of native
with
strong
wood
hafts or handles.
Stones appear to have been
principally used
by way of defence.
Towns being
built
on
eminences, afforded an opportunity to the besieged inhabitants of hurling or rolling

assailants while
down ponderous
means
stones upon the
making
their ascent.
general and valuable
of defence
was found
villages.
also in the hady, or
deep
ditch,
formed around the
These
exist at the present
day
but scarcely any pains were

in repair, partly
taken by
Radama
to
keep them
on account
of the tranquillity of Imerina during his reign,
and partly
ot
on account of the new modes of warfare rendering them

less
use as a means of defence.

assailants,
some distance thos

sticks
ball
I.
They might keep at who were only armed with
and spears, but they afford no defence against the
from the cannon or the musket.

2/1
354
In the low countries the people have generally sought

safety in time of
war by
flight into their

is
woods, and hence
scarcely any
hady or moat
found, except in the interior
of the island, where there are no forests sufficiently near to
be places of refuge in times of war.
Drury gives an account

chieftain of a district,
fortification,
of the residence of a prince, or
as
defended by a sort of natural

it
which rendered
inaccessible, except to the

It
approach of a very limited number at once.

in a wood, with trees all
was situated
to
around
it,
which seemed
for
have
been planted there when very young,
their
growth
was regular and
tall,
and so close together that a small
dog could not pass between them.
They were
it
likewise
armed
to
with large strong thorns, so as to render
impossible
break through or
cUmb
over them.
There were but two
passages, or gates,
abreast.
so narrow as to admit only two
men
One
of these
was
to the
northward, the other to

mile
in
the south, and the whole was about a

ference.
circum-
In going out
to war, the
people were accustomed to go
en masse, appointing a place of general rendezvous.

thing like regular order prevailed in the attack.
carried the best
No-
Everyone
did
weapon with which he could
furnish him;
self; took his slave or slaves to carry his provisions
the best he could during the conflict; secured as
much
booty as
if
fell
within his grasp, or escaped as fast as he could
his party
seemed
likely to
be defeated.
In the year 1816, during the time Sir Robert Farquhar
was governor of Mauritius,

were sent up
to
few
disciplined
troops
Tananarivo, with a view of exhibiting to
Radama
mending
giving
a specimen of European discipline, and recomit
to his
adoption as one of the best means of

superiority over
all
him a decided
the other chieftains
of the island.
355
The
suggestion approved itself to the mind
of
Radama.
soldiers
He
gladly seized the opportunity of securing
the services of
Mr
Brady, one of the party, by

;
whom
his
own
might be instructed he afterwards constituted
him one
vices
of his principal officers,
and
felt
himself greatly
indebted to Mr. Brady for the faithful and unremitting ser-
which he rendered.
only was formed at
first,
One regiment
and that conWithin a
sisting entirely of the class of the
voromahery.
few years afterwards, circumstances led to the formation

of an
army on a
far
more extensive
scale.
The immensely
augmented
superior power of the disciplined few over the undisciplined
multitude,
convinced
Radama
that
with an
number
cible.
of regularly instructed troops
he should be invinobject; but
They were
of
too few at
first to effect his
they were enough to produce the conviction that the old
mode
war must be exchanged
for the
new
order taking
place of confusion, spears yielding to muskets, sticks to
swords, and stones to powder and ball.
The
in a
years 1820 and
1821 had proved alarmingly deIncredible numbers had perished

of
structive to the Hovas.
war against the Sakalavas

life,
Menabe.
The
waste of
specific
human
sity of
for
want of better
discipline
and more
arrangements, together with the obvious and urgent neces-
keeping more people at home to cultivate the
soil,
may be regarded
gave
as the two principal circumstances which
rise to the actual
formation of the army of Radama.
And
as
it
was found that the Sakalavas were tolerably well

it
skilled in the use of the musket,
was seen
to
be the more
better able
necessary to train a body of troops,

to
who might be
compete with them, than rude warriors venturing with
only spears and shields into the field of terror, devastation,
and carnage.
2a2
356
As a
proof of the contaminating influence of the martial
feeling that
was thus created, a youthful regiment was
formed, consisting of about one hundred,

military
exercises,
who learned
guns,
the
using bamboos
son of
for
under the
of these
command
leader
of Rakotobe,
RatafFe.
Most
the
were afterwards taken into the army;
but their young

death
of
was
cut
off
few
days
after
Radama.
This martial feeling appears also to have been cherished
and extended, not only by the eloquence of the
rulers,
but
by
the songs of the
women, who are thus described

to
as cele-
brating one of their sovereign's warlike expeditions.

the day
On
when Radama was supposed

rank and
class,
be entering the
territory of the Sakalavas, all the females at

capital, of every
and near the
arose by daylight, and
having formed themselves into small parties, each under a

leader,
commenced
the " mirary," singing war-songs, in the
form of prayers and benedictions, for the safety and success

of the king
and the army, accompanied with imprecations
upon the enemy.
They
stood with
their
faces
turned
towards the west, the direction of the Sakalava country,

holding rods in their hands, and brandishing them like
spears, with warlike motions, calculated to excite
them
to
enthusiasm.
This practice was continued every morning

until
and evening,
the
war terminated.
It
sometimes
expres-
lasted through the principal part of the day.
The
sions consisted chiefly of the praises of the sovereign, such
as "
God
is
gone
to the
is
west
Radama
is
a mighty bull"
closing with "
Dead
the country to the west
dead
is it,"
the last sentence forming a sort of chorus.
This practice of singing was continued until the year

1824,
when
the king gave directions, that instead of these
warlike exhibitions, the
women
should go
home and
attend
to their work,
357
in his
and that he should be able to succeed
wars without their songs.
The revenues of the king great, when compared with

actually contained in
of
Madagascar are
not
the
amount
of
property
the island.
The
property of the
sovereign consists chiefly of slaves and cattle, both which

are numerous.
These
are,
however, considered as the prooffice,
perty of the government, and belonging to the
not
the person, of the monarch; they consequently descend to

his successor.
His nominal property as sovereign includes
the whole island, since all the land, with the services of the
inhabitants, are
arise
at his
command.
all
The
actual revenues
limited,
if
from several sources,

far
of
them extremely
for the services
and
below what would be absolutely requisite,
the
government were required to pay

to
it.
rendered
Instead of
this,
the government claims the services of
the subjects for the army, and various other public duties,
and accepts
of service also in
Ueu
of
payments either
in
money
or produce;
by
this
commutation, rendering the
direct taxes of
money
or produce less necessary than under
a better system.
Amongst
fiscations.
the sources of the revenue

duties
may be enumerated
fines
booty, hasina, taxes,
and customs,
and con-
By
booty,
is,
of course, understood a share of the spoil

cattle,
taken in war, slaves,
&c.
One-third of the whole

the sovereign, and four
amount of
dollars
cattle
is
allotted to
on every slave taken captive.

officers of the
The
rest
is
distri-
buted among the
army; and as the sovereign
provides arms and ammunition for the troops, his claim to
a larger share of the booty obtained

equitable.
is
considered
is in
fair
and
Of
the cattle, the sovereign
the habit of
at different
distributing considerable
numbers gratuitously
358
times,
and of
selling others to the
traders on the coast
for exportation.
Hasina, or donations, are presented as acknowledgments

of
the sovereignty of
the
monarch,
and
all
are
made on
innumerable occasions.
country, and
all
Strangers from
parts of the
foreigners arriving at the capital, present
the hasina to the sovereign.

is
In
all
great kabarys, the hasina
presented by the several districts and different parties in
the kingdom, by the judges, the army, the police, heads of

clans and villages, and by the scholars and others in their
respectively associated capacity.
On
the king's returning
home
a
from a distant excursion, after a war, in passing near
village, or
on any event of public importance, as at the

Sec.
;
fandroana, circumcision.
to the sovereign.
the hasina
is
also presented
The sums
given on these occasions are
usually small, but the aggregate forms a large amount.
tenth of
all
is
the produce of the country belongs to the

called fahafolo, or a tenth.
sovereign, and
poll-tax
also
to
An
annual
exists,
though
not
universally
enforced,
amounting
subject.
one sikajy for each slave possessed by a free

to the capital,
Of goods introduced
and sold in
any way except in the public markets, one-fifth of the

profits is
claimed by the sovereign
and on every child born

an isantrano,
to a slave, one-fifth of its value
must be paid by the owner

exists also
into the king's exchequer.
There
or tax, of one sikajy on each house.
Free-will offerings of
the
first-fruits of
the harvest are also
made
to the sovereign.
certain proportion of rice
must
also
be paid in by the
bourgeois for the service of the army.

(i.e.
An
isampangady
each spade)
is
an amount paid from the yearly pro-
duce as a kind of
that
is,
rental.
On
the estates called Menakely,
certain portions of land or villages assigned by the
sovereign to
members
of the royal family, to the judges,
and
others, the
359
isampangady
it
is
paid to the holders of the
estate.
In
all
other cases
goes to the sovereign.
Duties and customs are imposed on vessels entering the

harbours or ports of the island, and on
all articles
exported
foreign
and imported.
Some attempts have been made by

amount
traders to farm these, by paying an annual
for their
own
vessels to pass free from all specific duties,
and
re-
quiring an augmented amount to be laid on other vessels
and the commerce of other

appear to have succeeded.
traders,
but the plan does not
A
the
portion of
all fines
imposed by the judges becomes
the property of the king.
Of persons
sold into slavery for
payment
is
of debts, one-third of the
amount
all
of the pur-
chase
paid to the king.
The
property of
is
who
die in
consequence of drinking the tangena

portion of this also falls
confiscated,
and a
pro-
by right
to the king.
The
perty of persons convicted of defrauding the sovereign, of
high treason, or rebellion,

in the
is
confiscated,
and appropriated
same manner.
The king
also claims the property
of those
who
die intestate,
whose wishes have not been ex-
pressed in the presence of competent witnesses, or
who
die
without personal or adopted heirs.
The
veneration of the Malagasy for the customs derived

is
from tradition, or any accounts of their ancestors,
one of
the most striking features of their national character.

feeling influences both their public
This
;
and private habits
and
their
upon no individual
is
it
more imperative than upon

is
monarch, who, absolute as he

either the will or the
in other respects,
wants
power
to
break through the long-
established regulations of a superstitious people.
The king
nities
of Madagascar, in addition to his other dig-
and
responsibilities, is high-priest of the realm.
At
is
the
commencement
of the
new
year,
when a bullock
3G0
good
of the
sacrificed for the
kingdom, opposite the tomb

the sacrifice to offer
his attendants are
at
Ambohimanga, the king stands over
up the prayers and thanksgivings, while

employed
in the slaughter of the animal.
(idols),
Taking
into his
hands the sampy
Manjakatsiroa, and Fantaka, he

full
stands on a platform, sometimes in a
kabary of his
idols,
people
and while he prays, and inquires of the
he
faces the east.
The same ceremony
is
performed opposite
the
tomb
of Andriamasinavalona, before
he goes out into
the kabary, and on his return home.
Within the court-yard of the palace, and situated between

the two houses appropriated to the national feasts and
ceremonies,
is
a sacred stone, upon which no foot less sacred

is
than the sovereign's
ever permitted to stand.
Upon
all
this
stone, sacrifices are oiFered;
and here
also,
on
public
occasions, the king alights from his horse or his palanquin,
before he steps
tion
is
upon the ground.
This object of veneraIn every village where
not peculiar to the palace.
an
idol is
kept there
is
a sacred stone, situated near the
court-house.
The most important and popular festival celebrated in is that of the new year, in which the sovereign The Malagasy year commences acts a conspicuous part.
Madagascar,
with a national feast or lustration, called " mandro," to
bathe, or "fandroana," bathing.
tion,
It receives this designa-
because bathing constitutes one principal part of the

;
ceremony
formality.
far
but the whole
is
not always observed with equal
In the early part of Radama's reign, he adhered

the ancient national observances than
more
strictly to
during the last two or three years.

scription
in 1821.
It is
The
following de-
of
the
feast
is
taken from observations made
elsewhere remarked, that the Malagasy year consists
of twelve
361
months, and an additional day to each month

to
which
is
supposed
precede the
first
day of the new moon.
The ceremonies commence on

of the last
the day after the termination
month
in the year,
and are continued through a
great part of the night and of the next or
new
year's day.
The
design of the feast appears to be simply the celebra-
tion of the
new
year.
to the
For about a week previous

from
animal food.
commencement
of the
general ceremonies, the sovereign and royal family abstain

all
On
the day before the Fandroana,
many
of the principal people crowd towards the palace-
yard with presents for the king as voluntary donations, and

as expressions of joy in the anticipation of the
new
year.
These
presents consist of fuel, mats, silver, charms, &c.

is
The
who
hasina
always paid in money.
About
sunset, on the eve of the

all
new
year, the sovereign,
presides as priest during
the ceremonies, having
entered the royal house, called Mahitsy, there sacrifices

a cock, intimating that the blood of this animal
is
the last
shed in the year, and that with

for the past twelve
it
thanksgivings are offered
months, and blessings supplicated for

splendid scarlet
the next.
robe,
From this place, decorated with a

At
and accompanied by
his guard, the king proceeds to

this time the
the lapa, or house called Besakana.
whole
its
country
is
illuminated.
Every
village,
every hut, has
torch or bonfire, which
may be
seen from the capital to
the distance of thirty miles or upwards.
The king having

the several
entered Besakana, and taken his seat,

of the royal family take theirs also,
members
according to precedence.
east part of the house,
He
which
then retires to the northis
partitioned off for the
occasion,
where
he
bathes,
exclaiming,
is
with
laughter
and
vivacity, that the water
cold.
On coming
out of
362
\
the bath, he repeats, Samba, samba, no tratra hariva taona
"Happy, happy,
old age
!"
we have reached
the eve of the year."

!
All present then exclaim, Trarantitra
" Reach
little
a good
At
this
moment
the cannons are fired,
and
the king, having brought with

filled
him from the bath a horn

into his
with water considered sacred, pours a

all all
hand, and sprinkles
present within reach, after which
he resumes his
seat,
continuing to repeat Trarantitra.
He
then receives the hasina from members of his family^
and from any foreigners who may be present.
During
are
this part of the

in,
ceremony, three culinary vessels

fire
brought
and placed upon a
arranged
and
attended by a person appointed to that

tain
rice
office.
They conportion
and beef;
the latter being
the
kept
rice
specially from the fandroana of the last year.
Some
and honey are then placed on
silver dishes,
is
a portion of
the beef on the rice, and the whole

that each individual
then handed round,
may
take a small quantity.
In taking
it,
every one repeats the word samba, "happy, " or "blessed," as

before, placing also a little rice
and honey upon his head,
and repeating nearly the same words. Samba, samba Andriamanitra Andriananahary
god."
"Blessed,
called tatao,
blessed be the lord
This custom
is
and
signifies perfect
concord amongst the parties concerned.
The assembly,
is
after this, breaks up,
and the court-yard
deserted by the dense crowd.
All then bathe; every
parent acting the part of priest for his
own household, and

and relations who
;
performing on a small scale what had just been completed
by the king.
Weeping
for their friends
may have
died during the past year, then follows
and the
whole country becomes a Ramah, where lamentations and
mourning are heard
in
every house.
Heads
of families
recount also to their households the deeds of former days
363
the origin and honours, the exploits and fame, of their ancestors
and
thus,
by
tradition,
perpetuate
the
memory
into
of
men and
actions
which
must otherwise
pass
obHvion.
The king has one

family,
particular bullock for himself
and his
the old
which
is
killed soon after sunset, just
when
year has expired.
The
people, however, are not allowed

It is
to kill theirs until the following morning.

strictly
a custom
adhered
all
to,
that the bullocks killed on this occasion

;
should
be good ones
that of the king's, particularly,
must be
metry.
cut
or
off,
free
from
all
blemish, and of the most perfect sym-
If it is lame, has
any
sore, has the
end of the
tail
has one of
its
horns turned up and the other down,
if it
has a spot on one side without having a similar

it is
one on the other,

for in the
deemed wholly unfit
for the
purpose
view of the natives,
this bullock is the represenit
tative of all the others, and, before
is killed, is
presented
or dedicated to god by a prayer which the king offers on
the occasion.
The
person who
kills this
bullock must also
be properly
qualified.
He must
be without any spot or

living,
it
blemish on his body, and both his parents must be

otherwise he cannot be allowed to
were, in the presence of the deity.
make
the sacrifice, as
Towards the
multitudes
close of the day previous to the
festival,
may have been
seen washing their clothes and
mats at every pond, or brook, or spring in the neighbourhood; and during the evening, the people bathe themselves
and one another.
Well would
it
be,
if
such a
practice prevailed once every week, instead of only once

in the year.
About
this
time several of the king's
own
bullocks are
driven into the court-yard, to be subsequently killed and

distributed as jaka, or annual presents,
among
his atten-
364
dants.
Next morning, by break
of day, a great
number
of
cattle belonging to the people
are driven into the court-
yard.
The king makes
his
appearance at the sacred stone

or eighteen inches
a coarse
block, about twelve
square,
planted in the ground, near Besakana.

previously selected as
killed near
fit
speckled heifer,
sacrifice, is
to
be offered in
then
the stone,
is
and before being perfectly dead,

the
a small piece
receives,
cut out of the rump, which

it
king
and with
touches his forehead, the tip of his
tongue, and right Icnee, generally saying, " I have tasted of

the blessings of the year.
May we continue
to enjoy them,
and
taste of the
same
at the expiration of this."
Part of
this sacrifice is
festival
;
then put aside, and kept for the next annual
which the Malagasy have a method of preserving and palatable, although no

it.
perfectly sweet
to
salt is
permitted
cut up,
be used
in
keeping
The animal being next
small
yard,
fires are
kindled before the royal tombs in the courtthis sacred

fire
and small pieces of
beef are fixed on pieces
of wood,
and put into the
by the sovereign himself, as a
sort of burnt- offering to his departed ancestors.
After
this,
the king enters the palace, where he changes
his apparel, and, again
coming
out,
approaches the tomb of
Andriamasinavalona, holding two rods in his hand.

supplicates that chieftain of former times as having
to
He
"gone
god, and seeing him, and talking with
him
to intercede
with god in his behalf, and to prosper his kingdom, to

grant him success in arms, to extend his dominion, and to
confer happiness on
him and
his subjects.''
He
then leaves
the capital, and visits

attendants.
Ambohimanga, accompanied by a few

of his father he performs similar
At the tomb
ceremonies, and supplicates similar favours.
This
visit is
sometimes omitted, but not when there
is
a prospect of any
important military expedition being undertaken.
The
cattle
365
having now been driven by their respective

it is
owners or their servants out of the court-yard, where
supposed they received some benefit from the king's sacrifices,
prayers,
and benedictions, the whole town and country
become one vast slaughter-house.
Hundreds
of animals
may be
seen driven about through every avenue of the
town, with ropes thrown around their horns and entangling

their feet, while all
hands are employed in the revolting but

ten to fifteen thousand bullocks are
universal occupation of maiming, hacking, killing, dragging,
and
dividing.
From
usually killed on this occasion.
Some wealthy families kill ten

;
or twelve; those of the middling classes, three
and amongst
the poor, two, three, or four families unite their means, and
purchase one for division among themselves.

effort at this festival,
All
make an
w^ho
though they should impoverish their
resources for the whole of the coming year.
Those
kill the fattest bullocks attain the greatest honours.
Some
are fed
up
for the occasion,
and cost from seven
to seven-
teen dollars, and in a few instances they are actually kept

in the fahitras,
and fattened there during a space of three or

all
four years.
portion, the
Of
that are killed in the town, the allotted
rump,
is
presented to the sovereign

is
and
in the
country, the
nobles.
It is
same portion
presented to the chiefs and
usual for the sovereign to distribute a large

if
number
not
of cattle himself, especially

dition.
about commencing an expe-
In 1821 the number given by
Radama was
less
than two thousand.

kill
By
a general edict the people are

for
forbidden to
any bullocks
a few days previous to
the feast, and for a
week
or ten days afterwards.
During
the last years of the king's reign, orders were issued that a
smaller
number
of cattle should be killed
lest the
country
should be too
much
impoverished.
3G6
In the course of the afternoon of the great feast-day, the beef

is
cut
up
rice,
into small pieces
and cooked.
It is then
placed on
friends
and handed round
in each family to
any
and acquaintance who may be present.
To
enter
a house on such an occasion without being invited, would
be deemed an intrusion
though, having entered, the guest

food.
would be invited
eating the jaka.
to partake of the
It is usual to give
This
is
called
mutual
invitations,
and
to send presents amongst friends from one to another, and
in
some cases the whole of a bullock
is
distributed in this
manner.
Those who have no beef
to give,
endeavour to
send a small piece of cut money as a jaka, or new year's

gift, to
their friends.
The whole
of the first
month
of the
is
year
is
called
Volompadina, or sacred month, and

occupied by an interchange of
family's jaka.
not unfrequently
visits, to
partake of each
Friends often travel a very considerable
distance on such occasions, to prove their attachment and

respect.
Radama was
to eat the
in the habit of inviting his family
and nobles
jaka with him, and in return he went
and partook
of theirs.
The
act of eating the jaka with
any one is by the Malagasy considered as a pledge of amity a sacred test and bond of mutual fiiendship and
concord.
Amongst
is
the most important customs and ceremonies of
the Malagasy, connected with the government of the country,

that of taking the oath of allegiance, which
to
is
adminis-
tered
the
principal captives taken in war, on
being
restored to their freedom, with permission to
return home,
and
to persons suspected of disalFection towards the govern-
ment, or
rebel,
who have
risen in rebellion, or excited others to

to submit
is
and yet have subsequently promised

faithful.
and
remain
Extermination or slavery
the
usual
punishment of rebellion
reign of
;
367
but in some cases, during the
Radama, a show
of
humanity was deemed a preferis

it.
able line of policy, the consequence

real
the exercise of a
humanity towards the objects of

oath of allegiance
is
The
two-fold.
It
may be
considered
either as two distinct oaths,
or as separate parts of one
ceremony.
The names by which

and "
the two ceremonies are
distinguished, are
strike the water,"
mively rano and milefon omby,

to spear the calf."
"
to
In the mively rano, the judges, and sometimes a party of

military officers,
accompany the persons
to
be sworn to the
This,
place appropriated to this purpose at the capital.
however,
is
no
splendid mansion, but simply a shallow
stream, gurgling
narivo,
down
the hill on the west side of Tana-
where an
called Ranoritra
" water soon
artificial
pond
is
formed
for the purpose,
to
be dried up."
Around
this the parties stand,
holding in their hands branches of
the Ambiaty, and a spear procured for the occasion.
The
farantsa, civil police,
and
their assistants, bring to
the appointed place the following articles
the
dung
of
a bullock, the efflorescence of a particular kind of grass, a

ball, light rice or chaff,
the wadding of a musket, branches
of the
Ambiaty, a long grass, a water flower, a spear, and a

shot.
All,
musket loaded with one
except the last two,

of the worthless or of the
are throwTi into the water, as symbols
condition to which perjurers will be reduced,
means by which they
will
be destroyed.
senior judge usually administers the oath,
and gene" If any of
rally addresses the party in the following
words
you acknowledge, or
than
is specified,)
,
shall assist in
making, any other king
(here the
name
of the reigning sovereign
who
alone
is
sacred to be the monarch, and

the
who
alone
is
appointed to be
monarch even
to the
368
last generation;
if
any of you serve any other than hiui
who
let
is
thus consecrated and appointed, let him not see the

foot,
light,
nor find place any more for the sole of his
and
universal
nature bear testimony against him."
The
speaker then apostrophises east and west, north and south,

all
that
is
hallowed in earth and heaven, and the line of the
twelve monarchs, as witnesses of the solemn transaction
and then again turning

sworn, he adds,
to,
and addressing the party

let
to
be
" If any should rebel,
him he accursed,
any of you
!"
whether
not
:
all
has been named or not, expressly mentioned or

rebels, let
whoever
him be accursed
If
retract from, or break this oath, lord
god destroy him
The
people express their solemn assent by striking the
water with the boughs in their hands, the spear also being
struck into the pool, and the musket being fired over
it.
Thus
the ceremony terminates, securing fidelity just so long

it
as the parties find
most convenient and advantageous

it.
to
themselves to observe
In the milefon-5mby, or spearing the young bullock, the
ceremony corresponds in part with that already described.
The anathemas
in
the oath
are
similar,
the witnesses
appealed to the same, and in some particulars the mode It is, however, not only used in of swearing is the same.
swearing allegiance to the sovereign by persons suspected of disaffection, but by the different ranks and parties of
the kingdom
the judges,
the army, the police, heads of
districts, &c.,
on the accession of a new sovereign, or on
the announcement of a successor to the reigning king.
The young
bullock used on this occasion,

is to
is
led to the
spot where the oath
be administered, and there killed
and dismembered
in the
same manner as the lamb
in the
ceremony of the Tangena, the head and tail being cut off, and reversed in their position at each end of the animal.
369
the hind-feet placed where the fore-feet were, and the forefeet
put in the place of the hind, the carcase cut open, and
a spear thrust into the bowels.
number
of the heads or chiefs of the parties to be
sworn, then take hold of the spear, so

veniently grasp
it,
many
as can con-
and then standing around the animal,

senior judge
thus barbarously mangled, listen while the
pronounces the oath, which includes many terrible curses
on
all
who may
perjure
themselves.
He
then
sum-
mons, as witnesses, heaven and earth, the four cardinal

points, the deceased kings, the idols,
and the vazimba, the

and
all
most ancient
villages of Imerina, god,

;
that
is
con-
sidered sacred
and
after
a long recapitulation of these,

to
and a tedious multiplication of words,
render the cere-
mony more
ever retract,
imposing, the speaker adds, " If any of you

if
any of you ever refuse allegiance

all
to the
sovereign appointed to reign, whether

cifically
has been spe-
named
still
it,
!
or not, whether present or absent, great
or small, old or young, male or female, newly brought to

life
or
unborn,
whether holding the spear or not

spear
!
holding
bullock
behold
this glittering
behold this young

;
and
let the perjurer

;
be as
this bullock
let
him
be speared of god
but
let
let
him not be favoured

!"
in
any thing,
him be wholly accursed
Those who have taken hold

their assent to the oath,
of the spear, then express
by thrusting the spear repeatedly

body of the mangled animal, and
and
violently into the
thus closing the ceremony.
On
the death of
Radama,
allegiance was sworn to the
present queen by both these ceremonies, and by the addition of drinking a small quantity of
it
muddy
water, which
was supposed would operate upon them as a curse in
case of treachery or treason.

I.
Those who dared
to refuse
2 b
370
the
oath,
were instantly seized,
first
and carried
off
to
be
put to death, and the

pieces on the spot
;
while of those
who opposed her was cut to who recognised her,

This was pre-
each drank of the water mixed with some earth, taken
from the tomb of the father of Radama.
pared in a large canoe to the west of the court-yard.
None but
the
heads of
districts
were sworn by the
spearing of the calf; but the drinking of the
muddy water
and
was considered
sufficient for the
common
people.
;
There
is
no written code of laws in Madagascar
such a code would
be of comparatively little use, since not
a single judge can either read or write.*
Great regard,
however,
is
paid to
traditions,
customs,
and opinions,
from which few are willing to deviate without at least the

appearance of strong reason.
When
lete,
events arise
requiring the formation of a
new
law, or the revival of an old one
which has become obso-
the sovereign announces his intention to the judges

ofiicers,
and
and they convey the intelligence
to the people
generally at the public markets.
Radama
occasionally
adopted the mode of afiixing to the outer gate of his palace a written notification of a new law.
Capital crimes in Madagascar are murder, high treason,
sorcery,
arson, sacrilege, (robbing tombs,) manufacturing
base coin, or acting deceitfully in the king's name, selling

slaves out of the island, son.
and stealing money from the perthe two military offences,
To
these
may be added
desertion of a military post, and retreating in battle after
having commenced the attack.

* In 1832, a native, called Ramaka, who was converted to Christianity He and baptized, became a judge, by the order of succession, to his father. had been a teacher in the Mission schools, and was qualified to take notes
of the evidence in writing.
He
died about two years aftei-wards.
The modes
ous
of inflicting capital punishments are
371
numerbar-
some
of
them such
as exist only in the most
barous states of society.

is
The most honourable

is
execution
that in which a criminal
speared or beheaded in his
own
house, without being exposed to the gaze of the mul-
titude.
The mother
of
were put to death

present queen.
are
usually put
in
Radama, Prince Ratafy, and others, this manner on the accession of the
by
suffocation.
Persons of the rank of nobles, however,

to
is
death
Cattle -folds,
cases, soft
where the mire
soft
and deep, and, in some
marshy ground, have been frequently selected

rible purpose.
for this ter-
In some instances this unenviable destruc-
tion has not
been observed, and nobles have suffered death
by
spearing, the
common mode
of execution inflicted
upon
ordinary criminals. In the punishment of death by spearing, the hands of

the criminal are usually tied.
He
is
then thrown on the
ground, and a spear

ing
is
is
driven through his loins.

of capital punishment.
Behead-
another
mode
Sometimes
the criminal
is first
put to death by spearing, and his head
afterwards dissevered from the body, in order to be affixed

to a pole, to
and exposed
people.
to
view in some public situation,

of banditti,
terrify the
The heads
or other
robbers, are sometimes fixed on poles in the villages they
have attacked and plundered.

It is the
custom
in
some
of the provinces, particularly
those on the southern coast, to put the murderer to death

in the
same manner
as he
committed the murder, whether
by spearing, shooting, or any other means.

In a few cases of great enormity, a sort of crucifixion
has been resorted
roasting at a
sufferer,
to,
and, in addition to this, burning or
slow
fire
kept at some distance from the
has completed the horrors of this miserable death.
b2
372
It is
not fully
known by what means

that
it
the idea of crucifixion
as a
mode
of punishment,
was adopted by the Malagasy.

have been derived from the
In the year 1825, a
It is possible
may
Arabs, or from Scripture history.
man was condemned
to crucifixion
who had murdered a
female for the sake of stealing her child.

child for sale to the public market,
He
carried the
where the infant was
recognized, and the murderer detected.
He
bore his pun-
ishment in the most hardened manner, avenging himself,
by
all
the violence he was capable of exercising,

to the place of execution.
upon those
single
who dragged him
Not a
groan escaped him during the period he was nailed to the

wood, nor while the cross was fixed upright in the earth.
The wooden frame used

a gallows.
in the place of a cross, resembles
To
this
the
malefactor
is
nailed
it
while
it
remains
with
its
flat
upon the
earth.
After which,
is lifted
up
in
miserable burden, and fixed in two holes
made
is
the ground for the purpose.

until
Here
the
sufferer
kept
he dies of
cold, hunger, or agony.
Some
criminals,
for
after being
for the
nailed to the fi'ame,
have remained
fire
hours
gaze of the multitude.
has oftentimes been
placed to windward of them, by which they and the cross
have been consumed together.
The first criminal who suffered death by crucifixion was man convicted of having aided in the escape of the queen
Another suffered the same punishfor
to her friends, in 1825.
ment
shortly
false
afterwards,
having stolen, or obtained
money by
for
pretences in the
name
of the king.
And
three others were in the following year crucified and burnt,
having wilfully set

for
fire to
several houses in the capital,

their
and
having, on conviction, avowed
intention of
destroying several others in the same manner.
Another method of execution
is
by tying the malefactor
373
with moist thongs to a post, then rubbing his body with

tallow or grease, placing fagots around him, and burning
him
to ashes.
When more
than one are
to
be burnt, irons
are fixed upon their hands and feet, and they are laid side
by side upon elevated ground,

facilitate
in order that the breeze
may
the
burning of the fagots by which they are
surrounded.
Flogging to death, though rarely practised,
is
a punish-
ment not unknown.

terrible fate for
In 1821, three females suffered this
having attempted to escape after being
made
prisoners in war.
is
Throwing down a steep rock

Burning
cowardice
;
the usual punishment for

sorcery.
for
making the ody mahery, or practising

is
the
it
military
first
punishment
desertion or
in the fol-
and
became a national law

several
to
lowing manner.
soldiers
After
thousands of Radama's
had been disciplined
form a regular army, the
king convened them on a plain, and asked their opinion as

to
what punishment should be

battle.
inflicted
upon cowards or
runaways in
vour,
In the warmth of their military fer-
some
of the principal proposed burning alive.
The
it
proposition was seconded, and supported without a dissentient voice;
and the king

in the
also adding his sanction,
became a law
your own law,"
army.
is
Radama used
was
afterwards to
say to his soldiers, " It
not myself that punishes you, but

still
The
king, however,
at liberty to
interfere in behalf of the criminal,

after having
tial,
and might order him,
been
tried
and condemned by the court mar-
to
be shot before he was burned, though the instances
are rare in which this
mark
of royal clemency has been
shown. Other crimes in the army are punished by flogging,

loading with irons, placing in confinement, or making the
culprit run
up a
hill for
a length of time, holding a musket
374
Degradation to a lower
office or
upright in his hand.

is
rank
also a frequent punishment.
Some
years ago an
officer,
who was high

and
in authority
amongst the Malagasy,
lost public favour,
and became so
he was
much
justly
disliked
by
his fellow-officers
others, that
apprehensive of a violent death at their hands.

these fears, he applied to a diviner to
die.
Under
know by what
means he should
there was
diviner
still
The
diviner told
him he was doomed

inquired whether
to a bloody death,
upon which the same
officer
anything that would avert this doom.

persisted in the
The
prediction, but advised

:
him
to perform
the following rite
To
mount upon the

the blood upon
back of a bullock, and carry upon his head a small vessel

full of
blood ; while thus mounted, to
spill
it
the bullock's head, and then to

wilderness,
it
send
away
into the
or
a distant and uninhabited place, whence
might never return.

rite,
The
officer faithfully
performed
the
but in a short time was put to death in his own
house by order of the queen, while his enemies usurped

his place.
Amongst the milder punishments may be enumerated flogging, more or less severely; putting in chains, of two
descriptions
long
ones, reaching
from the neck to the

feet
ankles;
only.
and short ones, placed on the hands and
Criminals in chains are compelled to hard labour,

of
;
many
roads
them being employed
in the repair of the public

assisting themselves
and they may frequently be seen
in carrying the chain affixed to their bodies with one hand,
while with the other they hold a block of stone which
is
borne upon their heads.
Death was formerly
inflicted for
almost every
ofi'ence.
But the
late
Mr. Hastie humanely suggested other punishof death.
ments instead
His recommendation has had the
effect of greatly
375
diminishing capital punishments, without
augmenting crime.
To
be reduced to slavery,
is
another punishment, someit
times involving a whole family, and with

of their property.
the confiscation
particularly
Pecuniary
fines are
common,
for the trespass of cattle
on other ground than that of the
owners, and for stealing articles of small value.
Those who borrow money without being

it,
able to refund
or those
who
incur debts which they are unable to pay,
are taken into the public market to be sold for
payment of
what they owe.
man, his
wife,
and children, are thus
frequently sold together, unless some friend should
come
forward and become his surety, or pay his debts.

of free people have
Thousands
this
been reduced
is
to slavery
by
means
has
and
this is
a law which
generally carried into effect

If a debtor
if
without any mitigation of punishment.

property that
insufficient,
is is
seized to pay his debts, and

sold in the
that be
he
market
and
if
the produce of
his sale should
still
be insufficient to
fate.
satisfy his creditors,
his family
must share the same

for
A man
who has
become surety
if
another
is
exposed to similar treatment,
unable to meet the claims substantiated against the per-
son for
whom
he has become surety.

of maiming, cutting off hands
is
The punishment
and
feet,
has been resorted to in some instances, but
not frequent.
either
Death has generally resulted from such amputations, by haemorrhage or mortification.

Nearly
all
punishments are
is
inflicted
publicly,
and
it
is
seldom that any delay

offender.
allowed after the conviction of the

to inflict
The judges have power

is
punishments
not capital, but death

sovereign.
exclusively in the hands of the
When
the king has ordered any one for execution, the
376
criminal
is
delivered
into
the hands
of
the
populace,
is
who,
if
he be guilty of any crime generally abhorred,
kicked and pelted with stones and eggs, until he can

scarcely be said to be alive on arriving at the place of final
execution:
in
these
barbarities
the
children
in
Madaif
gascar find great amusement and pleasure.
custom prevails amongst the Malagasy, that

is
criminal can obtain sight of the sovereign, he
pardoned,
whether before or
after
conviction; or
if
the sovereign
should accept a hasina sent to

criminals at
of the
him by the accused.

road,
by,
if
Even
work on the high

anomaly
they can catch sight

claim their pardon.
monarch as he passes
a sort of
may
Hence, by
in this singular law, they are

is
ordered to withdraw from the road when the sovereign
known
to
be coming by.
also claimed
Exemption from punishment was

had rendered any particular service
state
;
by
all
who
to the sovereign or the
and not by such individuals merely, but by their
descendants, and by other branches of the family, upon the
same
plea.
During the
latter part of the reign of
Radama,
many
unsuccessful endeavours were
made by him
to abolish
the long-continued abuses by which the ends of justice were
thus defeated.
The
The
following anecdote affords an example
of the ingenuity and tact with which he effected this desir-
able purpose.
favourite servant of a
nobleman having
committed a
theft,
engaged his master
to intercede for
him
with the king, and claim the privilege of former service to

the state.
Radama
remonstrated, and, while surrounded

in suspense so long as
by his ministers, kept the nobleman

to
give time for his house to be robbed

;
by people whom
which Radama
the king had sent for that purpose

desired
tion
after
him
to
go home, and consider further the peti-
he had preferred.
The
chief finding his house robbed,
HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR,
377
hastened back to the king, and demanded the apprehension
and punishment of the
thieves.
"
The
criminal,"
said
Radama, " has already presented himself;

former services, I have forgiven him."
and pleading
but Radama,
The nobleman was

;
vehement
in his expressions of dissatisfaction
showing the absurdity and injustice of the custom, explained the stratagem, and proclaimed that the custom was
abolished,
and that henceforward he would reward those

it.
whose services were deserving of

In cases where there
is
no law, custom, or precedent, the
word of the sovereign

proclamations,
is sufficient.
He
can issue orders and
commute
will,
or mitigate punishments accord-
ing to his
for as
own
without being answerable to any one

is
the popular idea
strenuously maintained, that
the king can do no wrong, few are disposed to dispute

his authority;
and
!
if
it
should be disputed, woe to the

for
daring offender
It
was not uncommon
Radama
to
give orders for secret executions.
He
had
his confidential
servants about him, and his spies in every town.

self,
He
him-
disguised for the purpose, was accustomed to go about

his people in the character of a spy.
amongst
These pro-
ceedings, however, were severely
condemned by Mr. Hastie,
whose opinion had great weight with the king.
With regard
on the coast
for offences to
to foreigners, traders are allowed to reside
for
any period of time
but are held amenable
the native government.
At
the capital,
where the circumstances of foreigners were

lation
different, a regu-
was made by Radama, that Europeans guilty of any

laws should be sent out of the country.
last
infi-action of his
A
in
few cases have occurred during the
twenty years,
in force
which the laws of the country have been put
against foreigners.
In 1821, an artisan from Port Louis,
not in connexion with the Missionary Society, was sen-
378
in
tenced to imprisonment, and placed

this sentence
heavy
irons.
Under
he remained three years

a trader from
in confinement.
In
1822,
Mauritius was
tied
convicted of
to a stake,
murder.
He
had dehberately
up a Creole
and shot him on suspicion of

case was referred to the
his having
robbed him.
The
civil authorities of
Mauritius, and
Radama was informed
in reply, that they
had decided that
the British government could not take cognizance of crimes
committed out of the jurisdiction of Great Britain.
The
to
murderer was banished

capital,
to
about a hundred miles west of the
and in the course of a year afterwards was put
death.
In the spring of 1828, another person from Mauritius
was convicted of
selling spirituous liquors to the natives,
contrary to the law of the land.
She was put
in irons,
and
detained in custody some time, but afterwards, on paying a

fine,
was permitted
to
remove
to the coast.
Foreigners cannot become landholders in Madagascar,

as,
by a proclamation
forbidden to
of
Radama
in 1825,
;
the natives are
strictly
sell
them any land
and but few excepto
tions to this rule have occurred.
This policy appears

to the
have arisen out of some representations made
king
respecting the British power in the East, resulting from
the acquisition of land, which, in the
first
instance,
was
transferred in very inconsiderable portions.
The
greatest national council in
Madagascar
is
an assem-
bly of the people of the capital, and the heads of the provinces, districts, towns, villages, &c.
These are held
in
Andohalo
Radama
usually presided in person, taking his
place on a platform on an elevated spot situated near the

centre.
Here he always appeared on

the
his return fi-om
war
and
in
the pretended consultations held with his people
upon increasing
army,
or
other
public
measures,
when from
dissent.
his opinion there
379
to
was no voice bold enough
The next
council to this was the assembly of the heads
of provinces, districts,
and towns
only,
when
the judges and
military officers were deputed as the king's commissioners,

to
make known
iiis
will;
and the judges carried back
to
orders the king the opinion of the assembly, again receiving they were to make known to those from the king, which
over
whom
each presided.
After the formation of a dis-
ciplined army, however, these councils of the nation

less
became
in
frequent, and are now mere matters of form.
The
business of the judges at the capital

air,
is to
sit
the court-yard, in the open
on an elevated place near

Military officers some-
the gate, to hear and to try causes.
times
sit
with them, to hear the parties and the witnesses
examined publicly. was considered on
There was,
till
very lately, no
es-
tablished code to which appeals could be

its
made
each case
own
merits.
If the case
be
clear,
the judges then deliver their opinion before the people.

If otherwise, they retire into
one of the royal houses within
the court-yard, to consult and to decide on the judgment

to
be pronounced.
But
if
the case be too difficult
for
their decision, they lay it before the sovereign, stating to
him
fully the pleadings of the parties,

;
with the evidence

final,
of the witnesses
and his decision

parties
is
whether right
of the
or wrong.
king,
The
must abide by the word
The fines and and can make no further appeal. trial are divided amongst the king, his expenses of the
wives, and the judges.
If
any one
is
condemned
is
to
be
put in
irons, or to
be pubUcly flogged, there
a division of
property;
but in cases of execution for treason, murder,

is
or any great crime, the property of the criminal
confis-
cated to the king,
who permits the
informers, witnesses,
380
and judges
to
enjoy a share of
it.
Much, however,
de-
pends upon the royal
will with regard to the confiscation
or division of property, the king being able to alter, increase, or mitigate the sentence according to his pleasure.
It
can scarcely be said that any general laws exist

its
each
chief province, or even smaller locality, has

in
own usages
regard to what are considered crimes, and the nature
of the punishments to be inflicted.
In awarding fines or
punishments, there
is
generally an endeavour to maintain,
at least, the appearance of justice or equity.
The
laws
and regulations established by Radama

are not supreme in
all
or his successor,
the provinces, in
many
of which
the ancient usages relating to their internal
government
remain in force
the
though the object of the government of
Hovas
is
evidently to assimilate the laws of the whole
island, that all
may be governed by one
code.
A
latter
singular custom
prevails, in which,
when an
offence
has been
is
committed
and prosecution commenced,

the
the
stayed by a promise from

will
offending party
that
he
not prosecute under similar circumstances,
should the prosecutor
commit the same offence against
him.
On
is
the final adjudication of a cause, a piece of
money
paid to the sovereign and to the judges, as a token of
acquiescence in the decision.
As
there
the country
is,
is
divided into provinces, districts, &c.,
belonging to each, a principal town or village, in
which stands a government-house, called Lapa, and opposite

to this
house
is
a sacred stone, by the side of which sacrifices
are offered.
In each of these towns or villages are apoffice

is
pointed ten farantsa, or magistrates, whose
to
govern the
district, arrest transgressors,
execute the king's

is
orders, take care that the tenth of the produce
gathered
in taxes,
parties.
381
and
to decide in
if
judgment between contending

judges at the
But
they are unable to adjust such differences,
the
action
must be brought before the

court there
is
capital,
and from that
no appeal.
The
farantsa perform nearly the
same duties
in the country as
those at the capital, acting both as magistrates and judges.
Under them again
are the Loholana, or the heads of the
villages in a district.
Causes brought before the judges are such as relate

charges
for capital offences,
to
and
litigations respecting pro-
perty, the boundaries of rice-grounds,
and cases of bequest

is
The
parties confront each other,
and every man
advo-
cate in his
own
cause,
or he
may engage
his friends to
appear, and plead his cause before the judges.
Evidence
is
carefully examined, the witnesses being questioned in the
hearing of each other, and the decision
is
formed on the
testimony produced.
If the
evidence appear equal between
the plaintiff and the defendant, or
on the part of the

usually had to trial
to fowls or dogs,
accuser and the accused, recourse
is
by ordeal, or administering the tangena

two of which are supposed
opposed
to
to represent the
two parties
each other
and according
to the operation of the

is finally
poison upon these two substitutes, the case
decided.
Such are the imperfect, and
in
some instances barbarous,
laws of Madagascar, adapted to the political exigencies of

a partially civilized people, yet at the same time partaking
of the inconsistency, superstition,
terize the public
and cruelty which charac-
and domestic regulations of most heathen

at present governed were
nations.
The
They
laws by which the island
is
issued by the present sovereign on ascending the throne.

are entitled "
The Laws
of the
Kingdom,
or the
Com-
mands
of the Sovereign, with the Fines to be
imposed on
382
made
is
the Malagasy,
at Antananarivo, 27th Alahasaty, 18'28.
In the original the enactments are regularly numbered.
The
following
a translation of the chief laws
All rebels, or persons
who
violate the royal bed
who steal from
the sovereign's house, or from the houses of any of the nobility
who
all
entice or lead the people to rebel against their sovereign;
persons guilty of murder and witchcraft, shall be punished with
death.
All persons found guilty of kidnapping, bullock-stealing, dig-
ging under the walls of a house in order to rob
it,
robbing in a
house, cutting off any part of a person's cloth in which

tied, cutting
money
to
is
and stealing
rice
by night, swearing allegiance
any
besides the sovereign, giving the tangena privately in order to
decide any cause whatever without the knowledge or consent of

the sovereign, removing a landmark or boundary fixed by the
sovereign, reviving a lawsuit after
it
has been once finally settled
by the sovereign
family
or judges, the hasina and the orimbato liaving

shall be lost,*
been accepted, such person or persons

;
with wife and
but on surviving the tangena shall receive a fine of ten
bullocks and ten dollars from the accuser.

All persons found guilty of a contumacious violation of tlie laws, admonished and yet not obeying, shall be fined one hundred
beino-
dollars.
If any jDerson accuses another of being bewitched, there being
no witness, and the accused is conquered by the tangena, whether by drinking it himself or by giving it to the dogs, he shall be lost, and his property confiscated; but if he survives the test, the
accuser shall pay
him
a fine of twenty-nine
and a half dollars; no
excuse can be admitted in this case. Any person found guilty of robbing a tomb, or using unjust
weights, or untying any part of a person's cloth in which
is
money
tied, or
using unjust measures, or making bad money, or the

four and
uniting together of
upwards
to
bear false witness,

iron attached to
it,
striking with iron, or even with

shall be lost,
wood having
;
and
his property confiscated
but
if
he gains the
cause he shall be paid five bullocks and five dollars by the accuser.
*
Reduced
to a state of slavery.
All persons found guilty of concealing the property of those die childless, or the property of those
383
who
who
die
by the tangena, or
who consume
the property of the sovereign without permission,
or receive a bribe from a thief to screen
take the law into their

or
him from justice, or wlio own hands by imposing a fine on another,

robbery without informing the sovebelongs, shall each pay a fine of
who
settle the affair of a
reign, or
who
eat the
rump
of the ox without the permission of the

it
sovereign, or the nobles to

ten bullocks
whom
and ten
dollars,
and an additional sum of thirty
dollars to the informer; but if they gain their cause, they shall be
paid three bullocks and three dollars.

All persons guiltj" of stealing in the markets, for whatever they
steal (excepting
kidnapping, stealing bullocks, cuttiug
off a part
of cloth, or untying a part of a cloth in which

shall
money
is
tied) they
pay a
fine of
seven bullocks and seven dollars, and twenty
dollars to the informer.

If a person seizes another person or his property,
and
sells or
keeps his person or property for debt, without permission of the

sovereign or consent of the debtor, he shall forfeit the debt, and
pay a
fine of five bullocks
and
five dollars.
And
for all small thefts,
whether of
pigs, or sheep, or goats, or
poultry, or money, or rice, or sugarcane, or manioc, or sweet

potatoes, or cotton, or Indian corn, or pumkins, or vovo (nets), or
bananas, or horirikia, or lemons, or yams, or grapes, or voanjo, or
French beans, with

pay a
all
other small thefts whatsoever
the
;
person
stolen)
if in-
or persons (being detected

shall
by the owners of the property

and seven dollars
and
shall
fine of seven bullocks
formed against by others,
pay an additional sum of twenty and if they dollars to the informer, and be put in irons for a week cannot pay the fine, and their family gives them up, they shall be sold; but if they gain the cause, they shall be paid two bullocks
;
and two
dollars
by the
accuser.
If a tsiarondahy, or a slave, be found guilty of theft,
pay the
the fine,
fine,
he shall be
sold, (but not his wife
one third of his price shall belong to

it
and cannot and children,) and the master if he can pay

;
shall be at the
same
rate as for free people.
If a slave absconds from his master,
and commits
theft,
the
master of the said slave shall pay two and a half dollars for catch-
384
ing him ; and if only a small theft be committed, the master shall pay half the value of the goods stolen but if the value of one slave and upwards has been consumed by the runaway slave, the owner of the slave and the owner of the goods stolen shall have an equal
;
share in the runaway slave.

If the slave of a soldier runs awaj^ from his master, one-fourth of
the two and a half dollars shall be taken off; but
if
the master of
the slave be dissatisfied, the two and a half dollars shall be paid.
If a slave that runs
away
is
worth ten dollars and upwards, the

if
master shall pay two and a half dollars; but

the two and a half dollars to those
he
is
under the
value of ten dollars, a fourth of his value shall be paid instead of
who apprehended him.
Any
If a
person concealing a runaway slave, shall jây one bullock

for every
and one dollar
month's concealment.
man
informs against his wife, or the wife against her husif
band, even
they are separated, or a slave informs against his
master after he has been sold to another, or even should they
employ others
be admitted.
to inform against them, their information shall not
If a person borrows
fixed,
money and
will not repay
it
at the time
it, tlie
and the owner of the money informs the sovereign of
debtor shall pay one-third more in addition to the iirincipal,

the
if
money has not been taken on
interest; but if taken on interest,
the interest shall be equal to the principal.

If an affair at law has been
made known to
the proper authorities,
and a day appointed
for trial of the same,
and either of the parties

illness,
do not appear on that day, not being jjrevented by
the
party not appearing shall have his choice whether he will redeem
himself by paying the value of his body, or lose the cause.
Any
pay a
person accusing another of guilt in the
name
of the sove-
reign or judges without having authority from them so to do, shall

fine of
two bullocks and two
dollars.
fire in
Any
reign,
person having five houses and upwards destroyed by
the town, shall pay three bullocks and three dollars to the sove-
no excuse can be admitted, and the three bullocks shall be

inters the corpse of one killed
east,
killed for the people in the town.
Whoever
head to the
by the tangena with

so,
its
such persons being seen to do
and being
in-
formed against, shall pay a
but
if
385
;
fine of four bullocks

guilt,
and four dollars
he begs pardon and confesses his
he shall pay only
four dollars.
Any person
and one
guilty of stealing fuel, shall pay a fine of one bullock

If a large quantity of fuel
is
dollar.
stolen, the fine is
three bullocks and three dollars.
Any Any
person taking away a canoe without permission of the
owner, shall pay a fine of one bullock and one dollar.

person
who
sells to
a slave, and the master of the slave

is
is
not present,
if
even the master himself
a slave, and the pur-
chaser has not wherewith to pay, the seller shall lose his money.
If
any things
lost
be found by the people, one-third shall go to
the sovereign and the persons
who
find them.
If any person buys lost property and the

finds
it,
owner of the property

it,
he must make the person prove where he got

it
if
the
property be small that he bought, then

the buyer and the owner
;
shall be divided
between
if
the latter declines accusing the former

the property
as a thief, the person of
whom
was bought
shall
be sought
after,
and
if
he be found, the property shall be divided.

has been bought by him, and he cannot
it,
But
if
much property
prove from
whom
he had
the tangena shall be given.

propertj', the
For bullocks that trespass and destroy the people's owners

shall
pay one-quarter of a dollar
for
each bullock, for a pig
one-forty-eighth, for a sheep one-seventy-second, for ducks, &c.
one hundred and forty-fourth, and hens, &c.
may be beaten to death.

on the spot
theft is
And
where
for small thefts also, if the article is eaten

it
was taken, and not
carried
home, the
not
punishable.
Any
stripes,
person found guilty of stealing fowls shall receive forty
and have his or her hair cut

for all the
off.
And
above-mentioned crimes,
if
the persons guilty

off.
accuse themselves, one-half of the fines shall be taken

sovereign and the parties
All the fines arising from law suits shall be divided between the
who
gain the cause.

force,
For taking person or property by

a person, even
if
or theft, or beating
the tangena
is
not given, the fines shall be
divided
half shall belong to the sovereign, and the other half to
the owner of stolen goods and the informer.

I.
2 c
386
And
peojile,
for other crimes, (not
decided by the tangena, theft, taking

beating,) if informed against
jiersons or property
by
force,
is
by
and the tangena
not given, the

shall
money
shall be divided
into three shares,
and two-thirds
go to the sovereign, and
one-third to the informer.
these are the laws of the
Such are the laws of the kingdom for robbery here-above.* kingdom for youf also.
And
Look well to this paper those crimes that cause the loss of Avife and children here-above, make the loss of person and property
there with you.
And
all
the fines shall be reduced one-half, according to the

fines, if
nature of the
the persons guilty accuse themselves.
And
if
the convicted parties put in a plea of former services, and
establish their plea of having
done great good to the country, then

fines.
a third again
is
to
be remitted from the
Look well
to this paper, for the fines are different above from
the fines there with you.
And
revolt,
for the capital crimes, as specified in article 1st, (rebellion,
violation of the royal bed, robbery in the Lapa, regicide, exciting
murder, witchcraft,) let the persons guilty of such be

Saith
brought up to Tananarivo,
Ranavalomaxjaka.
111 the province of Ankova. t The inhabitants of the remote provinces, and on the sea coast.
387
CHAP. XIV.
Extensive prevalence of superstition among the Malagasy
belief in the
Their general
power of charms and frequent use of divination
Mythology
of the Malagasy
state
gods
Defective sense of moral responsibility Worship of tutelary Imagined sacredness of the villages which the are kept The idol-keepers Bearers of the public processions Origin and
in
Indefinite ideas of God, of the human soul, and a future

idols
idols in
appearance of the national and household idols
by the people
Homage
paid to them
iNIeans
used in rendering articles otherwise
common
objects of superstitious worship
Temples Sacred stones
Sacrifices
of the principal idols

their deceptions
Appeals to idols in the administration of oaths and the ordeals Their supposed antipathies Anecdotes
Names
illustra-
tive of the deceptive pretences of the keepers of the idols
Exposure of
Radama
of the
to the
by Radama Public exhibition of the idols Visit of supposed residence of the idols Import of the names
idols.
Although
the natives of
Madagascar have been
frequently-
represented as destitute of any national system of religion,

as having no popular idols, or religious observances, towards
which they evinced any strong predilection, and might therefore be regarded as a people favourably prepared for the
reception of Christianity, being

priesthood,
unawed by an
in
interested
and unprejudiced
favour
of
any ancient
creed, their actual circumstances will be found to differ
widely from this flattering, but too hastily formed opinion.
The Malagasy, which are common

bers of the
possessing the
to
feelings
and passions
human
nature, and being subject to
the same hopes and fears, joys and sorrows, as other
mem-
human
family in their destitution of the light
and guidance
of revelation,
have endeavoured,
like others
2c 2
388
similarly
PIISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.
circumstanced,
to
find
resources which might
satisfy the cravings of the
mind, and allay the feverishness
of a bewildered imagination, which might
arm them with

and unde-
fortitude amidst the apprehensions of mysterious
fined evils,
and inspire them with hope in the prospect of

futurity.
some unknown and equally undefined

see demonstrated in the
The
opera-
tion of an invisible agency, or of different agencies, they
phenomena, the
order,
and the
to
formation of the universe around them.

the
Yet strangers
sublime idea of a superintending Providence, and
almost equally strangers to any rational and philosophical

explanation
of daily occurring natural
phenomena, they
promptly attribute every thing to the influence of charms

(ody),
which their imaginations invent, possessing qualities

to the production of all the varied
and virtues adequate
effects either witnessed or experienced.

Still,
while a belief in the efficacy of these potent charms
seems
creed,
to constitute
it
one of the principal articles of their

It forms
belief,
does not constitute the whole.
an imonly
inti-
portant part of the Malagasy system of
but
it is
part.
It
is,
in the
minds of these credulous people,
mately associated with a conviction of the
infallibility of
the sikidy, or divination, by which the charm, according to

its
particular kind or design, in any given case,
must be
by
decided.
in
And
this
again
is
as closely blended with a belief

will or fiat is ascertained
some superior power, whose
the operation of the diviner's art
an
art,
by which, from
is
premises avowedly laid in chances, a process
worked out
result.
by
rule,
and an indubitable certainty educed as the
Yet
as firmly as the devout believers in the
Koran adhere
to
the paralyzing doctrine of fate, do the Malagasy tenaciously
maintain their " vintana"
stern,
unbending,
fixed,
im-
mutable destiny
and
after all they
have pleaded
for their
charms, or sikidy, or god, every thing
is
389
with
them
tany"
" Such was
in one comprehensive
ultimatum
" Izany
summed up
ny vin-
his destiny or fate."

true, exhibits
Madagascar,
it is
no outward and visible ob-
jects of worship, calculated to
charm the senses or claim the

It recognizes
veneration of the inhabitants of the country.
no order of priesthood, and has no
classic associations with
objects of long-established adoration.

its
But
it is
not without
divinations.
idols,
its
ceremonies,
its sacrifices, its
and
its
It
has
its altars too, its
vows, and
forbidden things
for-
bidden,
place.
because hateful to the imaginary genius of the

It
has
its
mythology, crude as
it is,
and
its
guardians
its
of the gods, all
impoverished as they are.

oaths,
It
has
sup-
plications, deprecations,
It
and forms of benedictiou.
has
also,
as
may
justly be imagined, its full share of
puerile credulity in ghosts, spirits, and apparitions, and in
the legendary wonders and feats of giants and other

sters of former days.
It
mon-
makes
its
appeal by ordeal to
some superior power,

the land
for preservation
from the malevolent

;
though unenviable craft of the sorcerer
and
in order that
it is
may be purged from

innocent
the evils of witchcraft,
imbued with the

suspected victim
blood of
the
unfortunately
poisoned,
speared, strangled, or dashed
over the fatal precipice.
In a word, the INIalagasy are
heathen, destitute of the volume of divine truth, and in

its
absence carefully observing the
faith,
institutions,
and
traditions of their ancestors.
Vague, absurd, and unsatisthey cling to

it
factory as their creed
may be,
with unyield-
ing tenacity.
Dark and perplexed
as are their minds on
the great principles of true religion, they are not without
thoughts and feelings on the subject.

a blank, upon which truth
characters,
Their minds are not

inscribed in legible
may at once be
but
filled
with vain imaginations, erroneous
390
and a perti-
fancies, crude conceptions, superstitious fears,
nacious adherence to the opinions and decisions of their

ancestors.
In investigating the religious faith and practice of the
Malagasy, a primary question
is
do
;
they believe
in,
or
have they any knowledge
of,
the one true God, the
Maker
and Preserver of
God, they pray
in the
all
things ?
cursory observation would,

for
probably, induce a favourable answer

to
they speak of
God, they appeal
to
God, and they bless
name
of
God.
But
if
the inquiry be pursued

to the
if it
be ascertained what ideas they attach

their opinions,
if
term God,
will
indeed they merit that appellation,
be
found so vague, contradictory, and absurd, that the inquirer

will
be disposed to conclude that the Malagasy have no
knowledge of
Him who
created the heavens and the earth,
and who clothes himself with honour and majsst}.*
The
and
terms in the native language for
God
are
AndriaThe
first
is
manitra and Zanahary, or Andria-nanahary.

last are in
most common use

coast.
in the interior of the
island,
and Zanahary on the
By
Andria-manitra
probably meant Prince of heaven, though by the analogy of the language the word would then be Andrian-danitra.
Strictly the
word seems
to
be compounded of Andriana,
" prince," and manitra, " sweet-scented" or perfumed, which

affords
no consistent idea as applied to the Supreme Being.

to possess
Zanahary means he who causes
the
source of
* Radama, king of Madagascar, was a few years ago offered the knighthood of the order of St. Patrick, which he declined, assigning as his reason that he could not take the oath which required him to say that he helieved in God, or that he feared God, meaning the God of the Europeans. The king
might have
his concealed political reasons for this line of conduct, but his
objection being founded on the popular faith of his country, illustrates the
position that the real belief and opinion of the Malagasy concerning
falls far
God
below what the terms
in their language
seem
at first sight to imply.
HISTORY OF ^JADAGASCAR.
possession
tion,
391
significa-
and Andria-nanahary has the same
being the
same word
it.
radically,
with andriana, or
prince, affixed to
If a
Malagasy be asked the

tell.
signification of these term?,
he replies that he cannot

the
Ask him
if
they
all
mean
same
thing, if they are different terms
used to convey
the same idea, and he answers " Yes," or he will perhaps
say that Andria-manitra

female.
is
the male god, and Zanahary the
Name
to
him
his idols,
if
and he avows that they
are andria-manitra, or,
rather
more speculative than the

the idols being called
general mass of the people, he will perhaps say, they are
sampy,
i.e.
"helpers," or auxiliaries,
all
sampy, helpers, at the same time that the word

signify
may
also
an object by which a solemn oath
is taken, in
i.
which
sense the king
may
If,
say aza
misampy
ahy,
e.
" do not
swear by me."
however, a Malagasy be asked with
respect to these sampy,
whom
they do help, the reply

help,
is
vague and unsatisfactory.
They
andriamanitra
they help the people in going to war, in obtaining blessings,

in recovering
from diseases, &c.
Then
again, the genius
invoked by
the
to
the Malagasy in their ordeal of tangena, under
name
of
manamango, they
also
denominate and declare

they also
call
be andriamanitra.
The king
andria-
manitra, and sometimes with the addition of hita
maso
" seen by the eye,"

is
i.e.
the visible god.
In short, whatever
great, whatever exceeds
the capacity of their under-
standings, they designate by the one convenient and
com-
prehensive appellation, andriamanitra.
Whatever
Silk
is
new
and useful and extraordinary,

being added to the noun
is
called god.
is
consi-
dered as god in the highest degree, the superlative adjective
andriamanitra-indrindra.
in a
firing
Rice,
all
money, thunder and lightning,* and earthquakes, are

*
It is
related of
Radama, that
heavy thunder-storm, which occuired
one evening, he amused himself with
some pieces of cannon.
The
392
called god.
Their ancestors and a deceased sovereign they
Taratasy, or book, they
designate in the same manner.

call god,
from
its
wonderful capacity of speaking by merely

is
looking at it
Velvet
called
by the singular epithet
son of god.
Many
a
star,
of the people
when asked what
is
God,
will reply?
the sun, the sky, money, or any thing to which
they attach notions of glory or mystery.
Others have an
obscure notion of
God
is
being a
spirit,
or rather a multitude
their
of spirits, attending
upon individual persons, and thus
language very often
every one
;
has his god
the
;
bhnd
have a blind god, that makes them unable to see
the rich
have a rich god, that enriches them

to
and the prayer offered
an idol consists generally of detached and brief sen-
tences, simply entreating the
bestowment
of riches, bul-
locks, rice, health, or other temporal possessions.

It
becomes a subject of interesting but almost hopeless
inquiry,
sacrifice ?
To whom do the Malagasy pray, and vow, and offer To Andria-manitra, to the Vazimba, and to their
ancestors.
Who
sends the rain
Ramahavaly, one
it ?
of the
principal idols.
And who
withholds
We
do not know
all
perhaps god
perhaps the deceased king.
But amidst
this confusion,
and
all
who do the Malagasy believe created them things, and who sustains and governs all things?
is,
The
this,
reply
Andria-manitra
and
to
any question beyond

is
the honest reply not unfrequently
We do not know,
future existence.
we
don't think about these things.
Still
more vague and
indefinite are the ideas they enter-
tain respecting the
human
soul and
its
" Oh," to him, and inquired his reasons for doing so. " we are answering one another both of us are gods. God above is speaking by his thunder and lightning, and I am replying by my Mr. Hastie pointed out to him the presumption of powder and caimon."
British agent
went
said the king,
his conduct
and the king ordered the
firing to cease.
They have no knowledge
their
'SD3
of the doctrine of the soul as a
separate, immaterial, immortal principle in
man, nor has
language any word to express such an idea.

of the
saina,
They
term
it,
speak
powers.
but mean by
this
the
intellectual
They speak
also of the fanahy, the nearest

;
found to express
spirit
but
it
seems, in their use of
to
imply principally the moral quahties or dispositions.
In
almost the same breath, a Malagasy will express his belief

that
when he
he
is
dies
he ceases altogether to
exist,
dying like
the brute, and being conscious no more, and yet confess the
fact, that
in the habit of praying to his ancestors
If
asked, were his ancestors not
human
beings like himself,
and did they not cease altogether
to exist
how then can

is
it
be consistent to pray
to
when they died them when they

True, but there
have no longer any being, he
will answer.
their matoatoa, their ghost;
and
this is
is
supposed
interred.
to
be
hovering about the tomb when the body

there
is
And
also
the
ambiroa, or
apparition,
supposed to
announce death,
to visit a
person when about dying, and

to others, his
to intimate to him,
and sometimes
approach-
ing dissolution, an idea by no means peculiar to

gascar, as
it
Mada-
corresponds with the popular superstition of

funeral, or apparition,
most European countries, that the

of a person
still living, is
permitted to be seen as a super-
natural intimation of his approaching death.
The next question

replies. It is
is.
What becomes
But does
;
of the saina, or
mind, when a person dies? a part of the body.
To which
it
the
Malagasy
return to dust
with the body in the grave ?
No
the body returns to dust,

i.
and the saina becomes levona,
e.
" vanished,"
invisible.
And
aura
the aina, or
life,
becomes
rivotra
air,
or wind, not
retaining its individuality, but absorbed and lost in
mere
a mere breeze a breath in
the general mass of air
394
And what becomes
of the fanahy?
It
floating around.
remains
it
exists
but only in the associations of memory
a mere idea or recollection, therefore a metaphysical entity.
Hence
the word comes to signify character
and so
far as
a man's character and dispositions
may be
is
held in the
remembrance
of survivors, his
"fanahy"
said to remain.
But
It
this is obviously
a very loose application of the term.
has been said that the Malagasy believe in the exist-
ence of four superior divinities or lords, governing respectively the four quarters of the earth.
An
idea of this kind
certainly prevails on
interior
it is
some parts
of the coast, but in the
regarded as fabulous.
of
Such being the opinions
the
Malagasy concerning
God and
the
human
soul,
it is
obvious that the doctrine of

is
a future state of retribution
unknown amongst them.

rela;
No
conceptions are entertained on the subject of the
tions subsisting
between the Creator and his creatures
and
hence no impressions exist respecting moral responsibihty
and
its
specific
moral obligations.
civil virtues
The
exercise of the
frail
domestic, social, and

basis of the
depend upon the
customs of antiquity, and the estabhshed
usages of the country.
These
at
least
serve
as
their
guide and standard while they are enforced by the sanction
of the law,
it
and the enactments
of
the
sovereign.
Hence
neous
as
may
easily
be inferred how egregiously eiTO-
will
be the comparative scale of virtues and vices

Chicanery, lying, cheating, and
drawn by a Malagasy.
defrauding, are
oflfences of
mere
trifles
compared with the enormous

eating
prohibited, running
trampling or dancing upon a grave,

districts
pork in certain
after
where
it
is
an owl or a wild
cat, or
preparing enchantments.
of time, the
The weekly computation
ceremony
of cir-
cumcision, various purifications, and the offering of sacri-
fices,
395
among
the
are almost the only circumstances found
Malagasy corresponding with those of the Mosaic institutes. No traditional knowledge appears to exist amongst
them
of any of the great events unfolded to the world

fall
by
the inspired records, such as the creation, the
of
man,
the deluge, the selection of one favoured people, the per-
formance of miracles, or the promise of a Deliverer
for the
human
ideas,
race.
It
may be
almost superfluous to add, that no
however confused or remote, are
found to exist
relating to the doctrine of a Mediator, the advent of the
Redeemer, the salvation
of
man, the renewal of the heart,
the resurrection of the dead, the judgment to come, or the
glory to be revealed.
After this general statement,

to introduce a
it
may now be
appropriate
more
specific account of
the objects and
modes
of worship prevailing in
are,
Madagascar.
There
in the immediate neighbourhood of Tanau-
arivo, twelve or fifteen principal idols, inspiring the reli-
gious dread and veneration of the people.
These
idols
belong respectively to different tribes or divisions of the

natives,
factors,
tribes.
and are supposed
to
be the guardians and bene-
or the titular gods, of these particular clans or
Four
of these are considered superior to all others,

effectually,
dispensing benefits more widely and
guardat
ing the interests of the sovereign, and

large.
the
kingdom
In other words, these four principal idols are con-
sidered public and national.

country,
districts,
There
are,
throughout the
many
others belonging to the several clans
and
and by them considered of greater or

little
less import-
ance.
Such, however, are

vicinity.
known beyond
their
own
immediate
The
idols
of Imerina, for example,
possess no weight nor authority amongst the Sakalavas,
nor those of the Sakalavas in Imerina.
Every province and
396
its idol.
every clan has
Every house
also,
and family,
its
own
object of veneration and confidence, which, in a limited
sense,
may be regarded
as an idol, but is
more properly
called ody, or " charm," and which seems to correspond
with the teraphim of the Old Testament, and the penates

of the ancients.
its
Not only does each household contain
ody, but to a great extent each individual has his
own
as
and sometimes one individual has many, and wears them

about his person.
Crocodile's teeth are
worn by many
receptacles of their ody, in which they put their trust, in
sickness and health, in
life
and death.
In passing through Madagascar, the traveller

serve a few villages
scattered here and
there,
:
may
ob-
which are
esteemed by the people, Masina, or sacred

these
as to
is
admission to
prohibited to some tribes of the natives, as well

articles of food
many animals and
and merchandise.
it is
On
inquiring the reason of this distinction,

is
discovered
that in these villages an idol
kept in some ordinary
house without any priesthood or worshippers.

in
The man
whose house the

all
idol is kept, issues its
pretended orders,
it.
and answers
often assisted
applications
others,
made
to
This
man
is
by
and in some instances the whole
of the villagers, or clan of a district, are considered as protectors or adherents of the idol.
The owner
of the idol-
house
is
called mpitahiry, or " keeper,"
and mpitondra, or
"carrier;" the former in relation to his preserving the idol

in his house,
and the
If
latter to his carrying
it
forth
at
public
processions.
the clan or villagers accompany
the idol in procession, they are called
momba,
or adherents.
it
The
traced,
origin of the national idols,

will
so far as
can be
be specified under their respective names.

appears to have sprung up in compa-
The whole system

ratively
modern
times,
and long subsequently
to the preva-
lence of the worship of household gods.
397
According to the
statement of the Rev. D. Jones, there are old
men
in of
Imerina who
testify
that
the most ancient
traditions
their country are those proverbial sayings,
which in some
measure recognise the existence and attributes of the one

true
God.
This supreme Being, according to such tranot,
ditions,
sleeps
sees all things, avenges wickedness,

all,
rewards goodness, governs

deavours.
and
effects
what man en-
From
this
knowledge the worship of household

;
gods
is
said to have
been derived
but while the origin of
such worship appears to be unknown, tradition relates that

national idolatry was introduced in the following
manner
A king
their
of ancient times observing the influence obtained

families, in
by masters of
consequence of their acting as

their
own
priests,
and consecrating
own household
idol
gods, adopted the plan of consecrating an
for
the
people, calling
them
his family
and children.
in
this
Whatever uncertainty there may be

it is
tradition,
true that Impoina, the father of
Radama, did repeat-
edly convene the population to witness the consecrating

or setting apart of several of the present national idols.
Impoina
motives,
is
said to have acted thus solely
from political
that
having their foundation in the
conviction
some kind
ful in the
of religious or superstitious influence

It is still
was use-
government of a nation.
acknowledged
as a principle,
special support.
that the idols are under the sovereign's
To
the sovereign the keepers apply for
new
velvet in which to fold the idol, for bullocks to sacriit,
fice to
and
for
whatever
is
needed
for its protection
and
state.
It
does not appear that the kings
who
raised the national
idols to their present elevation, instituted

lic
any mode of pubfailed.
worship
or
if
they did, the attempt must have
398
for
is
no public worship
offered to
them now.
Yet they
are called god, and in
many
respects a regard, amounting
to idolatry, is paid to them.
The following translation from

by a native in the Malagasy
praised, thanked,
:
an account of the
"
idols written
language, will illustrate this
fact.
The
idols are called god,
prayed
to,
highly regarded, honoured, and lifted up

to
they are said

to die,
be that which causes to
live
and causes
and are
supposed to see the future, the past, and the present,
and
to
be able to cast down the thunderbolts, pour down

inflict curses,
all
the hail, to remove disease and
and
to
as-
semble the snake tribe* against

It
is
who calumniate them.

strangled by
life,
said also
that their calumniators are
them.
boxes."
They
are called
means
of
and are kept in
Much
idols.
superstition
is
practised by the people towards the
If sick, they apply to
them
for
a cure.
From them
they obtain charms, and to them they look for prognostics

of future events, as well as for deliverance from present evil.
To them
are
they often pray for earthly good, and their thanks
offered to
them
for the
enjoyments of
life.
Public
assemblies are sometimes convened,
when
it is
pretended
that the people are blessed by the idols, or the rice-ground

is
hallowed,
by sprinkling,
to
preserve
the
also,
rice
from
locusts or blight.
At such
in
assemblies,
the people
are
sometimes enjoined to abstain from certain actions

of food,
or kinds
order to
propitiate
the favour of
the idol, and thus obtain protection against certain appre-
hended
evils.
* The snakes or serpents which abound in Madagascar are supposed to
be the special agents of the

fear
idols,
and as such are regarded with superstitious
by the people.
It is difficult to
399
answer the inquiry of what shape and

;
appearance are the national idols of the Malagasy

so far from their being pubUcly exhibited,
it is
because,
considered
impious to endeavour to obtain a sight of them.

only one of which
The
we have any correct information, was that seen by Mr. Jeffries at Ambohimanga; it was a piece of wood cut into a rough imitation of the human
figure.
Probably, as the national appear to be derived
from the household gods, they may, like them, assume an endless variety of forms.
natives
is,
The
general opinion of the
that
most
of
them are
of the
vary from half a foot to a foot in length.
human shape, and They cannot be

kept are
are supposed to
much more,
generally not
as
the
cases in which
foot long.
they are
more than a
Hafanonela
Some
an
be mere blocks of no definite shape, and others imitations

of animals.
is
said to be
insect, or to
be
manufactured in the shape of one, and to be about the size

of the silkworm.
But
as
no strangers are permitted
to
approach the
opportunity
is
houses in which these idols are kept,

afforded for seeing of
little
what materials they are composed,

appearance and
figure.
or
what may be
their
^\hen
carried in pubhc, the idol is usually
borne by one person,

in
and seems
and
to be a small
image wrapped
a red cloth,
affixed to a pole for the convenience of the bearer,
and
for the
purpose of making a greater impression upon the
awe-stricken populace.
forbidden to gaze.
The
people, however, are strictly
Curiosity would be an offence.
The
leader carries a spear at the head of the company, and

directs
the people to retire out of the public road while

is
the
idol
carried by.
is
The
cloth of red velvet which
covers the idol,
presented by the sovereign, a new one
being given occasionally as the old one becomes too shabby
400
for the
honour of the
divinity.
The
sovereign also makes

keepers, or of
an occasional present of bullocks
to the
money,
to enable
them
to purchase cattle.
The
pecuniary
advantages received by the keeper, however, are not great.
His reward
is
the honour of his
office.
When
the idol-keeper purposes to sanctify the idol in

it,
order to offer prayer to
or prepare
it
for the
prayers
of worshippers, he closes the doors, observes strictly that
no one
is
watching, and then, opening the case, takes out

oil
the idol, and pours castor

restores
it
upon
it,
after
which he
to its proper place.
So
difficult is
the distinction between real and interested
zeal, that it is impossible to ascertain
whether these
men
are themselves the dupes of superstition, or merely the

deceivers of others.
They
are extremely violent in their

their
defence of the
belief in them.
idols,
and universally profess
own
The emoluments
is
falling to the
share of
the idol-keepers are unfixed and fluctuating.

cases, a dollar
In
many
given for advice, promises, or charms.
sheep
is
often presented, and smaller
sums of money,
or presents of smaller value, are gladly accepted by the

'idol-keepers,
in
who
are not often affluent, and are sometimes
circumstances of extreme poverty.
In reference to the dii penates, or household gods of
Madagascar, there
their
is
no known traditional
account of
are
:
origin or history.
Most
of
these
idols
lite-
rally blocks, without pretension to
a human shape
in fact,
anything which accident points out, or fancy dictates, or

the idol-keepers or diviners fix upon, will
if
make an
idol
the owner set
it
apart or consecrate
it
as such.
On
one occasion, a
man was
seen with a rough imitation
of a bullock wrought in silver, about the size of a walnut,
hanging suspended from his
wrist.
On
being asked what
It
401
was, he replied,
Omby
lahy vola, " a bullock of money."

it
And
it
on further inquiry,
appeared that he worshipped

another occasion, two of the
as his god of money.
On
Missionaries were struck with the appearance of a very

curious bushy plant,
hung up
it,
in an old chieftain's house

it
and while examining

tain's idol,
they were told

daily.
was the
chief-
which he worshipped
of mpitahiry, or
The
idols,
office
is
guardian of the national
hereditary,
in
and
considered highly honourable.

is
The temple
which they are kept
no more than one
of the ordinary houses of the natives, in which the guar-
dian of the idol usually resides.
kiady, or pole with a

it,
small knot of straw tied to the top of
is
generally
is
placed near the door,

forbidden.
to
give
notice
that
entrance
There
is
not usually
any
altar
its
connected with
the
residence of
the idol, and hence
temple
is
not conIn-
sidered in the hght of a place destined for worship.
stead of the people going to the idol, the idol

to the people.
is
brought
Sacrifices
are
sometimes offered in the

is
village
where an
purpose.
idol is kept,
and the sacred stone
used
their
for this
But generally the people
offer
sacrifices at the vato
vazimba, which are stones considered
to
is
be sacred, and erected where the tomb of a vazimba
supposed to have
existed.
The
sacrifices
are
also
offered to the dead,
and
to the vazimba,
more generally
than to the idols themselves.
The
and
idols are
appealed to in solemn oaths of allegiance,
in the administration of the tangena, or trial
by
ordeal.
They
are also at occasional,
not
fixed,
periods carried
the people
about publicly to disperse diseases, to
fortifj^
against the danger of storms and lightnings, and to bestow

virtue on springs
I.
and fountains.
They
are also carried to
2d
402
the wars, to inspire their devotees with courage, and to
render them invulnerable and victorious.
The names
1
of the principal idols are as follow *
Rakelimalaza
8 Rabehaza.
9 Ravaldlona.
10 Raf5hitanana.
11
2 Ramahavaly.
3 Ramanjakatsiroa.
4 Rafantaka.
5 Ramanjaibola,
Razanaharitsimandry.
12 Ralehifdtsy. 13 Ralehimalemalema.
6 Rafaroratra.
7 Ratsimahavaly.
14 RatsisTmba.
15 Ralandremo.
Of these fifteen, the two most important are the first named Rakelimalaza and Ramahavaly. These are regarded as having in some way entrusted to them the charge of the welfare, dignity, and interests of the kingdom at large.
:
The
residence of Rakelimalaza
is
about seven miles to
the east of Tananarivo, at a village called

bola, or, the village of
Ambohimanamis
money.
This village
divided into
two
a
parts,
north and south, and situated on the summit of
hill,
which, according to the custom of the country in

village.
such cases, frequently assumes the name of the
The whole of name of the

nutive."
this hill is
considered sacred ground.
The
idol
signifies,
"renowned, although dimi-
Within the limits of the ground which

sacred,
is
considered
and which embraces a wide circumference in the

vicinity
immediate
of
the idol's residence,
it
is
strictly
forbidden to bring, or suffer to come, certain animals and

certain objects,
of the
*
laza,
which are carefully specified by the keepers
idol.
prefix,
Things thus forbidden are called Fady; a

I, is
The
sometimes used
to the names, instead of
Ra
Ikelima-
Imahavaly, &c.
403
term of similar import with the well-known Tabu of the
South Sea Islands.

Fady.
Every
idol
has
its
own
particular
The
things prohibited by Rakelimalaza are, guns,
gunpowder,
snail), sitry
pigs, onions, sifotra (a shell-fish resembling a
(a small animal resembling the young crocospotted robes, anything of a black colour,
at funerals or at the tan-
dile), striped or
goats,
horses,
meat distributed
Its
gena, and cats and owls.
keepers are forbidden to enter

;
any house where there
is
a corpse
and
in crossing a river
they are not permitted to say, " Carry me," otherwise they
place themselves in danger of being seized by the crocodiles
;
and
in
war they must not
talk, or
they are in danger
of being shot.
As
every idol has

its
its
own
list
of prohibited articles, so
each idol has
own
specific sphere of operation in proits
moting the welfare of

nation at large.
are,
individual worshippers, or of the
The
benefits conferred
by Rakelimalaza
rendering the sovereign invincible, and universally

;
victorious
preventing the crocodiles from seizing a person
when
crossing a river; protecting against the mamosavy,

;
sorcerers
and extinguishing
fires,
by means
of his worship-
pers merely putting their cloth over their heads.
Although not
this idol, it
strictly
connected with a description of
may
not be out of place to record here an inciits
dent which happened some time ago to one of
keepers.
A school
aries,
had been established
at the village
by the Missionidol's
and amongst the scholars was the son of the
guardian.
true
The youth having God who had created
learned that he alone was the

the heavens and the earth,
plainly told his father that that
was not God which was

all.
taken care of by others, but he who took care of

father
was very angry, and asked
his son if he did not
The know
that Rakelimalaza
was god
The boy
declined urging the
2d2
404
point until
another opportunity offered.
text,
found in his catechism the

our
" Hear,
Israel
Meantime be the Lord

!
God
is
one Lord
;"
when
:
he exclaimed, "
Now
am
both delighted and grieved
delighted to have found the

relatives.
word
of the true
God
grieved on account of my
He
:
They
are lovers of idols."
then begged his father's
permission to quit the school

I continue to learn I not believe?"
" For why," said he, " should

believe."
what you do not
"
What do
will
asked the father.
"That," replied the

;
youth, " of which I have told you before
and which
not only do
me
good, but you also.

for those
There are new heavens

God, with ever-
and a new earth

lasting
life,
who
believe in
and garments shining like the sun, that never
wax
old."
An
impression was
made upon
the
the father's mind.

shortly
He
paused
encouraged
youth
and
afterwards
resolved on relinquishing his charge of the idol.
Pretending
business at some distance, he therefore
asked leave of
absence, and remained beyond
the stipulated time; for
which a
fine
was imposed upon him, and another person

office.
chosen to supersede him in his

information of
felt
Having obtained
fine,
this,
he returned home, paid his
and
himself relieved in being free from his charge of keep-
ing a god which he had learned could neither keep others
nor himself
Next
which
in
rank
to
Rakelimalaza
is
Ramahavaly
a name
is
signifies,
" capable of replying."*
A house
;
allot-
ted for his occasional residence at the capital

is
but his home
Ambohitany, a
* This
village
about two miles distant from

some addresses
to the schools, point-
name formed
the subject of
ing out the correctness of such an appellation in reference to the true God,
and to no other
if consulted, if
to Him who despised who
is
is,
able to answer if worshipped, if obeyed, in the fullest sense of the words, " able
to answer.*'
Ambohimanga.
405
The
village
itself
does not consist of

hill,
above a hundred houses,
built
upon a steep
and
inter-
sected by deep and numerous moats.
The
idol is kept in
a house
at the
western extremity of the
village,
which
is
separated from the other part by a steep hady or fosse.
No
stranger
is
suffered to approach this house, lest the

idol should
virtue of the
injui'ed.
charms and the powers of the
be
With regard
to the origin of this
idol, it is said, that
about ninety or a hundred years ago a person professed to
have an excellent charm, by which he could prevent and

cure diseases.
The
chieftain of the district having obtained
information of this wonderful charm, sent a person
who
was
ill,
in order that its efficacy

it
might be put
efficacious,
to the test.
According to report,
recovered.
district,
proved
and the man and

to
The charm became renowned
throughout the
and
in process of time rose to the reputation
dignity of a god, and was designated
Mahavaly
" able
answer."
The Fady
in
prohibited articles of Ramahavaly, like
those of Rakelimalaza, are, the meat of animals killed at

funerals and at ordeals
;
or
when the guardian
enters the
residence of the idol, sitting with his feet towards the

north-east
corner of the house.
He
also
most
strictly
forbids the killing of serpents.

It
would scarcely be expected that a chief and a judge,

Such, however, was the
it
devoted to idol-worship, would be the strenuous advocate for

a school at the
in 1824,
idol's village.
fact,
from whatever motive
originated.
Mr.
Griffiths
was
visiting
some schools
in the neighbourhood,
and while
passing the foot of the
hill
was met by the Farantsa of

to urge
Ambohitany, sent
to
him by Andriamahary,
him
to
come up and converse with him upon the
subject of esta-
406
It
blishing a school.
being impracticable to remain there
at the time, the people ran
up the
hill to fetch
the chieftain
part of the
way down
to
meet Mr.
Griffiths.
In the mean
time there came about forty children, already collected
towards forming a school, a few of

at
whom had been
scholars
learned.
as well
Ambohimanga, and repeated what little they had 'Then," said the people, "our children can learn
Let us have teachers.
those of other villages.
We
are
next in rank and in importance to Ambohimanga, and our

village is ancient
and renowned.''
In a short time the old
judge made his appearance.

at
" Come," said he, " and stay
my
house
for the night.
fifteen
miles from Tananarivo.
The sun has set, and it is You cannot reach the

will seize you."
capital in safety
the
pamosavy*
"
We
have no fear of the pamosavy," was the reply.
" Oh, well,"
continued the chieftain, " perhaps you white people have
some
effectual
charm
to
keep them from injuring you."

;
" No," was the reply again
"
we have no charm
of the kind,
but put our trust in the living God."

judge, "
if
" Then," said the old
he
will not
remain with us to-night, go fetch him
a present of food; for no
man
can live without eating.

it
But," he continued, " we must have a school ; and
is
of
no use
to
to hesitate
about giving us teachers.
We
are next
Ambohimanga in every enterprise." He was then asked, "How many children he would promise there should be?" To
which he answered, " Fifty." "No," said Mr. Griffiths, " give
us a hundred."
" Very well," replied the old man, " give
us teachers, and there shall be a hundred provided."
school was accordingly established.
The
havaly,
principal benefit conferred by the idol called

is,
Ramaand
is
to preserve
from, or expel, epidemic diseases.
He
is
regarded as the
physician
Bewitched.
of Imerina;
; ;
sometimes carried
evil
407
to avert the
to the
towns and
is
villages,
when general
sickness
apprehended.
striking
instance of faith in this idol occurred in 1826, at Tananarivo.
very extensive, and, in

in the capital
many
and
instances, fatal
malady prevailed, both

ing villages.
valy,
in the neighbourto
Application was therefore

to
made
Ramaha-
and he was brought

all
Tananarivo, where crowds of
people collected from
parts of the adjoining country.
The
guardians of the idol having taken their station, the
people, with their shoulders uncovered, advanced in successive bodies of about
300 each, while one
of the guardians,
acting the part of priest, took a horn filled with honied

water, and sprinkled the people as they passed in lines before him.
after
All were grave and serious during the ceremony,

;
which they retired without noise or talking

their
all
mode
that
of
leaving
assemblies
widely
different
from
observed on
other occasions.
of sprinkling the idol, the guardian assured
During the act

following words
the people of safety from the impending calamity in the

:
" Take
courage
your children.
You have Ramahavaly
you, your wives, and take courage for

is
yourselves and your property.
He
the preserver of
life
and, should diseases invade, he will suddenly arrest them,
and prevent them coming near This ceremony

is
to injure you."
called Miafana;
which
signifies,
is
"to
avert;" and the water sprinkled on the occasion
called
Ranonafana
Great
" water of
averting."'
ceremony
of this kind
takes place almost every year at the capital.

is
the renown of the idol Ramahavaly.
He
is
sometimes described as god, sacred, powerful, and almighty
who
kills,
and makes
vents diseases
who heals the sick, and preand pestilence who can cause thunder and
alive
;
;
lightning to strike their victims, or prevent their fatality;
408
He
can cause rain in abundance when wanted, or can withhold

it
so as to ruin the crops of rice.
is also
celebrated for
for his capa-
his
knowledge of the past and the future, and

whatever
in
is
city of discovering
hidden or concealed.
Should
charms be secreted
some clandestine manner, or from
any malignant motive be buried in the ground, with a

view of injuring people or rendering them bewitched, he
able to find the mysterious spells
is
to point out the exact
spot of ground where they have been concealed

avert the intended mischief.
and thus
to
Some
he can do
qualities
of
locomotion are
also
attributed
llamahavaly.
it
If disposed to visit
any part of the country,

;
without any one conveying him thither
or,
while
his
being carried, he can stop of his own accord, and

bearer tremble beneath him.
said
make
In passing ants' holes,
it is
by
his
carriers that
he has the remarkable habit of
making a pause, quite of his own accord. The intelligent monarch Radama was
fully
convinced
of the absurdity and falsehood of the pretensions of the
idol-keepers; and though he was too shrewd an observer

of
human
nature
violently to
assail
the
superstitious
prejudices that existed in their favour, he often
made them
appear exceedingly ridiculous in the eyes of the people,
whenever they attempted any of

sence.
their jugglery in his pre-
On
one occasion, the keeper of the great national

rushed into the court-yard, where the king and
idol suddenly
many
of his chiefs
and
officers
were assembled.
He
carried
a pole, with something wrapped in red velvet, the ordinary
symbol of the
idol,
at the
end of
it.
On
;
entering the
palace-yard, he ran about
hke one
frantic
and on being
asked by the king
made him
"
act in
why he did so, he said that the idol a manner which he himself could not avoid.
the king, " that the god should affect
It is surprising," said
you so powerfully
;
409
let
me
try if
it
will
be the same with me."
Upon which
the king took the pole and walked gravely
round the court without the slightest appearance of any

extraordinary emotion.
the chiefs, and said,
to
He
then turned round to one of

I
" Perhaps
am
too heavy for the
god
move
do you
try,
you are
light enough."
Accordingly,
the chief took the pole in his hands,
and walked about, but

it
without experiencing any ecstasy ; and then returned

the poor keeper,
to
who slunk
effect
off,
not a
little
mortified at the
result of the king's experiment.
On some
of the chiefs
who
were present, the
was alike salutary and durable.

Ramahavaly, or dare
with
The
people are taught to believe that should any presume
to question the
power
is
of
to sport
his claims, his anger
roused, and he prepares to vindicate
himself,
by
inflicting terrible
vengeance upon the presumpof

his
tuous offender.
serpent,
it is
As an
indication
displeasure,
said, instinctively coils itself
around the neck

his attend-
of his guardian,
ants.
and others around the arms of

of
Immense numbers
upon
his person,
serpents will also publicly
demonstrate the guilt of the offender, by as instinctively

seizing
and strangling him,
for
having
for
ventured to abuse or insult Rabiby

idol,
literally signifying,
;
" beast,"
another epithet the or " animal," by way of

He
is
eminence
" the god of beasts."
said, besides,
to
possess the power of vindicating his

inflicting
own insulted majesty, by
upon such
as contumeliously reject his authority,
the very singular punishment, not exactly of twisting their
neck, but of giving
it
that
awkward kind
of turn that
would
place the person's face behind, and the back of his head in
front
;
a reverse produced by a spell too potent for any

to undo.
power on earth
The name
tsi-roa
;
of the idol kept at the capital is
Ramanjakaor,
signifying, " there are not
two sovereigns,"
" the
410
king
is
supreme
:"
a motto not unworthy of the genius of
a despotic government.
of the palace
;
This
idol is
kept in the court-yard

metropolitan
idol,
and although
strictly the
he holds no higher than the third rank in point of importance
and honour, and,
in popular estimation, yields precedence
both to Rakelimalaza and Ramahavaly.
When the sovereign

this idol
all
goes out to a campaign in his

of the capital
is
ovv^n
proper person,
carried with him.
At
other times he
if
remains quietly within his own residence, as
to recruit
his vigour after the fatigues of a military expedition.
His
prohibitions are similar to those of other idols, with the
addition that no corpse

cincts of his residence.
may be conveyed within the preThe specific good which he is

dominion for
supposed to
sovereign
the one
;
effect, is,
the extension of the territories of the
in fact, the securing of exclusive
monarch
the very idea included in his anti-demo-
cratical appellation.
There
is
one other
idol, of
considerable fame, of which

before closing the account
a separate notice
may be taken
of these divinities, namely, Ranakandriana.

is
His residence
reputed to be at Andringitra, a high mountain north-
west of Tananarivo, and about thirty miles distant.
To
to
him
is
ascribed the honour of having imparted the know-
ledge of divination to the Malagasy.

give an audible reply to any
is
He
is said, also,
who may
salute him.
There
rise
an echo reverberating from that part of the rock where

;
his altars are erected

to
and
this
may
easily
have given
the idea of a response from the mysterious divinity.

altars are similar to those
fat
The
erected to the vazimba;
amply saturated with the

and
and blood of victims, and surand

said
rounded with the horns of bullocks and the heads of sheep

fowls,
some of which are
affixed to short stakes
poles placed upright in the ground.
The
divinity
is
to reside in a cave not far
411
from the top of the mountain.

;
The principal
The
altar is
on the summit
and, of course, higher
than the residence of Ranakandriana himself.

inhabitants of
a neighbouring village, on being
recently questioned as to whether they
had
really ever
heard any salutations responded
to,
honestly answered they
had not
but warily added, they had been informed that
their ancestors
had been favoured with responses from the

asked, again, " If what their ancestors
god.
They were
true,
had told was
how was
it
that no replies were given
now when
awaker
since
is
they saluted Ranakandriana ?"

dead," was the
is
" Because his

sleep,
reply.
"Does he then
?"'
some one
required to awaken him
"
We
;
do not
know
is
of ourselves, but so
we have been
awaker
?"
informed."
there no one
to replace his
"
No
" But we know
of
no one
else
who
is
able to
awaken him."*
this
His majesty Radama, aware of the reputed fame of

idol for
answering those who saluted him, resolved, some
years since, to visit his altar, in order to ascertain the truth

of the reports.
On
arriving at the spot, he entered the
dark cavern, the supposed residence of Ranakandriana, and

saluted the invisible divinity.
low and solemn voice
answered, " Tsara hiany."

hasina, or small donation of
He
then offered to present a

;
money
and on a hand being

monarch,
is
gently
moved forward
a
to accept the offering of the

it,
the king instantly seized
and exclaimed, " This
no
god
this is
human being
!"
He
immediately gave orders
to his people to
drag out the impostor; and thus the spell
was broken
in the
minds of many, and the disbelief of the
king in the superstitions of his country confirmed.
No
'
Cry idoud,
1
for he
is
God
peradventiire
Jie
sleepeth and must
be awaked."
Kings
xviii. 27.
412
imposition of
responding to salutations has since been
practised, nor has
any one assumed the
office of
awaker.
The names
them.
of
many
the
:
of the idols are singularly significant
of the powers and the attributes supposed to belong to
Among
idols
of inferior note,
the following
may be mentioned
As
Keli-manjaka-lanitra, " Little, but ruling the heavens."

this god, according to his
name, pretends
to " rule the
heavens," so his exploits are said to be of the following description

:-
That when the rice

he casts
is
ripe in the fields,
and the
hail approaching, then

to the
{i.e.
causes to be cast) a charm

fi'om the
bottom of the water; and fetching ashes

it
four corners of the hearth, he throws
towards the clouds,

is
when
the hail changes into rain, and the rice
secured.
He
has
many
appropriate abstinencies to be enjoined upon
his followers, the non-observance of
which
will frustrate his
charms against the
hail.
Amongst them
is
;
are
not
grind-
ing rice near the place where luggage
deposited; not
boiling the root voanjo at the fire-place
and such
like
observances
^^for such things are his antipathies."

to
Manara-mody, "The Restorer

pretended power of
natives
families
this idol is
one's home."
The
their
founded on the love the

village,
have to their native country and
and parents.
He
professes to furnish a charm, fi-om
the application of which, by a third person, the devotee will
be sure of reaching that third person again, to whatever

dangers he
may be
and
exposed.
at,
The
it is
popularity of this idol
is
not to be wondered
tears mothers,
when
considered with
how many
fathers,
and wives, and kindred, and
friends, dismiss the objects of their strongest affections to
the distant war, with the probabilities greatly against their
ever returning
and with how
bitter
a grief the soldiers

all its
themselves bid farewell to their loved Lnerina, and
domestic joys.
413
Any
is,
delusion
is
eagerly seized which pro-
mises a restoration to this loved spot.
Manara-mody
to
moreover, like
many
other of the idols,
supposed to possess very singular powers.
He is
;
supposed
be able to convert a piece of cloth into a snake
and that
into a growing plant;

things.
and
that, again, into other dissimilar

idol-
These metamorphoses are performed by the

is
keeper, whilst the idol

as
if
placed above, wrapped in cloth,
presiding over and performing the wonders.
Rakapila.
Perhaps the name of
this idol signifies,
" half
pro-
dishevelled," from his dress or

fesses to foresee
head ornaments.
He
any blight likely to
affect the rice, or
any
disease impending over the people; and,
by appropriate
charms, to avert them.

rain
If overwhelming and lightning are approaching, he proclaims, " Kill a

:
For example
sheep having red
hair,
and scatter his bones
in the town."
Rakapila
declares
"
is
a great seller of charms, as a native tradition

people desire charms, whatever be
evil,
If
the
charm, and against whatever

Rakapila, for he possesses
all
;
they can fetch from
whether a charm against the

;
gun, the spear, or the cannon, he will supply
whether a
a cold, the
charm against the

supply them
fever, the measles, the leprosy,
dropsy, ulcers, tumours, boils, abscesses, the yaws, &c., he

will
all.
And whether charms

Or
he
if
against the
crocodiles, the locusts, the scorpions,

sects, &c.,
other venomous in-
he
will supply.
the people seek charms
for obtaining their desires,
will supply,
whether
it
be a
charm
for getting riches, for rendering successful in busi-
ness, &c., then will
Rakapila supply them,
for
he possesses
them, and thence
it is
that people exalt him."
Randrano-vola, " the silver water," and Randrano-mena,
" the red water."
These
are
kept in a village called
Andraisisa, and are famous for several ridiculous absti-
414
villagers,
nences enjoined on the

forbids the detail.
but of which decency
They
also bless the bullocks killed at
the annual feast, which are led by the head people to the
idols.
They have
their fady^
or antipathies, like
other
idols.
Ramanandroany, " the governor

day."
of the 'past part of the
It is
pretended of
this idol, that
whoever tramples
his knees
upon
(i.e.
insults) him,
becomes
blind,
and
become
after
swollen.
But
his principal boast

thief.
:
is, to inflict
punishment
to
on an unknown
the following
An
application
is
made
him
manner
The owner
to the idol,
of the thing stolen takes a

says, "
remnant
of
it
and
As
to
whoever
stole
our property,
Ramanandroany,
;
kill
him by
day, destroy
him by
night,
like
and strangle him
let
there be none amongst
men
him
let
him not be able

let his
to increase in riches, not
even a
farthing, but let
him pick up
his livelihood as a
hen pecks
on the
rice-grains
eyes be blinded, and his knees swollen,

It is su})posed these curses fall
Mananandroany."
thief.
Slaves, also, are taken

is
by their masters
if
to this idol,
and a curse
pronounced upon them
they should waste
their master's property, or
run away, &c.

is
Rafotribe.
lation of
The name
capital.
of this idol
the
common
appelsaid to
respect given to elderly people.
He
is
have been brought from Andringitra, a village considerably

east
of the
From thence he was conveyed

thirty-five
to
Angavo, a village about

narivo.
miles east of Tana-
The
tradition
:
of his discovery
was given by a
native as follows
"
man, whose son was

;
ill,
was seeking a charm or
medicine to cure the child

the son of a nobleman,
when, at Andavakampo, he saw

said to him,
'
who
Go
thou home,
sing.'
put a fence round thy house, and fetch up a bard to
The man went home, and
singing, the
415
did so
and while the bard was
son of a nobleman came, bringing Rafotribe,
by
whom
the sick child was cured.

to the son of the
Then
the
man
gave
money and jewels

the idol himself."
It
nobleman, but retained
would be tedious
;
repetition to recount his antipathies

differing in particulars,
and imagined power which, though
agree, in the general principle, with what has been stated of others.
One
of his peculiar attributes

to
is
to give the
power of locomotion
dance
charms
so that
when
the keeper
it
says to the enchanted thing, " If thou liest not, dance"

will
;
and, " If thou

it
liest not, be fixed as a stone or
firmly-rooted tree,"
will
be
so.
This dancing
is
applied
to the discovery of theft
and falsehood, by making him

in his
dance
if
such or such a person
presence be guilty.
41(5
CHAP. XV.
Unfavourable operation of the superstitious opinions of the Malagasy
Restrictions imposed by the idols at particular times and seasons
ent kinds of sacrifices
Differ Localities in which they are offered Description

an ox
of the ceremony of sprinkling the people in the presence of the idols
Usages observed in
sacrificing
The offering of human
sacrifices
The
means employed to remove diseases and other evils The afana, or ceremony performed at the tombs as a means of securing repose for the dead Account of the vazimba, their graves, altars, anecdotes, illustrations of the popular belief respecting them Influence of fear on the minds of the natives Ideas of the Malagasy respecting a futiu-e
faditra, or
state
Reported
appearance of the ghost of Radama
the dominion of supernatural beings
Universal confidence of the people in
working the sikidy
decisions Various modes of Offering charms The sorona and faditra Influence
its
Reported
General
of
belief in
origin
di\'ination
of witchcraft, prognostications, &c.
After
ties,
it
the enumeration of the chief idols of the Malagasy,

of their supposed characters
and the description
and quali
appears unnecessary to specify farther in detail what

the idols,
are the peculiar attributes of each or any of
which, differing widely in the sphere of influence assigned
them, resemble each other in their supposed antipathies
and
in their prohibitions.
All appear to have an aversion
to the
meat distributed
at funerals
and the ordeals.
Several
prohibit onions,
some goats and
pigs,
and some few sheep,
while the greatest number prohibit some particular kinds

of herbs, fruits, and shell-fish.
Most
of
them
forbid their
keepers to enter any house in which there

corpse, and to
sit
may
be a
with their feet towards the east in the
house where the
idol is kept;
an
injunction arising from
HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR,
417
the circumstance that in such a position they must turn

their
back towards the
idol.
It is also forbidden
them
to
eat anything that has been burned in cooking, or that has
been cooked in some particular kinds of

instances
vessels.
to
live
In some
in
the
keepers are forbidden
houses
thatched with straw.
There are cases
also in
which no
houses
lages
may be
constructed with
idols are kept.
mud
walls within the vil-
where the
This prohibition prevails,
however, in some villages where no idols are kept, and the

reason assigned
is
not the interdiction of any divinity, but
the " custom of our ancestors."
There are
season.
also
some prohibitions peculiar
to the rainy
left
At
that time, white rice
must not be
the people
of
on the
shelves in the houses, nor

selves
may
amuse themnor with

they burn the
with their favourite
game
kicking,
throwing stones at one another ; neither

rice- chaff in their fires.
may
These, and other similar prohibitions
which have force during the rainy season (fahavaratra) are

called ody havandra, or
charms against the
hail
it
being
supposed, that but for the careful observance of such restrictions, all the rice
then growing would be destroyed by
the hail.
During the approach

attacks
of locusts
and
their destructive
specific prohi-
upon the
crops, there are also
some
bitions applied to the case, called
ody
valala,
charms against
the locust, such as not wearing any black or
brown
clothes.
In
all
cases, the idol's prohibition
is
determined and
ascertained by the decisions of the sikidy or divination.
On
public occasions,
when a bullock
is sacrificed to
any
particular idol,
an animal must he chosen entirely free

;
from any streaks or spots abhorred by the idol
and
it
must
be purchased by some one whose father and mother are

living.
I.
The
flesh
of
the
'2
bullock
is
then
professedly
418
it
divided amongst the multitude, but the chief part of

is
appropriated by the idol-keeper.
In many instances, the idols are the direct objects of

religious worship
amongst
individuals.
They
are not only
solemnly appealed to on public occasions, but there are
many
cases in which people go to
them
voluntarily, for the
purpose of supplicating some favour, and on such occasions

they are honoured, praised, and adored, as the benevolent
authors of
all benefits.
it
person wishing to obtain some

idol,
favour, solicits
of
the
accompanying the request

present
is
with a present and a vow.

keeper, by
The
offered to the
of the
idol,
is
whom
it
is
received in the
benefit.
name
and retained
for his
own
The
object of desire
explained to the keeper, such as money, safety, or victory

in war.
The keeper
repeats the wish or prayer to the idol,
and
states that such
an one promises,
if
the prayer be
granted, to ofier an acknowledgment or thanksgiving
it
may be a fowl, a
straw
tion
will
is
sheep, a bullock, or money.
If the idol
be
favourable to the petition, a rapid motion of a wisp of
made by
the keeper, as a notification that the peti-
is
regarded favourably, and that the object of request

If there be
be granted.
is
no motion of the straw, the

of sacrificing to the
is
petition
idol,
is
declined.
The promise made

when
this promise,
or offering a thanksgiving
the favour
is
;
granted,
called
Voady
and
which
in fact a vow,
must be
trade.
fulfilled
on the boon being received
such as safe
return from war, the birth of a child,
or prosperity in
oflfering,
To
fulfil
the vow,
is to
bring the
and
is
called
Manala voady
sacrifices
literally, to fetch
away or remove the
YOW.
The
and
offerings both of the

offerings,
Hovas and
Betsi-
misaraka,
are free-will
not
compelled by any
enactment, but given where and when they please.
Each
individual sacrifices and
419
makes
offerings to the idols, ac-
cording to his riches or property ; either in oxen, sheep,

fowls, or
money.
In Ankova
it
is
the custom to give to

;
the idols only the head, the blood, and the fat
of the sacrifices being fixed on poles
fat
is
:
the heads
and the blood and
rubbed on the stones of the
altar.
The whole
carcase
then devoured by the sacrificers and their friends, the
priest not forgetting to secure his share of the feast.
There are many occasions on which the

exhibited,
idols are publicly
and supposed
to
be instrumental in averting
of sprinkling the
national or general evils.
The ceremony
people
is
one of sufficient importance to merit a particular
description.
On
one of these occasions, a few years ago,
the assembly consisted of at least six thousand people.
They were ordered
to squat
on the ground in such a way
as to admit those bearing the idol to pass to
and
fro
throughto
out the assembly, and

sit
all
were especially commanded
with their shoulders uncovered.
The
idol
was then
carried through the multitude in different directions, fol-
lowed by a
man
bearing a horn of honey and water.
As
they proceeded, the

of
it
man
sprinkled the people on each side
him by shaking
his wisp of straw towards
them, after
had been dipped in the liquor. A blessing was at the same time pronounced by the bearer of the idol, in words,
which, given by a native writer, " Cheer up and fear not, for
of your lives,
therefore,
may be
is I
thus translated
it
who am
the defence
and
I will
not let disease approach.
Cheer up,
on account of your children and wives, your profor
perty,
and your own persons,
ye possess me."
Of
that part of his proclamation which related to the
idol's antipathies, the following is
a translation
" Practise abstinence well
let
each of you take good

idol,
heed to avoid what
is
prohibited by his
whose
anti-
o 2
420
pathies are the pig
let
him take heed
that
it
have no access
to the villages of his

let
abode
the
;
snail,
musket, and onions,
them not be borne there and the goat and the horse, suffer them not to ascend his villages. And in the time of
thunder (that
is,
summer) the children
shall not play
at
kicking each other blue.
Ye
shall not
throw
;
dirt at
each
other, for these things are his antipathies

things, but take
so do not these
good heed."
The whole
sprinkling
is
of the idolatrous
is
ceremony connected with

;
the sprinkling,
called mitiofana
but the precise act of
called mitiodrano.
It is
performed on many
occasions, such as the spreading of the small-pox,
when
the
harvest is ripening,
when a
distant
war
is
undertaken, or
on the departure of the
soldiers
is
from the
capital.
An
idolatrous procession
thus described by one of the
teachers.
The
object of the procession was to order the reto
moval of certain houses and fences, said

the idol's displeasure.
actinsj
be obnoxious to
The
idol
was Ramahavaly, but

first
under the authority of Rakelimalaza. The
man
in
in the procession carried a long pole,
about twenty feet

its
height, at the
top of which was the idol or
symbol.
Round
this,
and round the top of the pole, was wrapped

which hung down like the
After this
skirts of
scarlet velvet,
a child's
another,
doll rather raggedly attired.
man came
bunch
bearing in his
left
hand a bullock's horn, containing water

in his right a small
fifty
mixed with honey, and
of twigs
used in sprinkling. Behind him came
very fine athletic

his left
men, walking two abreast. Each of these bore in
hand
a bundle of grass containing a serpent, and held his right
arm
free to seize the serpent,
which he brandished about at
pleasure.
step,
The
procession marched with firm and rapid
and
in perfect silence,
in their path,
none being allowed to speak.
If
any stood
one stepped from the ranks, and
advanced towards the obtruder, striking the
421
air violently
with his right arm as he approached, until the obstruction
was withdrawn.
On
arriving at any place or house susit
pected to be the abode of evil or sorcery,

in order to
was sprinkled,
remove
either the
power
of inflicting evil, or the
liability of suffering
harm.
On
arriving at any place supfire,
posed to be in danger from lightning,

accident,
or any other
the act of sprinkling was again performed, in
order to ward off the apprehended calamity.
On
reaching
a house or fence which the idol required to be removed, a

sign was made, by destroying a part, to indicate that such
was the intention of the
divinity,
and the owner was under
the necessity of removing the whole.
Mr. Jones
relates, that
about the end of November, 1818,
he witnessed the ceremony of sacrificing a bullock at the

beginning of planting of
rice.
The
at
after
animal, which belonged to one of the slave-dealers

wâs
Tamatave,
which
thrown down
in a corner of the
field,
his four legs
were tied together.
The
priestess
who officiated on the occasion, was called Senegala. She made a long prayer to Zanahary. She then sprinkled the
bullock with holy water from a horn, after which the throat
was cut by one of the attendants, and
it
was cut up
to
be
divided in the evening amongst the rice planters, so that

all
all
was eaten except the blood.

the people
This ceremony being over,

the rice
;
commenced planting
but
it
was not
until their
work was done, that the

arrack.
in
it
flesh of the bullock
was
divided amongst them, and at the

of a distribution of
priestess put
same time they partook

this,
Before
a cup
however, the
of a leaf,
some arrack
made
and
stating that she presented
as a drink-offering, prayed the
Angatra
to allow the rice to grow.

it,
She then placed the

in a safe place in the
leaf-made cup, with the arrack in
422
open
field,
that the Angatra might drink
it
for his satisfaction

it
from time to time.
As
this It
evaporated in the sun,
diminished day by day.

the Angatra drank
it
;
was consequently believed that

this
and
condescension was joyfully
received as a proof that he was pleased, and would allow
the rice to grow and prosper.
It is
a frequent custom with

spirits, to spill
the Betsimisaraka, before they drink
little
on the ground,
injure them.
It
to propitiate the
Angatra, that he
may
not
has been supposed that no
human
fact
victims were ever
slain,
but in the province of Vangardrano,

offered.
human
such
sacrifices sacrifices
were formerly
existed,
The
that
was not ascertained
till
lately,
nor credited by
many
place
;
till
substantiated by repeated and unexceptionable

It
testimonies.
appears that a weekly immolation took

fatal
Friday was the
day, and,
if
possible,
to
chiefs
and principal men were obtained, and put

forming a more
to this
strictly
death,
as
costly,
and hence more acceptable,

offerings
sacrifice
Moloch.
The
were not made
to
an
idol,
so called, but the parties

pole, to the top of
;
were killed before an

have been that of
enormous
or charms
which were suspended ody,

to
and the idea appears
averting evils and procuring benefits by

tion,
means
of incanta-
with which these sacrifices were- supposed to have
some mysterious and undefinable connexion.

were speared on the
spot,
The
victims
birds.
and devoured by dogs and

rites of the
In Ankova the religious

with two ceremonies,
faditra is
people are connected

Afana.
called
Faditra and
The
anything selected by the sikidy for the purpose
of taking
away any hurtful
evils
or diseases that might
prove injurious to an individual's happiness, peace, or prosperity.
The
faditra
may be
either ashes, cut
money, a
choose
sheep, a pumpkin,
or anything else the sikidy
may
to direct.
423
tlie
After the particular article
is
appointed,
priest counts
upon
for
it all
the evils that

it
may
prove injurious
to the person
whom
is
made, and which he then

If the faditra
If it
charges the faditra to take away for ever.

ashes,
it is
be be
blown, to be carried away by the wind.

it
cut money,
is
thrown
to
the bottom of deep water, or

If it
where
it
can never be found.
be a sheep,
it is
carried
away
with
to a distance
all his
on the shoulders of a man, who runs

as he goes, as
it
might,
mumbling
if
in the greatest
rage against the faditra, for the evils

If
it
is
bearing away.
little
be a pumpkin,
it is
carried on the shoulders to a
distance,
and there dashed upon the ground with every

sheep and pumpkin was witnessed by
appearance of fury and indignation.
The
faditra of a
in 1830,
Mr. Jones,
when a
great
number
of persons were
compelled to drink the tangena, in suspicion of having
bewitched the queen, who was then suiFering from a slight

indisposition.
The Afana
is
a ceremony performed at the tomb of a

It
person recently buried.
consists of firing
muskets or
quantity of
cannons, slaughtering oxen, and feasting.
The
gunpowder used, and the number

depend
entirely
of cattle slaughtered,
upon the rank and riches of the deceased.

poles, at the
for a
is
The
skulls
and bones of the oxen are fixed on
head of the tomb,
memoriaL
The
evil
natives say that
the use of the afana
to take
away
from the dead,

is
that he may rest quietly
in his grave.
This
their last act
of kindness for the departed.
The term Vazimba,

sense
it
of which frequent
significations.
use
In
has
been
made, has three several
its
strictest
appears to designate the aborigines of the interior
of Madagascar, from whatever part of the coast they
may
have come.
424
graves of the Vazimba are regarded with equal fear
natives.
The
and veneration by the
To
violate a
grave by
taking away one of the stones composing the hillock, or to
pluck off a twig from the shrubs usually found growing

near
it,
would, in their estimation, be regarded as acts of
such flagrant presumption and wickedness as the Vazimba
would himself resent by

the
inflicting disease
and death upon
unhappy
subject of his displeasure.
Not only would
an intended affront of the kind be thus terribly avenged,

but so irascible are these ghosts, that should any one accidentally stumble against their graves, or,
by the merest
In passing a
chance, happening in the dark, kick his foot against one of

the stones, dreadful
is
the
doom he
incurs.
Vazimba
levity,
altar,
the people are accustomed to suppress all
and
to observe the strictest seriousness of
demeanour
and so impressed are the Malagasy with the idea of the
Vazimba
inflicting diseases, that
not only do they expect to
suffer after
if
having unfortunately touched their graves, but
enduring any malady for which they are unable to assign

satisfied
any other cause, they are
with
this,
it
and conclude
have
that they must, though unconscious of
at the time,
given offence to some Vazimba.
These graves are numerous throughout Imerina.
Many
are found in the immediate neighbourhood of Tananarive.
They
are easily distinguishable from other graves, partly

size,
from their being smaller in
and
still
more
so by the
indications they afford of the frequent offering of sacrifice.
In some cases, as at Ampanibe, " the place of abundance

of the fany,"* near the capital, the altar
is
enclosed with a
the zozoro or
fence constructed of sticks, wattled with

rush.
The
trees
growing around give
it
the appearance of
Faiiy, or Fano, a species of
mimosa.
a small natural grove.
425
The
altar itself is
merely a heap
of stones, and one slab fixed perpendicularly in the earth.
This
is
smeared with the burnt

altar,
fat
of
sacrifices;
and
around the
and amongst
the branches of the trees, are
the heads of poultry and sheep, and the horns of bullocks,

wliitih at difierent
times have been sacrificed there.

sustain two characters.
The Vazimbas
They
are either
of both.
is
masina or masiaka, and occasionally they partake
When
a Vazimba grants the favour requested, he
denothe
said
minated masina
other hand, a
to
holy, placable,
effective.
When, on
is
Vazimba causes disease
or death, he
be masiaka
fierce, implacable.
This account of the Vazimba may not improperly be

closed with a few anecdotes, illustrative of the opinions of
the people respecting them.
few years ago the Missionaries visited the grave at

is
Ampanibe, which
bourhood of the
one of the most popular in the neigh-
capital.
They were accompanied by some
of the scholars, one of

before, owing,
it
whom had been

To
ill
a short time
was
said, to
a fright he had received on
seeing a terrific Vazimba.
convince the youths of the
groundless nature of their fears, and the impossibility of

the
Vazimba doing them any

ofi"
real injury,
the Missionaries
altar,
cut
a branch from a tree growing near the "
and
be
took away one of the stones.

the
terrified
Do
ill
not touch," exclaimed

will
scholars,
" the Vazimba and
certainly
enraged, and you will become

youths, however,
die."
Two
of the
summoned
sufficient courage,
and were
persuaded to carry the branch and the stone into the town,
which they did with many fears and misgivings, under the
promise that medicines would be given them
should ensue.
to
if
illness
Their more timid companions endeavoured
check them by saying, "
You
will assuredly
be taken
426
ill
will
the Vazimba
It
come
in the night,
and carry you
away
effect
to the region of ghosts."
was by no means improbable that some unfavourable

should be produced solely from the influence of their
;
excited imaginations
and the
all their
slightest illness at that time
would have banished

superstitious fears.
courage, and confirmed their
Inquiry was therefore
mornings successively, "

" No," said they, "
Have you
;
we
are
less.
we have not now convinced that all fears of the kind are groundThe Vazimba has no power to injure us it is a
made for a few yet seen the Vazimba ?" and as we continue well,
senseless
imagination."
" But,"
?
said
the
it
Missionaries,
" what do your parents say to this

to convince
Does
not also tend
them ?"
" No," they replied, " our parents say
that you white people have
some strong and

to resist."
effectual charms,
which the Vazimba are not able
Since that period the scholars have shown but
little
apprehension of these objects of national superstition, and
some have
entirely lost the dread of them.
The
influence of fear in such cases has been frequently

it
attested by the Malagasy, in the serious illness of which
has been the cause
an instance of
this
kind occurred some
time ago in connexion with the youth mentioned in the

foregoing anecdote.
Early in the year 1822, being at that
time a scholar in the Mission School, he became alarmingly

ill.
He
was seized with the most violent pains, leaped
about the room, and endeavoured to strike those near him

like
one insane, and afterwards he became both deaf and
dumb.
These attacks were repeated

time of the day.
for several days,
and
always at the same

for
The
people accounted
them by saying he had been
visited
by some Vazimba.
The
youth, on his recovery and returning to school, was
asked what had been the matter with him.
"
Vazimba,"
said he, "
427
came
to
me."
And
face,
pray what kind of being was
the
Vazimba ?
"
He
was hke a human being, but small

and red as
fire
in stature, with a
narrow
he
seized
me by the hand," said the boy, " and then The youth became quite well, and, under
better instruction,
was
terrified."
the influence of
was one of the two who carried the

had
branch and stone already mentioned, being on that occasion fully convinced of the futiUty of all the fears he
indulged.
In some cases a superstitious reverence for the Vazimba

is
confirmed by mere coincidence in circumstances, which
the already too credulous native attributes to the super-
natural agency which his education has led him to confide

in.
person high in
rank mentioned an occurrence

in reference to himself. his wife
which took place some time ago
Having been married some time without oSspring,

and he applied
were directed
to the sikidy
on the subject.
By him
they
to sacrifice to the
Vazimba the
finest bullock
they could obtain, and a son was to be the reward of their

obedience.
They
followed the direction of the divination,
offered the sacrifice, and, to their great joy, within a year
afterwards,
It
had the happiness of becoming parents.
may
be readily supposed the parents were abundantly
confirmed in their faithful attachment to the sikidy, and to

the worship of the Vazimba.
The
son, there
is
reason to
hope, has learned to place his trust on higher objects of

confidence, and follow safer guides.
While on a journey some time
since, near the high
moun-
tain of Andringitra, the Missionaries
were informed that
on a
hill
not far distant was a Vazimba of high renown, but

fierce.
extremely
They requested two
of the scholars to
go and fetch a few of the sacred stones and some branches of

the fany, or sacred tree.
They complied, but
the people,
428
struck with astonishment and horror, warned them of their
danger, exclaiming
will die."
" Don't
be so foolish
kill us,
so
let
rash.
You
so,"
" If the Vazimba can
him do
said the youths,
and carried
off their prize in
triumph.
In
the course of the evening, having produced their spoils,
they asked an old
man
in the
company
break
to carry to
them
to the
town, which he most positively refused

then,"
said they, tree ?"
do.
" Well
" will you
this
branch of the
Vazimba
" No," was his reply, " on no account

dint of persuasion, just to try the extent
whatever."
By
of his scruples,
he was induced
to take
hold of the branch,
but would do no more.
No
offer of
it
pecuniary reward
could tempt him to risk carrying
into the
town
" and
now," said he, " having touched

before going to
rest."
it, I must bathe myself why are you so afraid of it ?" he was asked. " Because the Vazimba would visit me, and " Why then were not those cause my illness and death."
" But
effects
produced upon the scholars, w^ho did the same act " Oh, they learn the book, and they some time ago ?"
believe
what you teach them."

?
"
Then why should
not you
believe us
as
We
tell
you the same thing out
of the
book
we
tell
reply, "
them in the book." The poor man could only Why, after all, should you wish me to abandon the
customs of
my
ancestors and of
my
country ?"
" Because,"
said they, "
we wish you
should do
to forsake
what
is
erroneous and
groundless, and to
said he,
become wise and happy."

this, I
" Oh, no,"

ill
"
if I
should certainly become
and
die.
dare not affront the Vazimba, or
my
death will
be the inevitable consequence."
This was the burden of his
fears, the
ground of his arguothers,
ment, and he remained, as do
many
under the
his life
influence of the superstitious fears that rendered
one of constant alarm.
It has
429
been stated by many writers that the Malagasy

state,
have no idea whatever of a future
and that
their
language possesses no word to express that of soul or

spirit.
But
this
opinion admits of some modification, as

is
the total absence of all idea of an existence after death
scarcely consistent with their well-knowTi behef in ghosts.
Even
their
mode
of burying the dead
seems
to indicate
something like an idea that some portion of the departed,

either material or spiritual, will be able to possess
and take
pleasure in the same things which afforded satisfaction iu

life.
It is
customary to cast into the tomb or vault in
which the dead are buried, garments, ornaments, lookingglasses,
and any thing that was precious or useful
to
them
when
living.
The
funeral of the late king
Radama was
celebrated by a greater sacrifice of this kind than was ever
known
time.
to
have taken place in the country at any other
It is stated
by Mr. Jones, that on the death of one

the son of a noble, and who, in
of his scholars,
who was
addition to his being a superior and talented youth, had excited higher hopes in the
minds of
his Christian teachers;
on being
ordered
laid in his
tomb, or vault, his mother and relatives
all his
books, slates, and papers to be buried with
him.
After which, they requested Mr. Jones to deliver an
address according to the European

If
mode
of burying.
asked their reason
for continuing this practice, the
Malagasy
in the
reply, that these things are buried with the dead,

to
hope that they may be useful
them
again, though
in
what way they are unable

no scruple
in
to explain.
They
have, how-
ever,
avowing their belief
in ghosts, which,
they say, are in the habit of walking about at night.
The
say
Hovas
call
;
the ghost
or apparition of a
living
person,
ombiroa
and that of a dead person, matoatoa.
They
that the matoatoa of both
men and
beasts reside in a s^reat
430
mountain
in the south, called
Ambondrombe, but
that they
come out
occasionally to walk amongst the tombs, or gol-
gothas, where criminals are executed.
After the death of Radama,

that
it
was reported and believed
he
wâs
seen one night in the garden before his
country-seat, called Mahazoarivo.

of the uniforms buried with
He
was dressed
in
one
him
in his silver coffin,
and
riding on one of the best horses, killed opposite his tomb.
The
if
keepers of the royal country palace,
seeing
him
as
thus mounted, were so terrified, that they ran away,

for
their lives,
and informed the queen of and some of the

disturb them.
it.
Her
majesty consequently sent old Andriamamba, one of her

principal ministers,
priests,
with the idols
and
sikidy, to sacrifice a bullock,
and
to
ask
Radama why
it
he came there to
Had
?
they not buried

not that
property enough with him in his tomb
was
he of his own accord turned his back upon them, and not
they
who drove him away ?
After the
sacrifice, the
ghost
of the deceased
monarch never came back
to disturb the
peace of his realm.
This story was related
to
Mr. Jones by one who
wit-
nessed the ceremony, and also by others

in the appearance of the ghost of
who firmly believed Radama on horseback, in
the garden-grounds already mentioned.
Such then are the obscure notions entertained by the

Malagasy
in reference
to
a future
state.
Such are the
strong prejudices that must be combated, and gross superstitions,
that,
with but a few slight exceptions, remain to
be overthrown by the introduction of more enlightened

views,
and the substitution
of higher objects of belief.
From what
to the customs
has already been said of the mythology of
Madagascar, and of the importance attached by the natives

and traditions of their ancestors, an imasrin-
ative
to
431
and reverential tendency of mind might be attributed
them, almost equal to that which classic history records
of the
more refined and
civilized idolaters of ancient times.
But the judgment

their veneration
lore,
is startled,
on proceeding through the

that,
examination of their superstitions, to find

for antiquity, their
with
all
belief in traditionary
dis-
and their minute and somewhat metaphysical
tinctions of the character
and attributes of the supernatural

doubt and every
agencies by which they believe their lives to be governed,
they are
still
in the habit of referring every
difliculty to the decision of a table of divination,
which can
be worked out like a game of chess;

actions
and hence their

this
and impressions, though irrevocably fixed by
decision,
must
again be mentally referred to another agency,
capable, as already observed, of being described by no other
appellation than that of fate.
The
origin of the term sikidy
is
not known.
It is
word used by the Malagasy
to denote a certain
kind of
divination to which they are devotedly attached,
and by
which they obtain decisions relating
to all the
most importIt is
ant acts of their lives, whether public or private.

neither astrology nor necromancy.
It consists neither of
the flight of birds, the inspection of the entrails of sacrificed animals, nor in the interpretation of dreams.
It par-
takes neither of the nature of magic, legerdemain, nor

incantation.
But
its
nature
is
oracular,
and
it
directs to
the use of charms and incantations.
It is the
mode
of
working a particular process by means
of beans, rice, straw,
sand, or any other object that can be easily counted or

divided.
Definite and invariable rules are given for working
the process and deciding upon the results.
Decisions are
formed in the cases under inquiry by a comparison between one and another line of numbers which are produced by
432
Names
are appropriated to
lines of
all
the process of working.

different positions
the
which the numbers, or
numbers,
form
and
definite rules given for the

;
comparison of any
;
two of these names

so high as four.
in other cases, of three
and
in
some
but
There are
this is the
also other
modes
of working the sikidy

in general use
most popular process, and
amongst
the Malagasy.
Farther illustrations of the mode of working
the sikidy will be introduced, after a few additional or ex-
planatory remarks have been given.

It is the universal belief
amongst the Malagasy, that the

divination
knowledge of the
art
of
was supernaturally
tradition
communicated
that
to their ancestors.
it
They have a
God gave
it is
to
Ranakandriana, of
in the chapter
whom
mention has
already been
driana,
lalana,
made
on
idolatry.
to
RanakanRamanitra-
said, afterwards
conveyed the art
he
to Rabibi-andrano,
he to Raso-lava-volo, and he
;
to Andriambavi-maitso.
This was a female

art
to
and she sub-
sequently conveyed the
Andriam-bavi-nosy, with
it
whom
the monopoly terminated, as he generously gave
to the people, saying, " Behold, I give
you the
sikidy, of
which you may inquire what offerings you should present

in order to obtain blessings
;
and what expiation you should

are
ill
make
so as to avert evils,
when any
or under appre-
hension of some future calamity."
In working the sikidy, the names of the renowned ancients

just related are repeated
by the diviners
in
commencing
the process, partly as a
mark
of respect to the
memory
of
these illustrious personages, and partly as investing their
proceedings with a certain kind of mysterious charm.
An
anecdote
is
related by the people, in connection with
the tradition that

of the sikidy.
Ranakandriana imparted the knowledge

men,
it is said,
Two
observed him one day
433
apparently playing in the sand, while in fact he was working the sikidy with it.*
They
and on
seized
if
him
and, in order to
obtain his Hberty, he promised,
they would release him, to
teach them something
their consenting, he instructed
them thoroughly
could
in the art of the sikidy.
They then
left
him, and went to their chieftain, assuring him that they

tell
him the past and the future
what was good and

what
I
what was bad
what
increased
and
diminished.
" Well," replied he, "

plenty of cattle."
tell
me by what means
can obtain
They
accordingly worked their sikidy,
and then directed him

assuring
the
to kill all the bullocks
he possessed,
to
him
that great
numbers would come

" But what," said the
kill
all
if
him on
following Friday.
chieftain,
probably thinking that to

likely
his bullocks
was not a
guarantee
means
of obtaining more, "
your prediction should
not come true ?"
" For that," said they, "
we
will
our heads."
all killed,
The
chieftain then ordered his cattle to be

for
and waited patiently
the
new supply
until
Thursday; when, seeing no prospect

and prematurely
of any,
and appre-
hending that he had been imposed upon, he very rashly

inflicted
art.
death upon the
named
to
him the
On
Friday, however,
man who had first much to the

filled
chieftain's
rain, vast
surprise and delight, amidst heavy showers of
herds of cattle came, and actually
an im-
mense
the
plain.
The
chieftain
lamented over the death of
man he had
ordered to be killed, and directed him to
be buried with
much pomp and ceremony.

;
The
other he
took into close friendship
and ever afterwards implicitly
followed the directions of the sikidy.
Two
proverbial forms of speech, in
common
use at the
It is
present day, appear to have originated in this story.

* sikidy alanana,
means the sikidy worked with sand
sikidy voafano,
worked with beans,

I
434
who
is
said of any one

to
extremely impatient, and who refuses

or
wait a stipulated
andro
Zoma
"he
reasonable time,
till
Tsy mahandry
cannot wait
fall
Friday."
And when
heavy showers of rain

called Sese
omby
"a crowding together of

is
in
rapid succession, they are

.cattle."
is,
The
tain
object for which the sikidy

in cases
worked,
to ascer-
what must be done
of real or imaginary,
illness,
present or apprehended,
evils.
During
the sikidy
is
the grand physician, deciding what house and village the
may remain what water he may

patient
in,
from what food he must abstain,
drink,
what medicines must be used,

to visit him.
and what friends or relations may be allowed

In proposing to buy or
sell,
the sikidy decides whether the

;
bargain will prove favourable or unfavourable

to
according
which the object
is
either pursued, postponed, or relinvisit relations or friends,
quished.
sikidy
is
When
intending to
the
sometimes consulted to ascertain whether the indiill
viduals are likely to be taken
on the road or not
and
in
the rainy season,
when
in
dread of thunder and lightning,
the natives consult this oracle to learn the

vation.
Illness,
means
of preser-
therefore,
and a superstitious dread of
some expected calamity, are the principal circumstances under which the Malagasy make their appeal to the sikidy.
The
affords
confidence they place in this
mode
of divination,
demonstrative evidence
of
the
power by which
superstition subjugates
for
and enslaves the mind; and accounts
the eagerness and tenacity with which practices are
maintained,
puerile
solely
many
of which are, to the natives themselves,
and
extravagant.
Their importance
is
derived
from the fact that they are appointed by the sikidy
which the Malagasy regard as an answer from god, or the
mode by which
their gods reply to their petitions for guid-
ance, safety, and prosperity.
The
and the
435
directions of the sikidy respect two different kinds

;
of offerings
the sorona being intended to obtain favours,
faditra to avert evils.
Both, perhaps, partake more
of the nature of charms than strictly of sacrifices, and the
sorona especially.
The
faditra is a thing rejected;
and
in
throwing
evil.
it
away, the offerer believes he averts some dreaded

is,
There
in this ceremony,
something analogous to
the institution amongst the ancient Jews, of sending

into the wilderness the scape-goat, bearing on his
away
head the
weight and curse of the confessed iniquities of the congregation of Israel.
The
material of the ceremony differs,

spirit
and so does the mode, but the
and design have a

first
resemblance; and hence the idea which
occurs to a
Malagasy, in connexion with such texts of Scripture as

represent Christ bearing the sins of the world,
is
that of a
powerful faditra
the
taking away of evil
the averting of
is
suffering or death.
The
sorona
is
essentially different.
is
This
evil.
connected
sorona
is
only with good, as the faditra
with
The
operates as a charm to bring the desired favour, and
sometimes an animal
principal fat
is
sacrifice, of
which, when
it
killed, the
eaten.
In some cases
consists in wearing
in
some
it
article specified
by the sikidy
and
such instances
is,
becomes, in course of time, an ody
that
first
a charm or a particular
amulet
which,
though adopted at
for
object, is ultimately virtue,

for its
regarded as possessing some intrinsic

is still
and therefore
worn
after the
imagined cause
immediate use has ceased.

consist of pieces of silver, or of
of beads,
These sorona sometimes

silver chains
;
and sometimes
more
or less valu-
able.
Occasionally strings of beads, of different colours,
are made, and

offerer.
worn around the neck and

called,
These are
mananarivo
" possessing
wrists of the
2f2
43G
thousand;" indicating the great benefit secured by the
charm
that
to the wearer.
All these offerings of silver or beads
are called, Hariana tsy

is,
maty
" rejected
but not dead
;"
offered but not lost
securing
and
an adequate return
of wealth and prosperity.
At
other times the sorona consists of " a young bullock

to bellow to tear
which just begins

his horns."
up the earth with

mixed with
fruit,
Or
it
may be
of fowls, or of rice
milk and honey, or a plantain tree laden with
of the
borobosy mandady, or slime from frogs floating on the water,

or of the earth-nut called voanjo.
The
things used in
making the
faditra are of
still
greater
variety;
and they
are, if possible,
more
arbitrary than those

is
ordered for the sorona-
Tlie faditra
made by simply
stand at
throwing away the object directed.
A man may
same
the door of his house, and throw the object to a few feet
distance from him, pronouncing, at the

faditra,
time, the
word
and the ceremony
is
performed.
If the cause of
trouble, the judgment, or the vengeance,
under which the

suffer,
individual suffers,
or apprehends
he
shall
come
be
If
tsi-
from heaven, then the faditra consists of an herb called

tsikobon-danitra.
If the earth, instead of the heavens,
evil,
the source of the
then a water-flower
is
presented.
the evil
come
is
from cattle, then a grasshopper, called

If
nombina,
offered.
from sheep, a small

is
fish,
called
ondrindrano, or water-sheep,
offered.
If
from money,
faditra.
then a grasshopper, tsimbolavola, constitutes the

If evil
comes from the mouth, that
is,
from speaking, then

If the
the
mouth
or brim of a small basket is offered.
north be source of the

called tsiavaramonina
" not
is
evil,
then a tree must be presented,

residing northward."
called antsiontsiona.
If the
south, then an herb
is offered,
For the
west, the rush, harefo,
given ; and for the east, the herb
anantsinahy.
If fire
437
then the red
be the origin of the
evil,
flower, songo songo, is offered.
If the evil arise
from
tsini/i
the reproach or blame of parents or friends, the faditra consists of
a broken fragment of the sing or water-vessel.
If
is
the sikidy suggest danger or sickness, a piece of a tree

offered, called sick-tree (hazomarary),
meaning any
tree that
If dan-
has been injured by accident, cutting, or maiming.
ger of death be apprehended, then some object without

life
is
offered, or
a piece of vato maty, or dead-stone, the a state of inci-
name given
to stone, especially granite, in
pient disintegration.
If a partial
danger from witchcraft

is
be suspected, that
bewitch the
offerer,
is, if
some person
partly inclined to
then the faditra consists of the kernel

is
or gland found in the fat of a bullock, and
called
mosa-
vin-kena.*
Should the sikidy predict danger from persons
collecting together
" here are the people" burial

is
is
prog-
nosticated
and then the faditra consists of a sort of tares

or atobahoaka; at the
called ahidratsy,
same time some

measured,
earth
is offered,
a distance of eight or ten feet
and the
faditra is
thrown away from the farthest point

he
is
measured.
If the sikidy says, "
caught by young
men
seeking for meat," this prognosticates a funeral at which
meat
is
distributed.
this
If
it
say,
"he
is
caught by red earth

;
thrown up,"
friends
imports digging a grave
and
if it
say, " his
and relations are supporting their faces with their
hands," this implies their grief on account of his death.

If
it
affirms the earth gives way,
and masses of the
soil
are
falling off, this indicates that the sick
man
can no longer
* Mosavy is that which causes any one to become bewitched hena (kena in composition) signifies meat the bewitching meat. This gland is always removed as soon as an animal is cut up, or the meat would be^
;
come
tainted (bewitched.
),
438
;
be retained by his friends

shortly ensue.
in other words, that death will
And
;
in all these,
and similar
cases, there
it
are faditra appointed
respecting which, however,

;
seems
unnecessary to go into any further detail

fully
they afford pain-
conclusive evidence of the strong delusions under

state of existence,
It is evident that
which the Malagasy pass the present
and enter upon that which
is to
come.
the blessings sought are those alone which relate to the
present
life,
and that while they ascribe none of the

they suiFer to
cala-
mities which
is
moral causes, no moral quality
considered necessary in the means of averting evil which
they employ.
No
one will peruse the preceding account
without commiserating their circumstances, and earnestly

desiring that the time
may be hastened when
they shall be
delivered from these lying vanities, and directed to that
Divine Redeemer, who alone can deliver from the miseries

present and future to which man, in consequence of
exposed.
sin, is
439
CHAP. XVI.
Tables or rules framed by the diviners for working the sikidy with beans-
Explanation of the
rules
mode of
divining by
means of the foregoing
tables or
Divination also practised with sand Astrology of the Malagasy

Calcu-
Pretended means of ascertaining fortunate and unfortunate days

lating the destiny of individuals
Supposed
Arabian origin of astrology

of the moons or months
the months by which des-
and divination among the Malagasy

Division of each
Names
moon
or
month
Diagram of
tinies are calculated, or events
foretold Difference of the calendars used
on the coast and
in the interior
it is
General manner of calculating timeis
Means by which
pretended individual destiny
ascertained.
The
preceding chapter contains an account of the sikidy,
or the kind of divination universally practised in
Madaas a
gascar.
The
life
subject itself
is
painfully interesting,
popular form of deception, by which, as in the case of

infanticide,
is
often destroyed under deeply affecting
circumstances.
The
following tables shew the
method
of
working the sikidy with beans called voafana.
Table I. The names of the sixteen positions which may be formed in the process.
or
combinations,
440
Table II. Ground-work. The condition
Toetry
îkidy.
or basis of the
>
fourth lines successively, and thus the square
is
441
completed.
I'he next business
is to
form the third
table.
Table
III.
-*
>
442
The
those
spaces in the lower part are
filled in
part by com-
binations from those of the second table, and in part from
new combinations
themselves.
in the
Thus, add together the numbers

of the first
two upper spaces

table,
and second Unes

is
;
in the
second
(under
if
which a bracket
placed,)
and deducting two,
the
amount exceed two

the right hand.
place the remainder in the second
line of spaces of the third table,
commencing, as before, on
Proceed in the same manner through those two
lines,
and the whole second

pleted.
will
line of the third table will
be comtable,
Lines the third and fourth of the second
then be employed to form the fourth line of the third
table.
These second and fourth

in the
lines of the third table
must then form,

the
same manner, the
third
column of
same
of the
The two bottom lines, taken horizontally, table. second table, then make the eighth column of the
;
third table
and the two upper
lines of the second, taken
also horizontally, form the sixth
column
of the third table
the sixth and eighth form the seventh,
and the seventh

is
and third the
fifth
and
this
fifth,
which
the most
important in this table, combined with the
first,
or Tale, in
the second table, (the most important in that,) will form

the only remaining blank column, namely, the
third table.
first in
the
In other words, taking the columns by their
respective names.
Fahatelo and Vohitra
HISTORY OF IVIADAGASCAR.
Thus a
is
443
is
table,
containing
1
eight
new
;
combinationsj
to
formed from the figures

appropriated
its
and 2
and
each column
own name, whether taken perpendicuthen made by

;
larly, horizontall}', or diagonally.
The mode
of ascertaining decisions is
comparing, according to certain rules, these columns
say,
;
one of the third table with a given column
in the second
;
or of the second and third with another in the third

of
or
some one or two of

It is said
either with a given
column
in the
first
by the diviners that the column called Andriais
rainitra
(god)
never found to correspond with either
of the following eight columns in the first table, namely,
Adikisy,
Alezany,
Alemora,
Abidijady,
Adikiajy,
Kizo,
Saka, Vontsira.(*)
The
ditra
sikidy decides
respecting the Sorona and the FaIf the
by these comparisons.
Asorolahy
(ninth
column
a bead
doza,
of first table) coi-respond with the Andriamanitra,
must be
oiFered as a sorona, called Vakan-tsi-leonIf the
i.e.
overcoming the calamity.
Vohitra meet the
Tale, then a piece of a tree that grows in the villages

(not in the fields)
must be
offered.
If the result of
Nia
and Trano
(i.
e.
adding them,
and deducting two each

is
time) correspond with Tale, the sorona

i.
Vato-tsi-very,
e.
" a stone not lost," meaning a stone thrown to a short
distance,
and then carefully picked up and preserved by

or relation,
some friend
and so not
lost.
Many
other comparisons are
made
in a similar
manner,
The
writers of this sketch do not vouch for the correctness of this
conclusion, namely, that the
column
called Andriamanitra never agrees with
against such a correspondence.
Probably the chances are prodigiously Never having discovered it, the Malagasy attribute to the circumstance something supernatural and divine, and hence
either of the above eight columns.
give
it
the
name
oi god, meaning, probably, wondeiful.
444
and
to
each
is
attached
its
specific direction.
But
it
ap-
pears unnecessary to specify more, as the object of this
explanation
cess,
is
rather to aiFord a general idea of the proits
than to enable
readers to become sikidy workers,
in all its ramifications of mystery, puerility,
and parade of
pompous
littleness.
It is also
deemed superfluous
of
to describe the
mode
of
working by means
certain lines
sand.
This consists of drawing

in the
and configurations on sand,

knowledge of
same manFlacourt
ner as the geomancy of the Arabs, to

attributes the
all
whom
the arts of divination
now
possessed by the Malagasy.
The
ocult science of genethhalogy, or casting nativities,
prevails extensively
among
the Malagasy.
The
persons
who hold
ness
is
the office are called mpanandro, and their busi-
called fanandro.*
The
science can scarcely be
denominated astrology, with
strict propriety, since it de-
pends wholly on a reference

is
to the
moon.
No
The
observation
is
made on any
other planet whatever.

;
design
to
ascertain a person's vintana, or destiny

his birth is
and
to effect this,
compared with the age and

;
situation of the
moon
at the time
life shall
and on
this
depends the decision whe-
ther his
be spared or not
as already referred
The mpanandro
fortunate,
to
in the notice respecting infanticide.
also
decide,
by the same means, what days are
or
otherwise, for
commencing or transacting any important
business
such, for example, as the sovereign's quitting the
capital on a journey or campaign, or his returning
home
The verb
;
predicting
the
word
is
fanandro, is the mode of is manandro, to predict or foretell and fanandroana, the means used in predicting. The root of andro, " day," to which is prefixed man from manao, to make
;
or do; i.e. to
make a day
to
ascertain
what a day
is,
to calculate days,
so as to determine whether they be favourable or otherwise.
from either
;
445
or for the planting of rice, sowing seed, laying
the foundation of a house, marrying, &c.
The
are
different provinces in the island
have different modes
of calculating the character of given days; but the varieties
too
unimportant
to
be separately particularised, or
enumerated.
The
natives of the interior appear to be
indebted to those of the coast for what they

subject,
and these again
to the Arabs,
know of the who have long been
settled in
Matitangna (Matitanana.)
year
is
The Malagasy
or
lunar, consisting of twelve months,
more properly moons.
(Volana
is
the only
word
in the
Malagasy language
and
its
for the
two words month and moon

is
proper signification
the latter.)
The
division of
the year into four seasons has been already described in
the account given of the climate.
The names
coast,
lava.
of the twelve
moons
are as follows, as they
are denominated in the interior of the island, on the eastern
by the Betsimisaraka, and on the west by the Saka-
Those
of the interior,
it
will
be seen, are quite
dif-
ferent fi'om those on the coast;
and on the two coasts

for
nearly similar
names are employed

:
moons
at different
parts of the year
English.
Malagasy Moons.
Interior.
446
It
must be observed on the above
list,
that although the
English months are placed opposite the Malagasy months,

they can correspond only occasionally.
Alahamady,
in
for
example,
year;
is
invariably the
first
month
the Malagasy
this in
1821 occurred in June; in 1829, in the

as will be presently explained,
till,
month
of April; and,
it
will continue to
recede each year,
in
the course of
thirty- three years
from 1821,
it
will again
occur in June.
The names
the month, as
of the twelve
;
moons are
also applied to each
day of the moon

day
so that, besides the
number
of the day of
1 st,
2d, 3d, &c. there
thus,
Vavany Alahamady
name of the Vontony Alahamady and

is
also the
Farany Alahamady
and
itself,
these will occur not only in the
moon
of
Alahamady
but in every
moon throughout
the year.
Each day has
also its divisions,
though fewer in number,

far as
but in which the same names are employed, so
they
are required; and this answers the purpose of the artificial

division of
day and night into hours.

year consists of 354 days, namelj^,
The Malagasy
12 months of 28 days each
336
18
And
additional, or intercalary
354
The 18
four
intercalary are added,

its
by allowing one day between

to
every month as
vintana,
and one day extra
each of
months
in the year,
and two
at the close of the year,
determined by the mode of calculation which the Malagasy

adopt in fixing their great annual
feast, or
fandroana.
Eleven days and a quarter are thus lost in the Malagasy

year,
compared with the true
solar year.
Hence
in every
33 years a complete revolution is effected, and the year commences again at the same period. Thirty -three years
is
447
is
the Malagasy cycle, in which period the fandroaiia
held at the same season of the year.
NORTH.
\
to ^>>
.'

^-^
v..
^<?,
V,.
^" ^*
^^
V-a,JAlakaosy.
A 1 Adaoi'o
(
)
IVody.
Vava,
'
WEST
y^J^'
\
EAST.
AlakaraLo.
^d--y
Vava,
Iv'od;'
<#a
>
9
"^.
CS
.A
SOUTH.
The Malagasy, who

years they have
lived,
are
little
accustomed to number the

to the
sometimes allude
circumstance
at
of their having seen and
the
same
season.
remembered three fandroana Now, supposing a person seven years
of
age when the feast occurred in Spring
he would be
forty
when
it
occurred again in Spring, and seventy-three at the
448
third.
youth lately mentioned
that
his
great-great-
grandfather (then living) had seen four, consequently he
must have been
at least one
hundred years of age.
To each
of the
names
of
moons
in the four
corners of the table, 3 days are allowed,
making
for
each
4x3
12 days.
To
each of the other eight names of months,
being two on each of the four sides of the

square, four days are allowed,
total of
making a
16
8X2
28 days.
The preceding
diagi*am, or table,
shews the manner in
which the Malagasy reckon
their months, days,
and
divi-
sions of days, with reference to the cardinal points of the
heavens, and by which they decide whether they are for-
tunate or unfortunate.
The Malagasy do
not themselves
use any written diagrams of the kind, but they apply the
arrangement to the several parts of their houses,

for
calling,
example, the north-east corner of the house alahamady,

of the rest.
and so
It will
be seen that the annexed twelve names are those
already given as the

year.
names
of the twelve
moons
of the
To four
of these three
names are added, namely,
"vava," signifying mouth, or opening; "vonto," increase;
and "
fara," termination, end.
To
the eight other names,
two additions are made, " vava," as above, " opening," and
"vody," "end, close."
This calendar, of a month or year, may be more clearly

seen by placing the days under each other
follows, ^^z.
in
one
line as
4 7 1
HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR
The
first
44.9
month
in
the year
is
Alahamady, and
is
thus
calculated:
3 days
in
Alahamady,
viz.
Vava
Vonto
Fara
st
day of month
5J
5,
in
Adaoro
Adizaozy
}>
Vava
'2
5,
in
jj
in
Asorotany
jj
Vody Vava Vody Vava

Vonto
Fara
1
in Alahasaty
55
in
Asombola
Adimizana
,,
in
55
Vava Vody Vava Vody Vava

Fara
12
13
1
15
Vonto 16
1
55
,,
in
Alakarabo
,,
55
Vava Vody
18
19
in
Alakaoza
55
Vava
20
21
in Adijady
55
Vody Vava
Fara
22
Vonto 23
55
24
25
in
Adalo
55
Vava
in Alahotsy
Vody 26 Vava 27 Vody 28
28
I.
'2g
450
days are then allowed for the vintana of the moon,
Its
Two
and the second moon commences.

as those annexed, beginning with
names are the same

for
Alahamady and ending

adopted
each suc-
with Alahotsy.
cessive
The same mode
is
month
of the year, allowing always for the Vintana
either one day or
two days, as invariably
fixed.
The
calendar for the year therefore stands thus
Alahamady
Vintana,
called
in
28
days.
Vava
in
Alahamady, and
Fara
Alahamady, (reckoned a second

2
time before Adaoro begins)
2d and 3d months, 28 each

1
^^
day Vintana to each, intercalary

in
....
.
3 remaining months
2 days Vintana
the points of the
diagram, 4th, 7th, and 10th, at 28 each

to
84
6
each as above
....
6 remaining months, 5th, 6th, 8th, 9th, 11th,

12th,
1
at
28 commencing the new year

addi-
168
6
day each Vintana to ditto

before
And
tional
Total
It is
is
354
obvious that this calculation of 354 days to the year
a very near approximation to the true time occupied by

viz.
twelve synodical revolutions of the moon,

days,
hours,
.
min.
sec.
.
12 X 29
12
44
3=
354
48
36.
In three years, however, the difference of a whole day
might convince the Malagasy that their calculations must

be erroneous
;
and
in the lapse of a few
more
years, they
might
find
the
announced only
moon at the full, while new moon. No practical
their
calendar
difficulty,
how-
ever, of the kind exists.
451
the Fan-
Their annual
festival,
droana, can happen only on a Thursday or a Sunday, and
on one of these two days alternately every year.

this
And by
arrangement, together with the allowance for Vintana,
(which can be made to suit their actual observations on the
changes of the moon, at the close of the year,)

that their computations are corroborated
it
so occurs,
by
their senses,
and they
see the
new moon about

be one.
the time their
Mpanandro
predict there
It
is to
may
not be altogether unworthy of remark, that the
names
of the twelve moons, used in the interior, are those
which Flacourt has given as the names of the 12 signs of

the zodiac, and as used by the Malagasy for that purpose
in the province of Anosy.
The names used
for the
months
of the year, as given
by the same writer, nearly correspond
with those given for the East, page 224 of this volume.
The
the
inhabitants of Imerina
of their
must have received therefore

in the south-
names
months from the natives

they seem to
east of the island; but instead of applying

zodiac, of which
them
of the
to the
have no idea, they have
applied them to their moons.
The meaning
names
they
so, or
corresponds with the signs of the zodiac; at
least,
correspond in part in Imerina,
and probably more
entirely, in the provinces to the south,
where they were,
most
likely, first
introduced by the Arabs.
As
the work of Flacourt has
become
list
scarce,
it
may
not
be unacceptable to present here the
he has given of the

(See
names now mentioned

first
for the sake of comparison.
column
in
page 452.)
Autumn.
Alahemali
Aries.
Azoro
Alizozo
>
Taurus.
.
Gemini.
2g2
452
Winter.
Asarata
Cancer.
Alaasade
Leo.
Virgo.
Libra.
Scorpio.
Sagittarius.
Asomboulo
Spring.
Alimiza
Alacarabo
Alacossi
Summer.
Alizadi
Capricornus.
Adalo
Alohotsi
Aquarius.
Pisces.
/
The change
the above
list
of the letter
on the coast into
(/,
for the
dialect of the interior, will be seen in several instances of

;
it
is
extremely common, and has already
been observed
sikidy.
in the
words
oli,
for
ody; and squile, for
These twelve
signs,
however, as appears from Flacourt,
are not used in connexion with the science of astronomy,
but merely in relation to judicial astrology.
They
are
made
to
have some relation to the days of the moon, and
so to regulate the fortunes or destinies of people.
The
twenty-eight days of the month are described by the above

writer,
from which
it
appears that the 12 signs hold the
same place
as in the calendar for Imerina, but that the
days allotted to each have their respective names ; whereas

in Imerina, they are called, as already shown, the " open-
ing," "increase,"
and "termination," of the

list
12 moons.
as given
The annexed
by Flacourt:
is
the
of the days of the
month
days, Alahemali
.
Asoroatin
2 days, Azoro 2 days, Alizozo
3 days, Assarata
2 days, Alaasade
2 days, Adalou
Aloboutin Azouriza. Adobora Alahacha. AlahenaAzera. Anassara Atarafi Alizaba. Hazouboura Assarafa, Sadaalacabia Fara alimou cadimou.
'2
453
days,
Assombola
.
Alaauna
days, Alimiza
Aloucoufoura
2 days, Alacarabou
2 days, Alacossi
.
3 days, Alizadi 2 days, Alohotsi
Assimaca. Azoubana Acalabili Asaola. Anaiinou Alibalado. Sadazabe Sadaboulaga Sadazoudi. Fara alemoucarou Baten Alohotsi.
Alichilli.
all
To
return to a notice of the days, as to their being lucky
or unlucky.
The
vava, or " opening," of
the twelve
moons
of each
is
considered unlucky, and so also are the fara'ny of
those in the four cardinal points.
The
vonto, " increase,"
moon
is
good or lucky, as
also are the " vody," or
terminations.
Thus, out of 28, 16 are unlucky, namely,
twelve vava, and four fara; and 12 only are lucky, namely,
four vonto, and eight vody.
Each day
is
susceptible of
its
subdivisions,
and the same

;
names are again employed
for this
purpose
e. g.
;
Alaha-
mady vava
is
sunrise
Asorotany vava, mid- day

this,
;
and Adimi-
zana vava, sunset.

Adijady vava
or sunrise.
is
With
night commences, and their

of night,
midnight
and Alahamady the end
Thus
is
the diagram
is
made
to answer, (so far as astrology
concerned,) as an almanack for the months of the year,
the days of the month, and the hours of the day; so that
sunrise on new-year's day would be, in the description of
the
Mpanandro, Alahamady vava
(hour), or
Alahamady vava
life
(day) in Alahamady.
For the ordinary purposes of

;
the
method
is
far
more simple
as the
names
of the
months
1
alone are used, the day
is signified
by numbers from
to
28, and the divisions of the day by
some reference
;
to the
length of shadows
in the
customs of the people

to the folds, &c.
the height of the sun driving out
or circumstance
cattle,
returning
them
The
larger divisions of the day and night just named, viz.
454
and morning again, are
sunrise, mid-day, sunset, midnight,

all
that are usually noticed.
In cases requiring great exact-
ness,
minor and intermediate divisions are formed by means
of the allotted portions to each of the four cardinal points,
allowing six hours to each of those four points, and two
hours to each of their subdivisions, thus
6 o'clock morning
sunrise
J}
Alahamady vava
85,
10
,5
vonto
far a
12
mid-day
afternoon
,5
Asorotany
55
vava
vonto
*3^ra
sunset
Adimizana vava
8
10 12
evening
vonto
fara
midnight

,,
Adijady
5,
vava
vonto
lara
morning
55
4
6
Then
follows as above, sunrise,
Alahamady
vava.
A
that
person's vintana, or destiny,
is
determined according
to the day, or time of the day, in
which he
is
born.
is
If
happen
to
be unlucky,
that
is,
it,
namely the day,

;"
called
mahery vintana,
" powerful as to destiny
meaning,
too powerful for him
he
is its
victim."
it
Some cases exist, may be extracted,

of
this,
;
in which,
(ala
though the vintana is mahery,
ny ny vintana,) or withdrawn, by
evil,
means
an offering which averts

are called "
a "faditra."
Those
from
who decide on
mpanala vintana,"
extrac-
tors of the destiny
and these form a
distinct class
the mpanandro.
All the latter are not necessarily mpanala
vintana, but vice versa, all

evil fortune,"
who understand how to "extract the

rules of the astrologer.
must understand the
455
may
require.
A
As
specific faditra is appointed, as the case
It will
be sufficient to notice a few of these.

the vava of
Alahamady
is
unlucky, the faditra must
be a piece of odinato, (wood used in dyeing red,) and the

flowers (a beautiful scarlet)
offerer repeats, "
of the songo songo, of what

is
and the
The
offering
red, for fear of the
thunder-bolt, and for fear of being shot, or speared, &c., I

offer this,
which
is
red, to
keep
it
away,
let this avert it."
The opening
one born on
of the second
month
is
unlucky.
Of any
will
this day, it is predicted that his
house
be burnt when he arrives at maturity.

therefore, erect a shed in the
fields,
His relations must,

or cattle-folds,
and
burn
it
and
if
any ask them why

is
they are doing that, they
are to answer, " It

this
offered as a
means
it
of prevention
house
is
offered to avert evil,
is
demanded by
be removed,
is
the
populace, and
we
offer it
this."
let
the evil
let it
be averted with
short
;
prayer
also
offered,
this."
is
" Lord god, let the evil depart
let it
be freed with
The opening
suspected,
of Adizaoza
in
is
unlucky, and a poison

food,
especially
their
called
Voankanina,
(seed, or fruit in food.)
The
is
faditra, to avert this, consists
of a seed
or fruit, which
hung up
as directed.
They
Behold,
must then say, " This disease will injure him.

lord god, the disease would hurt or kill
;
let it
be averted
with this."
Both the vava and vody

are unlucky,
of the next
month, the fourth,

it
and the vintana must be withdrawn, as

;
would deform a person

transient.
i.
e.
his property
would be but
(lamba
The
faditra is a piece of striped cloth,
sampona,) partly beautiful, and partly the reverse, as an
emblem
of deformity.
Something green that grows

offered, as implying that which
in
is
winter must also be

stunted and imperfect.
4r)6
of Alahasaty
is
The opening
born
this
deemed very
bad, especially
from midnight to cock-crowing in the morning.
Children
least, is
day are
to
be put to death.
Such, at
is,
the rule of the panandro.
faditra
however, some-
times offered, especially
if
the child be not born within
the time from midnight to
cock-crowing, or should the
parents and relations be fond of the babe. mainty, (or seed of bret,)
voa-lefo-maty,
i.
Then
become
the voa
or
is
offered as a faditra,
e.,
a seed which has
rotten.
Generally,
tion
is,
fear
would preponderate; the gloomy predic-
the child would
become pamosavj^, and he would

and
his
rise in rebellion against his sovereign, his father,
mother; and
to avert the
evil,
the infant
must be
suffo-
cated or buried alive.
The opening
It
is
of the ninth
month
is
extremely unlucky.
the vintana of the sovereign, and any one born on
that day would rebel against his parents, relations, and

friends.
The vava The rows.
of the eleventh
month
predicts grief and sor-
faditra consists of the sap of a tree, called the
grief or tear of the Takatra.
The
last
month
is all
good.
The days which

the close of one
are leaped over, as intervening between

of another,
month and the commencement
are considered good.
Should a child be born to a slave of the sovereign, or

even to any member of his family, or even to himself, on
the vava of Asorotany, or of Alakaosy,
death.
offered,
If
it
must be put
to
belonging
to
any one
else,
a faditra
may be
is
and the child suffered

of
to live.
The vava
be great.
Alakarabo
is
the day of seeds
it
conwill
sidered good for planting and sowing.
The produce
The vava
of i\lakaosy
457
good
for the
and
of
Alakarabo
is
sovereign to appear in public, to

set out for war, &c.
commence a
and
fifth
journey, to
The vody
habitation
of the third, fourth,
months
is
good
for laying the foundation of a house, or for entering a

;
new
but the vava of the fourth would he highly

such purposes, as
it
improper
for
always indicates a speedy
change, and therefore would imply a speedy removal from
such house.
But
for the
same reason
it
is
good
for trade
the articles for sale will find a quick market.
Every thing
transacted on this day will be brief and transitory.
The
vava of Alakaosy
is
the strongest of
all.
It is for
children born on this day that the revolting custom (strange
compound
of
mercy and
cruelty) of placing children at the

;
entrance of the cattle-fold, prevails
and which has already

:
been described in the account given of infanticide

should the infant
live, its
when,
vintana
is
considered conquered^
I
and the child may then be brought up

* For
Radama's interdiction of
this
law or custom, see remarks on
riitaiiticide.
458
CHAP. XVII.
Trial by ordeal in
Madagascar Uncertainty respecting

in different parts
modes practised
of the island
origin Various (General use of the tanits

is
gena Description of the Cases in which the tangena employed Manner of preferring an accusation among the inhabitants of the interior Preparations for drinking the poison Translation of the invocation administration Copious use of rice-water Appearor curse used in ances regarded as indicating innocence or guilt Summary death in case of the latter Ceremonies attending an acquittal Mode and effects of adadministering the poison-water on the coast Cases in which ministered to animals and fowls Motives by which the natives are induced decisions Probable to employ Anecdotes illustrating the fallacy of number destroyed by the poison Notice of witchcraft among the Malainfluence recorded by Drury General gasy Singular instance of dread of sorcery Terrible death inflicted on those supposed to be guilty
fruit
its
it
is
it
its
its
of
it.
The
custom of
trial
by ordeal prevails extensively

v^rhen first introduced,
in
Ma-
dagascar.
Of
the period
no idea can
be formed.
the island.
It
probably came with the original settlers in
Various modes have been in use in different
parts of the country, and possibly
may
arm
still
be at some
dis-
tance from the capital
such as passing a red-hot iron over

into a large earthen
the tongue, or plunging the naked

or iron pot
full of
boihng water, and picking out a pebble

purpose of the
trial
;
thrown in
for the special
and
in either
case, to sustain
no injury would be a demonstration of
innocence.
The
practice which has obtained
most generally, and has most of the conquered

Tangena.
in fact superseded other
modes
in
provinces,
is
that which
is
called the
The
called,
459
It is also
general
name
a
is
fampinoana, " drinking."
"misotro tangena," to drink the tangena.

fruit,
The
tan-
gena
is literally
it.
deriving
its
name from
the tree
which bears
It is
a nut about the size of an English

It
horse-chestnut.
It
grows abundantly in the island. but

if
appears to be
a most powerful poison,
taken in
small doses only, sometimes operates simply as an emetic,
which
is
in fact the
now
ous,
to be described.
mode of its employment The natives believe it
in the ordeal to
be poison-
and hence
it
it is
reported that they have endeavoured
by throwing
those
into the water used for drinking, to poison
whom they wished to Many affirm, that "the
destroy.
lust of
this
custom, and certainly so
money" much wealth
is
at the root of
accrues at those
periods to the persons concerned in laying accusations and
administering the poison, that this idea does not appear destitute of foundation.
A dollar and sixty-three cents is the fee

who
recovers, besides
given for every individual

quisites
many
per-
and private presents.
the tangena to eight persons in one day
One individual can administer and when the

;
accused
dies, the officiating
person receives a twenty-fourth
part of the whole property not bequeathed before the accusation.
The
diviners also reap a large harvest from these

;
iniquitous practices
they attend daily for eight or ten days
before and after the drinking takes place, and receive one
dollar or
more according
to the wealth of the accused.
The whole system is cruelty. One of the
characterized by the most heartless

officers
accused in 1831 was ac-
tually watching the corpse of his father
when
to
the appointed
person knocked at his door.

after the funeral,
He
begged
be excused
till
declaring that he only asked a few days'

;
delay, not exemption
none, however, could be granted.
460
off
and he was dragged
from performing the
last offices of
fihal affection, to the

trial.
scene of ignominious and protracted
The deception
son have
it
practised in the whole transaction
is
evident
to every sensible native. in their
The
parties administering the poi-
power
to permit
any criminal
to escape,
and
for
a reward they often exercise this partiality.
They
frequently recover slaves giving
who have been pronounced dead, by

in
them copious draughts of water,
which certain herbs
have been boiled.
The
individuals so saved are sent to a
great distance, and sold, as they cannot be suffered to remain
where the ordeal had been administered to them when proved innocent and they are disposed of as prize-property, their own fears preventing them from ever
in the place
unless
disclosing the transaction to the families of their

It is equally certain that the
new masters.
administrators can sacrifice
whom
they please.
The
fruit,
which appears very red,
is
protested against by the friends of the accused, on the tacit
understanding that such a fruit will destroy, whether innocent

or guilty.
rally as
Sometimes the
It is
fruit acts as
a poison, though gene-
an emetic.
known
that a visible difference does
exist
between that which occasions vomiting, and that which

;
destroys
redness.
the latter always presenting a slight appearance of
The
people declare that this hue
is
miraculously
assumed, and regard the change as an

to the accused.
infallible sign of
death
Yet
if this
redness be exceedingly plain,
the relations
who
are present desire that such a fruit

;
may
be rejected, and another chosen agreed

sage
;
this proposal is
probably
to,
but the next
fruit exhibits the
same ominous pre-
and the victim
dies.
The
plant or tree has been described scientifically by
several eminent botanists
and among
others,
by Professor
Bojer, of Mauritius,*
tion,
46]
who has given
the following descrip-
accompanied by a plate exhibiting the plant, from
which the annexed representation has been copied.
This mode of trial
is
not restricted to any particular class
of offences, real or imaginary, nor are there any privileged

classes, claiming,
by prescript of law or custom, exemption
from
its
application.
is
The
ordeal
sometimes administered in cases of private
charge, or suspicion,
and
at other
times
by a general
permission, obtained, on application, from the sovereign, to

try a
whole town or
district.
In both cases the customs
observed in the actual administration of the ordeal so nearly
correspond as to render a minute detail of the differences

unnecessary.
Supposing
it
to
be determined that the ordeal be admin-
istered to a village or clan, the sovereign issues a kabary to

this effect, " I
;
am
about to effect a separation among
my
subjects I shall renew the tangena, and not suffer the wicked
to
remain in
my
country.
do,
and
shall purify
the land
What my ancestors did, I shall yet when ye accuse, accuse

;
;
not from malice, or prejudice
but
if
ye accuse at
all, let it
be with truth."
* Tangldnia vcnenifiua
Fig.
.The coroUalaid open, to exhibit the insertion

;
Fig. 2 A stamen more clearly shewing the gland at the base, and the appendage at the top. Fig. .3 Stamen
of the stamens, and the glands at their base.
and upper part of the

thers.
it
style,
;
shewing how the stigma

magnified.
Fig. 5;
is
is
sheathed by the anFig.
Fig.
4; Pistil
all
Fruit.
The nut
as
appears
when
Fig.
the pulp, or sarcocarp,
destroyed, the reticulated fibres

;
remaining attached to both extremities.
removed.
Fig. 7 The nut, the fibres being The nut laid open. Fig. 9; The seed. Fig. 10; The embryo. Fig. 11 Embryo with one of its cottyledons removed. Fig. 12; Embryo with its two cottyledons a little spreading.
f A new case occurred at the capital in 1829, exemption.
when
the army obtained an
462
The
people then assemble, and deliberate and determine
as to the time, place, and parties to

this they again
commence
with.
After
meet
at the time agreed on, to receive the
mutual criminations, and ascertain the precise number of

those said to be " bewitched."
A lamb
is
whose dam
is
dead,
and therefore called a poor lamb,

two men, (leprous,
if
brought to the spot by
such are at hand,) that curses
may be
denounced against
false accusations, malice,
and criminal
such cases,
concealment, through friendship,

in the estimation of the
a crime,
tail,
in
Malagasy, equal to " misprision of

having been
killed, is
high treason."
The lamb
mangled
tail
the head cut off and placed at the
and the
fore
cut off
feet
and placed at the bleeding neck, and the

cut off and reversed.
say,
and hind
The
lepers walk near the people,
and
" If any accuse through malice and hatred, or on account
of former disputes or litigation, let
him be accursed
to
utterly,
dried
let
up from the earth
and having none
succeed him,
him become a piaculum
for his town, let
him become
leprous,
and be divided and mangled as
this lamb.
Or
if
any one conceal, whether father or mother, brother or

relation or friend,
sister,
whom
he knows
to
be mamosavy, " be-
witched," let him be as this lamb, and without one to succeed
him
for ever
!"
This
finished,
the accusations are
made
;"
"
have seen
one," says an accuser, " with his cloth over his head, playing
on a tomb, or on the pillow of the dead

" and
" and
I,"
says
another, " have seen one nursing a wild cat in the moat, or
descending into the cattle-fold
;"
I,"
says another
accuser, " have seen one dancing on the grass fresh taken
from the stomach of a newly
killed animal,"
one going into a house at midnight,

or,
or, I
have seen
or,
committing murder,
fatal.
having given food to a sick man, which has proved

are then asked
if
They
they are agreed in their accusations,
and replying
in
463
the
affirmative,
if
add an
imprecation of
vengeance on themselves
they have acted through maUce,
and accused
falsely.
If one individual only be found as a

is
witness in any case, his testimony
not accepted, and the
accused party
is
not reckoned for the ordeal.

:
The
parties present admit of a threefold division
the are
Voanjo, the Loholona, and the Vahoaka.
The Voanjo
a sort of supreme judges heads of people, the

people
for the occasion
the Loholona, or
who Keep
are the
medium between
the Voanjo and the
the people being the Vahoaka.

voanjo then appoint persons to watch those
The
accused, and in the dusk of the evening to say, "
embers burning through the night

equal for
all,
for
the chances are
and
let
there not be anger against us."

the morning, the voanjo approach the
At cock-crowing in
house, and knock at the door of the accused.
In the act
of knocking, they pluck a Uttle thatch fi'om the eastern side of the roof, to be a " faditra" for themselves, saying, "
May I
not suffer like this in
my latter
end, nor in those
who succeed
up the
voanjo
me !"
They then
still
call the
accused three times by name,
knocking
at his door.
When
aroused, he blows
embers on the hearth, and opens the door.

enter,
The
and ask, "
How is
?
this, that
the people accuse you of
being
mamosavy ? What property have
you, and what have
you given your children
Tell the truth without lying, for

for, to
judgment has come."
His relations are next sent
watch around the premises, and to see the ordeal administered.
During the administration, no
fowl, nor dog, nor
stranger
may
enter the premises
none
but the relations

the
whom
It
the sikidy permits, the voanjo
who superintend
business, and the " panozondoah," denouncers of the curse.
being
now broad
is
daylight,
and the
relations having
arrived,
the accused
taken out of his house, and then
404
The
brought back, his head being covered with a mat.

sikidy decides in
what house he
is to
drink the tangena, and
how he
roof, or
is
to enter,
whether by the door, the window, the
by cutting away some of the rushes of which the sides

time some of the voanjo
;
of the house are constructed.
During
this
retire,
and fetch two
chickens and a fowl

of the tangena,
the former in order to try the quality

latter to
and the
be
killed,
from which three
pieces of skin are to be presently swallowed by the accused,
A
must
quantity of rice
eat plentifully.
is
is also
cooked, of which the accused

called the lafikia, or " bed."
This
is
Rice-water
obtained
stration,
also prepared, the
water of which must be
from
a
is
running
allowed to
stream.
sit
During the adminihis
no one
on
lamba (long robe,)

waist,)
nor
to
wear the sarandrana (cloth round the
and
females must keep their shoulders uncovered.
The
" cursers" bring the tangena, suspended in a small
bag, at the point of a spear, and saying, "
We
are here, that
ha who would bewitch
shall
be confounded and perish; judgwithout progeny shall be
ment
shall enter,
accursed and
the mamosavy, and let the malediction return
home on
the
head of him that bewitched him."
The
accused, having eaten as
much
rice as
possible,
swalloivs three pieces of the skin of a
fowl
killed for the
purpose, each piece about the size of a dollar, and sivallowed

ivhole.
bite
would be
fatal
evidence of being bewitched.
Three spoonsful
of rice are taken with each.
The
" cursers"
now prepare
the tangena, scraping a small
quantity of the nut into some juice of a banana, and repeating

the mysterious, talismanic words, "
virtue of the tangena
is
Tomadi mariko."
The
tried
on two chickens before being
given to the accused person.
One
of the chickens having
been made
to sv/allow
it,
the " curser" exclaims, " Hear, oh
Test,
if
465
thou art a perfect judge

!"
if
not false
if
just
and
he
suitable, kill this chicken
The
if I"
other having drank
it,
exclaims, " Hear,
Test,
thou art a suitable and right-
ous
is
test, let this
chicken live
it
Should both
die, the
tangena
fair
pronounced bad, as
does not give to the accused a

;
chance of being found innocent
or
if
both
live, it is rejected,
as not having the virtue requisite to detect

guilty.
and convict the
In
either case, other tangena

die,
must be provided.
declared suitable
Should one
and one
live, it is of course
and
just.
(It will
be readily supposed that unequal quantisecure the effect desired, however the
ties are given, so as to
pretence
may
be, to give
is
an equal portion
to each.)
The accused
the house,
then seated on the floor in the middle of
a hole
it,
dug opposite
to him,
and a fish-basket
placed in
it.*
He must now
life
drink the carefully prepared

or death.
draught, on which hinges
As soon
as he has
swallowed
the panozondoha, or " curser," placing his

of the
hand on the crown

the tangena
head of the accused, pronounces

is
the imprecation or prayer, which

is
sometimes uttered before
given.
is
The
following
a correct translation, furnished by the
Rev. David Jones, of part of the imprecation frequently
employed
" Hear, hear, hear, and hearken well,
thou,
Raimanathou
mango, searcher,
trier,
or test
thou art a round egg,f

hast no
eyes,
made by God.
seest
;
Though thou
yet
though thou hast no
ears, yet
thou hearest; though

:
thou hast no mouth, yet thou answerest
therefore, hear,
and hearken
well,
Raimanamango
* Called the Tandroho,
long,
cylindrical,
and tapering
at
one end.
Its
use, in the effects of the emetic, wall appear
t Alluding to the
prepared.
I.
size
from the sequel. and shape of the nut from which the poison
is
2h
46G
thou Raimanafar,
mango,
for
thou art come hither from very
even from
the four quarters of the earth.
Thou
hast been brought
from yonder,
for silver
and beads,
to decide in
to
between the sovereign and the people,

guilty
judgment condemn the

and
and
justify the innocent;

for
therefore, hear, hear,
hearken
well,
thou didst come up to Ivohombohitra
among
Zafimbolasirana and Andrianintoarivo.
There were
there kings reigning then
who were
prior to Zanadralambo.
it
When
done
;
they then decided in judgment,

it
was not justly
was having respect

it
to persons,
it
was done through

it
bribery,
was an unjust judgment given, and
according to truth.
these
;
was not But thou hatest such judgments as

scorning bribery, and having
:
and thou
art just,
respect to persons in thy decisive judgment

hear,
therefore,
and hearken
well,
Raimanamango.
O
is
thou Raimananot yonder in

is
mango;
the
field,
for
the sorcerer (mpamosavy)

:
nor out of town

;
he
is
not like what
in imagi-
nation only
he
is
not hidden out of sight, nor separated

;
and screened by a partition

(cloth)
he
is
not a mere
lamba
sitting
shaped like him

floor)
but (pointing to the

sitting,
man
on the
behold him
:
even his very person,
here, opposite thee
therefore, be not mistaken nor de-
ceived concerning him,
Raimanamango.
If
thou findest
that he has the root of sorcery, or the trunk of sorcery,
or the leaves of sorcery, which he himself has fetched, or
which others have brought
for
him, and that his heart

to take
it,
was pleased with

his
it,
his
it
mouth consented
to
and
hand
laid hold of
take
it
for himself,
and that at
that
it
the
same time he knew well within himself
was
the real
kill
means
for
bewitching
then
kill
him immediately,
tear his
flesh.
him
instantly, let
him
die forthwith,
wi'ing or
467
For
thou
twist his bowels, tear
them
into
pieces.
thou,
cerers,
Raimanamango,
that
art god,
to
who
wilt not
permit sorif
murder people,
he
is
live;
therefore,
findest that
guilty of sorcery, kill him.
thou Raimanafield,
mango
for the sorcerer is
not yonder in the
nor
one named by any person, nor one in imagination, nor

out of town, nor out of sight, nor separated by a partition
but behold him, yea, his very

thee.
If
self,
sitting
here opposite
thou findest that he has not the root of sorcery,
nor the trunk of sorcery, nor the branch of sorcery, nor

the leaves of sorcery
;
yea, that
it
he has not the root of

nor had any
sorcery, neither has fetched
from persons, nor received

it,
any from the hands of those who brought

desire to have
it
from those
who
delight in dirtying clear
water; yea,
within him,
let
if
he has, not at
all,
the spirit of sorcery
let
him
live
quickly, let
him
live instantly,
him
live forthwith, let
him dance
joyfully, let
him run
merrily.
Move
;
thou about within him both upwards and

quiet,
downwards
rest not
doing nothing with him, but

if
make him
cool
and comfortable,
thou findest that he
is
not guilty of sorcery."
The
or
priest, or individual administering the poison,
then
refers to a
number
of crimes, of
which the accused may
may
to
not have been guilty, and which he the adminisin refer-
trator can discover, and, consequently, does not,
ence
them,
appeal
:
to
the
test.
The
following
are
instances of these
" Hear,
mango.
sons in
hear, hear, and hearken well, O thou RaimanaThere are many wicked and mischievous persome who act mischievously and wickthe world
;
edly with regard to cattle, or sheep, or fowls, or houses,

or furniture, or the staff of
life,
so as to rob, hurt, or injure
2h2
468
them
in
any way,
can judge,
remedy
I
these, very well,
Ilaimanamango
but sorcery alone

this,
wish to find out
therefore,
mind only
and forget
not,
O
O
thou Raimana-
mango.
thou Raimanain the
mango.
There are many wicked people

weights
world
some who cheat and

persons;
deceive in bargains; some

;
who use
for
false balances or false
some who shew respect of

If
some who have
abundance, and yet seek
more, even with interest, to increase their riches.
such
I
be not sorcery,
I
:
can remedy them

therefore,
but only sorcery
wish to find out

not,
mind
this alone,
and forget
thou,
Raimanamango.
thou Raimana-
mango.
like the
Wickedness and malice are hanging overhead

clouds
;
they do not depart from the earth, but

eyes;
are
seen with
evil,
the
and the mouth

in
it,
is
continually
this
speaking
and persisting
I
I
:
can remedy
therefore,
very well, but sorcery

this only,
wish to find out
mind
and forget
not,
thou Raimanamango.
thou Raimana-
There are many wicked people in the world. mango. There are many who curse and swear, who say we despise
and defy the
Tangena.
There are
also
such
;
as re-
turn from a journey, having found no food
then they
swore, pointed to the sun, but have forgotten to pay their
vows.
for
I
:
Now, take
care that thou dost not search for these,

;
can remedy them
but do thou search for sorcery

this,
alone
therefore mind only
and forget
not,
thou
Raimanamango.
thou,
Raimana-
mango.
There are
many wicked
people in the world.
Some who scheme and
devise mischievous things in their
hearts;
469
some who join with
evil-doers to transgress; there are
some
also
who borrow
it
;
rice,
and then
will assert a lie that
they have repaid
some who borrow money and things
of people, and will then swear that they have repaid and
restored them, while they are conscious that they swear
lie
there are
some
also
who have
is
'
transgressed against
relations, yea, perviz.,
father
and mother, against friends and

is
haps, he that
now
opposite thee
such,
has cursed
his friends, saying, in cursing them,
I defy the
judgment
stones at
of the tangena.'
There are
also
who throw
people, to hurt them, that beat
them with
sticks
from a
malicious disposition, and are guilty of

of which he
many
guilty.
other crimes,
now
before thee
may be
But search
thou not in him for these crimes, nor for any other similar
to these,
which have not been named, but might be named

if
but search thou, and see

Separate that only
;
he be guilty of
sorcery.
for
thou art god who comprehendest
what
is
within man, and thou knowest
who
is
guilty of
sorcery,
and who
is
not
thou art the test of the sovereign
and people, and canst detect what escapes the sovereign
and people ; therefore, mind,
O
;
Raimanamango,
and
I
to separate
the guilty from the innocent
give thee, Raimanacare,
mango, only Vakintsaonjo, therefore take

well for
it.
and look
thou Raimana-
mango.
He
,
is
not one in imagination, nor one

is
named
sight;
by any person
town,
he
not yonder in the
field,
nor out of
of
nor separated by a partition,

self,
nor out
sitting opposite thee.
Now,
or
if
he has the
root, or trunk, or branch, or the leaves

;
of sorcery with
if
him
and
if
he fetched any from persons,
persons brought any from him, and that his heart was
it,
pleased with
that his
mouth consented with
all
hardness
; :
470
of
it;
heart to take
that he flattered himself secure in

;
having a favourable medicine, (bed)

in an auspicious sikidy;
fident in
that
if
he flattered
that
if
he flattered being con-
some ody mahery, that can overcome the tangena,

it,
and destroy
though he had actually the means of sor-
cery with which he killed people.
Now, though he
for
flatters
himself secure while confiding in these, suffer not thyself,
Tangena,
if
to
be conquered by them,
is
thou art god

;
therefore,
he
a sorcerer,
kill
him quickly
kill
kill
him
immediately, let him die forthwith,

burst him, and tear his
flesh,
him without delay;

arms into pieces;
and tear
his
break his heart, burst his bowels.

kill
Oh,
kill
him
instantly,
him
in a
moment;
for
do not weary the sovereign and
the people, neither keep

guilty of sorcery, destroy
them
in suspense
fatal
for if
he
is
him with thy
power.
thou Raimana-
mango.
field,
He
is
not one in imagination, nor yonder in the

sight,
nor out of town, nor out of
nor separated by
self,
a partition;
opposite thee.
root,
sitting
Now,
if
thou findest that he has not the
nor the trunk, nor the branch, nor the leaves of

;
sorcery
and
if
he has not fetched

persons
;
it
from persons, nor

heart was
received
any from
it,
and
if
his
not
pleased to do
again,
if
mouth consented to it; and, any have maUciously made the ody mahery, or
neither his
to injure him, or accuse
any thing
him
falsely,
though he
be not guilty of sorcery
thou
if
art god,
and
will not allow
any
of the
kind to overcome thee, and prevent thee to

Therefore,
live
;
decide justly.
he be innocent,
let
him
live
quickly
let
him
life
immediately, let him live forthwith
preserve his
move about quickly within him, both upwards and downwards preserve his heart without
; ;
delay
let
him greatly
rejoice,
let
him dance and run
about merrily like one who has drank cold water
;
471
let
him become
like cold water,

if
which
is
refreshing
let flesh
return to him,
thou findest that he has no sorcery or
witchcraft to kill persons with.
Now, take
him."
care then, and
forget not to return back through the
same door through
which
I made thee to enter into The above may be sufficient
as a specimen of the form
of "execration," or "exorcism,"
sion.
pronounced on the occa-
The whole is four or five times the length of the summary now given, but contains many repetitions, as well as a list of the offences of which the accused may or may not be guilty; urges that, if his off*ences are not heinous and capital, he may live and that if otherwise, and especially if guilty of any kind of witchcraft, he may
;
die terribly,
and without delay.

is
At
the conclusion of the formula, rice-water

till
given in
copious draughts,
a decision
is
made
for life or death,
by " vomiting'' the three jneces of skin, or being found

unable to do
it.
This
is
the crisis
this the circumstance

fate of the
which decides the character and the
poor sufferer.
And
estly,
for the ejection of the three pieces, they
watch earnfish-basket,
is
and
carefully
examine the contents of the

otherwise^ he
already named.
If they are found, it is
announced he
not mamosavy,
if
is
declared
mamosavy,
and
in this case is to
till
be struck and beaten with the rice-
pestle
dead, unless he has previously, as sometimes
happens,
itself.
died by
the
this
poisonous
time,
action of the
relations
it
tangena
During
all
the
and others
around the house are praying,

proach,
"May
!
not be your reif
may
or
if
it
not be your disgrace

live !"
if
but
guilty, die
and
if
not,
may you
The
sikidy also continues to
be worked,
as evil,
to ascertain
there be any thing to be rejected
there be any counter-charm imperceptibly
4/2
fair
preventing the
operation of the tangena.
Sometimes
the sikidy directs the relations to J9r^, for the accused
has been guilty of something abominable, and therefore
is
"held," or they must
reject the worn-out spade, or
some
kind of weed, as a
faditra,
or that they
must pay some

the people
money.
All
its
orders are promptly complied with.

guilty,
Should the accused be pronounced
outside the house are ordered to retire and go to their
homes.
And
in
such
cases,
even
relations
themselves
appear anxious to disown any former connexion which had They then subsisted between them and the " bewitched."
separate,
and the corpse

in
is
dragged away from the house,
wrapped
ward.
is
some
old matting, with the head placed southis
Sometimes the body
hastily buried
but frequently
village,
merely dragged to a distance from the house or

left for
and
the dogs, or birds of prey.
It is
extremely probable that

;
many
of the sufferers are

of the tra-
buried alive
numbers toward the conclusion

strangled or suffocated
to
;
gical scene are
the people on
effectually
such occasions never waiting
finish
the
dreadful work, but escaping from the house as soon as
they imagine the spirit to be departing, lest they should
come
in contact with it in
its
flight.
It
is
fact,
that
the administrators can,
and
in
the
case of
the
slaves
yet,
actually do, restore the individuals to animation;
on
other occasions, the unfortunate creatures are either instantly
tumbled into a grave, and covered with earth and
stones, or they are left in the
open
air,
a prey to the wild
animals which are continually prowling about at night.
The numerous
fabulous tales that obtain credit
among
the natives, of persons recovering after death,
and appear-
ing again after burial, &c., probably
owe
their origin to
reanimations after the tangena.
The
natives
make
it
very
473
easy to account for such revivifications, without implicating the virtues of the tangena; since they ascribe all wonderful events to the influence of
some appropriate charm

of
life,
and imagine there
is
charm or medicine
by the
apphcation of which, a person recovers even from death

itself.
Many
sionaries
are purposely buried alive in Madagascar.
An
instance of this
:
occurred near the house of one of the Mis-
two
men were
digging the grave, whilst the

;
victim was partly driven and partly dragged towards it on reaching the brink, he was hurled in, and heavy stones
dashed upon him,

throwing in the
soil.
to
deprive
him
of
sensation
before
After the body of the party pronounced guilty has been removed, a kind of abjuration is pronounced by the voanjo
on the children of the deceased.
Some water mixed with
earth obtained fi'om the grave of the king's father, is put into the rice-fan, while the voanjo, taking hold of a spear,
says,
"
Ye
children,
if
ye are ye do
mamosavy if
evil as
ye are of the
;
same ody with him

seen clearly
if
he has done
or
little, it
is
if
ye
conceal the property, whether
much
seen
then
be ye accursed.
!
O
moon,
god,
and earth given to be inhabited

ing,
O heaven, O sun, O morn-
and
rising
O evening O night for lying down, and day for up, O poor little lamb, O sacred herb, O all that is
;
sacred by Andria-masina-valona, and the sacred portion to
be drank,
that
is
all
that
is
sacred by the twelve kings,
all
sacred by Ikelamalaza, (here are repeated the names

principal idols;)
of all the
O O
all
that is sacred by the
twelve
hills,
(naming the town Tananarivo, and eleven

towns,)
other principal
and
this
sacred water
if
ye
have done
this,
be accursed, be without progeny, be cast

causes, bo utterly destitute
;
when ye
litigate
let
not that
474
which
is
in
the house be carried out, nor that which

in."
little
is
without be taken
Each
rice-fan,
of the children drinks a
of the water in the

it
and
slightly moistens his
head with
the
fill
mode
by which they are supposed

their perfect innocence.
to take a
most solemn oath of
To
complete the iniquity of the whole, and
up the
to
measure of the sufferings of the accused, as well as

satisfy the
avarice of the
is all
accuser,
the property of the

;
mamosavy
swept
off,
even down to the rice-measure

fees of office.
and the children must pay the voanjo
Should the person who has drank the tangena be pro-
nounced innocent, the three swallowed pieces of skin being

found, he
rice.
is
directed to eat three spoonsful of sweetened

after this, unfortunately
;"
if
Should he,
" be sick again,"
he
is
considered " bewitched
not, certain leaves
and
herbs are brought and cooked, which being finished, the
" cursers"
pronounce him madio,
" clean."
" cleared
by the king, by the judges, by the voanjo, and by the

people
;
and ye who are
his relations, take
good care of
him and nurse him."
The
price of the tangena
must next be paid
for.
cursers are also paid one and one-eighth of a dollar.
The The
people also pay three dollars to him
who
is
pronounced
" madio
;"
and the sikidy
directs to
what house he may be
removed.
Should he die before the expiration of the twelfth day, he

is
considered as one allied to the mamosavy, and then

his salutations have returned
it
is said,
back upon him.
The
his
sikidy appoints a day on which, should no fatal
accident have happened to him, he
may be
taken
home
to
own
house.
His relations and friends assemble, form
themselves into a procession, and accompany him home.
They
carry small
475
wands
in their hands, with a flower fixed
at the top.
All dress in their best robes, and wear what-
ever decorations or ornaments they can procure for the

occasion.
their hands.
They sing as they advance, the females clapping The song consists simply of a repetition of
the congratulatory expressions, "

lying;
Come
till
as the good, not
we
are found innocent, without lying."
This
is
continued, with occasional dancing,
the party reaches
home.
Then
feasting
commences;
is
cattle are killed,
and
meat
of the
distributed.
This
called the " Henandoza," " meat
judgment or
curse,"'
and
is
forbidden to the guardians
of the idols as profaning their sanctity.
Such are the general circumstances attending the custom,

and from which
it
will
be seen that the test
is
not whether
the tangena proves fatal, but whether the three pieces of
skin are ejected by
it
as an emetic.
Many
live,
as will be
shewn
presently,
who
are yet pronounced " mamosavy,"
and treated as such.
But
it
may
not be unsuitable to add
here an anecdote illustrative of the effects of the tangena
when given
to kill,
if
alone,
and when, according

it
to
customs on the
coast of the island,
was exhibited
(or pretended to
be so)
the party were guilty.

in 1821.*
The
case occurred at
Tamatave
lost
Mr. Hastie, the
British agent,
had
about thirty-three pieces of Pondicherry cloth.

suspected, and one of them,
Two
men were
on the spot, was immediately apprehended.

Jean Rene, proposed
who happened to be The chieftain,
to administer the tangena,
at least in
a sufficient quantity to extort a confession.

vily ironed,
The man, hea-
was taken
to a small
tenement on the premises,
whither an elderly person, and several attendants, came with

the ordeal.
The nut was put

*
into a dish,
and two knives
Tlic Rev. Dr. Griffiths
was an eye-witness.
; ;
476
upon the
ominori&ly placed across each other, edgeways,

nut.
The
elderly person,
who seemed
to act as chief in
the business, then discussed at length the divine qualities of the tangena, and offered a sort of prayer that
effects
its
desired
might be produced
is
in the case in hand.
" This,"
said he, "
given by god to
men
to
be a test of actions.
in its effects.
to the guilty." It is
It is infalUble in its decisions,
and just
a cordial to the innocent, and death
He
then prayed to " Zanahary, lord of heaven and earth, the

observer and judge of
all actions,
that he would cause the
nut not
that
it
to injure, if the
man were
innocent
kill
but
if guilty,
might torment, pain, and
him,
his
that
every
possible curse might overtake him,
and
body become
spirit after
food for dogs and the birds of the
air,
that his
death might transmigrate from one beast to another, from a

pig to a dog, from a dog to a cat, and from thence to the
most venomous, voracious, and despicable creatures on

earth."
The
cloth
;
suspected individual was asked
if
he had stolen the
w hen, replying in the negative, the nut w as scraped

povv^der
and when about twenty grains of the

pared, the
were pre-
man was
again interrogated, " Guilty, or Not
Guilty?"
Persuasions were employed to induce confession
as these were vain, the
powder was given him, mixed with
water, and rice-water, in small draughts, for a length of
time afterwards.*
In about two hours the pains com-
menced, and increased with much violence.

stout, athletic
Though a
his tortures,
man, and the quantity of the nut taken was

were excruciating.
small, its effects
Amidst
he
solicited medicines.
These were denied, and he perHis agonies were now
sisted in maintaining his innocence.
No
pieces of skin were given, that not being the custom on the
coa.st.
extreme.
477
if
His bowels, he
said,
were writhing as
in knots.
His groans were awful. His eyes seemed ready

their sockets.
to start
from
His whole countenance assumed a
terrific
appearance, and his entire frame was convulsed with torture.
His irons were taken

part of the property.
of the evening,
off,
and he confessed having stolen

in the course
trial.
His comrade was taken and
and threatened with a similar

confession,
The
was
threat
induced
part of
the cloth
returned.
that
if
The
chieftain next
morning pubhshed a kabary,

In the
any persons were found guilty of concealing any of
the stolen cloth, they should be reduced to slavery.
course of the day nearly the whole was recovered, and

the two thieves, though released from irons, were degraded
into slaves.
In the lengthened form of the ceremonial attending
all
these cases, especially the part prior to the draught being

actually taken, so as to encourage a confession, there is
something analogous to the ceremonial of the ordeal by

" bitter waters" among the Jews, mentioned in Numbers,
ch. xxxi.
ver. 11;
though
it
must be confessed that the

v/as
crime for which that

Israelites
ordeal
ordained
among
the
would scarcely be deemed a
sufficient reason for
giving the tangena, by the Malagasy.*
The
sively,
administration of the tangena prevails so exten-
and
is
so essentially connected with
many
of the
customs and consuetudinary laws of the Malagasy, that a

few additional points deserve specific notice.
The tangena
family.
is
often
given to
all
the
slaves
in
family in case of illness occurring to any
member
of the
Some one
is
suspected of having caused the illness

to find
by means of witchcraft; and
out the culprit, the
* See Michaelis'
Commentary on
the
Luws
of Moses, 263d article.
478
ordeal
is
put in requisition.
This
is
especially the case
with members of the royal family,* the judges, and those of
high rank and property.
Sometimes
it
fifty
or a hundred
slaves are compelled to drink
on these occasions, and of

fall
those perhaps one-tenth, on the average,
victims, dying
by the operation of the tangena as a poison, and as many
more are perhaps proved

three pieces of skin.
to
be guilty by not ejecting the

to the fate of the latter,
With regard
a difference exists, arising out of the different situation of

their owners.
Should the slaves happen
to
belong to a
guilty,
member of the royal family, and are found

must
die
;
they
if
the tangena do not kill them, the hand of
violence must.
But
in other cases,
though convicted, their This may in part

perhaps, from
lives are spared.
Their owners usually send them to a
distant market,
arise
and there
sell
them.
from motives of humanity, but
chiefly,
the wish not to lose property, each slave being, perhaps,
worth from twenty to forty

in all cases, if convicted,
dollars.
In a word,
;
fi'ee
people,
must
die
slaves, in all cases,
may
be sold, excepting those attached to

family.
members
of the royal
Should the sovereign himself be
ill,
not only the slaves
who wait on him, but

to
all in
personal attendance, are liable
be put to the same
test.
An
instance in point occurred
a few years ago.

attached to required that
ordeal, and
Radama was
tangena,
ill.
A senior judge, devoutly

national
the
and other
customs,
all who among them were Prince
attended the king should take the

Rateffe, Verkey,
and
* In 1822, about fifty female attendants of the king's second sister drank the tangena, in consequence of her being near the period of her confineIt happened in this ment, and suspecting that she had been bewitched. Query, Might not case (and it was a remarkable circumstance) none died. some secret orders have been given to administer a less quantity to each
than usual?
others.
479
The
prince rephed, " Well, you also are coming to

if
the king, and
am
it
;
required to drink
it,
you must."
All
accordingly drank
and while the prince and others were

it,
proved innocent, the old judge was convicted by
died
almost immediately, his property was confiscated, and his
house razed to the ground without delay.
A tomb has
been
subsequently erected on the spot where his house stood, by

the senior judge.
The king
had, however, himself reposed
little
or no con-
fidence, of late years, in the ordeal.
Various circumstances
had demonstrated
to
him
its
futility.
Among many
in-
stances of robbery, one
man was
suspected of having stolen
a bullock.
The tangena was
given to two dogs, as repre-
sentatives of
latter died,
the accuser and the accused.
That
of the
guilty,
and the man was accordingly declared
and
fined.
few days afterwards the bullock was found,
and under circumstances which proved the accusation and

the conviction had been false.
The
credit
fine was,
of course,
returned, the
man
a
treated as an innocent sufferer, and the

little
tangena
decision.
lost
of
its
for
infallibility
of
Administering the ordeal to two dogs, as in the case just

mentioned,
fowls are
is
a very prevalent custom.
Sometimes two
are
employed instead of dogs.
Fewer ceremonies
is
used in such instances, but the design

ever party
is
the same.
is
Whichproved
to the
represented by the dog or fowl that
resy, or " overcome,"
by the tangena, must submit
same
fine or
award as though he had personally drank the

its
tangena, and been convicted on
evidence.
After the dog has swallowed the tangena, the following

invocation
is
used
" Hear, hear,

Thou
hear, and hearken well,
thou Raimanamango.
is
art
now
within the stomach

life, feet,
of the dog, which
the substitute of eyes,
hands,
480
and
ears,
is
for
the accused.
If
The dog
in
naIiosc
stomach
thou art
is
thus like him.

is
thou findest that the accused
not guilty, but
spitefully
and maliciously accused,

which
is
let
this
dog
live quickly; let this dog,
a substitute
for the accused,
which has
this
feet
and hands
is
like him, live
quickly
quickly
yea,
let
dog,
which
his
substitute, live
and return back through the same door through
which thou hast entered into it

thou findest that the accused
is
Raimanamango.
But
if
truly guilty, kill this dog,
whose
delay
tear
eyes,
life, feet,
hands, &c. are his substitute, without

it
kill it
quickly
destroy
instantly
burst
Part
its
heart
it
and
kill it
immediately,
Raimanamango."
The
property of those
is
who
are convicted by the test of

falls to
being bewitched,
wholly confiscated.
the
sovereign, part to the judges, part to the accusers and

others.
some
As
the accusers have an interest in the conviction,
there
is
always a temptation with the unprincipled to form
an accusation against a party, however innocent.

time of a "general clearing,"
district
is is
i.e.,
At the
or
when a whole town

test,
required to submit to the
a fine of three
dollars
paid to the person
who
is
proved innocent after
drinking the ordeal.

to so severe
Having been
is
falsely accused,
and put
a scrutiny, he
paid this fine as some kind of
indemnification and acknowledgment.
In
this,
however,
he but resembles many other suitors at law,

are greater
for his costs
than the amount given him by his verdict.
Payment
of fees to the cursers, to the mpisikidy, to the
voanjo, beef on his
successful exit, &c.,
amount
to three
times the fine paid him.

If, however, 2, free person be accused at any other than a time of " general clearing," and be proved innocent by
the
test,
he receives a
fine of
twenty-nine and a half dollars
from the accusing party.
Here, as his expenses are not
greater
481
than in the former case, his verdict becomes a
source of actual profit to him.

court the risk of obtaining
it.
But few would
willingly
In litigating and deciding cases before the judges, the
tangena
plaintiff
is
often given to fowls or dogs, as representing

to
and defendant, and the verdict given according

This mode
is is
the effect of the tangena.

different cases,
resorted to in
when evidence
is
deficient or intricate, or
;
apparently equal between the two parties

ditious
a far more expein the courts of
mode than
sometimes adopted
more
civilized countries.
However much
there
may be
in
the practices of this

instinctively shrinks,
is
ordeal from which an enlightened
mind
as irrational and presumptuous, yet so strong

viction in the
the con-
mind
of the
Malagasy of the unquestionable
rectitude of
its
decisions, that
many promptly
solicit
challenge
its
being given them, and most earnestly
it,
on any susConscious
picion or intimation of their being mamosavy.

of innocence, they
demand
the ordeal, fully confident that
the verdict will be in their favour, and that thus they will
stand pure in the eye of their family, their friends, and the
people, and moreover obtain the fine which the false accuser
must pay
declined
in.
It
becomes, therefore, a point of honour and

test.
interest with
it,
an accused person to demand the

to
If
he
he would expose himself
a public suspicion
to sub-
of being conscious of guilt,
and consequently afraid
mit to
trial.
He
would then be watched the more narrowly
some
take
actions would be misinterpreted, and at the next time
of general accusation he would probably be compelled to

it
;
and then,
at the best, if declared innocent,
have a
fine of only three instead of twenty-nine
and a half
dollars.
Some instances have occurred of persons refusing to drink when called on to do it. This is taken as an acknowI.
48-2
guilt.
ledgment and demonstration of

belonging to a
Any one
acting so,
member
of the royal family,
would be imme-
diately put to death.
And
even in ordinary cases, when
the proper authorities have decided on giving the tangena,
should the party refuse to drink

instantly.*
it,
he would
fall
a victim
Occasionally confession
is
made by a
guilty party
is
when
about to take the draught.
His own evidence
accepted,
and he
is
put to death on the spot.
case occurred not
long ago, of a man,
when
in the act of taking the tangena,
confessing, in plain terms,
witched person.' "

ties
"I am a mpamosavy, ' a be" What have you done ?" asked the par"I have
I
around him.
killed
by poison some of
my
I
relations."
"And why
did you kill
them?"
''Because,
being poor myself,
could never obtain any meat; and
knew
that as, at their death,
some would be
I killed
distributed, I
for the
should then get a portion, and

the meat."
them
sake of
He
was
at once put to death,
on
this
melan-
choly confession of depravity.
While such an instance
demonstrates that cruelty dwells in the dark places of the

earth,
and that men may be " without natural
affection," it
has a powerful tendency to confirm the superstitious attach-
ment
of the
Malagasy
to this
mode
of judgment, since even
the very dread of such a test extorted the
confession of
long-concealed turpitude.
The following instances, related by Mr. Hastie from his own personal knowledge, as occurring under his own observation,
are sufficient evidence of the
mockery
of justice
is
with which this scourge of a benighted people

nistered
* In
:
admi-
1829, a
man
having drank a small quantity, ichised to drink the
remainder.
His brains were instantly dashed out by a blow struck him on

rice.
the spot with a large pestle used in pounding
483
of his
A
and
Hova man, named Laihova, who owed one

stole
neighbours some money, went into the Betsileo
district,
a fine young
lad,
about thirteen years of age,

of his debt.
whom he gave to the neighbour in payment The lad happened to be the son of persons in
stances,
easy circum-
who were much
afflicted at their loss;
and who,
besides sending servants around the country in search of

their child, offered bribes to the diviners to direct
them
to
where he was.
All their endeavours proved
fruitless;
and having mourned the
loss of their only son for nearly
three months, the father, attendant

his district,
upon the
chieftain of
came
to the capital, to
do homage to the king
on his return from a campaign.

father accidentally
On
;
this
occasion
the
met with
his child
who, having heard
of the arrival of
some people from
his
own
country, ab-
sconded from his new master, in the hope of
falling in with
them, and thus luckily met the individual he most wished

to see.
The
thief
was
easily traced
but the declarations
of the creditor were insufficient, and he
by
ordeal.
Laihova,
demanded a trial who was probably an adept in the art,
drank the poison, and, suffering no serious consequences,
was declared innocent.
The
creditor,
who had received
the lad unconscious of his situation
and circumstances,
having declined the potion, was pronounced guilty, although

the boy attested his innocence; and he
slaves,
was obliged to pay two
one of them his own
child,
on refusing the ordeal.
The
Betsileo family had barely left the village on their
return home,
when
the suffering creditor presented himself
before Laihova, lamenting the situation to which he was
reduced by his chicanery, and praying
for his assistance in
some way
on
to effect the recovery of his
child.
The
;
hardand,
ened Laihova was, however, deaf to

his
all his
entreaties
becoming urgent, repulsed him with a rebuke, say2

I
484
my
debt, but
ing " I paid you

it."
you had not
skill to retain
Fortunately, however, there were witnesses to this

;
assertion
and the business being brought

was done
to
to trial at the
capital, justice
the injured, and the guilty
Laihova was condemned
to slavery.
The
ordeal;
advocates for the use of the tangena would not,
however, allow this instance to diminish the renown of the
and
it
was strongly asserted by them, that the
error arose from the want of a due formality in adminis-
tering the draught.

It
was about the same period that a man, residing on the

to his neighbours
confines of the province of Vonizongo, lost a bullock, that
was well known mal along the
by the singular mark of

in search of the aniit
a red body and a white head.

skirts of
Going
a wood where he suspected
had
strayed, he encountered a
man
laden with beef, which had
the skin on, exactly resembling that of his
own
bullock.
He
immediately charged the
man who had
the beef with
theft;
and he not being able
to give a satisfactory
account
of his burden, they mutually challenged each other, and
the affair was submitted to the ordeal.

instance,
The
guilty,
trial,
in this
was made upon dogs
and the man who had been

confiscated,
found with the beef was pronounced
and sold into
slavery, as
were also two of
his sons,
who had
guaranteed their father's innocence.
few days after
this
condemnation, the
lost the
bullock met the person
man who had from whom it had been
bought
when
the vender, ignorant of what had occurred,
asked the other why he was so careless about the bullock
he had sold him;
stating, that it
had been more than a
month amongst
his herd.
An
acquaintance of the injured
party being present, the bullock was restored, and the innocent sufferers emancipated.
;;
485
On
ill
;
another occasion, Mr. Hastie was requested by the

visit
king to
one of the
officers'
wives,
who was
at that time
but not feeling himself sufficiently
skilful to administer
Jeflfery,
relief in
a case such as her's, he requested Mrs.

in
his stead.
the wife of the Missionary, to go
This
request was
comphed with
and
to
a message of inquiry
from the king, expressed her regret that a

situation
woman
in her
had not been better attended
to
expressing her
fears that she could not recover.
Her
predictions were
but too well founded.
The woman
to
died in a few hours
and the king remarked
her relatives, that the people

careful.
around her should have been more
On
the following day, the mother and sister of the de-
ceased, her husband's mother, and two near relations, constituting all the family, involved in the deepest grief at their
loss,
requested permission to take the tangena, to prove their
innocence of any intended neglect or maltreatment of the

deceased, for there was every reason to believe they had
sincerely loved and faithfully attended
their limited knowledge.
upon her, according
to
Radama
told
them there was no
occasion for the ordeal, and that they were fools for proposing
it,
as out of five,
some one would most
likely suffer; but they
all
declared that the guilty alone could be injured, and re-
peated their request to be allowed to prove their innocence,

stating that
it
was necessary
for their characters that they
should do so, or the world would consider them guilty.
The king
pressed
the five
it,
finally
permitted the ordeal to be resorted to
and the administerer of the potion having, as Radama ex-
made
for
the draught a
little
too bitter, every one of
fell
victims to this feeling of honour,
and not a tear
was shed
them.
is
Unquestionably the tangena

scourge, to the country
a scourge, and a terrible

its
perhaps
direst: yet it
would
486
it
;
be no easy task to supersede
and probably
till
knowledge
more extensively pervades the country

truth and the sanctity of an oath are
short,
till
laws of evidence are better understood
till
the nature and the value of

felt
till
more
generally
more moral and

by ordeal
will
religious principle prevails,
in
till
then, trial
probably continue.
it is
There can be
the one general
no doubt that the dread of detection by
and mighty restraint which checks a thousand deeds of darkness in their very germ, and which else would be fearlessly
perpetrated.
It is thus far a political engine, holding in
awe a people who,

state
their rulers imagine, can in their existing
be held under control only through the medium of
terror, superstition,
and
will
force.
Let them be enlightened,

;
and such an engine

longer required,
it
be no longer required
and when no
will
no longer be practised.
if
Of this,
the
genius of the Malagasy,
not the very constitution of the
human mind, and of the system of human affairs at large, may be accepted as the pledge. Let the Malagasy learn a better and a fairer mode of judgment, and they will write
" Obsolete" on their tangena, and
consign
it
their
government
will
to
contempt and
oblivion.
It is not the design of these suggestions to extenuate the
enormity, nor to palliate the abominations, of a practice

already denounced as the direst scourge of a land of
calamities
;
many
but to assign some reason why an enlightened

not,
it
and benevolent monarch did
and could
;
not,
by one act
only to aid
evil
of legislative authority, abolish
and
to
demonstrate the
it
importance of education to the country, were

in the melioration of its civil institutions.
The
depre-
cated
is
a branch
the axe must be
laid to the root.
That
the case demands every consistent and persevering
effort, is
but too painfully obvious, from a moderate computation of

the great
numbers annually
falling victims to this
system of
trial.
487
It is
supposed that about one-tenth of the population

lives,
take the tangenain the course of their

twice, three times,
and even more,)
and
(some take
it
out of one-tenth
one-fifth die.
taking
it, it
is
computed that on the average

part of the population
is
And
this
thus a
fiftieth
carried off by
;
most formidable instrument of destruction

it
which, sup-
posing
there
it, is,)
to
be generally practised through the island, (and

it,
is
reason to believe that
or something analogous to
gives not
much below one hundred thousand

its
persons
of
in
every successive generation as
victims
upwards
three thousand a year, and most of these persons in the prime The misery and distress introduced into families by of life
!
the sudden and entire loss of conviction for oifences,

is
all their
property in cases of
many
of which are purely imaginary,
another great, though comparatively smaller part of the

evil.
enormous and overwhelming
Reference having been made, in several parts of the account of the superstitions of the Malagasy, to the maraosavy,
some
brief but distinct account of
it
seems
to
be
is
required.
The
root of the
word
is
mosavy, and by this
meant " that which bewitches"

whether
be some
evil spirit,
the essence of witchcraft,
the abstract idea of whatever renders a person bewitched,

it
some mahgnant but

in food
invisible
agency, some poison secretly conveyed

the genius of witchcraft and sorcery.
active verb to bewitch
;
in short,
is
Mamosavy
the
and mpamosavy, the person capable of

is
bewitchinf others.
Yet the word
by no means confined
denounced
the curses to acts of sorcery, but applied, as appears from the in the tangena, and the common usage of
expression, to any
who
are guilty of great ofi'ences.
This
proceeds on the fallacious
supposition that no one could
perpetrate such deeds, unless he were under the influence some mosavy that is, unless he were really bewitched.
of
;
488
It is obvious
how incompatible such an
to
this
opinion
is
with any
for their
just conception of the moral responsibility of

actions.
men
And
it
the vintana
offence
or
may be added the prevailing idea of destiny. A man commits some flagrant
be murder
may
he
he
is
deemed mamosavy, and
this is his misfortune.
He
had no control over himself.

did.
It
was
his destiny to act as
The
stition
following instances related by
Drury may serve
to
shew the degree
of self-sacrificing devotion to which super-
may
lead.
A man
command
with
whom
his
the narrator was
acquainted had received in a dream, through the

of
medium
an
evil spirit,
to
wash
lamba the following
morning.
In obedience to this divine injunction, he went
along with the party, of which Drury was one, to a stream of

water, where he had no other business than to do as he
had
his
been commanded; and as he stooped down
to
wash
lamba, he was killed by a random shot from the enemy,
who had watched
the
motions of the party,
and who
retreated without injuring any one else.
The
other instance was that of a
man
who, having made
his addresses to a
demon, was told in a dream that his His brother, however, endeaact,
brother must shoot at him.
voured
to dissuade
him from the
but he insisted that
it
must be done,
or that worse would ensue.
" Well then,"
said he, " I will shoot near you, but take care to miss you."
" No," said the dreamer, "

least prevarication, for I will defend
it
must be executed without the

persuaded that the demon
prevailed
am
fully
me
from
all
harm.
At length he
upon
his brother, who,
standing at the distance of about thirty

;
yards, fired at his lower parts
but notwithstanding
all his
precaution, he broke a leg
and then blaming himself
for
his credulity in acting so contrary to his

feelings,
own judgment and
he ran with tears in his eyes to the assistance of
the
489
wounded devotee.
All the remedies prescribed by
enchantment and superstition were applied, but though the
wound was
ody mahery
of
healed, the leg remained nearly useless for

is
life.
Associated with the idea of the mpamosavy
that of the
the powerful charm

or even having
it
;*
and
to
be found guilty
making
it,
in possession, is certain
death ; and death by a terrible
mode
of punishment, that of
being bound hands and
feet,
hurled
down the tremendous
precipice of a steep rock, and there left to be devoured by

dogs.
or
is
Of what
willing to
this fatal
ody
is
composed, no one knows,

to the
tell,
as
no one would subject himself
supposition of knowing any thing about this black art.
Probably, like
many
other potent spells in the country,
it
consists of nothing more than a few feathers, or a
little
earth and some bits of straw, sticks, or refuse of any kind
yet this
is
solemnly believed to be capable of effecting
wonders of a most extensive and alarming character.

little
A
and
it
of
it
buried in the ground, near a person's residence,

his ruin, destroy his property,
would inevitably prove
bewitch, perhaps, his whole family.
To
discover where
of
may be
the idol
concealed,
should there be suspicions

is
any,
Ramahavaly
This
sent for
and on the fees being paid

the ody will be
to his keepers as a donation to the idol,
found.
idol is
sometimes brought even within the
court-yard of the monarch's palace for this purpose, under

suspicion that some evil persons, worse than incendiaries,
have entertained the horrible design of destroying the

sovereign and the epnpire by such detestable means.
It is
commonly the case

said to be found,
that
some kind
this
is,
of refuse
is
found, or
and
of course, regarded as a
detection of the spell, and proclaims the wonderful abilities

of
Ramahavaly, or the secret
finder.
Sometimes called Fankatovana.
490
HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR/
Happily, as a means of relieving the fears of the people,
who might be always in danger of being bewitched, even when least aware of it, they are warned when the unsuspected calamity may be approaching them. This friendly
office is
performed by the sikidy, which ascertains that such

is
or such a one
liable
to be bewitched,
and
directs
evil.
him
what
faditra
he must
offer to avert the
impending
He
thankfully accepts the warning, pays the fee for this pro-
phetic intimation of ruin, offers the faditra, and feels himself secure
from harm.
of connexion is seen to exist between the
Thus a Unk
sikidy, the ody, the tangena,
and the
idols,
which, though
influence,
not essentially alhed

yet,
in their
own nature and

sustain the
by the customs of the
island, support,
all
and are depend-
ent on, one another
and
same system
of
mental and moral delusion and degradation.
The power
that avails to destroy one branch of this system will infallibly involve the ruin of the whole.
Let knowledge and

elevated and
true
religion
spread,
enUghtening and invigorating the

is
mind, at the same time that the heart

sanctified,
and the
idols
shall
be utterly abolished, the
tangena shall be superseded by rational evidence

ration for truth,
the veneshall
dis-
by the oblivion of witchcraft

fictitious virtue
charms
no longer possess the

ordered imagination
produced by a
and
the sikidy shall vanish before a
simple rehance upon Divine Providence, and a devout disposition to leave that which
is
future and concealed with
Him who
who
curiosity,
bounds the sphere of human investigation, and
represses the pride, while he exposes the feebleness of
by proclaiming, " Thou knowest not what a day

forth.**
may
bring
491
APPENDIX.
General Observations on the Malagasy Language Outline of Grammar, and Illustrations.
BY the rev
J. J.
freeman.
The
languajre of Madagascar belongs unquestionably to the family, or class of languages frequently denominated Malayan, but to which the term Polynesian appears far more appropriate, and has accordingly been applied to it by Mr. Marsden, in the
The Missionaries Introduction to his Malayan Grammar, 1812. South Sea Islands have long been accustomed to designate all those dialects found in the Polynesian countries, by the generic appellation " Polynesian." The fact of some close and important mutual relation subsisting between the dialects spoken through a vast extent of intertropical country in the Eastern seas, had been remarked by Cook and other voyagers ; and from the commercial and political ascendancy formerly held by the Malays in those parts, the name " Malayan" was accorded generally to those dialects which seemed to have sprung up, in some way, or at some A more period, from the Malay, as their common parent.
in the
extensive acquaintance with them, and a more careful comparison instituted between them, has led to the conclusion that these dialects are not to be regarded as descended from the Malay, but rather, as sustaining, according to the opinion
expressed by Mr. Marsden,* the relation of sisterhood to

to each other.
it,
and
dialect in the
Malay language now spoken, or the vernacular Malayan Peninsula, and other parts of the Eastern Archipelago, is itself only related to the great and compreThe
living
hensive Polynesian language, just as that of

Tahiti, or
New
Zealand,
Madagascar, may be related to it. The two most remarkable circumstances belonging to this Polynesian language are, the wide extent to which it has been carried, and the tenacity with which it has retained its own individual characteristics or idiosyncrasy, even in the contiguity of other more
On
the Polynesian or
East Indian Languages, in Miicellaneous Works,
by \V. Marsden. 1834.
492
APPENDIX.
copious and cultivated languages, spoken by immensely larger numbers, such as the Arabic, Hinda, Chinese, and IndoChinese. Witli regard to the extent of region over which it has traversed, and still prevails, it is scarcely needful to do more, in these remarks, than just to glance at the fact, that from Madagascar in the west, to Easter Island in the east, embracing more than half the circumference of the globe at the equator, and from the Sandwich Islands in the north, to the extremity of New Zealand in the south, being 4,000 miles of latitude, " there is a manifest connexion between many of the words by which the inhabitants of these islands express their simple perceptions, and in some instances of places the most remote from each other, a striking affinity; insomuch, that we may pronounce the various dialects, in a collective sense, to form " One original language," substantially one great language."* observes Sir Stamford Raffles, " seems in a very remote period to have pervaded the whole (Indian) Archipelago, and to have spread, (perhaps with the population,) towards Madagascar on one side, and the islands of the South Sea on the other." On this subject, it may not be uninteresting to add the valuable opinion of the celebrated linguist. Baron Humboldt, brother to the illustrious traveller, as expressed by himself in a letter to the writer of this paper, dated Berlin, 14th of June, 1834, " There is no doubt that the Malagasy belongs to the family of the Malayan languages, and bears the greatest affinity to the languages spoken in Java, Sumatra, and the whole Indian Archipelago. But it remains entirely enigmatical in what manner, and in what period, this Malayan population has made its way to Madagascar. Of Sanscrit words there is a certain number in the Malagasy language." This latter observation of Baron Humboldt corresponds with the remark of Sir Stamford Raffles in his History of Java, that " in proportion as we find any of these tribes, (viz. from Madagascar to the South Seas,) more highly advanced in the arts of civil life than others, in nearly the same proportion do we find the language enriched by a corresponding accession of Sanscrit terms, directing us at once to the source whence civilization flowed towards these regions." The origin of this one great language is veiled in impenor are there any existing data on which to netrable obscurity build satisfactory conclusions respecting the era when, or the circumstances under which, it obtained so wide a dissemination. " An attempt to ascertain which of the Polynesian dialects should be considered as the parent stock, from whence the
;
Marsden,
ut supra,
page
3.
THE MALAGASY LANGUAGE.
493
others branched out, (a pre-eminence that some have been inclined to claim for Java,) must prove, I apprehend, as fruitless as would be that of determining which of the Teutonic dialects gave birth to the others. To this, their subsequent degree of improvement has no direct relation. An equally unsuccessful
endeavour has hitherto been, that of tracing their common and we descent from some one of the nearest continents must be content to regard the language as original, in the ordinary sense of the expression, implying no more than its origin being in that state of obscurity, beyond which no connecting line or derivation can be traced."* The degree of relation, if any, subsisting between this great insular language, and the languages of the South American continent, has not, perhaps, been very carefully examined. " Not the slightest affinity appears between them," says Mr. Marsden And on referring in an early part of the work above quoted. to specimens of the Araucanian of Chili, and the Kichuan of Peru, he remarks, that neither of these, (which are totally different from each other,) has even the most remote affinity to Subsequently to this, Mr. M. appears to have the Polynesian.
;
been rather shaken in his confidence on this particular point, by conversation with Mr. Ellis, who, in his appendix to his Tour through Hawaii, had remarked, (page 471,) " Some of the words of South America, in their simplicity of construction and vowel terminations, as Peru, Quito, pronounced Kito, Parana, Oronoko, &c. appear like Polynesian words."
similar observation
as
may
be applied to the eastern coast of
Africa,
compared with the western coast of Madagascar. It is impossible to look over a map, and not perceive the obvious similarity between the names of the districts and rivers of these such, for example as, Masambika, two countries severally Sambesy, Zimba, Kilimany, Inhambany, Manisa, &c., on the side of Africa, which have not only a perfect resemblance to Malagasy names, but are either Malagasy roots variously combined, or actual words in the Malagasy language. Hence
;
may not be extravagant to express an opinion, that the great Polynesian language has extended its powerful influence even into the two remote continents of Africa on the west, and South
it
America on the
It
all
east.
in reference to
may
not be out of place to remark here,
comparisons between words and names,
in different dialects
the differences are frequently rather apparent than real, arising out of the want of a uniform standard of orthography, and the consequent arbitrary methods writers are obliged to employ. The same word as addressed to the ear,
and languages, that
Maisden, ut supra, page 5.
. .
494
APPENDIX.
often assumes quite a different garb
when presented
Kilimany,
to the eye,
by two different writers e. g. Quilimane, Mosambique, Of all the dialects belonging

; .
....
.
Masambika.
the Polynesian
family,
it
to
forms an interesting topic of inquiry, To which that of Madagascar is most nearly related. Is it to the Malayan properly so called? the Javanese? as thought by some: the Nias? as suggested by Mr. Marsden, or some other? The writer of the present sketch once thought, ( taking Crawford's Indian Archipelago as his guide,) that the nearest relation of all might be traced between the Bali and the Malagasy, but he has subsequently found reason to relinquish this in favour of the Malayan, nor is he induced to change his opinion in behalf of the Nias, as intimated by Mr. Marsden. It may illustrate these remarks, to select from the extensive vocabulary of that gentleman a comparative view, consisting of Mr. M.'s thirty-four words, of the Malagasy, (according to the orthography now established there,) the Malayan, the Javanese, the Nias, and the Bali, with the Tahitian by Mr. Ellis.
English.
Malayan.
Javanese.
Ci awford.
Tahitian.
One
isa
Two
Three
>'our
. .
Five
.Six
.
Seven Eight
Nine Ten
.
.
. .
Man
Eyes Nose Hair
Teeth
Head.
.
Hand.
Blood
Day
Night
Dead.
White Black
Fire
.
Water
Earth Stone
.
Swine
Bird
.
. .
.
Egg.
Fish
Sun
Moon
Stars
.
THE MALAGASY LANGUAGE. The view of
495
to the Malay,
the language now given, as to its relationship not, however, founded on the mere accidental circumstance, that some words are found common to the Malay and the Malagasy, but on a general comparison of the genius
is
and structure of the two languages. That many words are obviously common to the two languages, may be seen by a cursory examination of Marsden's Malayan Dictionary, and any Malagasy Vocabulary,* or by an inspection of Crawford's Indian Archipelago. f Yet it is possible these words may have arisen out of circumstances not essentially connected with the although their number seems to render origin of the language
such a supposition almost incredible. But a similar grammatical structure between two languages, can never be satisfactorily explained, without reference to a common origin. And of this common origin, the grammars of the two languages under review, afford more decisive evidence In truth, as it has been than their respective vocabularies.
Malagasy Dictionary in two parts, English, and Malagasy, by the Rev. Freeman, and Malagasy and English, by the Rev. D. Johns, has been published, and may be obtained at Messrs. Fisher & Jackson's, 38, Newgatestreet and Black and Armstrong, Tavistock-street. the f In illustration of the verbal affinity between these two languages, following examples may be adduced
J. J.
;
Malagasy.
toaka
Malay.
tuwak asa, mengasah anaka masak
alun
English.
toddy, any intoxicating to whet, sharpen [liquor a child
ripe
manasa
anaka, zanaka
masaka
alona
a wave
ompa
ova
ompat ubah
ubi takout
ulat
ini
calumny change
edible roots,
fear
ovy
tahotra
olitra
yams
worm
iny
this
vono voa
bitsika
bunoh buah
bisik
tali
killing
fruit
tady taona
lanitra
taun
lang'it
tany fotsy
fasika or fasina
tanah putih
fasir
whisper rope year sky chalk sand

charcoal
arina
rivotra
arang
ribut
kilut
wind
lightning
helatra taolana hoditra
tulang
kulit
bone
skin heel
liver
tomotra aty
tumit
ati
nana
nosy
nanah
nusa (Javan)
pus
island
496
justly
APPENDIX.
remarked by the eminent linguist already mentioned, on the subject of the Affinities of Oriental Lan" All research guages, addressed to Sir Alexander Johnston into the affinity of languages, which does not enter quite as much into the examination of the grammatical system as that of words, is faulty and imperfect the proofs of the real affinity of languages, that is to say, the question, whether two languages belong to the same family, ought to be principally deduced from the grammatical system, and can be deduced from that alone, since the identity of words only proves a resemblance such as may be purely historical and accidental." It may be sufficient to name, as general analogies applying to the two languages under consideration the want of declensions to indicate gender, number, and case, and the use of appropriate words for that purpose, the postfixing pronouns to nouns by a change in their form, especially denoting posforming verbs from roots by prefixing particles, the session, same particles to a great extent in the two cases, or rather, the same particle modified gratia euphoniae, as me, men, mem, meng, in Malay, and mi, man, mam, mang, in Malagasy the changes of initial consonants to coalesce with the said prefixes ;* the formation of the participle of agency by the use of a prefix, in Malay, pen, in Malagasy, mpan, (the m being but softly sounded ;) the addition of an enclitic termination to a participle of action, an in Malay, ana in Malagasy, (final a nearly quiescent ;) the formation of a passive voice by an inseparable particle, as in Malay, ter-bunoh killed, Malagasy, voa-vono killed ; placing the adjective before the noun besides various striking coincidences in the manner of forming derivative nouns and adjectives, and of the ordinal numbers from the cardinal, where it may be remarked, that the former, as well as the names of the days of the week, are nearly the same in the two languages. These circumstances, it is thought, are quite sufficient to establish the proof of the general identity of origin of the two languages or, certainly, their intimate relation to each other. It will be obvious, however, from a cursory perusal of the
in his Letter
; ;
Thus
in
Malay, toulong becomes Malagasy, tapaka Malay, palou Malagasy, potraka Malay, bunoh Malagasy, vono Malay, siram Malagasy, sasaka Malay, kata Malagasy, kidihidy
menoulong manapaka
memalou mamotraka membunoh,
or
mamounoh
mamono
meniiram manasaka mengata mangidihidy
497
grammar, that the inflections of a Malagasy verb are far more numerous and subtle than those of the Malay, especially in its abundant use of the causative and reciprocal forms of verbs. A considerable number of Arabic words are also found in the Malagasy language. Some of these, it is probable, may have been introduced through the medium of the Malay, as such words appear common to the three languages, Arabic, Malay, and Malagasy, with slight modifications in the two latter, corresponding with the affinities of the two languages respectively. Other Arabic words, it is highly probable, have been imported from time immemorial by the Arabs, who have for centuries visited the island for purposes of trade and commerce. These words are chiefly found in the names of the days of the week, and of the months, and in the operations of the sikidy, i. e. divination. These are mere accidental circumstances, and do not affect the structure or genius of the language. The Malagasy seems to bear no relation to the Mosambique,
There are many natives nor to the Caffre languages of Africa. of Mosambique in the island ; but so perfectly dissimilar is their language from that of the Malagasy, that they can hold no mutual conversation with the natives of Madagascar till they have acquired the language of the latter. The whole island of Madagascar may be said to possess but " one language." Varieties of dialect exist, but these are
neither so
numerous nor
so strongly
marked, that natives
resi-
conThe great features of the language, versing with one another. its genius, its construction, and its roots, are everywhere the same. Occasional words exist in some parts of the country and in some, but comparatively that do not exist in other parts
dent
in different parts of the island find
much
difficulty in
few instances, the same word has dit^'erent significations in some two or three different parts of the island. It is observable, that the dialects found along the whole coast of the island more nearly resemble one another than any one of them can be found to resemble that of the Hovas, that is to say, of the natives occupying the interior, or rather the central part And hence it may not be unsuitof the island, called Imerina. able to regard the whole Malagasy language as embracing two
or, if the supposition the maritime, and the central be correct that the Hovas are a people of later introduction to the island than the rest of its inhabitants, the two divisions already mentioned may be considered as embracing the language of the aborigines, (on the coast,) and that of the conquerors, (subsequently naturalized,) but which is now nearly
divisions
amalgamated with the former. The principal varieties found

I.
in
comparison
in=;tituted
2k
498
APPENDIX.
between the above divisions, relate more to pronunciation and a few changes of letters, than to any radical changes in tiie words themselves, or in the structure of the sentences. The letter /, for example, is frequently used on the coast where d is employed in Imerina, as in oly, a charm in Imerina, it is ody. The terminational tz on the coast is expressed by tr or tra in the interior. The letter n in the interior, assumes the nasal sound of ng or ngn on the coast ; as, manana of the former would be enunciated mangnana by the latter. Few and simple as these varieties may seem, yet, added to the introduction of some new words, and a few others used in
;
a peculiar and altered sense, they render it somewhat difficult to a foreigner, familiar with one of the above divisions only, to comprehend readily, or to converse fluently in, the other and even natives themselves require a little practice in such cases, before they can easily sustain a conversation with their fellow;
countrymen.
refer
outlines of the Grammar which accompany these pages more particularly to what is termed the Hova* dialect, though, from what has been already remarked, they may be In applied very generally to the language of the whole island. truth, all general remarks on the Malagasy language must have
The
there is nothing so pecuany one portion of it, as to limit and restrict the observation to one section more than to another. Describe the genius of the Hova dialect, and you describe the Exhibit genius of the Malagasy language on the broad scale. the leading features of the Malagasy language, without particular reference to any one section of the country, and you include all that you would wish to state, of a general kind, But descend to minutiae, and respecting the Hova dialect. you then have to exhibit the verbal peculiarities, and terms, and enunciation found in the great divisions of the i^5land
this universality of application, since
liar,
so characteristic of
respectively.
From
First,
state of society in
two things are obvious, which, in the infant Madagascar, are of no small importance. That a person who lias acquired the language used in any
ail
this,
one part of the

all
island, will find little difficulty in travelling over
the rest, so far as intercourse with the natives is concerned : and, secondly, That books printed in either dialect may be read bv natives residing where the other dialect is used, allowing each to retain his own mode of pronouncing letters, particularly that already noticed, of the interchange between n and
Hova
(/t
is
occupy,
country,
or, as
name of the people Imerina embracing a somewhat larger being changed into k afier n.)
the
;
is tlie
name
of the district they
territory,
An-Kova, the Hova

;
499
ngn and another, which may be here added, namely, that o, which among the Hovas is long, and sounded as oo in hoop, is usually short and hard, as o in hot, among those we have placed
under the maritime division. The Malagasy language contains much philosophical precision, and is capable of great force and beauty of expression. Its structure is simple and easy, yet admits considerable variety, combined Although defiwith elegance in the character of its sentences. cient in abstract terms, it possesses such an admirable flexibility, founded on fixed principles and laws of analogy, that little difficulty can be experienced in communicating any new ideas to the minds of the natives. In some cases, there appears to be a redundancy of expressions objects with which the natives are daily familiar admit various appellations, containing, however, but slight shades of variety in their signification and hence distinctions are
;
drawn out
:
of objects, that to a foreigner appear of too little value or importance to merit such careful distinctions e. g. the horns of a bullock have probably twenty difwhether inclining ferent names to describe their mode of growth inward or outward, up or down, straight or crooked, &c. And so also the plaiting of the hair of the natives admits of probably about thirty different names, descriptive of the kind, and size, and mode, and union, &c. of the plaits made. This redundancy of expression in unimportant circumstances does not, however, appear peculiar to the Malagasy language, but seems common
in the descriptive
name
to all the Eastern languages.
tions of words, so as to
The Malagasy language admits a vast variety of combinaform compound words, giving much terseness and energy to the modes of expression employed. Many of these contain allusions to the peculiar customs and manners of the people, without a familiar acquaintance with
which it is extremely difficult to recognize the precise ideas conveyed by these compound words. The want of a substantive verb, corresponding with the esse of the Latins, and to be employed in the same manner, is compensated in many cases by a mode of structure which prevails extensively in the Malagasy language, and which constitutes one of its marked peculiarities namely, that of making adverbs
;
and prepositions susceptible of

the past from the present.
tense, or time,
by distinguishing
The copiousness of the language consists not merely in its stock of words, but in its facility of forming numerous derivatives, agreeably to fixed rules, from one simple root, which derivatives convey all the shades of variety of meaning, which in many other languages would be expressed by some adjuncst, adverbs, or even a periphrasis e. g. mody, is, "to go home," tampody, "to go out, and return home the same dav."
:
k2
500
APPENDIX.
It is not intended, in the following remarks on the grammar of the Malagasy language, to institute any further comparison between it and any other langu<ige, Oriental or Occidental. Nor are the following pages presented as containing a complete Malagasy grammar, which does not properly belong to a work professing to be only a history of the country ; besides which, the strictly philological character of a grammar would prevent its being sufficiently acceptable or interesting to the general
reader, to justify
its
insertion here.
few only of the leading features and more striking peculiarities will be pointed out, following the arrangements usually observed in the Western grammars, merely premising, that the natives themselves, having had no written language till it was introduced latelv among them by their Missionary instructors, had, To the latter they of course, no grammar of their language. are indebted for an exhibition of the rules on which the structure of their language is built. The first inquiry respects the roots employed in the language, and, with regard to these, the following observations may illustrate these characters
1.
Very many words

;
exist in
the language which are obvi-
ously compound, and can easily be traced to their respective component parts and the changes they undergo in the composition of
one word
satisfactorily
accounted
for.
other words exist, which are strictly the roots with a few affixes, to give them their verbal or nominal signification. 3. Other words exist in their own proper form as roots, and
2.
Many
cannot be traced to any simpler form whatever; as vaky,

tery, pressed
;
split;
reny, mother. 4. In some instances, the primitive root appears to have become obsolete, or to be altogether lost, while its derivatives remain in use extensively. frequently of 5. The root usually consists of two syllables three : in some cases of one only ; and in some few instances
voly, planted
;
of four, or even more. 6. The root may generally be known by its being destitute of all those affixes and postfixes which will be pointed out under the chapters on nouns and verbs. 7. Roots may perhaps be found in all tlie various parts of speech; but usually they consist of nouns or passive participles; and tery, pressed. Some few roots appear to as, mofo, bread
;
nouns and participles. 8. Those roots which admit the principal verbal inflections vidy, bought; hita, seen; are generally passive participles lany, expended. laza, spoken; re, heard 9. A root mav cênerally be known by its admitting the parFor though many cases ticle "voa" immediately before it.
exist both as

exist in
501
which voa cannot be used, the word jnust be a root Hence, wherever voa immediately is both a root and a passive participle voa volt/, planted voa jinza, cut down ; voa vaky, broken ; voa die, cleansed. 10. Where voa is prefixed to a root, that root is usually of the nature of a passive participle belonging to a verb active and
before which it ca)i be used. precedes a word, that word
;
is of a neutral or intransitive nature, Or, as an sasatra aho, I am wearied. example of the same word occurring in two senses, and forming the one an active and the other a neutral verb tory. Voa tory ko proclaimed by me, mitory I proclaim, matory to be asleep. sleeping is he, tory izy 11. Some roots are nouns, and do not form verbs, excepting those which belong to the fourth class of verbs, in maha, a particle of the most extensive use in the whole language. 12. Nearly all the roots in the language, and the words derived from them, admit of a reduplicated form, which is someExcept that this times intensive, and sometimes diminutive. form so frequently diminishes the strength of the signification, pihel of the Hebrew. it might be tliought to resemble the Mangotraka, to boil mangotrakotraka, to boil vehemently. This form is synonymous with maiigotraka dia mangotraka. 13. Roots can generally be traced by rejecting the prefix and postfix formatives and affix pronouns. The pronouns can be ascertained at a glance they are few, and can be acquired by a little attention to the rules on pronouns. The other affixes and prefixes are explained with the nouns and verbs, as mi, vian, &c., and ana as the participial termination. Thus, byway of an example or two, Mampifaly mampi is a regular verbal prefix ryaZy is the root. Nifaliako ko is an affix pronoun ; a preceding it belongs to a7ia, na being cut off, when the affix follows, ni is a participial prefix, past tense. Fali alone is left; i and y are Hence one letter, i being used in the middle of words.
transitive.
Where
the verb
the voa
is
seldom used
faly
is
the root.
;
Fahafinaretana falia is a prefix forming nouns ana a participial termination used in nouns, changed from tra\ e lengthened from i. Finaritra, happy; noun, happiness. Fandrenesana participial form of a noun verb mandrenesa in the imperative (changing /into gives the verbal form :) the simple form in the indicative is mandre ; man is the active prefix d is inserted before r re, heard, is the root. These remarks respect the roots of the language generally as to the uses of the roots of verbs alone, they properly belong to that chapter of a grammar which embraces verbs.
502
APPENDIX.
On the Alphabet.
The Roman character has been introduced, and is found peradequate to express, with simplicity and perspicuity, all the sounds in the language. The English alphabet has been
fectly
power of pronounced as in French. C is expressed either by s or k; Q, by ko U, by the letters io, pronounced rapidly, and almost as a diphthong and X have no corresponding sounds in the language. Should the above letters occur in foreign names introduced into the Malagasy language, others of an equivalent power are employed to express them, by which process they become, if not agreeable to the eye of an European, yet euphonic in the ear of a native Quince, Kiontsy as, for Csesar, Kaisara Ulysses, lolisisy ; Watts, Oatsy ; and Maximilian, Makisiadopted, omitting C, Q, U,
J,
W,
X, and
altering the
are
by pronouncing
it
as dz.
The vowels
mlliana.
Changes of Letters.
Numerous changes of
euphonise,
e. g.
letters
(consonants) take place, gratia

after
h
1
changes into p k
V
v
z
_
_
d d b d
j
m
n and sometimes n n
into
m
n n
s,
nr assumes d, and becomes ndr, and t is inserted after n before as in sivy (intsivy) nine times azon-t-sampona, hindered : a final is frequently changed into ?/, when in regimine and then the article ny may with propriety be omitted before proper names, but not in other cases as, Ny vokatra becomes ny vokatry ny vavany Ny molotra ny molotry ny olona Andriamanitra Andriamanitry i Abirahama.
; ;
;
.
On Syllabification.
Excepting in the cases above specified, where certain consonants can follow each other, every consonant must be succeeded by a vowel. Hence the syllables usually consist of a consonant and a vowel, and a vowel must always terminate the

syllable.
503
Hence every termination in the language is a vowel, and generally a or y. At the end of words, these for the most part are sounded very softly ; as in Manitra, Soratra, the final a is scarcely heard and in a rapid pronunciation, each word would seem to consist of but two syllables. It adds, however, to the harmony, and tends to preserve the analogy of the language, to retain these terminations, especially as they account for some changes made when formed into compound words. This constant use of the vowels gives a peculiar softness and delicacy to the modulation and tones of the language.
;
On the
The Malagasy language
article,
Articles.
possesses, properly speaking, but one but ny. This is, however, subject to a few variations does not admit of inflexions ; ny is placed equally before nouns in the direct and the indirect cases. It is used in general before all nouns, singular and plural, and of whatever gender : as, ny trano, the house ; ny bihy, the cattle; ny ankizy, the servants. Nouns without the It has always a definite signification. article are taken in an indefinite sense : vary, rice ; olona, tany, country ; voana human being, or people ; rano, water
; ;
kazo, seeds.
Lei, ley, lehi, seem to have, in some cases, as when forming proper names, merely the force of the article, and used instead but, as in most other instances of ra, as, Lehifotsy, Lehisoa they retain the signification of demonstrative pronouns, they Lehi will be found placed under the chapter on pronouns. sometimes interchanges with ra, as, Radama, or Lehidama. In proper names of persons, ra is the usual prefix, and may be regarded as the article used in the composition of proper names but there would be no violation of any grammatical law
; ;
in
It is sometimes changed merely as a particle. Or in succeeding letter may require. poetry, it is frequently changed into re, ry, ray, rey ; these appear to retain simply the force of the article 7iy. Instead of ra, the letter / is often used as the prefix to proper names of persons, and sometimes they interchange, so that either may be used thus it may be said, either Ra-kelimalaza, or I-kelimalaza. Ra-fantaka, or I-fantaka.
viewing
it
into ran, or ra7n, as the
The common
prefix
to
names of places
m
before
b.
is
a/t,*
though,
it
* Changed into
504
APPENDIX,
should be remarked, that this is not employed as a separate and distinct prefix whicli can be omitted, but which enters into the essential composition of the name itself, as may be seen in
the following examples
:
An-kadi-vori-be, (name of a village south-west of the capital,) if analysed, is, an, the ; kady [h changed into k after n) for hacly, ditch; vory, round; 6e, many i.e. the place of numerous fosses. Am-bohi-be-maso-andro, am, the ; bohi, from vohitra, tra cut off in composition, and v changed into b, for the sake of sound ; be, much ; maso andro, sun i. e. the village of much sun ; i. e. open to the sky, unsheltered by trees, &c. Am-bohi-polo-alina, the village often myriads. Angavo, aw, the avo, high ; g inserted for the sake of sound, or the native nasal sound of n on the coast. An-tananarivo, the town of a thousand.
: :
On Nouns.
The distinction of gender can only be made by the addition of the word lahy for male, and vavy for female. The distinction of number can only be made by the addition of some word that defines the meaning intended, as the ordinal
numbers, the adjectives few, many, &c.
The
sitions,
distinction of case
is
made
partly by the use of prepo-
and partly by the position of the words, as, Vonoiny ny saka ny totozy, the cat killed the mouse; literally, was killed by it, the cat, the mouse totozy, mouse, is in the nominative case the agent to the passive verb is here saka, which must
: ;
always immediately follow its verb. The nouns themselves therefore undergo no inflexions. Nouns
are roots, derivatives, or
tra, the
compounds.
Sotaae are roots, as lani-
sky; rivotra, wind; mofo, bread. Most nouns are, however, derivatives, either from verbs or adjectives. The signification of those derived from verbs corresponds with the signification of the conjugation, or particular part of the verb from whence the derivation is taken. Thus, soratra, a writing, forms the verb manoratra; the participial noun of this \s fanoratra, the mode of writing, (as whether from left to right, or from right to left ;) the noun of the agent is mpanoratra, a writer; the passive participial form is fanoratana, the instrument of writing, as the pen, the desk, &c. anatra, instruction mianatrd, to learn fianarana, means of instruction, book, copy, lesson, &c.; mpianatra, a scholar; tnpampianutra, one causing
: ;
THE MALAGASY LANGUAGK.
505
Aro, defence; Jiarovana, means of to learn, i.e. a teacher. defence, weapons, &c. ; dera, praise; midera, to praise; Jiderana, means of praise, a hymn, &c. : rafitra, construction, build ; viandrajitra, to build ; fandrafetana, tools, implements
used in building. Of abstract nouns, comparatively few exist in the language. Many, however, are formed by merely prefixing ha to the
adjective of quality
maro
fotsy
many, much white

;
e.g.
hamaro
hafotsy
abundance, whiteness,
hamaitso greenness. maitso green ; In the above, and in many similar cases, the adjective is a root in the language ; but if, as it frequently occurs, the adjective itself is compounded of a root and a formative prefix, the
ha cannot again precede that, without also changing the termination, and making a concrete noun of a participial form e.g.
maizina dark, (i. e. of some ha-maizin-ana darkness particular time, place, or circumstance, mentioned or understood.) zava light, made to be light by some one. mazava clear, light, being in that state, hazavana light, (sub.) admits ny. To this class of nouns may be added those formed hy fa ha prefixed to the root these are, however usually concrete, and very frequently of a generic character; as, instead oi ny hazavana, the lightness, ny fahazavana, the means of light and illumination, as the sun, moon, a candle, &c. This /a/m bears a relation to the maha, a prefix forming verbs, and will be found noticed in its place. It does not always imply cause or means, as in the above instance as in fahatezerana anger from tezitra angry, endurance from maharitra to endure. faharetana
aizina
darkness;
in ha faha, but the distinction constitutes one of the excellencies, and is strictly a philosophical excellency of the language; thus haratsiana badness, wickedness in the abratsy bad
The
distinction
in
is
often
nicely
drawn between nouns
and those
tsara
good
e.g.
or perfection in God his essenhatsarana, is tial goodness, ny fahatsarany, is his goodness in action the goodness he bestows, the benevolence he displays.
faharatsiana the wickedness, hatsarana goodness fahatsarana goodness a quality

stract,
act,
the
commission
of
in the abstract.
in active operation,
506
APPENDIX.
On
Adjectives.
Adjectives are not very numerous. The want of them forms one of the most serious deficiencies in the language. They admit of no inflexions whatever, of gender, number, or case. Some adjectives are roots in the language, as, tsara, good ratsy, bad; tonta, old. Many adjectives are formed by affixing ma to the roots; as, from
;
loto
comes maloto,
dirty
tavy hery
ditra
matavy, fat mahery, strong,

madilra, obstinate marofy, ill.
rofy
Adjectives are frequently compounded of two adjectives of an opposite signification, which destroy the force of one another, and form adjectives of an intermediate signification ; e. g. neither good nor bad, indifferent: lavit'akeiky tsa'ratsy hiany neither far nor near, not very distant: lavidavitr'akeiky hiany farther, near; rather farther off, but at some distance: hiany yet many adjectives are used before nouns, having some word to be understood, as Kara, in Greek ; mafy sofina, i. e. hard as to the ears, deaf, wilfully stupid, doltish ; " maty havana," dead as to relations, i. e. one whose relations are dead.
Degrees of Compauison.
The Comparative degree is formed in two ways 1. By prefixing no ho (than) to the objects with which
positive
is
the
compared, as, Tsara ity no ho ny sasany this is better than the rest. Hendry izy no ho ny zanany he is wiser than his son. 2. By repeating the positive, and adding ko koa, as, Tsara good tsara tsara ko koa better, hendry wise hendry hendry ko koa wiser. But here also, if the object is expressed, no ho must follow hendry hendry ko koa no ho ny sasany wiser than the rest. The Superlative is made by indrindra, an adverb, signifying, exceedingly, 1. Adding
chiefly, principally;
as, tsara indrindra, best
lehibe indrindra,
greatest.
as, tsara dia tsara
repeating the positive term, and inserting dia before it, good and also good ; i. e. very good, exceedingly good.
2.
By
507
The two degrees are sometimes formed by the simple use of the particle no; of either one of two objects it may be affirmed, this is the good; that is, in distinction from the Ity no tsara So also if more other, and therefore the better of the two. than two objects are referred to, and the same expression used, this is the good ; that is, in distinction from all the it means rest, and therefore the best.
Cardinal Numbers.
The
to express to any extent required. ten numbers, isa, roa, telo, efatra, dimy, enina, jito, valo, sivy, folo, are independent words, as will be seen by the annexed scheme. The number of tens up to a hundred, zato,
These the Malagasy are able

first
are then
which
polo
in
is
expressed by adding the units to the word for ten, Thus roa-polo, two tens. Folo is changed into The hundreds up to a thousand, all cases, except sivy.
folo.
arivo, are counted in the same manner; as, roa-n-jato, telo-njato; {z being changed intoj, and n assumed gratia euphonise.) The thousands follow in the same manner to a myriad, alina,
thence to a hundred thousand, and thence to a million. The changes made by cutting off final syllables in the combinations, will appear in the annexed table. The units are added to the numbers above the tens, to form all the intermediate numbers, and the word amby inserted the article is between them, signifying add or adding to as, irai-kinserted after amby ; and after iray k is inserted ambi-ni(ny)-folo one-add-ten, that is, eleven ; ^roa ambini(ny)-folo two-add-ten, that is, twelve. The numbers always commence from the lowest unit, and rise regularly up to the highest amount as, roambi-telo-polo-amby valonjato amby arivo, that is, 2 added to 30 -added to 800:
added
the
to
1000=1832,
this
Natives on the coast reverse

tens
first,
mode, and often place
folo raik-amby, 10, 1 added, 11. When near a hundred or a thousand, that high number is as, sometimes put first, and the deficiency then mentioned zato latsaka roa one hundred less two, that is, 98.
; :
and the units follow:
The two a
's
coalesce in sound, one only
is
heard.
508
APPENDIX.
Table or Cardinal Numbers.

1
isa
iraikia
used on ihe coast.
2
3
roa.
telo.
4
5 6 7 8 9 10
11
efatra.
dimy.
enina.
fito.
valo.
sivy,
folo.
12
20
21
raikambinifolo one, the addition often. roambinifolo two. roapolo, two tens -y changed into p, for euphony. raikambiroapolo one, the addition of two tens.
30 40 50 60 70 80 90
100
telo-polo
efa-polo
three cut
tra
tens.
off in efatra.
dimampolo.
enim-polo.
fito-polo.
valo-polo,
sivi-folo.
zato.
200 roanjato. 250 dimam-polo amby roanjato 5 tens, addition of 200. 255 dimy amby dimampolo amby roanjato. 300 telon-jato. 1000 arivo. 1100 zato amby arivo. 1110 folo amby zato amby arivo.
1111
raikambini folo
alina.
amby
zato
amby
luivo.
10000 11000 20002 lOOOOO 1000000
arivo-amby iray alina.
roa-amby roa-alina.
hetsy.
tapitrisa
;
and so forward
to
any number required.
Ordinal, in Counting.
Voalohany
faharoa
the second fahatelo the third fahazato the hundredth faharivo the thousandth
affixing'/a/i'a! to
the
first
and so forward.
the Cardinal
Numbers.
THE MALAGALY LANGUAGE.

Ordinal, in expressing
Iridray
509
How
often.
mandeha
or,
indray
maka;
or indray monja, signify-
ing once, at once. indroa

intelo
twice times times; and indimy

thrice
five
inefatra
four
so forward, prefixing
in.
Ordinal, in expressing the Proportions or Fractions.

indray
maka
ampaharoa the secondth, ampahatelo tlie third
(as above) at once

i.
e.
the half
ampahefatra the fourth ampahafolo the tenth. The denominator may be prefixed to these terms
roa-n-ampahafito
| |
as, ^,
|, fj.
dim-ampahavalo
sivi-ampahafolo.
Ordinal, expressing
^ a Number of Days.
as,
This
is
done by prefixing ha, and postfixing ana; hateloana three days
seven havaloana eight hasiviana nine hafoloana ten

hafitoana
hefarana hadimiana henemana
four
five
six
&c.
On Proxouns.
The Personal Pronouns
Person Sing.
are,
Nominative Case,
1st
Izaho, and
verbs,
aho,
I.
Izaho
it
is
placed before
;
and then
is
emphatic
aho
is
2nd
3rd
1st
placed after verbs. hianao thou.

;
izy
he, she,
it.
PI.
2nd
3rd
izahay ; we, in distinction from the party addressed. \ Cisikia; we, including the party addressed. hianareo ; ye.
izy
;
they.
510
APPENDIX.
Possessive Case, Affixes.
1st
Sing,
'2nd
3rd

pj
ko, o ; my, of me, by me, &c. nao, ao ; thy, of thee, by thee.
ny
his, hers, its,

;
( nay, ay
Igj.
our,
by him, &c. by us, (exclusive of those

of those
J
J
(.
ntsikia
2nd
3rd
Sing,
addressed.) our, by us, ( inclusive ; addressed.) nareo, areo ; your, by you.

their,
ny;
by them, &c.
Objective Case, governed by Active Verbs.

1st
2nd
3rd
,
.
p.
ahy me. anao thee.

; ;
azy
^
him, her,
;
it,
anay
us, (exclusive of those addressed.)

;
2nd
3rd There
is
antsikia
;
us, (inclusive of those addressed.)
anareo ye. azy them.

;
a striking peculiarity in the Malagasy language, in its abundant supply of Demovstrative Pronouns, intended to define the distance of the persons or things spoken of in conversation, as if to make them more distinctly present to the hearer's mind, and in many cases as if to paint them to the
eye.
Many of these words may, perhaps, be more properly considered Adverbs of place, than Demonstrative Pronouns; but the familiar use of them by the natives, leads one to class them
under the present head, as probably the most appropriate on
the whole. Ao, there; at a short distance; as, ao ala trano, there, outside the house.
Eo, there, at a shorter distance

the door,
lo,
as,
eo ambaravarana, there, in
out
this one, distinctly pointed hand the white man there, this white man. Atsy, there; not at a very great distance. Etsy, there but nearer. Itsy, this, or these. Iny, that. Ity, this
there, close
io
at
vazaha
;
io,
Itikitra, this, or here in this place
on which the hand may even
be placed.
Ireny, those.
Iretsy, those.
Irery, within sight, thoiê,
but rather more distant than

if
Iretsy.
Itoy, this
pointing
at,
as
with the finger.
511
Itony, > these

Ireto,
in distinction
from Iretsy, those,
y
;
Ireo, those, these, or this
pointed out.
Izato, this one

Ireroa.
]
,,
this
one now addressed.

,
Iretiicitra-r^^^'^y^"'^^''-
On
auxiliaries
Verbs.
verb,
The language has one substantive

three others
signifying
misy
and
it
uses as
first
;
mety, mahazo, and mahay, the
may, in the sense of permission, and suitability the second, have and can, usually signifying moral capability and the third can, in the sense of physical capability. The moods of verbs are the indicative and imperative. The
infinitive
tive.
can scarcely be considered as distinct from the indica-
potential moods are the same as the indicative, formed by the addition of some appropriate part of the auxiliary verbs. The tenses are, the present, past, future, and a paulo-postfuture. Additional tenses, expressive of a more limited and
The subjunctive and
and future, can also be formed, and are in frequent use, by the addition of certain particles, and parts of the substantive verb. The tenses are made by the change of the initial letters, and by the aid of auxiliary particles. When the pronouns precede the verb, they undergo no when affixed, they are admitted only in the form change already shown in the list of affix pronouns. N.B. In expanding the roots of verbs into the different forms or conjugations, by prefixing the formative particles, the observations respecting the " changes of letters" must be carefully noticed as, from fotsy, white, comes ma-7nolsy, to whiten
definite time tlian simply past
;
;
mahafotsy, to cause to be white, able to make it white. V seems to take the change into m as vonjy, mamonjy, mahavonjy mpamonjy. Sometimes v changes into b, and takes m before it; as, voly, mam-boly ; vady manam-bady ; though this latter is rather a compound verb, and consists of wanana to have, and vady a wife.
Remarks on
the Roots of Verbs,
and
the various
modes or
Conjugations formed
]
.
from them.
The
roots of verbs are usually of a participial nature, as

in
already intimated
remarks on the roots of the language, and
512
some of these
by
a
APPENDIX.
are also nouns.
their simple state, with the article
As nouns, they can be used in ny prefixed and as verbs,

;
the formatives to be
2.
now
specified.
can be made into the imperative of a by the change of the termination, and advancing the accent one syllable, ova, ovao; kapoka, kapohy.
participial root
verb,
passively,
All the imperatives of the other passive forms of the verbs are made agreeably to the analogy of this radical imperative. 3. A great number of these roots can be verbalized by prefixing the particle voa, and annexing the affix pronouns ; as, voa ova, voa ovako. The force of the word voa seems to be "completion," and, added to a verb, denotes that the thing spoken of " is done" the act has passed completely, and has been done by some acti-. e agent, not by any internal process oi its own in which case voa could not be used. 4. The root is again employed to form a class of verbs b' prefixing the letter o, as, aova. This form has actually ai active signification, and takes an objective case after the affi>
pronouns, aovako azy 5. Another form is made by giving a participial termination to the root, adding ena, ina, ana, or aina, and sometimes vina, vana, zena, zana, or some other similar adjuncts. The final syllable is rejected when the affix pronouns are added. The
signification
6.
is
participial.
verb is formed from the root by prefixing mi. This is generally neuter or intransitive, and can then admit the pronouns only in oblique cases, i.e. governed by prepositions. But when the verb in mi is of an active signification, the accusative case is governed as in other verbs. When the mi is active, it supersedes the corresponding form in man, as, mividy. Nouns are formed from this class, as will appear in the Paradigm. 8, A form is made by prefixing mampi to the root, and this expresses the cause. It has much the same signification as the hiphel conjugation in Hebrew. It appears to flow regularly from the form in mi, and expresses the cause of the thing being in that state to which the verb in nii could be applied. It requires an accusative case after it. It takes the same variations as the verb in 7ni. 9. A further form is made from the mi by changing it into mifampi, and this adds the idea of reciprocity to that of causativeness
;
as in
misotro
drink.
I
mampisotro
mifampisotro
cause another drink. they cause one another

to
to drink.
'
m
mo
nol no!
UIQ
ah
lani
nol
lold
ino!
no!
tiol
fai
lol
^1
plj
Ltir lib!
to
to
PARADIGM OF A REGULAR VERB.

SEE VOL.
I.
PAGE
'512.
K.
171
mampi
.
V. in
mampan
.
.
V. in
mampampan
. .
vifan
nifamjn
mifampisolo nifampisolo hifampisolo
V. in
mifampa
. .
nifampifan
mifampifanolo ni fa mpifanolo hifam pi fanolo
V. in
mampifan
. .
V. in
mampifampan
manolo
^"*'"'^nr.nisolo. ^^'""'If. hisolo.
nanolo hanolo
mahasolo nahasolo
hahasolo
mampisolo
mampanolo
nampanolo hampanolo
.
nampisolo hampisolo C ampisoloina p. < nampisoloina I hampisoloina

.
mampampanolo nampampanolo hampampanolo
mi fanolo
nifanolo
.
hifanolo
mifampanolo nifampanolo hifampanolo
ampanoloina nampanoloina hampanoloina

.
ampampanoloina nampampanoloin a hampampanoloina
mampifanolo. nampifanolo hampifanolo ampifanoloina nampifanoloina

.
harapifanoloina
raampifampanolo nampifampanolo hampifampanolo ampifampanoloina nampifampanoloina hampifampanoloina
/fflpera<ie Cinisol6a
manoloa
Mood:
\ aoka hisolo
aoka hanolo
mahasoloa aoka hahasolo

.
mampisoloa' aoka hampisolo p. imp. ampisoloy

.
mampanoloa
aoka hampanolo ampanoloy
mampampanoloa aoka hampampanolo ampampanoloy

. .
mifanoloa
aoka hifanolo
mifarapisoloa aoka hifampisolo

.
ifanoloy
ifampisoloy
hifampisolo
.
mifampanoloa aoka hifampanolo ifampanoloy

.
mifampifanoloa. aoka hifampifanoio ifampifanoloy

.
raampifanoloa aoka hampifanolo ampifanoloy

.
ampifampanoloy
hampifampanolo
mampifampanoloa aoka hampifampanola
hampisolo
hampanolo
hampampanolo
hifampanolo
hifampifanoio
hampifanolo
Participial
^r.|nisoIoana
Nouns.
hisoloana.
/-
nanoloana hanoloana
fanolo
. .
nanasoloana hanasoloana
fanasolo
. .
.
ahasoloana nahasoloana. hahasoloana

.
ampisoloana nampisoloana hampisoloana

fampisolo
.
ampanoloana nampanoloana hampanoloana

fampanolo pampanolo
.
.
ampampanoloana nampampanoloana hampampanoloana

fampampanolo
. .
ifanoloana.
nifanoloana hifanoloana
fifanolo
ifampisoloana nifampisoloana
hifampisoloana
fifampisolo
ifampanoloana nifampanoloana hifampanoloana

fifampanolo
.
ifarapifanoloana
nifamplfanoloana hifampi fanoloana

fifampifanolo
.
ampifanoloana nampifanoloana h ampifanoloana

. . .
amplfampanoloana nampifampanoloana hampifampanoloana
fisolo
< mpisolo
mpanolo
nipanasolo
mpahasolo
mpampisolo
fampisoloana
mpampampanolo
famparapanoloanu
mpifanolo
fifanoloana
mpifampisolo
mpifampanolo
fanoloana.
fanasoloana
fifampisoloana.
(ifampanoloana.
mpifampifanolo 6fampifanoloana
fampifanolo mpifampifanolo fifampifanoloana.
mpam pi fa mpanolo
The English
Root,
to the
above can be deduced from the succeeding Explanation of the Present Tenses.
Manolo, Manasolo,
v. a.
Solo,
s.
substitute.
voasolo, tafasolo, p. p.
asolo, p. p. being placed as a substitute. soloana, p.p. being substituted. Misolo, V. n. to be a substitute: v. a. to substitute.
isoloana, p. n. the substituting, cause, means, &c. of it. (isolo, 3. the mode of substituting that which sliould be substiti mpisolo, 3. one who constantly substitutes another.

s.
to replace
to plai
other
Mifampanolo, causative reciprocal verb to

thing reciprocally. Mifampifanolo, causative reciprocal verb ) cause reciprocally to substitute, (including more than two p Tsons.) Mampifanolo, causative verb to cause to exchange with one
substituted.
fisoloana,
the time and place
Mahasolo, v. a. to be capable of substituting. Mampisolo, causative verb to cause to substitute. Mampanolo, causative verb to cause to replace a thing, to cause to place another as a substitute. Mampampanolo, causative verb to cause to order to substitute. Mifanolo, Mifampisolo, reciprocal verb to exchange recipro-
other. procal verb
to
order to cause
of substituting.
cally.
THE MALAGASY LANGUAGi;.
513
10. A verb is formed by the prefixing of /rt(/a/j. This form conveys the idea of the action being mutual between two or more parties; they are equally engaged in it, but do not so actively excite each other to it, as in the form mifampi; e.g. rnifan-atrikia expresses the action of two persons facing each other, as in a law-suit the party causing them to face one another would be mifampan-atrikia, a form which follows next; as, 11. A verb is also made by prefixing mifamjuin, and this expresses a cause of reciprocal or mutual actions, that cause bemg some intelligent agent; and hence this form arises out of the active and not the neutral form of verbs; i.e. from verbs in man, and not from those in mi. 12. The regular active form of a verb is made by prefixing man to the root. This, however, sometimes becomes ma, man, mand, or mang, according to the succeeding letters, governed by the analogy of sounds in the language. Some verbs in this form have a passive or neutral signification, and then such roots are destitute of the usual passive form in mi. The man compensates for it. 13. A causative form is made, arising out of the active in man, by prefixing mampan to the root. This follows the analogy Both express active agency e. g. of the verb in man.
:
manao trano I build mampanao trano azy

It
a house,
I
cause him to build a house
governs
14.
objective case in the accusative. mode is made of some roots by prefixing

its
mana.
The
signification in this
in
form
is
so nearly allied to that in ynan, that
A dictionary No general
the paradigm it will be noticed under the form in man. alone can explain the difference of signification. rule can be found applicable to each particular
word. The form is often precisely the same as it would be if the 7nan were employed, and the succeeding letters changed In truth, mana seems agreeably to the analogy of changes. sometimes used merely because a change would not be so
euphonous
15.
to the native ear. in
A form
almost constant use

:
is
also
made by
prefixing
maha
to the root
maha may
also be
prefixed to numerous
words and short phrases, not being roots. It takes the signification of causing to be, showing to be, proving to be, able to
make
mahafotsy
causing become white, paint, mahamenatra causing ashamed, maharatsy adapted

to
to feel to spoil,
to spoil.
to be.
as
with
chalk
or
I.
2 L
514
APPENDIX.
maha-olombelona causing to be a human being, possession of mind and body causes it.
i.e.
the
This form assumes the active causative mampaha. 16. Numerous verbs are also formed by the prefix mihia, which signifies, gradual process. mihiahendry to become more and more wise, to improve
wisdom, mihiamaro increase numbers,

in
to
17.
Numerous
which generally mankarary, to make ill, to cause to become ill ary, yonder; mankary, to come yonder: aty, here; mankaty, to come here. Hence, mank or manka is prefixed to most adverbs of place, and to many roots besides as, mankasitraka. 18. A few other verbal forms are made by the addition of prefixes, adapted to convey distinct ideas in the cases intended, but where the verbs are not conjugated through the different moods and tenses.
:
in to multiply. verbs are also formed by the prefix manka, signifies coming, or becoming rary, ill
:
It does not appear necessary to offer any remarks respecting the other parts of speech. They are found in the language, but, excepting in the use of prepositions, which is very limited, and substituted for the most part by idiomatic constructions of
participial forms of verbs, they
do not present any
peculiarities
that
demand
present notice.
simplicity
structure of the language is characterized by and perspicuity. Sentences are usually short, and unembarrassed Ijy circumlocution or intricacy. There is a con-
The general
made of figurative expressions, but the figure is rather in the whole idea or sentiment of the passage, than in the particular words employed. The language is by no means
siderable use
incapable of the charms and power of oratory; of which some illustrations have already been given in the course of the preceding history. Many of the leading men in the several districts, who, by virtue of their office or station, are frequently entrusted with affairs of business, and are consequently in the habit of public speaking, possess highly respectable abilities as public orators. TheTr success, however, seems to depend far more on well-timed addresses to the passions and predilections of their auditors, than to any process of long and laboured ratiocination. Their style admits of the repetition of the same idea, and in the same terms, in order to impress any sentiment, or leading part of a sentiment, that is considered particularly emphatic. No inconsiderable portion of emphasis is added by the physical and

mechanical address of the speaker,
515
in reference to the
ment of the
voice, the action of the limbs,
manageand the use of the

used by
shield, the spear, the sword, or the long walking-stafF
In their public assemblies, a speaker seldom confines himself to one spot of ground, but moves about over a space of several feet, or even yards, and keeps up attention by his movements, as well as by liis speech and his voice. The very extensive use of a figurative mode of expression, constitutes one of the charms of the Malagasy language. It renders description lively and animated, and amply compensates for the absence of various abstract terras, which in a more cultivated state of society may be expected. Several of these figurative expressions consist of compound words ; in other cases they are phrases. Of both these, a few examples may be adduced. " Mitorak'ampivalanana :" literally, " to throw (as
the older people.
into that which is flowing down ;" denoting, " to aggravate, to exaggerate." " Mitsamboki-mikimpy :" literally, " to take a leap while winking with the eye ;" figuratively, " to " Mitsipi-doha-lakarinitana :" this is a phrase venture rashly." compounded by contractions irvto one word but which written atfuil length would be, Mitsipika(?2?/)loha(n7/)(w?/)lakanamitana; literally, " to kick the head of a canoe that crosses (the water,") figuratively, " to ill requite a kindness," or, as in the English proverb, to " speak ill of the bridge that carries you safely over." " Rano-maso-tsy-tniarak'amam-paty:" literally, "water of the eye, (tears,) not following together with the dying," " not weeping at the time of the death (of a friend;") figuratively, " doing something out of season; too late for the occasion; repentance too late." " Misazi-rambon-osy :" literally, " to catch hold of a goat by its tail," " to incur disappointment." " Mamoha-fota-mandry :" literally, " to stir up the sediment that has settled down ;" figuratively, " to renew " Manisa ravina :" literally, " to count leaves;" a dispute."
a stone)
" to entertain wild flights of the imagination." ariary zaio am-pandriana :" literally, " to make a hundred dollars on his bed ;" figuratively, " to build castles in the air." " Mandri-andri-andefona :" literally, " to He down upon a spear ;' figuratively, " to be in a state of painful anxiety to lie upon thorns." Of native compositions it is difficult to give examples, and for the simple reason, that no literature has yet existed in the country. The national mind has not yet been pommitted to a written form or standard. A large amount, however, of current and prevailing thoughts and sentiments exists traditiooftlly, and a portion of these has been committed to writing within the last êvi years. Tiiey consist of the proverbial sayings that have been handed down from time immemorial, and embody
figuratively,
"
Manao
516
APPENDIX.
the principal part of the language besides these, are native fables, legends, songs, enigmas, and the studied forms of
;
address used on all solemn and public occasions, as, in the public assemblies, marriages, ordeals, funerals, &c. The fables, which are numerous, are not remarkable for any striking or valuable qualities. Many of them are pleasing and amusing; far more, feeble and puerile; some, of a decidedly vicious tendency; and a few, adapted to instil ideas of loyalty, filial duty, honesty, and industry. The legends are copious, but of little value. They contain no system they imply no system of ethics, theology, or philosophy. The absence of all reference to system in the legends, is ample proof of its absence generally from the minds of the per^ple. To this circumstance, sufficient reference has been already made in the history. The proverbial sayings present the fullest exhibition of the grade of mind among the people, both intellectually and morally, and especially if the " Hainteny" be added to the "Ohabolana." The latter are more properly proverbs, or short sententious sayings ; and the former, more lengthened popular repartees, jocose quiddities, and often amorous trifles, embracing puns, paronomasia, unmeaning words for the sake of sound, and ditties capable of almost any solution the hearer pleases. As an illustration of the poetry of their bards, it would not be easy to find a better or more pleasing specimen than that contained in the " Song concerning the Dead," by Razafilahy, given at page 276 of this volume. Of fables, sufficient examples have already been given. A few proverbs are now added, and an illustration or two of the Hainteny.
;
"
1.
Ohabolana"
Proverbs.
2.
" Rano madio iray lovia, rano maloto eransotro, try mahaOf clean water one dish, of polluted ny fandoto." water one spoonful the latter would spoil the former. That is. One foul blot may ruin a fair character, " Mahita loza ry kalamomba, mizambo-balala ho any ny
leo
3.
zanak' olona." Ah stern fate of the childless, she catches the locust, not for her own, but for the child of another. Used of a person whose exertions turn to another's advantage, but not to his own. " Aza manao rary harato railahy mifauakeiky koa tsy mifandray." Don't make the open plait, which is near, but never unites. That is. Don't let your friendship be distant, but close
!
and
cordial.
THE MALAGASr LANGUAGE.

4.
517
5.
" Toy ny mandry ampasikia, mora ama-maiuliy fa sarotra Like lying down in the sand ama-mifoha." easy in lying down, but difficult in getting up. Used of one in whom you are easily induced to place dependence, but who injures rather than benefits. " Handroso aho maty ray, mianotra aho maty reny," If I advance, my father is dead ; if I return, mother is
dead.
That
is,
Calamity befalls
me
whatever step
take.
am
sure to meet with misfortune.
Hainteny;
that
is.
Capabilities
of words, or the beauties of the language.
1 Well-fitted masonry, I arranged it, but it has been overturned by some one ; I raised the kiady, (notice not to enter premises,) this has been uprooted let the god who is above not long delay judgment, that he who has done me the wrong
;
may
2.
repent.
Don't let your friendship for me be like striking iron, and violent,) fo* if too much force be used, it snaps don't let your friendship be as unreeled (raw) cotton, soft and beautiful, but effecting nothing; do me kindness, and I'll esteem you as a stone on one's head, to be feared and respected treat me ill, and I'll treat you as the pebbles placed on the mat when the rice is dried, which at midday are tossed away as
(fierce
;
valueless.
3. Don't be too high, for fear of the thunderbolt, don't be too low, for fear of being soiled ; be moderate ; moderation is best. The eggs of the kitsikitsikia are in the sides of the rock,
(inaccessible,) the eggs of the tararaka are among the horonWhat I care little about drano, (a kind of grass,) easily found. is close at hand, obtained without difficulty what I wish for is difficult to get. Moderation is a difficult thing.
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Freeman, John Joseph. 1838. General Observations On The Malagasy Language - Outline of Grammar, and Illustrations.

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THE LIBRARY OF THE UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LOS ANGELES

Colours bv &. Baxter/Hzientce fJ.Charter house Si^na?-i

BY THE REV. WILLIAM ELLIS,

Embassy from Madagascar.

FISHER, SON, & CO.

materials for a large portion of the following

work, were collected by the Missionaries in the island

was then intended

sent chiefly a history of the Protestant Mission in

posed, to accompany by a description of the most

remarkable customs of the Malagasy, biographical

and other distinguished perof the abolition of the slave-

trade in the island.

Wlien the documents were exa-

mined by the Directors of the London Missionary

they were sent,

able to extend the plan of the work,

the history of the island from

and early in 1833,

information as could be obtained from publications in

and the papers

in the possession of the

Shortly after the period

stances occurrino^ in Madagfascar which rendered

postpone for a time the publication of

preparation for the press was susfor infor-

and although a very strong desire

mation respecting the country and the

been manifested, the delay that has taken place

work has been renif

dered more complete than

could have been,

the kindness of the Right Honourable

Majesty's Principal Secretary of State

for the Colonies, access

has been obligingly gi'anted to

the voluminous and peculiarly interesting

James Hastie, Esq., by whom the

the abolition of the slave-trade was negociated, and

years, British agent at the capital

In the early part

Drury, and the

Benyowsky, the History by Copland,

information has also been obtained from the island,

Several of these, namely, Messrs. Jones,

and Baker, have

the preparation of the

work was commenced, and

have readily furnished information, which has enabled

enlarge and modify

of the original state-

also cheerfully supplied

useful information respecting the recent his-

has prepared a valuable

paper on the native language, which

are chiefly from sketches taken on the spot, or from

the outline of the

copied from that published after the recent survey

and the names of places and

persons are given by the Missionaries, or taken from

indebted for access to the documents in the Colonial

Captain Moorsom, R.N.,

Tlie Loss of the Winterton,"