Construction and Building

Construction and Building Materials 19 (2005) 516524

MATERIALS
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A study on the eciency of electrochemical realkalisation of carbonated concrete

Weichung Yeih *, Jiang Jhy Chang
Department of Harbor and River Engineering, National Taiwan Ocean University, 2 Pei-Ning Road, Keelung 202, Taiwan ROC Received 26 August 2004; received in revised form 5 September 2004; accepted 26 January 2005

Abstract In this paper, the eciency of electrochemical realkalisation of a carbonated concrete is investigated. The realkalisation width, pH value nearby the rebar, the open circuit potential and the instantaneous corrosion rate are used to evaluate the performance of electrochemical realkalisation. In addition, several mechanical properties including compressive strength, elastic modulus and bond strength are determined to check whether the electrochemical realkalisation process degrades them. Water absorption test and fourprobe electrical resistivity are measured to investigate the densication of pore structure. It is found that all properties show apparent trends with respect to the inuence parameter, dened by the product of the realkalisation current density and the realkalisation period. As the inuence parameter increases, pH value increases and the realkalisation width expands. Consequently, the open circuit potential indicates that the realkalisation successfully rebuilds the passive lm on rebar and the instantaneous corrosion rate decreases dramatically. Compressive strength, elastic modulus and bond strength for realkalised specimens all decrease compared to the carbonated specimens due to the degradation eect from the cathodic current. However, they still exceed those of the control specimens due to the carbonation product. The resistivity and water absorption demonstrates that the realkalisation further condenses pore structure. 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Electrochemical realkalisation; Realkalisation width; Mechanical properties; Carbonated concrete

1. Introduction In reinforced and prestressed concrete structures, corrosion attack is generally protected by high alkalinity provided by concrete pore solution. Thus a passive layer on the steel surface provides adequate corrosion resistance. The long-term durability of this resistance relies on the stability conditions necessary for the passive layer. It is stated [1,2] that the minimum required pH value to maintain a stable passive lm on the steel surface is 11.5. Depending on concrete quality and constructional characteristics under certain environmental conditions, the passivation eect of the concrete pore
*

Corresponding author. Fax: +886 2246 32932. E-mail address: wcyeih@mail.ntou.edu.tw (W. Yeih).

solution can be neutralized. In addition to penetration of chloride ions which locally destroy the passive layer, carbonation of concrete caused by the carbon dioxide from the air leads to depassivation. For a carbonated concrete, the pH value of concrete pore solution decreases as that the concrete pore solution eventually no longer provides adequate environment for maintaining a stable passive layer. It is essentially important to recover the alkalinity of pore solution for a carbonated concrete from the corrosion prevention aspect. Two realkalisation techniques [3] have been developed, as the electrochemical realkalisation and the passive realkalisation. For the former, the articial alkalinity is transferred into the pore system of concrete by means of a low voltage electric current between the reinforcement and a temporary external

0950-0618/$ - see front matter 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2005.01.006

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anode mesh. Since the electrochemical realkalisation method is our major concern, details of this method is introduced later. The passive realkalisation method is based on coating by Portland cement. Alkaline due to the natural alkalinity is provided from cement. In this case, realkalisation eect is achieved slowly through the migration of alkalinity in pore water of the coated concrete substrate. In the early 1970s, protection of rebar corrosion was investigated by temporary electrochemical treatments in US Federal Highway Administration. Research in the US was completed under the Strategic Highways Research Program (SHRP). In Europe by a Norwegian company, NORCURE, Inc., two electrochemical methods are available for realkalisation and chloride extraction [4,5]. The principles of the electrochemical realkalisation are shown in Fig. 1. The technique drives a current through the concrete to the reinforcement by means of an externally applied anode attached to the concrete surface. Sodium carbonate is generally used as electrolyte covering the concrete surface. During the electrochemical treatment, the following mechanisms take place [6]:  absorption due to capillary eects of dissociated alkaline solution,  diusion of alkaline compounds due to dierent concentration,  migration of ions within the electric eld, = negative ions move towards the anode (e.g. OH ions) = positive ions move towards the cathode, i.e., the reinforcement (e.g. Na+ ions)  electrolysis at the electrodes, = OH ions are generated at the cathode: 2H2 O 2e ! H2 2OH

= reaction of oxygen diused into the concrete takes place, 1 O2 H2 O 2e ! 2OH 2 = oxidation occurs at the anode: 1 2OH ! O2 H2 O 2e 2 3 2

 electroosmosis: The electrolyte at the concrete surface moves towards the cathode due to the zeta-potential [7]. The pH value around the reinforcement increases due to the hydroxyl ions generated at the cathode. The alkaline electrolyte penetrating from the surface into the concrete pores should prevent from future decreases in pH-value down to corrosion initiating level [6]. The mechanism is the reaction between sodium carbonate and carbon dioxide according to the following equation: Na2 CO3 CO2 H2 O ! 2NaHCO3 4 In the state of equilibrium with a constant carbon dioxide concentration of the atmosphere, only small amounts of sodium carbonate will react to form sodium hydrogen carbonate and hence further carbonation leads only to a slight decrease in pH-value [6]. In this way, the ingress of sodium carbonate into the concrete pores should act as a carbon dioxide trap. The electrochemical realkalisation has its benets as follows:  short rehabilitation time: usually 314 days are enough [6];  easy setup: a DC power supply and anode system [6];  carbon dioxide trap: the sodium carbonate solution can provide a trap [3,68];  reducing the corrosion current density: it has been reported that the realkalisation of carbonated concrete can reduces the corrosion current density down to a level of an uncarbonated concrete [6];  lower water absorption: it has been reported the water absorption for a electrochemical realkalised concrete is even lower than that of an uncarbonated concrete [8]. In spite of these merits, some potential drawbacks using the cathode current has been cited:  Hydrogen embrittlement: it may occur at cathode [9].  Accelerated Alkali-Silica Reaction: in the case that silica-active aggregates exist [6,9].  Bond degradation [9,10]. Although the abovementioned suspects have been reported, no destructive eects at the current density

Fig. 1. Illustration for the electrochemical realkalisation process.

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level advised for the method are known so far [11]. The total charge during realkalisation is normally between 70 and 200 Amp-hours per square meter (Ahr/ m2), and the current density is normally adjusted to 1.0 A/m2 [9]. It has been also suggested that recommendations vary between 3 and 14 days for the time of treatment and between 0.8 and 2 A/m2 for the current density [6]. Despite of these suggestions, the choice of current density and polarization time is still dicult. Recently, the authors have found that properties of reinforced concrete subjected to the cathodic current have a relationship with the total charge, i.e., the product of the current density and the polarization time [10,12]. Following these previous research, it is expected that the concrete properties subjected to the realkalisation process would be related with the total charge. In this study, the eciency of realkalisation process is evaluated from two aspects:  corrosion prevention: the following factors are investigated = pH value of concrete nearby the rebar: pH value of 11 is used as the limit to rebuild passive layer; = realkalisation width: using the pH indicator described in the Section 2, expansion of realkalisation width is measured as polarization continues; = open circuit potential: duration to reach the safe potential suggested by ASTM C876(120 mV, SCE) is monitored; = instantaneous DC corrosion current density: the corrosion rate of rebar is evaluated whether the realkalisation reduces to lower than 0.046 mpy, which is a safe corrosion rate converted from the suggested safe corrosion current density in Ref. [13] using the Faradays law; = water absorption: the pore structure changes are evaluated; = resistivity: four-probe resistivity is measured to evaluate concretes durability.  mechanical properties = compressive strength = elastic modulus = bond strength

stone. The rebar used was #4 rebar with a Youngs modulus of 203 Gpa and the yield strength of 409 MPa. Geometric details of the #4 rebar are illustrated in Table 1. For the compressive strength test and water absorption test, the cylindrical specimen of 10 cm in diameter and 20 cm in height were employed. In order to conduct current during realkalisation, a copper wire was embedded inside the specimen with an embedded length of 18 cm. For the bond strength test, the same cylindrical specimen as above was used. At the center of specimen, a #4 rebar was embedded inside the concrete with an embedded length of 4 cm. For the open circuit potential, corrosion current density, realkalisation depth and pH value tests, a #4 rebar was embedded in the same cylindrical specimen with embedded length of 15 cm to work as the cathode. For the resistivity measurements, the prismatic specimen with a height of 10 cm, a width of 10 cm and a length of 40 cm was made. A #3 rebar was embedded inside the concrete, the distance between rebar and anode mesh was 5 cm. Geometric details for #3 rebar is similar to that of #4 rebar and are not illustrated since such data are important for pull-out specimen but not for others. After mixing of concrete, specimens were stored in the room temperature, 23 C, for 5 h. Then they were cured in the normal-pressure steam-curing chamber. The temperature increased for 3 h with an incremental rate of 11 C/h up to 66 C. Then the temperature kept at 66 C for 14 h. Two hours of cooling followed with a cooling rate of 22 C/h up to the room temperature. The total period of steam cure was 1 day. Then, specimens were demolded and put in saturated lime water to continue a curing process for additional 3 days. Further the specimens were stored in the oven of 105 C temperature to reach the oven-dry condition. They were placed in the environmental chamber to ensure 70% RH. After that, they were stored in the high-pressure carbonation chamber (15 atm, %CO2 = 100% and RH = 70%) to ensure full carbonation. The starting age of realkalisation for concrete

Table 1 Conguration of #4 rebar

2. Experimental 2.1. Materials, concrete mixes and specimen preparation Portland cement of type I was used, and the crushed stone and river sand from local sources were used as aggregate. W/C ratio is equal to 0.65. Amounts of concrete mixture are 202 kg/m3 for water, 311 kg/m3 for cement, 868 kg/m3 for sand and 989 kg/m3 for crushed
D

Sr Lb

H d

area of corss 119 cross section(mm2 ) D (mm) 12.30 d (mm) 3.99 Lr (mm) 1.36 Lb(mm) 2.24 0.74 66 8.23 H (mm) (degree) Sr (mm)

Lr #4 rebar

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was 43 days after cast. The anode used for realkalisation was titanium mesh, and 1 M Na2CO3 was used as the anolyte. (4) 2.2. Experimental parameters and conditions The current density and polarization period were variables considered. According to the Ref. [6], current density for realkalisation is between 80 and 200 lA/ cm2 and polarization period is 314 days. Current densities selected were 80, 120 and 200 lA/cm2. The polarization periods were 7, 14 and 21 days. Following the polarization period designed, the experiments below were conducted. (1) pH value nearby the rebar: making concrete powdered, the pH value is determined by titration [14]. (2) realkalisation width: using the rainbow indicator (RI-8000), the region of realkalisation is distinguished. The colors of the rainbow indicator and their corresponding pH ranges are assigned as: purple is higher than 11 and red is between 9 and 11. The conventional method (RILEM CPC18) using phenolphthalein can only distinguish whether pH value is higher than 9 or not. In Ref. [8], it is concluded that even the phenolphthalein test shows pH value higher than 9, the recovery of passive lm could not be guaranteed for the structure subjected to realkalisation process. Although Andrade et al. [7] claimed that the restoration of the passive lm could be reached when pH value is lower than 11. They also expected that the carbon dioxide trap provided by the sodium carbonate could decrease the risk of the second neutralization. Several literatures [1,8] mentioned that the passive lm might become unstable and corrupt when pH value was lower than 11.5. In this study, the realkalisation region is dened as the region of pH value higher than 11. To identify it, the RI-8000 rainbow indicator was used. The realkalisation width was determined as the average value of 3 samples, where the value of each specimen was determined by taking the average of 20 measurements. (3) Open circuit potential and instantaneous corrosion rate: It has been mentioned [15] that depolarization is necessary for the reinforced concrete subjected to polarization current in order the open circuit potential and instantaneous corrosion rate do not mislead. In a preliminary trial, it was found that a one-month depolarization treatment could make electrochemical signals stable. Therefore, before the electrochemical measurements were conducted for specimens subjected to the realkalisation process, one-month depolarization was per-

(5) (6)

(7) (8)

formed. The open circuit potential and instantaneous corrosion rate were measured following the Refs. [16,17]. Four-probe resistivity: The four-probe resistivity measurements were conducted [18]. In the Ref. [19], it is found that the resistivity increases as water contents inside concrete decrease. This implies the importance to keep environmental conditions constant during the experiments. Therefore, the saturated surface dry (SSD) condition of concrete was used to keep the concretes water contents unchanged. Water absorption: the water absorption was measured by using ASTM C642 method. Compressive strength: the strength was determined from a uniaxial compression test of the cylindrical specimen. Elastic modulus: the secant modulus was taken in the uniaxial compression test. Bond strength: the single-rebar pullout test was performed [20,21]. The maximum pullout force divided by the nominal embedded rebar area was dened as the bond strength.

3. Results and discussion 3.1. The pH value and realkalisation width The purpose of realkalisation is to restore the pH value for pore solution nearby the rebar such that the passive lm can be rebuilt. The pH value of concrete nearby the reabar (within 2 mm distance) was measured and results are summarized in Table 2. It is found that under the same polarization current density the pH value increases as the realkalisation period increases. Furthermore, for the same realkalisation period the pH value increases as the polarization current density increases. According to the Refs. [10,12], it is reported that the properties of concrete subjected to the cathodic current is dependent on the inuence parameter, which is dened as the product of the cathodic current density (ic) and the polarization period (tp). From the data in Table 2, the parameter is calculated as shown in Fig. 2. It is

Table 2 Eects of realkalisation on the pH value Specimen type Current density 80 (lA/cm2) Realkalisation 7 days Realkalisation 14 days Realkalisation 21 days Control Carbonation 10.82 10.96 11.23 12.58 9.56 120 ( lA/cm2) 10.95 11.16 11.44 200 (lA/cm2) 11.35 11.49 11.61

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16 Experimental results Regression line

12

Y = - 5.11 x 10

-7

X + 5.83 x 10

-3

X - 4.22

Realkalisation width (mm)

12

R = 0.97

11

pH

10

Control Experimental results Regression line Y=11.8 - 2.2 Exp( - 0.00094 x) 2 R = 0.91

7 0 1000 2000
2

3000

4000

5000

1000

2000

3000
2

4000

5000

ic X tp (A / cm X days)

ic X tp (A / cm X days)

Fig. 2. pH evolution due to the inuence parameter.

Fig. 3. The realkalisation width versus the inuence parameter.

seen that the pH values nearby the reabar are governed by the inuence parameter, /. The dashed line in this gure represents the pH value for the control specimen (uncarbonated). Results show that realkalisation process increases the pH values higher than 11, but cannot reach back to its original value (12.58 in this study). When pH value of 11 is set to be the target for the realkalisation process, the corresponding inuence value, /, is about 1080 lA-days/cm2. The required realkalisation periods are 14, 9 and 5 days for 80, 120 and 200 lA/ cm2, respectively. It was reported [8] that the best choice for the polarization time was 314 days using the current density of 100 lA/cm2, with which the present results basically match in the case that pH value of 11 is chosen. If the pH value of 11.5 is chosen to ensure a stable passive lm [1], the inuence parameter is about 2120 lA-days/cm2. The required realkalisation periods then are 27, 18 and 11 days for 80, 120 and 200 lA/ cm2, respectively. The choice of 11.5 pH value as the target of realkalisation does not seem economical. In addition, continuously adopting the cathodic current on the rebar may reduce the mechanical strength of concrete. Therefore, the pH value of 11 is suggested as the target of realkalisation. Further the realkalisation width was examined to observe how the region of the pH value higher than 11 expanded. Conventionally, the phenolphthalein indicator recommended in RILEM CPC18 is used to examine the pH values, whether the pH value is higher or lower than 9. The realkalisation width dened in this study is the region of the pH value higher than 11. Results are illustrated in Fig. 3. It can be observed that the realkalisation region expands as the inuence parameter increases. In addition, the expansion rate becomes slow when the inuence parameter increases. It means that the eciency of the realkalisation current becomes saturated.

3.2. The open circuit potential and the instantaneous DC corrosion rate In order to measure the electrochemical signals correctly, the specimens should be depolarized. A onemonth depolarization period was chosen in this study. The open circuit potential for the controlled specimen was 82 mV(SCE). After the carbonation process (fully carbonated), the initial open circuit potential reached 596 mV(SCE). ASTM C876 suggests that the corrosion possibility of rebar embedded in concrete is higher than 90% when the open circuit potential is lower than 270 mV(SCE) which corresponds to 350 mV(CSE). In addition, the corrosion possibility is lower than 10% when the open circuit potential is higher than 120 mV(SCE) which corresponds to 200 mV(CSE). When the open circuit potentials of rebar are in between, the possibility of corrosion is from 10% to 90%. Thus, the possibility of corrosion for the fully carbonated reinforced concrete is higher than 90%. Furthermore, the passive lm no longer exists after carbonation. As seen in Fig. 4, the open circuit potentials increase as the inuence parameter increases. The inuenced parameter required for reaching a 120 mV(SCE) open circuit potential (the corrosion possibility lower than 10%) is about 807 lA-days/cm2. Ten days, 7 days and 4 days are required when using 80, 120 and 200 lA/ cm2, respectively. When the inuence parameter reaches to 1460 lA-days/cm2, the open circuit potentials recover to the level of the control specimen (82 mV, SCE). Then, the open circuit potentials no longer increase as the inuence parameters increase. Elsener [22] measured the open circuit potentials of a reinforced concrete subjected to a realkalisation process (using 1 M Na2CO3 solution as the anolyte, applying 200 lA/cm2 current density for 12 days then depolarizing 1 month), the value was 250 (CSE) which was 170 mV (SCE)

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0
0.12 Control Corrosion rate = 0.046 mpy Experimental results Regression line Y = 0.07 / cosh(0.0019 X) + 0.035 2 R = 0.98

521

-100

0.1

Corrosion rate (mpy)

-200

OCP (mV , SCE)

0.08

-300

0.06

-400

-500

-600

ASTM -120 mV(SCE) ASTM -270 mV(SCE) Control Experimental results Regression line Y = - 498 / cosh 2 R = 0.96
0.05

0.04

0.02

(0.061 X) - 76
0

-700 0 1000 2000

2

3000

4000

5000

1000

2000
2

3000

4000

5000

ic X tp (A / cm X days)

ic X tp (A / cm X days)

Fig. 4. The eects of inuence parameter on the open circuit potential.

Fig. 5. The eects of inuence parameter on the corrosion rate.

correspondingly. In the condition Elsener used, the inuence parameter was 2400 lA-days/cm2. The corresponding open circuit potential for 2400 lA-days/cm2 is 76 mV(SCE) which is higher than Elseners result. The reason for this dierence comes from the environment. Elsener experiments were conducted in situ, while our experiments were conducted in the laboratory under constant room temperature and humidity. Despite this dierence, the fact that the realkalisation can increase the open circuit potential of reabar towards a nobler value is reconrmed. Corrosion conditions of reinforced concrete for different corrosion current densities (or equivalently several corrosion rate ranges) were proposed [13] as indicated in Table 3. The instantaneous corrosion rate for control specimen (uncarbonated) was 0.012 mpy that corresponded to a negligible corrosion condition. After full carbonation, the corrosion rate reached 0.111 mpy of a low corrosion rate status. As seen in Fig. 5, the corrosion rate decreases as the inuence parameter increases. Taking corrosion rate of 0.046 mpy as the goal to be reached, the required inuence parameter is 1335 lA-days/cm2. It means that 17, 11 and 7 days are necessary for 80, 120 and 200 lA/cm2, respectively.

3.3. Resistivity and water absorption Resistivity is referred to a durability index since it reects the micro-pore structures inside concrete and ions mobility. In the previous research [23], it is found that the resistivity of SSD concrete is about 520 kX cm. Andrade et al. [13] pointed out that when the relative humidity reached 100% and the compressive strength of concrete was greater than 30 MPa, the resistivity was 5 kX cm. The resistivity was 3 kX cm when the compressive strength of concrete was lower than 30 MPa. Since the resistivity is very sensitive to the water contents inside concrete, a unied condition for water content should be taken. In this study, the SSD condition of concrete was used. Results of resistivity measurements are listed in Table 4. It is found that after carbonation the resistivity of concrete becomes higher than the control specimen. The carbonation produces CaCO3 that blocks the micro-pores inside concrete as total volume of pores decreases and the resistivity increases. In addition, the resistivity increases slightly as increasing polarization time and/or current density. This indicates that realkalisation process further condenses the pore structure. It might come from the chemical reaction of
Table 4 Eects of realkalisation on resistivity (unit:Kohms-cm) Specimen type Current density 80 (lA/cm2) Realkalisation Realkalisation Realkalisation Realkalisation Realkalisation Realkalisation Control Carbonation 3 days 7 days 10 days 14 days 17 days 21 days 11.3 11.5 11.7 11.9 11.9 12.1 4.7 11.0 120 ( lA/cm2) 11.5 11.7 11.7 11.9 11.9 12.1 200 (lA/cm2) 11.7 11.9 11.9 12.2 12.4 12.4

Table 3 Degrees of corrosion suggested from corrosion current density and corrosion rate [13] Corrosion current density (lA/cm2) <0.1 0.10.5 0.51.0 >1.0 Corrosion rate (mpy ) <0.046 0.0460.23 0.230.46 >0.46
a

Degrees of corrosion Negligible Low Medium High

a Corrosion rate is obtained from the corrosion current density using the Faradays law.

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Table 5 Water absorption (%) after realkalisation Specimen type Current density 80 (lA/cm2) Realkalisation 7 days Realkalisation 14 days Realkalisation 21 days Control Carbonation 4.43 4.41 4.40 6.07 4.79 120 ( lA/cm2) 4.43 4.39 4.37 200 (lA/cm2) 4.41 4.36 4.32

Na2CO3 with CO2 and water to yield NaHCO3 that condenses pore structure further. This result is consistent with observations from water absorption stated later. The water absorption basically reects the pore volume inside the concrete. A higher water-absorption value means a larger pore volume. Results of water absorption tests are shown in Table 5. It is found that the water absorption reduces when carbonation happens (the value for the carbonated concrete is 4.79% when the control specimen is 6.07%). From the table, it is found that increasing polarization time and/or current density decrease water absorption slightly. It means that realkalisation process reduces total pore volume. Both the water absorption and resistivity indicate that the pore structure becomes denser after realkalisation. 3.4. The compressive strength, elastic modulus and bond strength In Fig. 6, the compressive strengths for various conditions are illustrated. After carbonation the compressive strengths of concrete become higher because of CaCO3 generation. This result conrms the previous research [24]. In addition, as increasing inuence parameter the compressive strength slowly decreases as the cathodic current is adopted. The sodium and potassium

ions would be attracted by the cathode and attack the CSH gel, this results in the decrement in compressive strength [10,25]. The rate of decreasing the compressive strength is constant. If the compressive strength of control specimen (22.38 MPa) is taken as the lowest limit, 114 days are required using 200 lA/cm2 current density. However, such a long realkalisation period is not adequate in engineering practice. As suggested earlier, if an 8-day to 13-day realkalisation period is used no signicant decrement in compressive strength is found. In Fig. 7, the results of elastic modulus are illustrated. In a same manner as the strength, the elastic modulus increases after carbonation. This again results from the presence of CaCO3. The realkalisation, as expected, decreases the elastic modulus for carbonated concrete. The decreasing rate is constant. Using 200 lA/cm2 current density for 21 days, the elastic modulus of the realkalised specimen still has a 3% increment in comparison with the control specimen of the same age. However, from the regression curve in this graph, it is found that when / is larger than 5180 lA-days/cm2, the elastic modulus for the realkalised concrete is lower than the control specimen. It then can be said that in order not to make concretes mechanical properties behave worse due to the cathodic current, an appropriate selection of current density and realkalisation period is important. In Fig. 8, the bond strengths are illustrated. After carbonation the bond strength becomes higher than the control specimen. Increasing the inuence parameter, the bond strength decreases linearly. The bond strength of the realkalised specimen is lower than that of the fully carbonated specimen but higher than that of the control specimen. It means that the decreasing eect in bond strength due to the realkalisation although exists but is not a major concern which conrms the previous research [26].

40

23

22

Compressive strength (MPa)

Elastic modulus (GPa)

35

Control Carbonation Realkalisation -4 Regression line Y = - 5.56 x 10 X + 20.26 2 R = 0.93

21

20

30

Control Carbonation Realkalisation Regression line Y = - 5.44 x 10 2 R = 0.90

-4

19

18

25

X + 34.80

17

20 0 1000 2000
2

16
3000 4000 5000

1000

2000
2

3000

4000

5000

ic X tp (A / cm X days)

ic X tp (A / cm X days)

Fig. 6. The eects of inuence parameter on the compressive strength.

Fig. 7. The eects of inuence parameter on the elastic modulus.

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25 Control Carbonation Realkalisation -3 Regression line Y = -1.47 x 10 X + 17.04 2 R = 0.93

523

Corrosion potential -120 mV(SCE) for ic x tp Corrosion rate 0.046 mpy for ic x tp

20

Bond strength (MPa)

15

10

Values

34.4 34.1

19.8 19.5
5

15.9 15.1 10.8 11.2 6

0 0 1000 2000
2

3000

4000

5000
pH value

2.7
Compressive strength (MPa) Elastic modulus (GPa) Bond strength (MPa)

4
Time to reach requirements for 200 A/cm2

ic X tp (A / cm X days)

Realkalisation width (mm)

Fig. 8. The eects of inuence parameter on the bond strength.

Fig. 9. Concrete properties under two dierent requirements.

3.5. Discussion It is demonstrated that concrete properties are clearly related with the inuence parameter, dened as the product of the polarization time and cathodic current density. It means to reach the same properties, a larger current density require less polarization time. However, it should be noticed that a very high current density might generates heat as undesirable thermal stresses might be generated. A current density less than 200 lA/cm2 is suggested since the temperature changes in concrete within the range we studied was not signicant. With the aid of the inuence parameter, it is easy for engineer to choose a suitable realkalisation procedure. Basically, the purpose of realkalisation is to rebuild the passive lm on the rebar and consequently reduce the corrosion risk. A direct way to check the eciency is to evaluate the electrochemical signals and to see if they keep the safe levels. Two indicators were used: the open circuit potential and the DC instantaneous corrosion rate. Viewing from the aspect of the open circuit potential, 120 mV(SCE) was selected as the target of realkalisation. Once this target is reached, the possibility of corrosion becomes lower than 10% as suggested in ASTM. On the other hand, 0.046 mpy was selected as the target of realkalisation for the instantaneous corrosion rate. Once this target is reached, the corrosion status becomes negligible. Results indicate that the safe margin suggested by the open circuit potential is more risky than that in instantaneous corrosion rate. The corresponding inuence parameters to reach safe margins for the open circuit potential and instantaneous corrosion rate are 807 and 1335 lA-days/cm2, respectively. Using these values, corresponding concrete properties are calculated as shown in Fig. 9. It can be seen that the compressive strengths, elastic moduli and bond strengths obtained from two procedures are almost identical. The mechanical properties are all better than the control specimen though they are worse than the carbonated ones. However, the pH value reaches 11.2 using the inuence parameter of 1335 lA-days/cm2, while it only reaches 10.8 using the inuence parameter of 807 lA-days/cm2. Therefore, realkalisation width (the region with pH value higher than 11) could be observed using the inuence parameter of 1335 lA-days/cm2. This statement does not mean the realkalisation process fails in the case of the inuence parameter as 807 lA-days/ cm2. In such a case, the rehabilitation of concrete still proceeds and the pH values already recovers to 10.8, which is high in comparison with the carbonated concrete. The dierence in the required polarization time was only two days using 200 lA/cm2 current density. As a result, 200 lA/cm2 current density and 6 days of realkalisation are suggested. This selection is ecient to ensure the rebuilding of passive lm without such damage as mechanical degradations. It should be noticed that the choice of the inuence parameter depends on the W/C ratio [10]. In order to use the concept proposed correctly, a series of researches to study the inuence of W/C on the selection of inuence parameter should be conducted beforehand.

4. Conclusions Based on the results of this study, several conclusions are drawn as follows. 1. Changes in concrete properties are denitely dependent on the inuence parameter, that is the product of the polarization time and the cathodic current density. Unied regressive curves are obtained to design a suitable realkalisation process.

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W. Yeih, J.J. Chang / Construction and Building Materials 19 (2005) 516524 [4] The NCT-method of concrete desalination, NORCURE Publication, Norwegian Concrete Technologies, Oslo, Norway, 1992. [5] The NCT-method of concrete realkalization, NORCURE Publication, Norwegian Concrete Technologies, Oslo, Norway, 1992. [6] Mietz J. Electrochemical realkalisation for rehabilitation of reinforced concrete structure. Mater Corros 1995;46:52733. [7] Andrade C, Castellote M, Sarria J, Alonso C. Evolution of pore solution chemical, electro-osmosis and rebar corrosion rate induced by realkalisation. Mater Struct 1999;32:42736. [8] Banll PFG. Realkalisation of carbonated concrete eect on concrete properties. Constr Build Mater 1997;11(4):2558. [9] Velivasakis EE, Heneriksen SK, Whitmore D. Chloride extraction and realkalisation of reinforced concrete stop steel corrosion. J Perform Constr Facilities 1998;12(2):7784. [10] Chang JJ. A study of the bond degradation of rebar due to cathodic protection current. Cem Concr Res 2002;32(4):65763. [11] Kennedy D, Miller JB, Nustad GE. Review of chloride extraction and realkalization of reinforced concrete. Oslo, Norway: Norwegian Concrete Technologies; 1993. [12] Chang JJ, Yeih W, Chang JC. The Evaluation of bond degradation between rebar and concrete due to the impressed cathodic current using interface parameters. J Chin Inst Eng 2001;24(2):1319. [13] Andrade C, Alonso C. On-site measurements of corrosion rate of reinforcements. Constr Build Mater 2001;15(23):1415. [14] Chang JJ. Bond degradation due to the desalination process. Constr Build Mater 2003;17(4):2817. [15] Guangling S. Theoretical analysis of the measurement of polarization resistance in reinforced concrete. Cem Concr Compos 2000;22(6):40715. [16] Yeih W, Huang R. Detection of the corrosion damage in reinforced concrete members by ultrasonic testing. Cem Concr Res 1998;28(7):107183. [17] Chang JJ, Yeih W, Tsai CL. Enhancement of bond strength for epoxy-coated rebar using river sand. Constr Build Mater 2002;16(8):46572. [18] Gowers KR, Millard SG. Measurement of concrete resistivity for assessment of corrosion severity of steel using wenner technique. ACI Mater J 1999;96(5):53641. [19] Su JK, Yang CC, Wu WB, Huang R. Eect of moisture content on concrete resistivity measurement. J Chin Inst Eng 2002;25(1):11722. [20] Yeih W, Huang R, Chang JJ, Yang CC. A pullout test for determining interface properties between rebar and concrete. Adv Cem Based Mater 1997;5:5765. [21] Abrishami HH, Mitchell D. Simulation of uniform bond stress. ACI Mater J 1992;89(2):1618. [22] Elsener B. Half-cell potential mapping to assess repair work on RC structures. Contr Build Mater 2001;15(23):1339. [23] Polder RB. Test method for on site measurement of resistivity of concrete-a RILEM TC-154 technical recommendation. Constr Build Mater 2001;15(23):12531. [24] Chang JJ, Yeih W, Huang R, Chi JM. Mechanical properties for carbonated concrete. J Chin Inst Eng 2003;26(4):51322. [25] Rasheeduzzafar, Ali MG, Al-Sulaimani GJ. Degradation of bond between reinforcing steel and concrete due to cathodic protection current. ACI Mater J 1993;90(1):815. [26] Miller JB, Nustad GE. Eect of electrochemical treatment on steel to concrete bond strength. In: Proceedings of the NACE Conference, National Association of Corrosion Engineers, Houston, TX, 1993.

2. The realkalisation technique increases the pH value nearby the rebar and the region for realkalisation (pH value of the region recovering to 11) expands. 3. The open circuit potential moves to a nobler value as increasing the inuence parameter. To reach the target where the corrosion possibility of rebar is lower than 10% (120 mV, SCE), the inuence parameter of 807 lA-days/cm2 is necessary. The instantaneous corrosion rate decreases as the inuence parameter increases. To reach the target where the corrosion status is negligible (0.046 mpy), the inuence parameter of 1335 lA-days/cm2 is required. 4. The water absorption value indicates pore structure in concrete is slightly condensed during the realkalisation. The resistivity of concrete also increases due to the condensation eect. 5. The compressive strength, elastic modulus and bond strength all decreases linearly as the inuence parameter increases. When a suitable realkalisation period is selected, the degradation in mechanical properties due to the cathodic current is negligible. 6. Due to a possible Joule heat eect, it is suggested that a current density higher than 200 lA/cm2 is not recommended. Two safety criteria of open circuit potential and instantaneous corrosion rate are used to estimate the realkalisation process. A conservative value is chosen for the inuence parameter of 1335 lA-days/cm2. Correspondingly, a polarization period of 6 days is required for 200 lA/cm2 cathodic current density. 7. Since relationships between concrete properties and the inuence parameters vary with W/C ratio. The concept proposed requires a series of study to build up the database beforehand.

Acknowledgement The authors would like to express their thanks to the nancial support from the National Science Council, Taiwan under the grant NSC90-2211-E-019-013.

References
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