EDUCATION Unit I: 1.1 Meaning of education and educational process: (a) General concept of education.

CONCEPT OF EDUCATION: Introduction: The term education in the broad sense is not only a pedagogical one punctuating down to the basic meaning of the term; it means to plunge a mans body, mind and soul of ignorance. It enhances an individuals personality and provides him confidence to reach out to the world. What is not education? 1) Becoming only literate is not education. 2) Getting a degree is not education. 3) Gaining knowledge. 4) Learning new skills. Education in its broadest, general sense is the means through which the aims and habits of a group of people lives on from one generation to the next. Generally, it occurs through any experience that has a formative effect on the way one thinks, feels, or acts. In its narrow, technical sense, education is the formal process by which society deliberately transmits its accumulated knowledge, skills, customs and values from one generation to another, e.g., instruction in schools. Meaning/Definition of Education: 1) The act or process of imparting or acquiring general knowledge, developing the powers of reasoning and judgment, and generally of preparing oneself or others intellectually for mature life. 2) The act or process of imparting or acquiring particular knowledge or skills, as for a profession. 3) A degree, level, or kind of schooling: a university education. 4) The result produced by instruction, training, or study: to show one's education. 5) The science or art of teaching; pedagogics 6) The process of receiving or giving systematic instruction, esp. at a school or university: "a new system of public education". 7) The theory and practice of teaching. Features of education: 1) Life long process: - Process of development from infancy to maturity. 2) Bipolar process: - Interplay of educator and educand. 3) Tripolar process: - Interplay of educator, educand and social process. 4) A deliberate process: - The educator is aware of his aim. 5) Preserver and Transmitter of heritage: - The cultural heritage is transmitted from generation to generation. 6) It is progressive: - Changes according to the needs and demands of the society. Conclusion: Thus, education is a dynamic process, which involves the interplay of the educator, educand and the social forces to make an individual socially adjustable and responsible. (b) Process of Education-Bipolar-Tripolar.

Adams in his book Evolution of Education Theory said that education is a bipolar process in which one personality acts upon another to modify the development of other personality. It considers that the in the process of education two persons are involved. The one is the educator and the other is the educand. It proposes that the teacher seeks the modification of the development not only through imparting knowledge and skills, but also through her direct influence on the childs personality. The bipolarity of the educational process ceases to exist when the educator and the educand both become one and the same person. It so happens when the educand feels a drive to educate himself, when he tries to modify his own nature, develop his own will and purpose, build his own character, acquires knowledge and skills by his own efforts. In that case, education becomes unipolar. It is then when educational process achieves the main ideal. Self-expression, self-motivation, self-improvement and self-control become the key words and bipolarity ceases to exist. The educational process not only has a psychological side involving the educator and the educand, it has the sociological aspect too. The educand has to live in and for the society he belongs to. True education comes through the stimulation of the educands endowments by the demands of the social situation in which he/she finds them. The educator is requires to stimulate the educands power in the total social setting. Thus, the social aspect of the educational process becomes more important than the psychological aspect. Hence, educational process is tri-polar in nature as it involves the interaction between the two of the three namely the social factors, the educator and the educand. The function of the educator becomes then the modification of the personality of the educand in the light of the needs of the society. In this sense, John Dewey holds, education is a tripolar process and not bipolar one. 1.2 Relation of education and philosophy: (a) What is philosophy? Its meaning, nature and need. Meaning - Philosophy is the study of general and fundamental problems, such as those connected with existence, knowledge, values, reason, mind, and language.[1][2] Philosophy is distinguished from other ways of addressing such problems by its critical, generally systematic approach and its reliance on rational argument.[3] The word "philosophy" comes from the Greek (philosophia), which literally means "love of wisdom". Nature - A philosophy is a way of living, and unlike religions which denote a belief in god(s), a philosophy dictates how to live life without a god. Also a philosophy is a way to study and better understand the world around you, though without going into religious topics (usually). For example Confucianism is a philosophy it teaches people about literature and life but without going into religious topics. How does critical philosophy help with educational decisions? We live in a society where wisdoms and ideologies compete. Educators must be able to fairly select among them in a way which they understand to enhance their practice. Such a selection among competing wisdoms should be as reasonable and as unbiased as possible. Critical philosophy has at its disposal a wide variety of tools for analyzing and appraising educational debates. Educational disputes in our society tend to be particularly ideological. Practitioners need tools which are neutral to these disputes in order to deal with day-to-day problems in schools.

Here, for example, is a list of the kinds of questions educators confront on a day-to-day basis, and, in effect, decide upon, whether thoughtfully or not 1. Should a talkative student be silenced for the sake of the class? 2. Should student infractions of the rules ever be overlooked? 3. Should grading be based purely on achievement or should effort be factored in? These first three questions bring up the issue as to how the needs of individuals should be balanced against the needs of managing a group. Philosophy as ideology provides answers here; but there are competing ideologies. Philosophy as critical inquiry enables a reasoned choice. There are many other questions of similar importance that raise other philosophical issues. Consider these, for example: 4. Should students be taught to tolerate those things their parents believe are immoral? This question comes up, for example, when sexual preference or practice is a curriculum issue. 5. Should a teacher always follow administrative policy? This may be an issue of how to handle a conflict between personal morality and school rules. The many wisdoms and ideologies of our pluralistic society offer competing, even contradictory answers to such questions. For question 5, for example, one ideology might state that a teacher's primary duty is to the school and the policies that govern it; therefore, the teacher should always follow policy. Another ideology might hold that the needs of the child come first in any educational organization; therefore, there will be occasions when policies have to be ignored. Who is to say which of these two ideologies is better and why? Critical inquiry gives us the tools to answer this question. FOCUSSING OUR PHILOSOPHY: QUESTIONS OF CRITERIA Critical philosophy is multi-faceted and always evolving. But because of its educational utility, we will focus on a major emphasis of critical philosophy: philosophy as criteriology, the study of the sources, justifications, and forms of criteria for decision-making. Educational criteriology preserves the commitments of the critical tradition in that its inquiry is not restrained by any of the absolutes recognized by traditions of wisdom or ideology. And for educators, educational criteriology provides a powerful tool for decision-making amidst a plurality of competing wisdoms and ideologies. Most, if not all, of the big educational questions can be recast as questions about the choice of criteria for decision-making. Consider the following chart which recasts vague philosophical questions into questions about criteria. Questions about what something is are replaced with questions as to how we identify, determine, recognize or know something. General Questions Recast as Questions of Criteria 1. What criteria can we use to identify educational goals? What are the criteria for ranking them? Why

1. What is the primary

goal of education? 2. Should individual needs take precedence?

those and not others? 2. What are the criteria of need? What are the criteria of precedence? Why those and not others?

3. What criteria should we use to identify possible 3. What should be taught school subjects? On what basis would we select some in the schools? over others? Chart 1 Note that there can be several ways of formulating questions of criteria, for example: from the question, "What is academic achievement?" we can easily form "What are the criteria by which we identify academic achievement?" But rather than always using the formulation, "What are the criteria by which we identify ..." we can use such common variations as, a "What makes something an academic achievement?" or b. "How can you tell when something is an academic achievement." or c. "What are the standards that define academic achievement?" or d. "What are some conditions necessary for being an academic achievement?" e. "On what basis do we decide that something is an academic achievement?" Remember: an important reason for reformulating the questions is to help us identify not only criteria, but to enable us to ask "Why these criteria rather than some others?" Our concern is not only with criteria themselves, but with their sources and justifications. Limiting the possibly broader scope of critical philosophy to educational criteriology is a cautious way to start. However, it avoids some of the common pitfalls of a broader conception: vagueness and consequent inapplicability. When the need arises to broaden our conception, we will. But simple beginnings are, perhaps, best.

Unit II:
(a) Rousseaus thoughts on education:

Stages of child development. Rousseau believed it was possible to preserve the original nature of the child by careful control of his education and environment based on an analysis of the different physical and psychological stages through which he passed from birth to maturity (Stewart and McCann 1967). As we have seen he thought that momentum for learning was provided by growth of the person (nature). In mile, Rousseau divides development into five stages (a book is devoted to each). Education in the first two stages seeks to the senses: only when mile is about 12 does the tutor begin to work to develop his mind. Later, in Book 5, Rousseau examines the education of Sophie (whom mile is to marry). Here he sets out what he sees as the essential differences that flow from sex. 'The man should be strong and active; the woman should be weak and passive' (Everyman edn: 322). From this difference comes a contrasting education. They are not to be brought up in ignorance and kept to housework: Nature means them to think, to will, to love to cultivate their minds as well as their persons; she puts these weapons in their hands to make up for their lack of strength and to enable them to direct the strength of men. They should learn many things, but only such things as suitable' (Everyman edn.: 327). The stages below are those associated with males. Stage 1: Infancy (birth to two years). The first stage is infancy, from birth to about two years. (Book I). Infancy finishes with the weaning of the child. He sets a number of maxims, the spirit of which is to give children 'more real liberty and less power, to let them do more for themselves and demand less of others; so that by teaching them from the first to confine their wishes within the limits of their powers they will scarcely feel the want of whatever is not in their power' (Everyman edn: 35). The only habit the child should be allowed to acquire is to contract none... Prepare in good time form the reign of freedom and the exercise of his powers, by allowing his body its natural habits and accustoming him always to be his own master and follow the dictates of his will as soon as he has a will of his own. (mile, Book 1 - translation by Boyd 1956: 23; Everyman edn: 30) Stage 2: 'The age of Nature' (two to 12). The second stage, from two to ten or twelve, is 'the age of Nature'. During this time, the child receives only a 'negative education': no moral instruction, no verbal learning. He sets out the most important rule of education: 'Do not save time, but lose it... The mind should be left undisturbed till its faculties have developed' (Everyman edn.: 57; Boyd: 41). The purpose of education at this stage is to develop physical qualities and particularly senses, but not minds. In the latter part of Book II, Rousseau describes the cultivation of each of mile's five senses in turn. Stage 3: Pre-adolescence (12-15). mile in Stage 3 is like the 'noble savage' Rousseau describes in The Social Contract. 'About twelve or thirteen the child's strength increases far more rapidly than his needs' (Everyman edn.: 128). The urge for activity now takes a

mental form; there is greater capacity for sustained attention (Boyd 1956: 69). The educator has to respond accordingly. Our real teachers are experience and emotion, and man will never learn what befits a man except under its own conditions. A child knows he must become a man; all the ideas he may have as to man's estate are so many opportunities for his instruction, but he should remain in complete ignorance of those ideas which are beyond his grasp. My whole book is one continued argument in support of this fundamental principle of education. (Everyman edn: 141; Boyd: 81) The only book mile is allowed is Robinson Crusoe - an expression of the solitary, selfsufficient man that Rousseau seeks to form (Boyd 1956: 69). Stage 4: Puberty (15-20). Rousseau believes that by the time mile is fifteen, his reason will be well developed, and he will then be able to deal with he sees as the dangerous emotions of adolescence, and with moral issues and religion. The second paragraph of the book contains the famous lines: 'We are born, so to speak, twice over; born into existence, and born into life; born a human being, and born a man' (Everyman edn: 172). As before, he is still wanting to hold back societal pressures and influences so that the 'natural inclinations' of the person may emerge without undue corruption. There is to be a gradual entry into community life (Boyd 1956: 95). Most of Book IV deals with mile's moral development. (It also contains the the statement of Rousseau's' his own religious principles, written as 'The creed of a Savoyard priest', which caused him so much trouble with the religious authorities of the day). Stage 5: Adulthood (20-25). In Book V, the adult mile is introduced to his ideal partner, Sophie. He learns about love, and is ready to return to society, proof, Rousseau hopes, after such a lengthy preparation, against its corrupting influences. The final task of the tutor is to 'instruct the the young couple in their marital rights and duties' (Boyd 1956: 130). Negative education. Rousseau's ideas about education are mainly expounded in Emile. In that work, he advances the idea of negative education, which is a form of child-centered education. His essential idea is that education should be carried out, so far as possible, in harmony with the development of the child's natural capacities by a process of apparently autonomous discovery. This is in contrast to a model of education where the teacher is a figure of authority who conveys knowledge and skills according to a pre-determined curriculum. Rousseau depends here on his thesis of natural goodness, which he asserts at the beginning of the book, and his educational scheme involves the protection and development of the child's natural goodness through various stages, along with the isolation of the child from the domineering wills of others. Up to adolescence at least, the educational program comprises a sequence of manipulations of the environment by the tutor. The child is not told what to do or think but is led to draw its own conclusions as a result of its own explorations, the context for which has been carefully arranged. The first stage of the program starts in infancy, where Rousseau's crucial concern is to avoid conveying the idea that human relations are essentially ones of domination and subordination, an idea that can too easily by fostered in the infant by the conjunction of its

own dependence on parental care and its power to get attention by crying. Though the young child must be protected from physical harm, Rousseau is keen that it gets used to the exercise of its bodily powers and he therefore advises that the child be left as free as possible rather than being confined or constrained. From the age of about twelve or so, the program moves on to the acquisition of abstract skills and concepts. This is not done with the use of books or formal lessons, but rather through practical experience. The third phase of education coincides with puberty and early adulthood. The period of isolation comes to an end and the child starts to take an interest in others (particularly the opposite sex), and in how he or she is regarded. At this stage the great danger is that excessive amour propre will extend to exacting recognition from others, disregarding their worth, and demanding subordination. The task of the tutor is to ensure that the pupil's relations with others are first mediated through the passion of piti (compassion) so that through the idea of the suffering others, of care, and of gratitude, the pupil finds a secure place for the recognition of his own moral worth where his amour propre is established on a non-competitive basis. The final period of education involves the tutor changing from a manipulator of the child's environment into the adult's trusted advisor. The young and autonomous adult finds a spouse who can be another source of secure and non-competitive recognition. This final phase also involves instruction into the nature of the social world, including the doctrines of Rousseau's political philosophy. Curriculum. Rousseau argued against too much bookish knowledge and for natural experiences to inform young minds. Today, something called the "tool" model carries on this tradition. It is argued that knowledge is increasing so rapidly that spending time to stockpile it or to study it in books results in information that is soon outdated. We need to give our students the "tools" of learning, and then they can find the requisite facts, as they become necessary to their experience. Two important assumptions are foundational to this argument. First, that the "tools" of learning can be acquired in a content neutral environment without referring to specific information or facts. And secondly, that an extremely child- centered, experience driven curriculum is always superior to a direct instruction, content oriented approach. The "tool" model argues that "love of learning" and "critical thinking skills" are more important to understanding, lets say chemistry, than are the facts about chemistry itself. Some argue that facts would only slow them down. Unfortunately, research in the real world does not support this view of learning. Citing numerous studies, E.D. Hirsch contends that learning new ideas is built upon previously acquired knowledge. He calls this database of information "intellectual capital" and just as it takes money to make money, a knowledge framework is necessary to incorporate new knowledge. To stress "critical thinking" prior to the acquisition of knowledge actually reduces a childs capacity to think critically.{18} Students who lack intellectual capital must go through a strenuous process just to catch up with what well-educated children already know. If children attempt to do algebra without knowing their multiplication tables, they spend a large amount of time and energy doing simple calculations. This distracts and frustrates children and makes learning higher math much more difficult. The same could be said for history students who never learn names and dates.

The second idea is that students should learn via natural experience within a distinctly passive curriculum. While there is wisdom in letting nature set as many of the limits as possible for a child--experience is probably the most powerful teaching method--Rousseau and progressive educational theory go too far in asserting that a teacher should never preach or sermonize to a child. At an early age, children can learn from verbal instruction, especially if it occurs along with significant learning experiences. In fact, certain kinds of learning often contradict ones experience. The teaching of morality and democratic behavior involves teaching principles that cannot be experienced immediately, and virtually everything that parents or teachers tell children about sexual behavior has religious foundations based on assumptions about human nature. The bottom line seems to be that if higher math, morality, and civilized behavior could be learned from simply interacting with nature, Rousseaus system would be more appealing. However, his version of the naturalistic fallacy--assuming that everything that is natural is right-would not serve our students well. Rousseaus observations about the student-teacher relationship fall short first because of his overly optimistic view of human nature and because we believe that there is truth to convey to the next generation that cannot be experienced within nature alone. (b) Pestalozzi : His educational experiments The seminal experiment: the Neuhof Everything hinged from the outset on an experiment that ended in disaster. Pestalozzi acquired some land in the Aargau, known as the Neuhof, and in the early 1770s took in poor children from the neighbourhood, setting them to work spinning and weaving cotton, the idea being that what they produced would in the long run pay for their training. For those days, it was a highly original educational enterprise, based on the children managing their own work. For Pestalozzi, it was the ultimate fulfillment of a great dream of his youth. He began by sharing the questionings and activities of young militants agitating for a new social order. Rejecting the educational system of his native city which, although reputed to be among the best in Europe, he considered excessively subservient to a political regime that reserved basic rights for the inhabitants of the city, while leaving the rural population with none at all, the young Pestalozzi preferred to frequent student clubs where the citys real problems were freely discussed. He even came to blows with certain corrupt notables and as a result spent the last days of January 1767 in prison. He had very close contacts with pietist circles in Zurich, in which the emphasis was on practical Christianity, far removed from merely formal religion, the constraints of dogma and

concessions to political expediency. He was specially influenced by the achievements of the Anabaptists and the Moravian Brethren who here and there were conducting experiments that combined instruction with agricultural and industrial work, following in the footsteps of Francke whose orphan school in Halle had been widely acclaimed. 2 But it was from his compatriot Rousseau that the decisive stimulus came. mile was to remain his bedside book throughout his life, and a year before his death he was still praising its author as the educational kingpin of the old world and the new, the man who had freed the mind from its chains, made the child its own creature again and restored education to children and to human nature.5 The impetus for the Neuhof project thus came from the great dream of re-creating an independent humanity, far from the civilization of the city. Pestalozzi was to make himself a poor man among the poor, seeking to make the latter realize that their very condition contained the key to their liberation: in this instance the industrial wage, since the spread of cotton spinning and weaving in rural areas offered peasant families a stable means of subsistence such as had never been guaranteed by nature. However, they still had to learn how to make good use of this new source of well-being and, now that the link with nature had been broken, how to face up to the human implications of their emancipation. The Neuhof thus set out to achieve a dual objective: to introduce children to economic realities and at the same time to help each of them to develop his own independent personality within a free and responsible society. Pestalozzis experiment in teaching through work soon encountered insurmountable obstacles and had to be adjudged bankrupt in 1780. The blame is usually laid on external factors but that is to ignore the fact that Pestalozzi himself constantly assumed the blame for his first failure, and to lose sight of an important key to his subsequent development which, in the period that included the Inquiries, published in 1797, the preparation of his Theoretical and Practical Methods and the crowning achievement of Yverdon, can be interpreted as an effort to overcome the inconsistencies that had led to the collapse of the Neuhof experiment. Indeed, most of the problems

that were subsequently to bedevil the new education were already found in that experiment, especially some of its most remarkable components, those connected with industrial work.6 The whole undertaking was based on social work, seen as the decisive means of preventing alienation in the educational process: by financing their training with their own earnings, the children would be under no obligation to anyone. In practice, however, Pestalozzi soon realized that this philanthropic view of work had also to take into account a socio-economic environment which places such an onus of profitability on a small enterprise that its educational objectives are ultimately submerged. As for the idea that work comes naturally to man, Pestalozzi began to have second thoughts about this also when he overheard the children regretting the days when they were free to roam around the countryside. He was banking on his boarders interest in an experiment based on the welfare of the individual and of the group, but he rapidly had to concede that interest is always relative and firmly rooted in selfish desires. For instance, he was unable to prevent parents from turning up at any moment to take away their child, now reinvigorated, well-clad and, above all, capable of providing the family with an income that was in no danger of being diverted into anothers pocket. Pestalozzi thus found himself with his institution in an untenable position: although genuinely concerned to provide each child with the means of attaining independence, he was constantly compelled to subject these same children to the dictates of profitability, and his philanthropic homilies, touching on every chord of morality and religion, were ultimately perceived as intolerable blackmail to increase productivity. As a result, the most generous of men, who had committed his whole fortune to the experiment, found himself accused, by those whom it was supposed to benefit, of seeking above all to serve his own self-interest. Pestalozzis basic objective was, as he wrote in his 1774 diary on the education of his son Jacob, to join together again what Rousseau had rent asunder: freedom and constraint, natural desire and the rule of law wanted by all and for all. But this same Rousseau had said that this ideal union was bound to break down at the first attempt to put it into practice. Pestalozzis failure bore out the paradox described in Book One of mile, namely that the education of the individual (who must be free) and that of the citizen (who must be of use) can no longer be merged in a single project. Of all Rousseaus more or less devoted disciples, he at least had the merit of trying to put mile into practice in all its paradoxical vigour, putting himself in a

position when the time came to move beyond the fruitful contradictions of Rousseaus work. Pestalozzi was thus obliged to look on helplessly as his experiment foundered in a sea of selfishness. However, far from giving up his basic project and docilely submitting to conventional wisdom, he made a remarkable effort, in the teeth of all opposition, to anchor this resolute desire for independence in that very social reality that had at first rejected him, a procedure that was to prompt him to take stock still more lucidly of the scope of the act of educating, of the value of education as an activity within a society which did not know where it wanted to go. His contribution to methodology and Teacher Education and curriculum. The Inquiries of 1797 were a call to action and the political upheavals in Switzerland in 1798 meant that the peoples educator once again had the benefit of a fair wind. First came the Stans experiment, launched in 1799 and swept away by the war after only a few months. It was followed by the establishment of a new institute of Burgdorf, which did not survive the fall of the Helvetian Republic in 1803. Pestalozzi was finally called to Yverdon where, on 1 January 1805, he opened an educational establishment in the chteau that rapidly expanded and became famous throughout Europe. People came from all sides to observe this new educational wonder and trainee teachers arrived in waves (Prussian, French, English) to be instructed in the Pestalozzi Method. The Method is certainly the educational project that takes in all Pestalozzis work in these three institutes. Started in practice at Stans, its basic principles were to be set out in the work, How Gertrude teaches her Children, published in 1801, and its various elements were constantly being further developed during the experiments at Burgdorf and Yverdon.11 The question of the originality of the Pestalozzi Method (Herbarts expression) is often posed. If the term is taken to refer to teaching materials and methods, a disappointment is in store: visitors to the Yverdon Institute looked in vain for the kind of teachers gimmicks that might be adopted in their own teaching practice. As far as teaching techniques are concerned, it might well be said that Pestalozzi invented nothing, not even the slate, and that he borrowed what was useful from all and sundry. It should be noted that far from being developed in an educational desert his experiment formed part of a widespread movement to fashion a new education that involved even the humblest village clergyman. Moreover, Pestalozzi himself admitted that he had been completely mistaken in some of his techniques, especially for learning languages, and he had no hesitation in

introducing radical changes in a teaching method at any moment. In short, it was not in its material aspect that the originality of the Method lay. And yet originality there was, as demonstrated by the way in which almost all practical educationists in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries were to hark back to it as to a source and refer to it constantly in spite of all their difficulties and failures. The originality of the Pestalozzi Method may be said to lie basically in its spirit. Its merit consists in the fact that, whereas virtually all his avowed or unavowed disciples have regularly allowed their intentions to be submerged in a body of knowledge, a technique or an a priori conception of man, and have as regularly protested that what they had wanted to achieve should not be confused with what they actually had achieved, Pestalozzi himself knew that the Method and 6 its components should never be more than mere instruments in the hands of the educator, helping him to produce something that was not present in the Method but proved quite different in nature from the Methods nuts and bolts. That something was freedom with autonomy. The Method is certainly a necessary instrument. It is important to observe the nature of children, to deduce the laws governing their development, to create an environment conducive to that development, to take expressly into account the social dimension of the educational relationship and to make a childs capacity for action effective: all these things were to be further developed and technically improved by Makarenko, Montessori, Freinet and Piaget. The basic aim was to submit to unremitting scrutiny the way in which human nature functions in its various manifestations: without knowledge of that nature, no power could be exercised over it. It is a mistake, however, to imagine that knowledge is liberating in itself: it is a necessary but not a sufficient means. The Method, with all its useful knowledge of children, can serve as an instrument of subjection as well as of liberation. To ensure that it liberates, it is necessary to devise a specific plan of action that will bring to bear the Methods techniques in such a way that they really do generate freedom in autonomy. That is where educational work really begins and where the spirit rather than the letter of the Method comes into play, a spirit in which techniques are used only to produce the contrary of a technical result. As Pestalozzi said in 1826, Examine everything,

keep what is good and if something better has come to fruition in your own minds, add it in truth and love to what I am trying to give you in truth and love in these pages.12 Obviously practice is essential and refers to an attitude; it is impossible to reduce that attitude to theoretical terms without running the risk of killing the very thing that the method and the process of applying it are supposed to bring into existence and nurture. There is a limit, continues Pestalozzi, beyond which the process must be turned on its head in order to leave the initiative to freedom and autonomy: Anyone who adopts the Methodchild, adolescent, man or womanwill always, in practice, come to a point where very special demands will be made on his individuality: by seizing that opportunity and exploiting it, he will most certainly bring into play powers and resources that will enable him largely to dispense with the assistance and support in his education that will still be indispensable to others, and he will make himself ready to follow up and complete the remaining portion of his education, in a self-assured and independent manner. Were it otherwise, my institute would collapse, my whole enterprise would have failed.13 If it were necessary, however, to provide practical educationists with some idea of how the spirit of the Method was put into practice in Pestalozzis institutes, a good beginning would be to study the way in which the three elementsheart, head and handform the core of the process. It is not a question here of three parts of man or even of three faculties but rather of three different ways of looking at this same human species in its quest for autonomy. Pestalozzi uses the word head to designate mans ability to detach himself through reflection from the world and his confused impressions thereof by developing concepts and ideas. However, as an individual, man remains situated or even completely immersed in a world that through the experience he undergoes makes constant demands on his sensitivity and brings him closer to his fellow men in the struggle to control nature through work: this is the domain of the heart. Acted upon, therefore, by what exists and challenged by what ought to be, man has no alternative but to use this continuous conflict which he faces faire and square in order to fashion his own being: that is the work of the hand. These three elements thus act together to bring out the drive for autonomous existence in

each of the persons concerned: the part played by reason stands security for the universality of human nature, the part played by sensitivity bears witness to everyones deep-seated individuality, while the conflict between the two releases a specifically human capacity for developing a line of conduct that will produce an autonomous personality. It should be noted, in addition, that the whole of this process evolves within the framework of society, in so far as it is society that shapes human reasoning and is also the source of the basic dissatisfaction of the individuals concerned. 7 The schoolteacher and, before him, the father and mother, provided they play the role of educators, occupy a special position with respect to the encounter between the childs instinctual desires and the demands society makes on him. They have the power, during this decisive period, either to further the development of the power of autonomy or to cripple it, perhaps for a lifetime. Such is the awesome moral responsibility of the educator. A decisive factor in the exercise of this responsibility is the extent to which the educator, regardless of place and time or of the subject being taught, is able to keep these three components of the Method in equilibrium. In other words, it is not sufficient in an educational establishment to divide up the subjects harmoniously between intellectual, artistic and technical activities. Each teacher should also strive to bring into play in every educational activity all three elements involved in developing the childs capacity to act for himself: the physical-education instructor will pay attention to the childs intellectual grasp of the exercises he performs and to their impact on his senses; the mathematics teacher will take care not to lose sight of his subjects relevance to the childrens everyday experience but to provide an opportunity for them to apply mathematics on their own account at some stage in the educational process, etc. Pestalozzi never tires of stressing that this balance is never definitively established and may be disturbed at any moment to give undue advantage to one of the three animalities: head, heart or hand. This analysis applies not only to what is required from education, such as knowledge, savoir-faire and receptivity, but also and above all to the functioning of the institutions, lying

between the warmth of the family circle and the impersonal state, which is responsible for establishing self-determining freedom in a living, carefully considered and practical way. Instead of cradling children in the illusion of immediate democracy, as he had done in the Neuhof, from Stans onwards, Pestalozzi set about establishing a human social order which came as close as possible to fulfilling the desires of the individual and catering to the interests of the group, while ceaselessly striving to surpass itself in action: the children at Stans, although extremely poor themselves, took pains to make room for those even poorer.14 The various structures of the educational system must therefore be organized in such a way as to enable the educator, in view of the task that he is called upon to fulfil, to work responsibly and autonomously in an atmosphere of freedom. Each part of the institutional machinery should serve the project that sets educational action apart from other human activities, a project intended basically for a human society coming into being against a background of autonomy within the teacher-student relationship

(c) Herbert Spencer: Principles of curriculum. Based on Herbert Spencers curriculum writing, his emphases were activities that sustain life, enhance life, and in rearing children, maintain the individuals social and political relations and enhance leisure, tasks and feelings Maxims of teaching. (d) John Dewey: John Dewey and his activity approach to education with reference to project method and problem solving method. John Dewey theorized that learning should not only prepare one for life, but should also be an integral part of life itself. Simulating real problems and real problem-solving is one function of project based learning. Students help choose their own projects and create learning opportunities based upon their individual interests and strengths. Projects assist students in succeeding within the classroom and beyond, because they allow learners to apply multiple intelligences in completing a project they can be proud of. However, traditional teaching strategies tend to focus on verbal/linguistic and mathematical/logical intelligences alone. This can create frustration for people who are comfortable with less traditional learning modalities, such as kinesthetic, visual, interpersonal, intrapersonal, musical, or naturalist. Project based learning allows the teacher to incorporate numerous teaching and learning strategies into project planning and implementation. Assisting learners in developing all of their intelligences will make learning a part of living, not just a preparation for it. Dewey Sequence Problem-Solving One of the most effective methods of problem solving is the Dewey Sequence. Developed by educator John Dewey, this reflective thinking process which is a structured organized series of questions is best described by the questions listed below. Every member of the group must come prepared to answer each of the questions in steps one through four as it pertains to your topic. Step One: Define the Problem 1. What is the specific problem that the group is concerned about? (In the case of your group this will be your policy question). 2. What terms, concepts, or ideas need to be defined? Step Two: Analyze the Problem 1. What is the history of the problem? 2. What are the causes of the problem? 3. What are the symptoms of the problem? 4. What methods, (approaches, laws, policies) currently exist for dealing with the problem? 5. What are the limitations of these methods?

Step Three: Determine Criteria for optimal Solution 1. What are the guidelines for a workable solution? (Sample criteria may include cost, ability to be implemented, enforced, i.e., band uniforms-comfortable, eye catching, weather resistant). Step Four: Propose Solutions After the group has analyzed the problem and suggested criteria for a solution, it should begin to suggest possible solutions in tentative, hypothetical terms. Many suggest a variety of possible solutions without evaluating them. (Brainstorming). Step Five: Evaluate Proposed Solution After the group has compiled a list of possible solutions, it should be ready to select the best possible solution in light of the criteria that the group developed in step three. 1. Are there any disadvantages to the solution? Do the disadvantages outweigh the advantages? 2. Does the solution conform to the criteria formulated by the group? (The group may decide to modify the criteria). Step Six: Select a Solution 1. Weigh merits and deficiencies. 2. What would be the long-term and short-term effects of this solution if it were adopted? Step Seven: Suggest Strategies to Implement the Solution Group members should be confident that the solution will indeed solve the problem. After the group selects the solution they must determine how to put the solution into effect. 1. How can the group get public support and approval for its proposed solution? 2. What specific steps are necessary to implement the solution? 3. How can the group evaluate the success of its problem- solving efforts?

Unit III: Aims of Education: (a) Characteristics of Gurukula system. (b) Aims of education (Ancient India). Infusion of party and religiousness. Character formation. All sided development of personality. Inculcation of civic and social duties. Promotion of social efficiency and social happiness. Preservation and spread of national culture. (c) Aims of education in modern times with reference to Kothari Commission Promotion of national productivity. Modernization. Social and national integration. Development of democratic values. Development of moral and religious values. (d) Constitutional provisions, Equality of educational opportunity. Unit IV: Individual and social aims of education: Individual aims. Social aims. Their reconciliation. Unit V: Sociology and Education: The subject matter of Sociology-General Idea. Concept of educational sociology and its characteristics. Role and functions of Educational Sociology. Unit VI: School as a social institution: Criteria of a social institution. School as social institution. Role and functions of school in developing character of students. Role and functions of school in developing national integration. Role and functions of school in developing democratic citizenship. Unit VII: Pre-Primary and Primary Education: (a) Pre-Primary and Primary Education in Maharashtra. Concept of Pre-Primary Education. Need and importance of Pre-Primary Education today. Objectives of Pre-Primary Education. The Present position of Pre-Primary Education in Maharashtra. (b) Constitutional provision and present position in Maharashtra. (c) Problems of wastage and stagnation. Single-teacher. Equipments. Unit VIII: Role of mass media in education: 1.1 Meaning of mass media. 1.2 Functions of mass-media (Press, Radio, T.V. media). (a) Recreation.

(b) National outlook. (c) Provision of updating knowledge. (d) Promoting social awareness and international understanding. Books for Study 1. Doctrines of the Great EducatorsRobert R. Rusk, The Macmillan Press Ltd. 2. Some Great Western EducatorsS.P.Chaube, Ram Prasad and Sons, Agra 3. 4. Seven Indiat Educationists A. Bishwas and J. C. Agrawal, PublicationArya Book Depot, New Delhi. 5. Recent Educational Philosopics in India S.P. Choube, Reference Books 1. Development of Educational Theory and Practice R. N. Sataya and B. D. Shaids, Dhanpal Rai and Sons, Jullunder, Delhi. 2. Principles and Methods of Education J. S. Wadis, Paul Publishers, N.N.11, Gopalnagar, Jullunder. 3. Sri. Arobindo and the Master of Education, Publication Sri Arobindo Ashram, Pondichery. 5. Ancient Indian Education G. S. Altekar. 6. Report of the Indian Education Commission, 1964. /166 (Kothari Commission). Links to ebooks: http://www.archive.org/stream/doctrinesofgreat00ruskiala/doctrinesofgreat00ruskiala_djvu.txt