Interwar Czechoslovakia

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Czechs did well at the Paris Peace Conference, they had a strong exiled government willing to try and apply pressure to the Entente. Benes argued that the Czechs and Slovaks were of the same race However, the Allies saddled the Czechs with a heavy psychological mortgage after this Another effect of gaining all their demands was to tempt enemies against their state o They had a large German minority now on the border regions, ready to be assisted by a German Reich, nearly 25% Germans Was territorially sound therefore, but politically isolated something that would be come clear at the Munich crisis when all

her neighbours would lodge complaints against her (except Romania) Arguably at the time, the Allies may well have known that Slovak relations were not as strong as the Czechs had made out. Germans staged protests about being absorbed into Czech lands via the historic Bohemian state lines Benes had argued that they wanted to turn Czechoslovakia into a sort of Switzerland concerning the different nationalities living there However, the Germans viewed themselves as having the right to rule over the inferior Czechs they had fought for Germandom in WWI and now their dream was shattered o BUT it was good that they didnt have to pay reparations o Reassuring bourgeois government of Prague in 1919 compared to Red Vienna and Berlin The new state had never before been united and as such the Czech government faced a large task of creating political unity. Czechoslovakia was the richest successor state o Had an economic advantage, rich agriculture so easier to be self-sufficient Had big industry High rates of literacy Well-trained (if slow) bureaucracy

o However, their train networks did not connect with Western Europe very well o Also, whilst heavy industry was advanced, lighter industry tended to be backward, with small private enterprises o

Political Parties

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Constitution largely Centre Left/Left rather than Rightist Senate and a Chamber of Deputies o Senate largely powerless compared to the Deputies o President had large powers, elected by both houses. General stability BUT 17 different cabinets in 20 years (1918-1938) Largely technical reshuffles Czech parties tended to crystallise around ideological parties, whereas polish politics tended to veer towards the charismatic personalities. National Democratic Party Oldest party Nationalistic to the point of being chauvinistic Anticlerical, moved steadily rightwards Leader Karel Kramar was skilled, one of the architects of the independent movement Small Traders and Artisan Party Opposed technology of mass production and other modern economic benefits such as department stores etc Rooted in the uneven development of modernisation in Czechoslovakia Fascist Movement Partially merged with the National Democrats to form the National Union (1934-1937) Small and kept from power by the coalition pattern of the respectable parties Had celebrity leaders such as the Serbian Legion hero, General Rudolf Gajda Catholic (or Populist) Peoples Parties Oscillating between Right and Centre Czech and Slovak organisations remained distinct Party became more totalitarian as time went on o Slovak party was chief opposition to Czech autonomy o Czech aspect preferred governmental life move Drew support from all Czech classes

Agrarian Party Largest party Very organised, involved with banking and other areas of Czech life o As such indespensible to any coalition government o Became a general holding party for middle class goals Used land reform, exchanging land from large German and Magyar holders to smaller Czech, Slovak, Ruthenian and sometimes German holder Managed to maintain tensions between the initial peasant support and the later bourgeois support National Socialists (nothing like NAZI party) Exclusively patriotic Had the largest ideological appeal, but still mostly to Czechs. Had proponents such as Benes

Communists Separated from Social Democrats in 1920 after pressure from Moscow o Several groups amalgamated for a single party in Czechoslovakia Only party to attract equal support in both rural and urban areas Never translated their electoral strength into serious power In 1930s gained a patriotic element through denunciation of Nazis, then the Munich agreement.

4/9/2011 5:29:00 AM Shifts in the political ideology of the country: firstly nationalist, then briefly socialist, then a long running agrarian-dominated phase Initial nationalist phase an expression of euphoria Karel Kramar was Premier (National Democrats) Goals of maintenance of public order, curbing of inflation and the creation of land reform. o General move to the left meant that Kramar resigned, but stayed as head of the delegation to the Paris Peace Conference Socialist-Agrarian cabinet took over, placated the urban population by having a Socialist Premier, Tusar. Masaryk reelected president in 1920 Little Entente established, reliance on France, Patronage of Austria and support from the League of Nations all established However at home Czech-German relations worsened 1921: Benes elected Prime Minister his cabinet consolidated the intiatives of his predecessors in terms of foreign and domestic affairs o an attempt at habsburg restoration in Hungary was averted by Czechoslovak pressure in 1921 1922 Land Reform was implemented Education reforms etc. Following this Agrarians gained control for a successful period. Late 1920s would test the viability of coalition: Czech bourgeois parties had to share with Slovak and German ethnic parties However, Germans did not the wild inflation in both Germany and Hungary compared to the stable economy of Czechoslovakia o Indeed, many German parties had signalled their availability for a bourgeois coalition in 1924 o With land reform and the official language being recognised by 1926 AND with increasing Communist pressure, this coalition became mutually feasible Issues concerning the standardisation of the administrative system

The ex-Austrian half had provincial administrative units, whereas the ex-Hungarian had provincial units Hlinka made the participation of the Slovak Peoples Party conditional on the use of the old Austrian system of provinces o Created provinces of Bohemia, Moravia-Silesa, Slovakia and Ruthenia

Though ethnically and linguistically related, Czechs and Slovaks had been politically separated for a thousand years since the absorption of Slovak lands into Hungary The disagreements that surfaced after WWI surprised the Czechs more than the Slovaks o Slovaks didnt trust Czechs and their modernism o Czechs saw the Slovaks as backward and priest-ridden

As only a handful of Hungarian civil servants remained after 1918 and the Slovak intelligentsia was so small, the Czechs had to provide their own civil servants. Slovak press and Slovak cultural activities were encouraged in order to dispel Magyarisation o However, Slovaks resented the amount of Czechs in their towns Slovaks also had economic grievances Their infant-industries no longer received Hungarian subsidies and protection o Czechoslovakian taxes were also higher in the former Hungarian provinces than in the old Austrian provinces until 1929. Depression brought particularly severe economic hardship to Slovakia

Great Depression

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Impact of the Great Depression did not hit Czechoslovakia until a year after it hit neighbouring states The 1/3rd of the population dependent on agriculture had already been hit by the agricultural crisis of the late 1920s o This had had serious political repurcussions on the Agrarian party Meant they redoubled protectionism Result was an unhelpful trade war with Hungary from 1930 onward After 1931 unemployment, inflation and exports worsened The Sudeten Germans were particularly economically frail and open to Hitlers propaganda at this time. Czechs rescued the Sudeten German Savings Bank in 1932 at a cost of one billion Crowns. o The Germans here owed the Czech government an acceptance of limitations. Despite this, coalition governments limped on without effect, postponing difficult, yet essential decisions lest its internal ethnic tensions implode What makes Czechoslovakia more unique is her consistency to parliamentary democracy in the face of the depression Most of her neighbours crumbled into totalitarian, military or royal dictatorships (i.e. Romania, Hungary) Elections of May, seeing Masaryk re-elected, highlight the stability of the Czechoslovak system. However, in this time Henleinists declared that they were the only party for the Sudeten Germans with Henlein following Hitlers model. Henleins initial acceptance and loyalty to the Czech constitution were taken at face value o Many right wing Czech and Slovak parties regarded Henlein as a potential ally against Socialism Following Hitlers annexation of Austria in 1938 Henleins party gained momentum. Only the German Social Democrats and the Communists remained aloof. Henleinists took over 91% of the German vote

Czechoslovak government didnt want to be accused of provocation, so did nothing to protect the openly Nazi Henleinists terrorising German Democrats

Henlein To Munich

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However, in this time Henleinists declared that they were the only party for the Sudeten Germans with Henlein following Hitlers model. Henleins initial acceptance and loyalty to the Czech constitution were taken at face value o Many right wing Czech and Slovak parties regarded Henlein as a potential ally against Socialism Following Hitlers annexation of Austria in 1938 Henleins party gained momentum. Only the German Social Democrats and the Communists remained aloof. Henleinists took over 91% of the German vote o Czechoslovak government didnt want to be accused of provocation, so did nothing to protect the openly Nazi Henleinists terrorising German Democrats

By now, the Sudeten German question had become an international issue. Both Hitler and Henlein had hinted at a readiness to call off revisionist pressure if Czechoslovak foreign policy towards Germany changed. o Would mean losing ties to Russia and France, Benes was not prepared to do this. Benes had seen through Henlein much quicker than the other Czech ministers o Urged his colleagues to bam the Heimatfront

Czechs argue that although they had the military capability Hitler argued that only Germany and Czechoslovakia prepared for war the desertion of France led them to capitulate. Alongside this the actions at Munich worsened issues However, had technologically advanced armaments Well placed countryside to defend, disciplined and literate population o Beness capitulation at Munich was a profound failure of psychological and political nerves

4/9/2011 5:29:00 AM Composition of Czechoslovakia 4 main territories: Bohemia Moravia Southern Silesia Ruthenia Declared constituent assembly based on 1911 Reichsrat elections, Masaryk president, Kramar Prime Minister However, union with Czechs provided real problems for the Slovaks No administrative experience Agriculture was primitive Rural emigration and alcoholism Suffered from Magyarisation policies from Budapest o Gaps in civil service to be filled by Czechs Ruthenia was possibly even more backward 22 primary schools over half population illiterate 21 Ruthenian speaking public servants Dominant clergy

In 1918 Bela Kun invaded Slovakia and Ruthenia, hoping to take advantage of the Magyar minorities here. However, the Slovak Soviet Republic lasted only two weeks due to poor supply lines In fact the Hungarian incursion served to strengthen Czech claims in Paris that Czechoslovakia was the sole reliable bastion of democracy in Central Europe. The Sudeten Germans presented a problem, they were the most powerful collection of Germans in Central and Eastern Europe. Czechs occupied the area, uneasy peace until 52 Germans killed in demonstration Sudeten Germans refused to take part in Czechoslovak state Negativism Political System

President was elected by both houses of parliament, the chamber of deputies and the senate. Both of these bodies were elected by proportional representation Constitution All ethnicities allowed to publish their own newspapers Official language of an area is the language that more than 2/3rds speak The freedom of ethnic groups encouraged the proliferation of parties o 23 parties took part in 1920 elections key parties: Social Democrats, Agrarian Party, Communist Party, National Democrats (Kramars party), National Socialists, Czech Peoples Party and Slovak Peoples Party. o Unlike Poland however, Czechoslovakia enjoyed political stability Coalitions of Agrarians, Socialists and Bourgeois conservative groups. Also rested on the fact that the political parties were the employers of the deputies Individual votes were cast for parties and not for individuals Gave power to the party machine, candidates were anxious to please the party

The Hrad and Petka were also useful to keep stability. The Hrad came about because, unlike Poland, not all party politics had to be conducted in the open. As such this group could exist to pressure political ideologies, in particular the foreign policy Benes was a key member of this group. Petka was a series of unorganised meetings in which leaders would discuss policies described as the real government of the country by Masaryk

Social and Political Crisis of 1918-21

Many Slovaks were suspicious of Prague Many Germans were openly hostile to it Return to peacetime production and of soldiers created an economic disruption resulting in a fall of wages by 60% Urban workers wanted to work whilst the peasants wanted land reform o 1/10th of all land was held by 150 families redistribution was slow and still incomplete in 1938 but did dissipate tensions and contented the peasantry Industrial reform o 8 hour day o sickness and unemployment schemes

These reforms were greatly aided by the control of inflation Many other states were simply printing money o Rasin had the Czech borders sealed and all the notes stamped in order to curb the increase in money supply Despite this, the Kramar government was out of touch with the mood of the nation: the National Democrats had lost the raison detre with independence, and their bourgeois outlook was unpopular Government was replaced after 1919 Peace Treaty with that of Tusar, a Social Democrat o However, the Democrats were split by industrial action, forming one a moderate and radical camp of the party Benes was placed as Prime Minister in 1921 Helped engineer the Little Entente in 1924 Czechoslovak-French Treaty in 1924

Slovak Question in early 1920s Slovaks resented elements such as the fact that Czechs could call their schools Czech but Slovaks could only refer to them as Czechoslovak Slovakia also suffering economically Retreating Hungarian troops had taken industrial equipment

But much greater was the stopping of Hungarian subsidies to their industry and the opening to competition from Czech business In the countryside, Land Reform had helped many, but there were still those without land. Perhaps most widespread was discontent about religion o The new National Church conducted its services in Czech Matters came to a head when government decided to abolish some national holidays Clerical parties received a greater amount of the political vote

German Question in early 1920s Whilst Slovaks drifted towards anti-centralism, the Sudetan Germans moved in the opposite direction Hated conscription Saw land reform as a device to dispossess them Deflation had a negative effect on German exporters Complained that new schools were only Czech Despite this, activism (taking a role in the politics of Czechoslovakia) increased This was brought about due to fiscal stability o Also realised that Negativism had achieved nothing Supra-national Coalition, 1926-1929 Coalition of Agrarians with Hlinkas Slovak Peoples Party meant a division into 4 provinces of Bohemia, Moravia, Silesia and Ruthenia Also, for the state to make peace with the Vatican church, allowing the Vatican to nominate the bishops of Czechoslovak sees. Despite these concessions there was still unease in Slovakia Tuka, well connected to the HSPP edited their newspaper Slovak. Argued that there was a secret clause limiting the union of Czechoslovakia to ten years. o Government needed to act here unless tensions in Slovakia would reach boiling point. o Dithered due to Prime Minister Svehlas illness

He was eventually tried on counts of Espionage on Behalf of Hungary. Found guilty and his claim was revoked. But, this came too late to stop the unravelling of the coalition

Great Depression and Czechoslovak Politics, 1929-35 Premiership of Udrzal (1929-1932) was dominated by the effects of the depression. Agricultural earnings declined by a third, industrial production dropped by 40% o Exports fell by 70% Welfare cards were introduced for the needy but unemployment relief only reached a small amount of people. o Encouragement of trade agreements with Britain, USA and South Africa encouraged production o Arms production increased after Hitler came to power o Government encouraged production of Skoda cars and Bata shoes. By 1936 production was at 96% of 1929 rates But this put a large amount of strain on the coalition These reforms do not stop social unrest however, 29 people died in Czechoslovakia in strikes and demonstrations. Despite this no real fascist movement arises o Totally incompetent coups of 1926 and 1933 o As such the elections in May 1935 produced little change to the status quo o However, there was the beginning of a general challenge to centralism from both the Slovaks and the Germans Slovak Question in the 1930s Slovakias economic suffering was profound Compounded by a trade war with Hungary after 1930 In the 1930s, 91% of production was in Czech lands.

Hlinka had little interest in politics, but the general mood leads him to make a speech arguing there are no Czechoslovaks, we want to remain just Slovaks. Out with the Czechs. Accurate depiction of Slovak sentiments o Gradual increase in literacy had increased nationalist self expression Benes argued that Czechoslovakia, surrounding by Fascists and Nazis could only survive if it remained united. In 1938 Hlinka spoke at a party rally to mark the 20th anniversary of the Pittsburgh agreement On 22nd September, 1938, under enormous pressure concerning the Sudeten Germans, Benes agrees to a separate Slovak state. o Although he suggested that there be 3 nations: Czech, Slovak and Czechoslovak. However, at this point the Slovaks veered back to centralism, realising that the weakening of Prague would increase territorial appetites of both Hungary and Poland However, by now it was too late.

German Question in the 1930s Rise of destructive anti-centralist sentiments among the Sudeten Germans had two sources Effects of depression in Czechoslovakia Impact of Nazi Germans o Backing of foreign government gave the Sudeten Germans power that their Slovak comrades couldnt aspire to. o Made the Sudeten an international rather than domestic issue. The impact of the depression on the Sudeten Germans was clear Exports and tourism fell Had to be bailed out by Prague bank at the cost of one billion crowns Vast unemployment By the time Hitler came to power, Nazi parties had been banned in Czechoslovakia

However, this just focussed the culture in the Sudeten Germans.

o Sudeten German Home Front led by Konrad Henlein o Masaryk rejected pressure to supress it, arguing they needed the freedom to develop within the law Henlein denied connection to the German Nazi party, but did paint life in the Reich as superior to that of Cechoslovakia These arguments against the backround of depression brought Henlein success in the 1935 elections SdP taking 63% of Sudeten votes. In 1936 Henlein nominated 3 deputies to the German Reichstag, increased links with Germany. Czechoslovak government responded with concessions in 1937 Distribution of public expenditure on a regional basis Greater use of German as official language Government contracts for German firms in German areas. o However, these concessions prompted more demands from Henlein o Asked for a corporate state of forced representation with a state o Meanwhile whipped up public outcry for atrocities committed by Czech policemen on Sudetens. Following annexation by Germany of Austria on 20th February 1938, Czechoslovakia was surrounded on 3 sides by Nazis and had an undefended Southern border Henleinists exalted in the gloom of Prague o Were increased in power when they merged with the German Agrarian and Clerical parties. On 23rd April 1938 Henlein demanded full equality with the Czechs, recognition of a German only area and the freedom to express Nazi ideology among other things. Following German and Czech mobilisation, Benes was forced to accept the Karlsbad demands of Henlein in Munich. Fierce opposition to this from within the cabinet, but Benes persisted in arguing that they should take British and French advice in acquiescing to German demands.