STANDARDS ORGANIZATIONS

STANDARDS ORGANIZATIONS
Prepared by: Armando V. Barretto
Standard
Standard is an object or procedure considered by an authority or by general consent as a basis for comparison. Two Types of Standards 1. Proprietary (closed) standards Generally controlled and manufactured by one company. Other companies are generally not allowed to manufacture equipment or write software using these standards. Advantages are tighter control, easier consensus, and monopolization. Disadvantages include lack of choice of customers, higher investment, overpricing, and reduced customer protection. 2. Open system standards Any company can use the standards In some cases, royalty must be paid to the company who developed the standard. Promotes compatibility between vendors equipment and software. Disadvantages include less product control and increased difficulty in obtaining agreement between concerned parties.
Standards Organizations
Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) International professional organization founded in the US. Responsible for 802 series of standards such as 802.3, 802.5 and other standards Electronics Industry Association (EIA) A nonprofit US trade association that establishes and recommends industrial standards. Responsible for developing the RS (recommended standard) series of standards, such as RS-232, RS 422, and RS 423 Telecommunications Industry Association (TIA) A leading trade association in the communications and information technology. American National Standards Institute (ANSI) Official standards agency for the US. Official member of the ISO for the US. Completely private , non profit organization composed of people from professional societies, industry, government, and consumer group. European Telecommunications Standards Institute (ETSI)
Telecommunications standards organization for Europe
Internet Architecture Board A technical advisory group of the Internet Society which oversees the architecture and procedures used in Internet. Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) A large international committee of network designers, operators, vendors and researchers concerned with the evolution and operation of the Internet. Internet Research Task Force Promotes research of importance to the evolution of the future internet. International Standards Organization (ISO) Created in 1946. International organization for standardization of wide range of subjects Promotes research of importance to the evolution of the future Ineternet. Voluntary, non-treaty organization whose membership is comprised mainly of standards organizations of various countries. Responsible for Open Systems Interconnect (OSI) model.
International Telecommunications Union Telecommunications Sector (ITU-T) One of the four permanent parts of the International Telecommunications Union. The standardization work of ITU dates back to May 17, 1865, with International Telegraph Union as its first name. It was formerly called Consultative Committee on International Telephone and Telegraph (CCITT). CCITT was created in 1956, when the International Telephone Consultative Committee (CCIF, set up in 1924) and the International Telegraph Consultative Committee (CCIT, set up in 1925) were merged to form CCITT. Headquarters is located in Geneva, Switzerland. CCITT was renamed to ITU in 1993. Consists of government authorities from various countries. Standards organization for the United Nations since 1947. After a meeting in 1992, the Union was streamlined into three Sectors, corresponding to its three main areas of activity: Telecommunication Standardization (ITU-T), Radiocommunication (ITU-R) and Telecommunication Development (ITU-D).
Published V series standards for modems such as V.32, V.90, and V.92 Published X series standards for data transmission over public networks such X.25. Published I and Q series of standards for ISDN.
ITU Landmark Dates (Source: ITU)

1837 - Invention of the electric telegraph 1865 - 17 May - Founding of the International Telegraph Union in Paris by 20 European countries with the adoption of first ITU Convention. First Telegraph Regulations put in place. 1868 - Vienna First Telegraph Conference. Decision to establish the headquarters of the Union in Bern. 1869 - Publication of the Telegraph Journal begins. Renamed Telecommunication Journal in 1934, it is now published under the name ITU News. 1876 -Alexander Graham Bell patents his invention of the telephone 1885 -Berlin Telegraph Conference. First provisions for international telephone service 1895 - First signals transmitted by radio-relay system . 1902 - First radio transmissions of the human voice .

1906 - Berlin International Radiotelegraph Conference (Plenipotentiary). First Radiotelegraph Convention. Worldwide adoption of the SOS emergency distress signal. First trials of broadcasting (voice and music) using radiotelephony . 1920 -Birth of sound-broadcasting in the improvised studios of the Marconi company . 1924 - Creation of International Telephone Consultative Committee (CCIF) 1925 - Creation of International Telegraph Consultative Committee (CCIT) 1927 - Washington Radiotelegraph Conference (Plenipotentiary). Creation of the International Radio Consultative Committee (CCIR) 1932 - The organization changes its name from International Telegraph Union to International Telecommunication Union

1947 - Atlantic City Plenipotentiary Conference. Creation of the International Frequency Registration Board (IFRB). On 15 November 1947, an agreement between ITU and the newly created United Nations was approved by the UN General Assembly and became applicable, on a provisional basis, from that date. 1948 - ITU headquarters transferred to Geneva. 1949 - The agreement recognizing the International Telecommunication Union as a UN specialized agency formally entered into force on 1 January 1949. 1956 - Geneva CCIF and CCIT are merged to form CCITT (International Telegraph and Telephone Consultative Committee) 1957 - Launch of Sputnik-1, the Earths first artificial satellite 1963 -Launch of the worlds first telecommunication satellite, Syncom-1, in geostationary orbit. Geneva first World Space Radiocommunication Conference 1982 - Nairobi Plenipotentiary Conference. The Independent Commission for Worldwide Telecommunications Development is established .
Series of ITU Recommendations (Source: ITU )

Series A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V X Y Z Description Organization of the work of ITU-T Means of expression: definitions, symbols, classification General telecommunication statistics General tariff principles Overall network operation, telephone service, service operation and human factors Non-telephone telecommunication services Transmission systems and media, digital systems and networks Audiovisual and multimedia systems Integrated services digital network Cable networks and transmission of television, sound programme and other multimedia signals Protection against interference Construction, installation and protection of cables and other elements of outside plant Telecommunication management, including TMN and network maintenance Maintenance: international sound programme and television transmission circuits Specifications of measuring equipment Telephone transmission quality, telephone installations, local line networks Switching and signalling Telegraph transmission Telegraph services terminal equipment Terminals for telematic services Telegraph switching Data communication over the telephone network Data networks, open system communications and security Global information infrastructure, Internet protocol aspects and next-generation networks Languages and general software aspects for telecommunication systems
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Series of ITU Recommendations (Source: ITU)

Q.1-Q.3 Q.4-Q.59 Q.4-Q.9 Q.10-Q.11 Q.12-Q.19 Q.20-Q.34 Q.35-Q.39
Q.40-Q.47
Signalling in the international manual service International automatic and semi-automatic working Basic Recommendations Numbering plan and dialling procedures in the international service Routing plan for international service General Recommendations relative to signalling and switching systems (national or international) Tones for use in national signalling systems General characteristics for international telephone connections and circuits Signalling for satellite systems Signalling for circuit multiplication equipment Functions and information flows for services in the ISDN Methodology Basic services Supplementary services Clauses applicable to ITU-T standard systems General clauses Transmission clauses for signalling Logic and protocols for the control of signal processing network elements and functions Abnormal conditions Specifications of Signalling Systems No. 4, 5, 6, R1 and R2 Digital exchanges Introduction and field of application Exchange interfaces, functions and connections Design objectives and measurement Transmission characteristics
Q.48-Q.49 Q.50-Q.59 Q.60-Q.99 Q.60-Q.67 Q.68-Q.79 Q.80-Q.99 Q.100-Q.119 Q.100-Q.109 Q.110-Q.114 Q.115-Q.115 Q.116-Q.119 Q.120-Q.499 Q.500-Q.599 Q.500-Q.509 Q.510-Q.539 Q.540-Q.549 Q.550-Q.559
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Specifications of Signalling System No. 7 General Message transfer part (MTP) Signalling connection control part (SCCP) Telephone user part (TUP) ISDN supplementary services Data user part Signalling System No. 7 management ISDN user part Transaction capabilities application part Test specification Q3 interface Digital subscriber Signalling System No. 1 General Data link layer Network layer User-network management Stage 3 description for supplementary services using DSS1 Q.700-Q.799 Q.700-Q.700 Q.701-Q.710 Q.711-Q.719 Q.720-Q.729 Q.730-Q.739 Q.740-Q.749 Q.750-Q.759 Q.760-Q.769 Q.770-Q.779 Q.780-Q.799 Q.800-Q.849 Q.850-Q.999 Q.850-Q.919 Q.920-Q.929 Q.930-Q.939 Q.940-Q.949 Q.950-Q.959
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Broadband ISDN General aspects

Q.2000-Q.2999 Q.2000-Q.2099 Q.2100-Q.2199 Q.2200-Q.2299 Q.2600-Q.2699 Q.2700-Q.2899 Q.2900-Q.2999 Q.3000-Q.3999 Q.3000-Q.3029 Q.3030-Q.3099 Q.3100-Q.3129 Q.3130-Q.3179 Q.3200-Q.3249 Q.3300-Q.3369 Q.3400-Q.3499 Q.3600-Q.3649 Q.3700-Q.3849 Q.3900-Q.3999 Q supplements
Signalling ATM adaptation layer (SAAL) Signalling network protocols Common aspects of B-ISDN application protocols for access signalling and network signalling and interworking B-ISDN application protocols for the network signalling B-ISDN application protocols for access signalling Signalling requirements and protocols for the NGN General Network signalling and control functional architecture Network data organization within the NGN Bearer control signalling Signalling and control requirements and protocols to support attachment in NGN environments Resource control protocols Service and session control protocols Service and session control protocols supplementary services NGN applications Testing for NGN networks Supplements to the Series Q Recommendations
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DATA COMMUNICATION OVER THE TELEPHONE NETWORK General Interfaces and voiceband modems Wideband modems Error control Transmission quality and maintenance Simultaneous transmission of data and other signals Interworking with other networks Interface layer specifications for data communication Control procedures Modems on digital circuits Supplements to the Series V Recommendations V.1-V.9 V.10-V.34 V.35-V.39 V.40-V.49 V.50-V.59 V.60-V.99 V.100-V.199 V.200-V.249 V.250-V.299 V.300-V.399 V supplements
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GLOBAL INFORMATION INFRASTRUCTURE, INTERNET PROTOCOL ASPECTS AND NEXT-GENERATION NETWORKS Global information infrastructure General Services, applications and middleware Network aspects Interfaces and protocols Numbering, addressing and naming Operation, administration and maintenance Security Performances Internet protocol aspects General Services and applications Architecture, access, network capabilities and resource management Transport Interworking Quality of service and network performance Signalling Operation, administration and maintenance Charging IPTV over NGN Y.100-Y.999 Y.100-Y.199 Y.200-Y.299 Y.300-Y.399 Y.400-Y.499 Y.500-Y.599 Y.600-Y.699 Y.700-Y.799 Y.800-Y.899 Y.1000-Y.1999 Y.1000-Y.1099 Y.1100-Y.1199 Y.1200-Y.1299 Y.1300-Y.1399 Y.1400-Y.1499 Y.1500-Y.1599 Y.1600-Y.1699 Y.1700-Y.1799 Y.1800-Y.1899 Y.1900-Y.1999
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Digital networks General aspects Design objectives for digital networks Quality and availability targets Network capabilities and functions SDH network characteristics Management of transport network SDH radio and satellite systems integration Optical transport networks Digital sections and digital line system General Parameters for optical fibre cable systems Digital sections at hierarchical bit rates based on a bit rate of 2048 kbit/s Digital line transmission systems on cable at non-hierarchical bit rates Digital line systems provided by FDM transmission bearers Digital line systems Digital section and digital transmission systems for customer access to ISDN Optical fibre submarine cable systems Optical line systems for local and access networks Access networks G.800-G.899 G.800-G.809 G.810-G.819 G.820-G.829 G.830-G.839 G.840-G.849 G.850-G.859 G.860-G.869 G.870-G.879 G.900-G.999 G.900-G.909 G.910-G.919 G.920-G.929 G.930-G.939 G.940-G.949 G.950-G.959 G.960-G.969 G.970-G.979 G.980-G.989 G.990-G.999
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INTEGRATED SERVICES DIGITAL NETWORK General structure Terminology Description of ISDNs General modelling methods Telecommunication network and service attributes General description of asynchronous transfer mode Service capabilities Scope General aspects of services in ISDN Common aspects of services in the ISDN Bearer services supported by an ISDN Teleservices supported by an ISDN Supplementary services in ISDN Overall network aspects and functions Network functional principles Reference models Numbering, addressing and routing Connection types Performance objectives Protocol layer requirements General network requirements and functions I.100-I.199 I.110-I.119 I.120-I.129 I.130-I.139 I.140-I.149 I.150-I.199 I.200-I.299 I.200-I.209 I.210-I.219 I.220-I.229 I.230-I.239 I.240-I.249 I.250-I.259 I.300-I.399 I.310-I.319 I.320-I.329 I.330-I.339 I.340-I.349 I.350-I.359 I.360-I.369 I.370-I.399
NETWORKING
Computer Network
Computer network - two or more computers interconnected with one another for the purpose of sharing resources such as database, backup device, and others. The elements of a computer network are (Source: Network Fundamentals Cisco): Protocols rules and agreements on how the different parts of the network will operate. A protocol stack is a list or set of protocols used by a system. Data and Messages information used or transmitted / received in the network. Communications medium interconnects the different devices in the network. It may include copper and fiber optic cables, earths atmosphere, or free space. Devices - includes computers, routers, switches, hubs, bridges and others. Network protocols or networks may be classified as: Current includes most modern and sophisticated protocols or networks Legacy includes old protocols/networks which are still being used for some reasons. Legendary includes protocols which have become antiquated and are no longer being used.
Computer Network
Networks may be classified as: Intranet network which allows only internal employee access. Extranet network which allows non-employee access to the network. Some of the considerations in implementing a network are: Fault tolerance ability of network to withstand failure in some portion of the network, which results to better reliability. Scalability ability of network to grow and react to future changes. Quality of Service indicates the performance level of services provided by the network. Security ability to avoid unauthorized access, use, alteration, or tampering of any part of the network whether hardware, software or data.
Classification of Computer Networks According to Geographic Scope

Local Area Network Computers confined to one building or cluster of buildings Relatively high speed of transmission Usually privately owned Wide Area Network Computers located outside a building or cluster of buildings Computers may be located between two or more cities, or between two or more countries Usually uses facilities of telecom companies such as T1, E1, ISDN, X.25, Frame Relay, ATM, SDH, SONET. Metropolitan Area Network Computers located within a city or cluster of cities Usually use facilities of telecom or network service providers Global Area Network Computers located in different countries around the world. Ex. Internet Personal Area Network (PAN) allow people to transfer data through the human body simply by touching each other (future) Power line area network (PAN) uses ac power lines.
Classification of Computer Networks According to Type of Physical Connection

Multipoint or Multidrop (also called Broadcast) More than two stations and/or devices on the network share a single communications medium Many or all subscribers of the network receive transmitted messages, and each message contains an address to identify which subscriber is intended to receive the message. May use Broadcast (message is intended for all subscribers) or Multicast (message is intended for a specific group of subscribers) Point to point Only two stations use a communications medium Combination of Broadcast and Point to Point
Classification of Computer Networks or Protocols According to Type of Connection

Connection Oriented Communicating devices first setup a logical connection (virtual circuit) before data are transmitted between the two devices. Designed to provide a high degree of reliability for data transmission and reception. Often provides error control. Usually sequence numbers and acknowledgement numbers are used to track the transmission and reception of data. Connection is usually terminated with proper acknowledgment between communicating devices. A telephone call is similar to this type of connection. Connectionless Communicating devices need not establish an active connection before data are transmitted. Packets of data rely on addresses for it to be able to reach the destination. Does not provide the same high degree of reliability as connection oriented protocol. An example would be a packet switch, connectionless network.
Computer Networks
Network model could be: Peer to peer client server all computers share their resources with all the other computers in the network. Dedicated client server one or more computers are assigned as a server and the rest of the computers are clients. Network Architecture outlines the way in which a network is arranged or structured. Network Topology refers to the appearance or the way a network is laid out. Network topology could be: Physical Topology - refers to the physical lay out (geometric representation) of the computers in a network. Logical Topology Describes how data actually flow through the network. It refers to the logical layout of the computers in a network (how computers access other computers in the network) Hybrid topology combines two or more topologies (star, ring )
PHYSICAL LAN TOPOLOGY

Ring Topology
Bus Topology
Star Topology
Mesh Topology
Tree Topology
Point to Point Topology

Only two stations are connected by a transmission medium. Advantages Very simple Transmission medium is ready for use anytime by the two stations. Disadvantages Less stations can communicate with each other.
Point to Point Topology
Physical Mesh Topology

Every station has a direct two point communication to every other station. Also called fully connected. Fully connected circuit requires n(n-1) physical transmission links to interconnect n stations. Advantages Computers can communicate anytime (no traffic) Robust (Data have alternate routes) Has more privacy and security Easier fault isolation Disadvantages More expensive and bulkier cabling / communication lines More communication ports are needed More cumbersome installation and reconnection Could have higher total cost of ownership
Physical Star Topology

Stations are connected directly to a centrally located device such as a computer or hub which acts like a multipoint connector. Advantages If link of one computer fails, others can still communicate Requires less cable and communication ports than mesh topology Could be less expensive than mesh topology Easier to install compared to mesh topology Easier fault isolation compared to bus Disadvantages If central hub breaks down, all communications are down Less robust compared to mesh topology Often requires more cable than bus
Physical Bus Topology

It uses a multipoint data communications circuit. All stations are connected to a single transmission medium, which allows all stations to receive transmitted packets. Also called multidrop, linear bus, or horizontal bus. Advantages Requires less cable than other topology Easier to install compared to other topology Requires less communication ports than mesh and ring topology Could be less expensive than mesh topology Disadvantages Computers could not communicate anytime (because of collision) If cable breaks down, entire network could be disrupted More difficult fault isolation
Physical Ring Topology

All stations are connected in tandem (series) to form a closed loop or circle. Advantages Requires less cable than mesh topology Requires less communication ports than mesh topology Relatively easy to install Could be less expensive than mesh topology Disadvantages Delay is longer for non-adjacent stations. If one cable breaks down, entire network could be disrupted Requires more communication port than bus or star topology
Hybrid Topology
It combines two or more of the traditional topologies to form a larger, more complex topology. Advantages Combines the benefits of traditional topologies used. Disadvantages Combines the disadvantages of traditional topologies used.
Components of a Network
The different components of a network may be classified as (Source: Network Fundamentals Cisco): End devices refers to the equipment which acts as the source or destination of data, or both. Examples are servers, computers, printers, VOIP phones, PDAs, and network cameras. Servers are computers that hold shared files, programs, network operating systems, and other resources. Example: file server, printer server. Clients are computers that access and use network and shared network resources. Previously, computers typically have network interface cards (NICs) which are used to connect a computer to a network. However, the functions of the NICs are now integrated in the main board of most computers. Intermediary devices refers to equipment which are used by end devices in transferring data across the network. Examples are hubs, switches, bridges, and routers. Communications or transmission medium / media refers to the cables, earths atmosphere, or free space through which data are transmitted between devices. Services and processes refers to the software which run on devices.
Network Backbones
Building Backbone a network connection that usually carries traffic between departmental LANs within a single company. Campus Backbone a network connection used to carry traffic to and from LANs located in various buildings on a campus. It normally uses fiber optic cables to minimize interference.
Multipoint Network Access Methods / Protocols

Random Access Protocols 1. Multiple Access (MA) 2. Carrier Sense Multiple Access (CSMA) 3. Carrier Sense Multiple Access / Collision Detection (CSMA/CD) 4. Carrier Sense Multiple Access / Collision Avoidance (CSMA/CA) Controlled Access Protocols 1. Reservation 2. Token Passing 3. Polling Channelization Protocols 1. Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA) 2. Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA) 3. Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA)
Multipoint Network Access Methods Random Access Protocols

1. Multiple Access (MA)
Any device can send a frame whenever it has one to send, without detecting if there is ongoing transmission or collision. Pure Aloha was the first multiple access method used. Uses a base station to receive packets from sender and retransmit packets to ultimate destination. Acknowledgements are sent to transmitting stations, which retransmits packets when no acknowledgements are received within specific period of time. No longer used widely. Station senses transmission medium if there is any existing transmission before it sends packets, but has no procedures for collision. Station may send packets immediately if medium is idle or it may send after a certain period of time. Base station may no longer be used. No longer used widely.
2. Carrier Sense Multiple Access (CSMA)
Multipoint Network Access Methods Random Access Protocols (continuation)

3. Carrier Sense Multiple Access / Collision Detection (CSMA/CD)
Same as CSMA except that there are procedures if collisions occur (Computers retransmit data after some period of time.) If collision is sensed, sending station typically sends a jamming signal to inform other stations about the collision. Time before retransmission may become longer as more collisions are detected in attempting to transmit packet. Used widely, especially in Ethernet. Same as CSMA except that stations avoid collision by waiting by an interframe gap (IFG) amount of time and another random amount of time, before transmitting packets. Transmitting station waits for an acknowledgement, and retransmits packet if no acknowledgement is received after a certain period of time. Used in wireless LANs.
4. CSMA/CA
Multipoint Network Access Methods Controlled Access Protocols 1. Reservation

Station makes reservation before sending data. Each station is allotted a reservation time slot on a reservation frame. A token is passed from one station to another. Station with token has the right to send data. Stations used logical ring topology. Used by IBM. Uses primary stations (control stations) and secondary stations. Primary station polls secondary stations if any would want to transmit data. All transmissions pass through the primary station. Used in SDLC (developed by IBM).
2. Token Passing

3. Polling
Multipoint Network Access Methods

Channelization Protocols 1. Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA) Data Link Layer protocol that uses frequency division multiplexing. Available bandwidth (frequency spectrum) is shared by stations. Total radio frequency spectrum is divided into individual channels. Used in cell phone networks. 2. Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA) Data Link Layer protocol that uses time division multiplexing. Each station is allotted a certain amount of time (time slot) to transmit packets. Used in cell phone networks. 3. Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA) Based on spread spectrum technology. Only one channel occupies the entire bandwidth of link. All stations can send data simultaneously without time sharing or frequency spectrum sharing. Each station is assigned a unique code or spreading sequences (sequence of numbers called chips) Code is used to manipulate bits to be transmitted.
CDMA Multiplexer
Code A Station 1 Bit = 0 -1 Code B Station 2 Bit = 0 -1 Code C Station 3 Silent 0 +1,+1,+1,+1
X
+1,-1,+1,-1
-1,-1,-1,-1
X
+1,+1,-1,-1
-1,+1,-1,+1
+
0, 0, 0, 0
-1,-1,-3,+1
X
+1,-1,-1,+1
Code D Station 4 Bit = 1 +1
+1,-1, -1, +1
Encoding rules: 0 = -1, 1= +1, silent = 0
CDMA Demultiplexer
+1,+1,+1,+1 Code A -1,-1,-3,+1 Code B -1,+1,-3,-1 Code C -1, -1, +3, -1 Code D -1,+1, +3, +1 Divide by Add 4 -4 -1 Divide by Add 4 -4 -1 Divide by Add 4 0 0 Divide by Add 4 +4 +1
X
+1,-1,+1,-1 -1,-1,-3,+1
Bit = 0
X
+1,+1,-1,-1
Bit = 0
X
+1,-1,-1,+1
Silent
Bit = 1
Decoding rules: 0 = -1, 1= +1, silent = 0
Line Discipline
1. Line discipline refers to the coordination of hop to hop data delivery. According to Tomasi, there are two fundamental ways that line discipline is achieved, namely: ENQ/ACK (Enquiry/Acknowledgment) Works best in simple networks such as when only two DTEs are communicating. Initiating station begins a session by transmitting an enquiry (ENQ) frame to the other station. Frame usually includes the address of the other station. The other station sends an acknowledgment (ACK) frame if it is ready to receive data, or a negative acknowledgment (NAK) frame if it is not ready to receive data. Destination station acknowledges all messages with an ACK or NAK. Poll/Select Best suited for centrally controlled networks using multipoint topology, where one station acts as primary or host station and the others as secondary stations. Primary station polls each station and determines which station should use the transmission medium.
2.
Flow Control
1. Flow control is used to determine how much data should a station send to another station, and when a station should stop or start sending data to another station. According to Tomasi, there are two common methods of flow control, namely: Stop and Wait Transmitting station sends one message then waits for an acknowledgment before sending the next message. Advantage is its simplicity. Disadvantage is its slow speed. Sliding Window Transmitting station can transmit several messages in succession before receiving an acknowledgment. One acknowledgment can be used for several messages. The term sliding window refers to imaginary receptacles at the source and destination. Frames can be acknowledged before the window is filled with data. To keep track of which frames have been acknowledged, modulo n numbering system is required where each frame transmitted is identified with a sequence number between 0 and n-1. n is any integer value equal to 2x, where x is the number of bits in the numbering system.
2.
Error Control
Error control includes both error detection and error correction. Error detection can be accomplished using VRC, LRC, CRC, or other error detection techniques. Error correction is generally accomplished using Automatic Repeat Request (ARQ) : ARQ can be stop and wait ARQ or sliding windows ARQ. Sliding window ARQ can be go-back-n frames or selective reject (SREJ). With go-back-n frames, destination tells the source to go back n frames and retransmit all of them. With selective reject ARQ, the destination tells the source to retransmit only the frame with error.
Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) Model

Developed by International Standards Organization (ISO). Intended to facilitate the interconnection of similar or different types of computers. Intended to serve as a model/framework for developing standards and products used in interconnecting computers in a network. The model is applicable for many of the standards widely used today (TCP/IP, Ethernet, and others) Model has 7 layers Each layer communicates with corresponding layer on the other side Each layer serves as a service provider to higher layers. Each layer is independent from other layers. Each layer encapsulates packets from higher layers with its own control information such as addresses The advantages of layered architecture are: It facilitates peer to peer communications among protocols, additions and changes in one layer does not affect other layers, and development can be done per layer.
Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) Model

Each layer has a unit of data called protocol data unit (PDU). At the transmitter, each layer adds its own header and trailer to the protocol data unit (encapsulation) passed by the immediate layer above it, to create its own protocol data unit. At the receiver, each layer removes the header and trailer (decapsulation) added by the corresponding layer at the transmitter, and passed the data to the immediate layer above it. Each layer can provide services to more than one entity in the higher layer by using a service access point (SAP). Information and network information passes from one layer to another through a layer to layer interface. Layers 4 to 7 address the aspects of network to allow for two host computers to communicate directly. Layers 1 to 3 are concerned with the actual mechanics of moving the data.
OSI Model
100 Base T Hub or Switch
Computer A 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 Application layer Presentation Layer Session layer Transport Layer Network Layer Data Link Layer Physical layer
Computer B Application layer Presentation Layer Session layer Transport Layer Network Layer Data Link Layer Physical layer 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
Physical Layer
Responsible for transmission method and actual propagation of unstructured data bits (1 and 0) through a transmission medium. Deals with creation and reception of physical signals such as voltages, current, and optical signals. Defines allowable circuit characteristics such as impedance and capacitance. Defines communications media to be used. Defines maximum speed of transmission of data. Defines how 0 and 1 is represented in signals. Defines connections, pin assignments, interface parameters, and timing. Defines the carrier system used to propagate signals such as T1 or E1. May provide switching facilities. The protocol data unit (PDU) in this layer is called bits. Some standards which operate in the physical layer are RS232, RS422, RS 423, and Ethernet (also includes data link layer).
Data Link Layer

Responsible for formatting of frames and providing error-free communications across the physical link connecting stations in the network. . Produces frames to be transmitted by physical layer. Provides identity of bits and fields in a frame. Defines the start and end of transmission of frames. Could provide data link layer source and destination addresses (Physical or Media Access Control (MAC) addresses) May provide facilities for line discipline ( coordinating hop to hop delivery of data), error detection and error recovery. May provide flow control of frames (to prevent overflow of received frames at receiver memory). May provide communications medium access control, such as CSMA/CD. The protocol data unit (PDU) in this layer is called frame. Used in establishing communications between devices physically connected with one another (such as computer connected to another computer or router)
Data Link Layer

Error control used could be: Stop and wait ARQ (Automatic Repeat Request ) ACK is transmitted by receiver for each frame sent. If there is an error on the frame, no ACK is transmitted. Sender retransmits if it receives no ACK after preset time. Go-Back-N ARQ (Automatic Repeat Request) Multiple frames can be sent prior to transmission of ACK. Sequence numbers are added to frames. Uses sliding windows concept. If a frame has an error, or timer expires, sender retransmits all previously transmitted frame, starting from frame with error. Selective Repeat ARQ (Automatic Repeat Request) Same as Go-back-N ARQ, but only frame with error is retransmitted. NACK which indicates sequence no. of frame with error is sent by receiver. Window size is at most half the size of those used for Go-back-N ARQ. Range of sequence numbers is expected by receiver. Forward Error Correction
Data Link Layer

IEEE subdivided data link layer to: Logical Link Control (LLC) Medium Access Control (MAC) Standards which operate in the data link layer include: Asynchronous (Start Stop) protocol SDLC (Synchronous Data Link Control) Bisync (Binary Synchronous) HDLC (High Level Data Link Control) Ethernet (also includes physical layer)
Network Layer
Provides details that enable the data to be routed between devices in an environment using multiple networks. Responsible for network addressing and delivering packets from ultimate source to ultimate destination. Provides means for routing packets through different portions of computer network. Provides network layer source address and destination address. May provide facilities for error detection and error recovery. May provide flow control of packets. Provides upper layers of the hierarchy independence from the data transmission and switching technologies used to interconnect systems. The protocol data unit (PDU) in this layer is called packet. Standards which operate in the network layer includes IP (Internet Protocol) which is a part of TCP/IP protocol, and IPX (Novell)
Transport layer
Controls and ensures the end-to-end integrity of the data message propagated through the network between two devices. Responsible for data tracking and process to process delivery of entire message across the network Has the ultimate responsibility of providing efficient and error free delivery of data (not all network layer protocols provide error recovery procedures) Provides segmentation of the data, in which messages are broken into smaller pieces that can be easily transported across a medium. Reassembles segments into streams of application data at the receiver. Generates transport layer addresses which are called port numbers. Provides flow control at the transport layer level. May or may not establish logical connection on the transport layer level. The protocol data unit (PDU) in this layer is called segment. Standards which operate in the transport layer include TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) and User Datagram Protocol (UDP) which are part of the TCP/IP protocol, , and SPX (Sequence Packet Exchange) which is a protocol used by Novell. Services provided may be connection oriented (such as TCP) or connectionless (such as UDP).
Session Layer
Responsible for job management tracking and network availability (Data storage and processor capacity). Provides logical connection entities at the application layer. Provides means for establishment or reestablishment of connection between user applications. Logon and log off procedures. Creates and maintains dialogs between source and destination. Includes services for virtual connections between applications, synchronization of data flow for recovery purposes, creation of dialogue units and activity units, connection parameter negotiation, and partitioning services into functional groups. Provides means of graceful termination of connection between user applications.
Presentation Layer
Provides independence to the application processes by addressing any necessary code or syntax conversion. Transforms data into a form that the application layer can use. Handles syntax and semantics used by application layer. Syntax refers to the structure or format of the data within the message. Semantics refers to the meaning of each section of the data. May provide code conversion. May provide data compression / decompression. May encrypt data to be transmitted and decrypt received data. May provide virtual terminal translation services. Examples: converting an EBCDIC-coded text file to an ASCII-coded file.
Presentation Layer
Some standards which operate in this layer are: QuickTime - used for video and audio. Motion Picture Experts Group (MPEG) - used for video compression and coding. Graphics Interchange Format (GIF) used for compression and coding for graphic images. Joint Photographic Experts Group (JPEG) used for compression and coding for graphic images. Tagged Image File Format (TIFF) - used for coding graphic images.
Application Layer
Analogous to General manager of the network. Provides distributed information services and controls the sequence of activities of the applications. Provides support for end user applications such as: file transfer electronic mail remote login accessing resources of other computers Serves as end user interface Manages application processes The protocol data unit (PDU) in this layer is called data. Example is FTP (file transfer protocol) which is a part of TCP/IP
TCP/IP protocol suite contains protocols for network, transport, and application layers.
Application Layer
Protocols which operate in the Application layer are: FTP (file transfer protocol) which is a part of TCP/IP used to transfer files. Domain Name System (DNS) used to resolve Internet names to IP addresses. Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP) used to transfer files that make up the web pages of the World Wide Web. Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP) used for transferring email messages. Telnet used for terminal emulation.
Cisco Three Layer Model

Cisco is a company producing network devices such as routers and switches. Cisco defines three layers for its computer network model, namely: Core Layer the highest layer in the model. It is responsible for: transporting large amounts of data traffic reliably and quickly. Distribution Layer (workgroup layer) responsible for: Communications point between the access layer and core layer Determining the fastest way to handle service requests Providing security and network policies Defining broadcast and multicast domains Access Layer - responsible for: Access control Creation of separate collision domains Workgroup connectivity
TCP/IP Three Layer Model Model

TCP/IP protocol suite was developed by the Department of Defense of the US before the development of the OSI model. The three layers of the three layer TCP/IP model are: Application layer functions like the session layer, presentation layer, and application layer of the OSI model Transport Layer similar to the transport layer of the OSI model. Network Layer (Internet layer or internetwork layer) similar to the network layer of the OSI model. The two layers below the network layer are not specified in the TCP/IP protocol suite.
TCP/IP Four Layer Model

The four layer of the four-layer TCP/IP Model are: Process Layer provides application support. Host-to host Layer services the process and Internet layers to handle the reliability and session aspects of the data transmission. Internet Layer (network layer) contains information that pertains to how data can be routed through the network . Network Access Layer provides means of physically delivering data packets using frames or cells.
Physical Layer Standards / Protocols

Physical Layer Standards / Protocols

RS232 (EIA) / CCITT V.24 and V.28 RS422 (EIA) / CCITT V.11 RS423 (EIA) / CCITT V.10 RS485 (EIA) Ethernet (Physical layer portion; Ethernet also has data link layer standards) Manchester Encoding Centronics Parallel Interface IEEE 1284 Standard USB Standard IEEE 1394 Standard
EIA RS232 / CCITT or ITU V.24 And V.28

Developed by Electronics Industry Association (EIA) of US. RS stands for Recommended Standard. Official name is Interface Between Data Terminal Equipment And Data Communications Equipment Employing Serial Binary Data Interchange. Variously known as EIA RS-232, EIA 232, and TIA 232. Various revisions are RS232 C, RS232 D, RS232 E and TIA-232-F. Developed as an interface standard for a data terminal equipment (DTE) and a data communications equipment (DCE). Defines the following: electrical signals used and control signals circuit impedance and maximum transmission speed Commonly used to connect modems to DTEs May be used to connect two DTEs over short distances (50 feet or less) Maximum data rate is 20,000 baud. Standard defines the use of DB25 (25 pin) connectors. Currently used in different types of connectors such as DB9 or DIN 8 V.24 is for functional specifications and V.28 is for electrical specifications
RS232 / V.24 And V.28

Single ended (unbalanced) operation. Bipolar (uses non-return to zero bipolar encoding) For the transmitter (driver): +5 volts to +15 volts indicate a 0 (negative logic) -5 volts to -15 volts indicate a 1 (negative logic) For the receiver: +3 volts to +25 volts indicate a 0 (negative logic) -3 volts to -25 volts indicate a 1 (negative logic) -3 volts to +3 volts is undefined Difference between transmitter and receiver voltages is called noise margin. Positive voltage indicates the activation of control signals (positive logic) Load impedance should be between 3000 to 7000 ohms Typical interconnecting cable length is 50 feet (15 meters) Maximum load capacitance is 2500 pf, which typically limits the interconnecting cable length to 50 feet. Typical interconnecting cables have capacitance of 50 pF per foot, thus a total load capacitance of 2500 pF will be reached if 50 feet of cable is used. Driver output resistance 300 ohms maximum
RS232 / V.24 And V.28

RS232 signals are divided into the following five groups:
A used for ground B used for data C used for control D- used for timing (clocking) S used for secondary channel
There are two full duplex channels in a 25 pin RS232 interface, although some manufacturers do not used the full RS232 implementation (secondary channel and other primary channel control signals are not used).
RS232 Pin Assignments Using DB25 Connector
Pin No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Function Frame Ground Transmitted Data (TD) Received Data (RD) Request to Send (RTS) Clear To Send (CTS) Data Set Ready (DSR) Signal Ground Carrier Detect (CD) Positive DC Test Voltage
Pin No. 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
Function Negative DC Test Voltage Sec. Carrier Detect Sec. Clear To Send Sec. Transmitted Data Transmitter Clock Sec. Received Data Receiver Clock
Pin No. 19 20 21 22 23 24 25
Function Sec. Request To Send Data Terminal Ready (DTR) Signal Quality Detect Ring Indicator (RI) Data Rate Select Ext. Transmitter Clock Busy

Protective ground (GWG, FG, or CG) chassis or earth ground. Usually connected to signal ground (pin 7), but not always. Transmit Data or Send Data (TD or TxD) (from DTE) where data from DTE is transmitted to the modem. Receive Data (RD or RxD) (from DCE) where data from the modem (data from remote DTE) is received by the DTE. Request to Send (RS or RTS) (from DTE) informs DCE that DTE wants to transmit data. Clear to Send (CS or CTS) (from DCE) informs DTE that it can transmit data. Data Set Ready or Modem Ready (DSR or MR) - (from DCE) informs DTE that DCE and communications channel is ready for data transmission and reception. Signal Ground (common, SG or GND) signal reference line for all signals. Carrier Detect (CD) or Receive Line Signal Detect (RLSD, CD, or DCD) (from DCE) informs DTE that DCE is receiving carrier signal from remote modem. Transmitter Clock or Transmit Signal Element Timing (TSET, SCT-DCE) (from DCE) where transmit clock generated from the DCE is passed to the DTE. (for synchronous transmission) Receive Clock or Receiver Signal Element Timing (RSET or SCR) (from DCE) where recovered clock by modem is passed to DTE. (Used for synchronous transmission.)

Data Terminal Ready (DTR) (from DTE) informs DCE that DTE is available and ready to transmit and receive data. Signal Quality Detect (SQD) (from DCE) a low signal indicates poor signal being received by DCE.l. Ring Indicator (RI) - (from DCE) indicates that DCE is receiving a call from a remote modem (for dial up modems). Data Signal Rate Selector (DSRS) (from DTE) used to select one of two transmission rates. External Transmit clock or Transmit Signal Element Timing (TSET, SCT-DTE) (from DTE) transmit clock used for synchronous transmission if transmit clock from DCE is not used. Secondary channel signals are similar to primary channel signals.

If a DTE is to be connected to a DCE such as a modem, all pins in the DTE connector are connected to the same pin number in the DCE connector. If a DTE is to be connected to another DTE directly (without using DCEs), transmit data (pin 2) of one DTE must be connected to receive data (pin 3) of the other DTE, and vice versa. Control pins must be properly connected to other pins in such a way that the required control signals are asserted. Usually pins 4 and 5 are connected , and pins 6, 8, and 20 are connected (on the same connector). (These are not part of the RS232 specifications, but are being practiced in the field).
RS232 Signal Level
+ 25 volts + 3 volts 0 volts - 3 volts - 25 volts Notes: 1. + 3 volts to +25 volts indicate a logical 0 2. -3 volts to - 25 volts indicate a logical 1 3. -3 volts to + 3 volts is undefined
RS449 Standard
Developed by Electronics Industry Association (EIA). Also known as EIA-449 or TIA-449, Intended to replace RS232. Defines mechanical specifications only. Defines the use of 37 pin (DB37) (for primary channel) and 9 pin connectors (DB9) (for secondary channel) Used for RS422 and RS 423 standards, which are electrical specifications. Not readily adopted by the industry and the standard is no longer being recommended for use. Replaced by RS 530 standard also known as EIA/ TIA 530.
RS449 Standard
DB-37 Connector
First Segment Pin No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 Function Shield Signaling Rate Unassigned Transmit Data Transmit Timing Receive Data Request to Send Receive Timing Clear to Send Local Loopback Data Mode Terminal Ready Receiver Ready Remote Loopback Incoming Call Rate Selector Terminal Timing Test Mode Signal Ground Pin No. 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 Second Segment Function Receive Common Unassigned Transmit Data Transmit Timing Receive Data Request to Send Receive Timing Clear to Send Terminal in Service Data Mode Terminal Ready Receiver Ready Select Standby Signal Quality New Signal Terminal Timing Standby Indicator Transmit Common Pin No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Function Shield Secondary Receiver Ready Secondary Transmit Data Secondary Receive Data Signal Ground Receive Common Secondary Request To Send Secondary Clear To Send Transmit Common
DB-9 Connector
RS 530 (Also called EIA 530 or TIA 530)

Developed by EIA. Also known as EIA/ TIA 530. Defines mechanical specifications only. Generally uses a 25-pin connector. Used for RS422 and RS 423 standards. Used to replace RS 449.
RS422 / CCITT V.11 Standard

RS-422 is American National Standards Institute (ANSI) standard ANSI/TIA/EIA-422-B CCITT / ITU-T standard is V.11 Defines electrical signals only. Used with RS/EIA/TIA 449 and RS/EIA/TIA 530 standard. Used for distances longer than what RS232 can handle. Uses differential transmission and reception Uses balanced transmission (each signal uses two wires) 2 wires are used for transmit, two wires for receive. Specification itself does not set an upper limit on data rate Could be used for data rate of 100 Kbaud at 4000 feet Could be used for data rate of 10 Million baud at 40 feet Currently use RS 530, RS449, DB25, DB9 or other connectors. Not compatible with RS232. Note: some books generally define maximum cable length is 200 feet (60 m) and maximum data rate of 2.048 Mbps.
RS423 / CCITT V.10 Standard

RS/EIA/TIA-423 is a standard for serial communications. ITU / CCITT version is V.10. It uses unidirectional sending driver, and allows for up to 10 receivers. Defines electrical signals. Used for distances longer than what RS232 can handle. Uses differential transmission and reception. Uses unbalanced transmission (Signal lines have one common ground line) 3 wires are used for transmit and receive . Could be used for data rate of 1 Kbaud at 4000 feet. Could be used for data rate of 100 Kbaud at 40 feet. Signals are compatible with RS232. Note: some books generally define maximum cable length is 200 feet (60 m) and maximum data rate of 2.048 Mbps.
RS422 and RS423 Signal Level
+ 6 volts + 200 milivolts 0 volts - 200 milivolts - 6 volts Notes: 1. + 200 milivolts to + 6 volts indicate a logical 0 2. - 200 milivolts to - 6 volts indicate a logical 1 3. - 200 milivolts to + 200 milivolts is undefined
RS485
EIA-485, also known as TIA/EIA-485 or RS-485, is a standard defining the electrical characteristics of drivers and receivers for use in balanced digital multipoint systems. It can span up to 4000 feet or just over 1200 meters. The two ends of the cable have a termination resistor connected across the two wires.
Centronics Parallel Interface

Original specifications were established by Centronics, which was a company that produced and sell printers. Used for connecting printers to computers. Could be used for short distances only (10 meters or less) Voltages used are TTL (Transistor Transistor Logic)l evels. Transmission of data is unidirectional.
Centronics Parallel Interface
Pin No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Function Frame Ground Data Line Received Data Data Line Request Line Data to Send Clear To Send Data Line Data SetLine Data Ready Signal Ground Data Line Carrier Line Data Detect Positive DC Test Data Line Voltage
Pin No. 10 11 12 13 19 to 31 32
Function Acknowledge Line Busy Paper End Select Line Return Lines Fault Line
IEEE 1284 Standard (Parallel Interface)

The IEEE 1284 standard is designed for parallel transmission of data. It allows faster throughput compared to Centronics Parallel Interface Standard, but is backward compatible with Centronics interface. It allows bidirectional data flow unlike the original Centronics interface. It has theoretical maximum throughput of 4 megabytes per second. IEEE 1284 can operate in five modes: Compatibility Mode, also known as Centronics standard. Nibble Mode is an interface that allows the device to transmit data four bits at a time. Byte Mode, also known as "Bi-Directional is a half-duplex mode that allows the device to transmit eight bits at a time . Enhanced Parallel Port (EPP) is a half-duplex bi-directional interface designed to allow devices like printers, scanners, or storage devices to transmit large amounts of data. Extended Capability Port (ECP) is a half-duplex bi-directional interface similar to EPP, except that PC implementations use direct memory access.
IEEE 1284 Standard (Parallel Interface)
Universal Serial Bus (USB) Standard

Used to establish communication s between devices and a host controller . Can connect peripherals such as mouse, printers, hard disks and others to a computer. USB was intended for easier connection of external devices to PCs by replacing the connectors at the back of PCs. Unlike serial or parallel ports of PCs, USB ports provide electric power to connected devices. Maximum length of cables is 5 meters. USB supports the following signaling rates: A low-speed rate of 1.5 Mbit/s is defined by USB 1.0. The full-speed rate of 12 Mbit/s is defined by USB 1.1. A high-speed rate of 480 Mbit/s is defined by USB 2.0 A SuperSpeed rate of 4800 Mbit/s (5 Gbps) is defined by USB 3.0 Wireless USB is the new wireless extension to USB. It utilizes the common WiMedia* Ultra-wideband (UWB) radio platform developed by the WiMedia Alliance.
IEEE 1394 Interface Standard (Also called Firewire)

The IEEE 1394 interface is a serial bus interface standard for high-speed communications such as data transfer. It is used in personal computers, video cameras, audio players and other devices. The interface is also called FireWire (Apple), i.LINK (Sony), and Lynx (Texas Instruments. It can replace SCSI in many applications. FireWire is also available in wireless, fiber optic and coaxial versions using isochronous protocols. It is the High Definition Audio-Video Network Alliance (HANA) standard connection interface for A/V (audio/visual) component communication and control. Apple's other code-name for FireWire was "Chefcat. FireWire 400 (IEEE 1394-1995) can transfer data between devices at 100, 200, or 400 Mbit/s. FireWire 800 (IEEE 1394b-2002) allows transfer rate of 786.432 Mbit/s. FireWire S1600 allows transfer rate of 1.6 Gbit/s . Firewire S3200 allows transfer rate of 3.2 Gbit/s.
Manchester Encoding (Digital Biphase or Diphase)

Manchester encoding (also called Phase Encoding, or PE) is a signaling method wherein there is a change in voltage in the middle of the bit time. It has no DC component, and is self clocking, which means that it may be inductively or capacitively coupled, and that a clock signal can be recovered from the encoded data. A voltage change from negative (low) to positive (high) represents logic 1, while a voltage change from positive (high) to negative (low) represents a logic 0. Manchester encoding is the signaling standard for 10Base-T Ethernet.
Binary digits from information source +V Data Manchester Code +V (802.3 conventionopposite of Thomas convention)) -V +V clock O volt 1 1 0 0 1 0 1 0
O volt
O volt
4B5B Coding
4b5b is a line code that maps 4-bit symbols to 5-bit symbols to achieve DCbalance. It provides enough signal changes to allow clock recovery. Used in Fiber Distributed Data Interface (FDDI) and 100 Base TX Ethernet.
5B/6B Coding
5b/6b is a line code that maps 5 bit symbols to 6-bit symbols to achieve DCbalance It provides enough signal changes to allow clock recovery.
8B/10B Coding
8b/10b is a line code that maps 8-bit symbols to 10-bit symbols to achieve DCbalance It provides enough signal changes to allow clock recovery. It was developed by IBM in 1983 and was patented in 1984. It is also used in USB 3.0 and Gigabit Ethernet except for 1000Base-T (twisted pair). It is DC-free.
Data Link Layer Standards / Protocols

Data Link Layer Standards / Protocols

Asynchronous (Start Stop) protocol XMODEM YMODEM Bisync (Binary Synchronous) SDLC (Synchronous Data Link Control) HDLC (High Level Data Link Control) Point to Point Protocol (PPP) Ethernet (contains data link and physical layer protocols) IEEE 802.5 Token Ring (contains data link and physical layer protocols)
XMODEM
Asynchronous data link protocol used for low speed data transfer. Designed for transferring files between computers over the public switched telephone network. Uses asynchronous data and asynchronous modems. Uses half duplex stop and wait protocol. The four fields for XMODEM are start of header (SOH) field, header field, data field, and error detection field. The first byte of the header is the sequence number. A similar protocol called YMODEM was developed.
Bisync (Binary Synchronous)

Synchronous transmission protocol developed by IBM. Sometimes called bisynchronous communications. Character oriented protocol (Sync flag uses a character). With character oriented protocol, receiver interprets a frame of data as a group of successive bits combined into predefined patterns of fixed length, usually eight bits each. Control characters are interpreted as such no matter where they are located in the frame. Character oriented protocols are sometimes called byte oriented protocol. Uses poll/select format to control data transmission. Primary station polls secondary stations and devices connected to secondary stations. Poll could be general (for all devices connected to a secondary station) or specific (for only one device connected to a secondary station). Message could be a poll, a selection, an acknowledgment, or message with data. Uses half duplex (Stop and Wait) flow control, which makes it inefficient for links prone to errors and those with long delays. Receiving DTE must send positive or negative acknowledgements before another frame is sent by transmitter. Could be used for faster data transmission compared to asynchronous (start stop) if huge amount of data is transmitted. Relatively slow compared to SDLC. Has several variations.
Bisync (Binary Synchronous)

With Bisync, each line control unit can serve many computers, printers or other devices. Each station and each device on a station has its own address.
Line control Synchronous Unit 2 (LCU) Modem PC (Device 2) Telecommunications Facilities PC (Device 1)
Line control Unit 1 (LCU)
Synchronous Modem
Secondary Station 2
PC PC (Device 1) (Device 2) Secondary Station 1
FEP is a DTE which directs traffic to Synchronous and from many different circuits, which Modem could have different parameters, such as codes, and data formats. LCU is a DTE that directs traffic between one data communication medium and a relatively few terminals which uses the same protocols, character codes, and other parameters
Primary Station
Typical Bisync Frame For General Poll

PAD SYN SYN EOT PAD SYN SYN SPA SPA ENQ PAD
A general poll is sent by a primary station to a specific secondary station (line control unit) to ask if there is any device connected to the station which would want to transmit data. First PAD (Leading PAD) used for bit / clock synchronization between transmitter and receiver. Could have a value of 10101010 (AA Hex) or 01010101 (55 Hex). Second PAD is a string of 1s which is used as time fill so that secondary stations can clear and be ready for the succeeding fields. Last PAD trailing PAD with a value of FF Hex. Used to ensure that RLSD (Receive Line Signal Detect) in the receive modem is held long enough for entire message to be demodulated. SYN (Sync character) used for character synchronization between transmitter and receiver. SYN could have a value of 32 (HEX) for EBCDIC or 16 (HEX) for ASCII. SYN characters are always transmitted in pairs to prevent misinterpretation of a SYN character in the data portion of the frame when a string of bits similar to the SYN character is present in the data portion.
Typical Bisync Frame For General Poll

PAD SYN SYN EOT PAD SYN SYN SPA SPA ENQ PAD
EOT (End of Transmission) in this case used as clearing character to place all secondary stations into line monitor mode. SPA (Station Polling Address) used to indicate the address of the secondary station (line control unit) being polled. Two SPAs are transmitted for error detection (character redundancy). ENQ (Enquiry) format or line turnaround character which initiates a line turnaround. signifies a general poll for all devices connected to the station (line control unit). Any device which needs to send data can answer the poll from the primary station.
Typical Bisync Frame For Specific Poll

PAD SYN SYN EOT PAD SYN SYN SPA SPA DA DA ENQ PAD
A specific poll is sent by a primary station to a specific device connected to a secondary station (line control unit) to ask if that device needs to transmit data. All fields are the same as those for Bisync general poll except the field for was replaced with DA. DA (Device Address) signifies the address of a specific device connected to the secondary station (line control unit). Two DAs are transmitted for error detection (character redundancy). Only the device with the specific DA address can respond to the poll from the primary station.
Typical Bisync Frame For Selection

PAD SYN SYN EOT PAD SYN SYN SSA SSA DA DA ENQ PAD
A selection frame is sent by a polled device to the primary station to indicate the address of the other device to which the polled device wants to communicate with. The selected device may or may not be connected to the same secondary station (line control unit) The fields are the same as those used for poll frame except the Station Poll Address (SPA) was replaced with Station Selection Address (SSA). Station Selection Address (SSA) specifies the secondary station address to which the selected device is connected. Device Address (DA) indicates the address of the selected device. A selected device can respond to a selection with either a positive acknowledgment (it can communicate with the device making the selection) or negative acknowledgment (it cannot communicate with the device making the selection).
Typical Bisync Frame For Data Transmission

PAD PAD SYN SYN STX DATA ETB / BCC PAD PAD ETX
Frame is used for transmitting data from one device to another device. PAD used for bit synchronization between transmitter and receiver. Could have a value of 10101010 or 01010101 SYN (Sync character) used for character synchronization between transmitter and receiver. SYN could have a value of 32 (HEX) for EBCDIC or 16 (HEX) for ASCII. SYN characters are always transmitted in pairs to prevent misinterpretation of a SYN character in the data portion of the frame when a string of bits similar to the SYN character is present in the data portion. STX (Start of text) used to indicate that succeeding field contains data. ETB (End of Transmission Block) indicates end of block of data transmitted. ETX (End of Text) indicates end of multiple blocks of data. BCC (Block Check Character) used to detect errors. It typically uses LRC for ASCII and CRC-16 for EBCDIC.
Typical Bisync Frame For Acknowledgment

PAD SYN SYN DLE 0 PAD
Positive Acknowledgment Frame (even numbered blocks)
PAD
SYN SYN
DLE
PAD
Positive Acknowledgment Frame (odd numbered blocks) DLE (Data Link Escape) used to indicate that next field contains control characters rather than data
PAD
SYN SYN
DLE
NAK PAD
Negative Acknowledgment Frame
Positive Acknowledgment is sent by receiving station to transmitting station to indicate that there was no error on the received message frame based on the BCC. Negative Acknowledgment is sent by receiving station to transmitting station to indicate that there was an error on the received message frame based on the BCC.
SDLC (Synchronous Data Link Control)

Synchronous transmission protocol developed by IBM for use in Systems Network Architecture (SNA). It was the first bit oriented synchronous protocol. A bit oriented protocol is a discipline for serial-by-bit information transfer over a communications channel. With bit oriented protocol, data is transmitted as a series of successive bits that may be interpreted individually on a bit-by-bit basis or in groups of several bits rather than in a fixed-length group of n bits. Sync is determined by sequence of bits containing 01111110 in binary or 7E in Hexadecimal. Can transfer data using simplex, half duplex, or full duplex. Can support point to point or multipoint topologies. Can be used for circuit switch or packet switch networks. Uses full duplex flow control. Uses sliding window ARQ for error correction. Frames are generally limited to 256 characters. EBCDIC was the original character code used for SDLC.
SDLC (Synchronous Data Link Control)

The two types of nodes for SDLC are the primary station and secondary station. Primary station controls the data exchange on the communications channel and issues commands. Could be used for faster data transmission compared to asynchronous (start stop) if huge amount of data is transmitted. The three transmission states for SDLC are: Transient exists before and after each line turnaround. Idle a secondary station assumes that the circuit is in the idle state after receiving 15 or more consecutive 1s. Active exists whenever either the primary of a secondary station is transmitting data or control information. International Standards Organization modified SDLC and created High Level Data Link Control (HDLC). SDLC became a subset of HDLC (High Level Data Link Control). International Telecommunications Union (ITU) modified HDLC and created Link Access Procedure (LAP). IEEE modified HDLC and created IEEE 802.2.
Typical SDLC I (Information) Frame

An I (Information) frame contains user data.
1 byte Ending Flag
2 or 4 bytes Frame Check Sequence
N bits Payload (User Data)
1 byte
1 byte Secondary Station Address
1 byte
Control
Starting Flag
NR
P/F
NS
FI
FI = 0 (b7) indicates frame is information frame NS = Send sequence number NR = Receive sequence number P/F = Poll / Final
Typical SDLC S (Supervisory) Frame

An S (Supervisory) frame does not contain user data, but it could be used to assist in the transfer of data. It can be used to confirm previously received information frames, convey ready or busy conditions of stations, polling when primary station has no information to send.
1 byte 2 or 4 bytes Frame Check Sequence 1 or 2 bytes 1 byte 1 byte Ending Flag Secondary Station Address
Control
Starting Flag
NR
P/F
Code
FI
Information Frame
FI = 10 (b7 and b6) (indicates frame is supervisory frame) P/F = Poll / Final NR = Receive sequence number Code = 00 (b5 and b4) indicates receiver is ready to receive data (RR) = 10 (b5 and b4) indicates receiver is not ready to receive data = 01 (b5 and b4) indicates a negative acknowledgement (NAK) (reject) for received data = 11 (b5 and b4) indicates selective negative acknowledgement (NAK) (reject) for received data
Typical SDLC U (Unnumbered) Frame

A U (Unnumbered) frame does not contain user data, but it is used to send commands (frames from primary station) and responses (frames from secondary stations. It is used to send network control and status information.
1 byte Ending Flag 2 or 4 bytes Frame Check Sequence Management Information 1 byte 1 byte Secondary Station Address 1 byte
Control
Starting Flag
Code
P/F
Code
FI
FI = 11 indicates frame is unnumbered frame Code = corresponds to a command or response P/F = Poll / Final
SDLC Frame
Format of frame from primary station is similar to that of a secondary station. Starting flag indicates start of frame (has a value of 01111110 or 7E Hex) Used for character synchronization Bit stuffing is used when data contains a series of bits same as starting or ending flag. Secondary Station Address contains secondary station address to which frame must go to, or from which frame came from Address 00 Hex is used for network testing and is never used for secondary stations. It is called null address. Address FF Hex is the broadcast address (frame intended for all secondary stations. Can be one or several bytes long Control Field used for polling, confirming received frames, and other functions. NR (Receive sequence number) Indicates the number of the next information frame the transmitting station expects to receive, or the number of the next information frame the receiving station will transmit. Used also to indicate status of previously received frames.
SDLC Frame
P/F (poll bit (P) or final (F) bit) 1 indicates that the frame sent by primary station needs a reply from the secondary station, or 1 indicates that the frame is the last frame sent by a secondary station to the primary station. NS (Send or transmit sequence number) defines sequence number of frame currently being sent. Used to reconstruct data and to identify missing frames or frames with errors. FI (Frame identifier) identifies if the frame is I, S, or U FI = 0 indicates an information frame FI = 10 indicates a supervisory frame FI = 11 indicates an unnumbered frame Payload contains users data Frame check sequence contains error detection information such as CRC. Ending flag indicates end of frame (also has a value of 01111110) can also be used as starting flag of next frame
HDLC (High Level Data Link Control)

HDLC is a superset of the SDLC protocol and thus uses the functionalities of the SDLC protocol. It was adopted from SDLC protocol. It supports half-duplex and full duplex communication over point-to-point or multipoint links. It uses ARQ. Has two common modes of transmission Normal response mode (NRM) Has one primary station (one which issues commands), and one or more secondary stations Uses point to point or multipoint link Asynchronous balance mode (ABM) Each station can be a primary or secondary station Uses point to point link
HDLC (High Level Data Link Control)

Has three types of frames Information frames (I frames) Used to transport user data and control information Supervisory frames (S frames) Used only to transport control information Unnumbered frames (U frames) Reserved for system management
Typical HDLC I Frame
1 byte Ending Flag
2 or 4 bytes Frame Check Sequence
N bits Payload (User Data)
1 or 2 bytes
1 byte or more Secondary Station Address
1 byte
Control
Starting Flag
NR
P/F
NS
FI
FI = 0 indicates frame is information frame NS = Send sequence number NR = Receive sequence number P/F = Poll / Final
Typical HDLC S Frame

1 byte Ending Flag 2 or 4 bytes Frame Check Sequence 1 or 2 bytes 1 byte or more Secondary Station Address 1 byte
Control
Starting Flag
NR
P/F
Code
FI
Information Frame
FI = 10 (indicates frame is supervisory frame) P/F = Poll / Final NR = Receive sequence number Code = 00 indicates receiver is ready to receive data (RR) = 10 indicates receiver is not ready to receive data = 01 indicates a negative acknowledgement (NAK) (reject) for received data = 11 indicates selective negative acknowledgement (NAK) (reject) for received data
Typical HDLC U Frame
1 byte Ending Flag
2 or 4 bytes Frame Check Sequence Management Information
1 or 2 bytes
1 byte or more Secondary Station Address
1 byte
Control
Starting Flag
Code
P/F
Code
FI
FI = 11 indicates frame is unnumbered frame Code = corresponds to a command or response P/F = Poll / Final
HDLC Frame
Format of frame from primary station is similar to that of a secondary station. Starting flag indicates start of frame (has a value of 01111110 or 7E Hex) Used for character synchronization Bit stuffing is used when data contains a series of bits same as starting or ending flag. Secondary Station Address contains secondary station address to which frame must go to, or from which frame came from Address 00 Hex is used for network testing and is never used for secondary stations. It is called null address. Address FF Hex is the broadcast address (frame intended for all secondary stations. Can be one or several bytes long Control Field used for polling, confirming received frames, and other functions. NR (Receive sequence number) Indicates the number of the next information frame the transmitting station expects to receive, or the number of the next information frame the receiving station will transmit. Used also to indicate status of previously received frames.
HDLC Frame
P/F (poll bit (P) or final (F) bit) 1 indicates that the frame sent by primary station needs a reply from the secondary station, or 1 indicates that the frame is the last frame sent by a secondary station to the primary station. NS (Send or transmit sequence number) defines sequence number of frame currently being sent. Used to reconstruct data and to identify missing frames or frames with errors. FI (Frame identifier) identifies if the frame is I, S, or U FI = 0 indicates an information frame FI = 10 indicates a supervisory frame FI = 11 indicates an unnumbered frame Payload contains users data Frame check sequence contains error detection information such as CRC. Ending flag indicates end of frame (also has a value of 01111110) can also be used as starting flag of next frame
Point to Point Protocol (PPP)

Used by data terminal equipment (DTE) for point-to-point access Designed for dial up links. Used by Internet users in connecting computers to servers of Internet service providers (ISP) Uses a version of HDLC. Provides services for: Definition of frame format Definition of how devices can negotiate establishment of link and exchange of data Definition of how network layer data are encapsulated in the data link frame Definition of how devices can authenticate each other
Typical PPP Frame

1 byte Ending Flag 2 or 4 bytes Frame Check Sequence N bits Data and Padding 1 or 2 bytes 1 byte 1 byte 1 byte
Protocol
Control
Address
Starting Flag
Starting flag - indicates start of frame (has a value of 01111110) Address - contains a broadcast address (11111111) Control uses format of U frame of HDLC Protocol defines what is being carried in data field Data carries either user data or other information Frame Check Sequence provides CRC Ending flag - indicates end of frame (has a value of 01111110)
PPP Transition States

Detect Carrier Idle Drop Carrier Terminating Success
Fail
Establishing link
Fail
AuthenTicating (optional) Success
Finish
Networking (exchanging data)
PPP Protocol Stack

Link Control Protocol Responsible for establishing, maintaining, configuring, and terminating links Used during establishing or terminating state Protocol field is equal to C021 Authentication protocols Used to validate the identity of a user who needs access to a set of resources Uses two protocols: Password Authentication Protocol (PAP) and Challenge Handshake Authentication Protocol (CHAP) Network Control Protocol
Typical PPP LCP Frame

1 byte Ending Flag 2 or 4 bytes Frame Check Sequence N bits Data and Padding 1 or 2 bytes Protocol (C02116) 1 byte 1 byte 1 byte
Control
Address
Starting Flag
Code
ID
Length
Information for some LCP packets
1 byte
1 byte
2 bytes
Variable
Code defines type of LCP packet ID holds a value used to match a request with a reply. One endpoint inserts a value in this field, which will be copied in the reply packet. Length defines length of entire LCP packet Information contains extra information needed for some LCP packets
PPP LCP Packets and Their Codes

Code (Hex) 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 0A 0B Packet Type Configure request Configure-ack Configure-nak Configure-reject Terminate-request Terminate-ack Code-reject Protocol-reject Echo-request Echo-reply Discard-request Description Contains list of proposed options and their values Accepts all options proposed Announces that some options are not acceptable Announces that some options are not recognized Requests to shut down the line Accepts the shutdown request Announces an unknown code Announces an unknown protocol A type of hello message to check if the other end is still alive The response to echo request A loopback test packet which requests the receiver to discard the packet.
PPP Password Authentication Protocol (PAP)

User who wants to access a system sends an authentication identification (usually the user name and the password) System checks the validity of the identification and password, and either accepts or denies connection Protocol field contains C023 (hex) Packets include: Authenticate-request used by user to send username and password Authenticate-ack used by system to allow request by user Authenticate-nak used by system to reject request by user
Typical PPP PAP Packet

Control
Address
Starting Flag
Username Message Length Length Variable 1 byte 2 bytes
ID
Code 3 1 byte
Authenticate-nak
1 byte
Username Message Length Length Variable 1 byte 2 bytes
ID
Code 2 1 byte
Authenticate-ack
1 byte
Password
Password length 1 byte
Username
Username Length 1 byte
Length Length
ID ID
Code 1 Code 1
Authenticate-request
Variable
Variable
2 bytes
1 byte
1 byte
Challenge Handshake Protocol Three way handshaking protocol which provides greater security than PAP Protocol field contains C223 (HEX) Password is kept a secret and is never sent online.
System sends to user challenge packet containing a challenge value User applies predefined function that uses the challenge value and the users own password, and creates result; user sends result using response packet. System applies same function to password of user and challenge value at the system side; compares its own result with result at user side. If results are the same, access is granted; otherwise access is denied.
Typical PPP CHAP Packet

Control
Address
Starting Flag
Message Length
ID
Code 4 1 byte
Failure
Variable 2 bytes 1 byte
Message Length
ID
Code 3 1 byte
Success
Variable 2 bytes 1 byte Response Response Length Value 1 byte
Name
Length 2 bytes
ID 1 byte
Code 22 Code
Response
Variable Variable
1 byte
Name
Challenge Challenge Length Length Value 1 byte
ID
Code 12 Code
Challenge
Variable Variable
2 bytes 1 byte
1 byte
PPP Network Control Protocol

Used during networking state Can be used for various network layer protocols such as IP Uses Internetwork Protocol Control Protocol (IPCP) to establish and terminate a network layer connection for IP packets Protocol field contains 8021 (hex)
PCP packet encapsulated in PPP Frame

1 byte Ending Flag 2 or 4 bytes Frame Check Sequence N bits Data and Padding 1 or 2 bytes Protocol (802116) 1 byte 1 byte 1 byte
Control
Address
Starting Flag
IPCP information
Length
ID
Code
IPCP Packet
Variable
2 bytes
1 byte
1 byte
Code 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 Configure-ack Configure-nak Configure-reject
IPCP Packet Configure-request used to set IP addresses and other options
Terminate-request used to terminate the network connecrtion Terminate-ack Code-reject
PPPoe (Point to Point Protocol Over Ethernet)

Point-to-Point Protocol over Ethernet (PPPoE) is a protocol for encapsulating Point to Point frames inside an Ethernet frame. Used with DSL services where users connect to DSL modems using the Ethernet, and in Metropolitan Ethernet networks. Can be used to connect multiple users to a service provider over a single physical connection.
Ethernet (IEEE 802.3 Series)

A set of standards used for local area networks. Contains physical and data link layer standards. Most dominant LAN (data link and physical layer) standard today. Standards include: Maximum Speed Cable length Description 10 Base 5 Thickwire coaxial cable RG-8 , RG-11 10 Mbps 500 meters 10 Base 2 Thinwire coaxial cable RG-58 10 Mbps 185 meters 10 Base T Twisted Pair (UTP/STP) Ethernet 10 Mbps 100 meters 10 Broad -36 Broadband coaxial cable 75 ohm 10 Mbps varies 10 Base FL Fiber Link Ethernet, 10 Mbps 2000 meters 10 Base FB Fiber Link Ethernet, 10 Mbps 2000 meters 10 Base FP Fiber Link Ethernet, 10 Mbps 2000 meters 100 Base T Twisted Pair (UTP/STP) (CAT 5) 100 Mbps 100 meters 100 Base TX Twisted Pair (UTP/STP) (CAT 5) 100 Mbps 100 meters 100 Base FX Fiber Optic Ethernet, 100 Mbps 4002000 m 100 Base T4 Twisted Pair (CAT 3 or higher) 100 Mbps, 100 meters 1000 Base SX Fiber optic, short wave laser Ethernet, 1 Gbps varies 1000 Base LX Fiber optic, long wave laser Ethernet, 1 Gbps 1000 Base CX Short copper jumper Ethernet, 1 Gbps 1000 Base T CAT 5 (UTP/STP) 1 Gbps
Ethernet (IEEE 802.3 Series)

10 Base 5 10 Base 2 10 Base T 10 Broad -36 10 Base FL 10 Base FB 10 Base FP 100 Base T 100 Base TX 100 Base FX 100 Base T4 1000 Base SX 1000 Base LX 1000 Base CX 1000 Base T IEEE Equivalent 802.3 802.3a 802.3i 802.3b 802.3j 802.3j 802.3j 802.3u 802.3u 802.3u 802.3u 802.3z 802.3z 802.3z 802.3ab
Ethernet Frame
7 bytes 1 byte 6 bytes Destination Address 6 bytes Source Address 2 bytes 46 to 1500 bytes Data and Padding 4 bytes
Preamble
SFD
Length PDU
CRC
Minimum frame length is 64 bytes (without preamble and SFD) Maximum frame length is 1518 bytes (without preamble and SFD) Minimum length restriction is required for correct operation of CSMA/CD -If length is too short, frame could be sent before collisions are detected. Padding is done if length of data is not sufficient to meet minimum frame length.
Ethernet Frame
Preamble contains 7 bytes of alternating 0s and 1s; used to synchronize receiver with transmitter SFD (Start Frame Delimiter) has a value of 10101011; signals the beginning of the frame Destination Address contains physical (MAC, Ethernet, or Network Interface Card (NIC address) of destination station Source Address - contains physical (MAC, Ethernet, or Network Interface Card (NIC) address) of sender of packet Length / Type defines as either a length (if value is less than 1518) or type field (if value is greater than 1536) Defines length of data field that follows (when used as length) Defines type of Protocol Data Unit (PDU) encapsulated in frame Data carries data from upper layer protocols CRC error detection information (CRC-32)
Ethernet Addressing
Usually expressed in hexadecimal (Ex. 01-03-05-0A-23-0A) Source address is always a unicast (from one station) Destination address could be: Unicast for one station only (last bit of byte 1 is 0) Multicasrt for several stations (last bit of byte 1 is 1) Broadcast for all stations (all bits are 1)
10 Base 5 (IEEE 802.3 - 10 Mbps Thickwire Ethernet)

Uses Bus Physical topology and Bus Logical topology Uses thickwire coaxial cable (RG11) Stations are connected to coaxial cable using transceivers. Uses Carrier Sense Multiple Access / Collision Detection (CSMA / CD) access method Communications between stations is half duplex. Maximum data rate of 10 Mbps. Maximum segment length is 500 meters. Maximum transceiver cable length is 50 meters. Terminator resistance is 50 ohms. Minimum distance between stations is 2.5 meters. Maximum repeaters without Inter-repeater link is 2 Maximum repeaters with Inter-repeater link is 4
10 Base 5 (10 Mbps Thickwire Ethernet) Physical Layer

Physical Layer Signaling (PLS) Uses Manchester Encoding / Decoding Attachment Unit Interface (Transceiver Cable 4 twisted pairs) Medium Dependent Interface
Computer A
Computer B
NIC Transceiver Cable Thickwire Coaxial Cable
NIC Medium Attachment Unit (MAU) (Transceiver) Medium
Terminator
Transceiver
Terminator
NIC = Network Interface Card Transceivers transmits and receives signals, detects collisions PLS encodes and decodes signals Terminator prevents reflected signals (50 ohms)
10 Base 2 (802.3a - 10 Mbps Thinwire Ethernet)

Also called cheapernet and thin Ethernet. Uses Bus Physical topology and Bus Logical topology. Uses thinwire coaxial cable (RG58). Stations are connected to coaxial cable using T connectors. Transceivers are usually embedded on NICs. Uses Carrier Sense Multiple Access / Collision Detection (CSMA / CD) access method Communications between stations is half duplex. Maximum data rate of 10 Mbps. Maximum segment length is185 meters. Segments can be connected using repeaters. Minimum distance between stations is 0.5 meters Terminator resistance is 50 ohms.
10 Base 2 (10 Mbps Thinwire Ethernet) Physical Layer

Physical Layer Signaling (PLS) Thinwire Coaxial Cable Embedded in NIC Medium Attachment Unit (MAU) (Transceiver) Medium
Terminator
Uses Manchester Encoding / Decoding Attachment Unit Interface (Transceiver Cable 4 twisted pairs) Medium Dependent Interface
Computer A
Computer B
NIC
NIC
T Connector
Terminator
NIC = Network Interface Card Transceivers transmits and receives signals, detects collisions PLS encodes and decodes signals Terminator prevents reflected signals (50 ohms)
10 Base T (IEEE 802.3i - 10 Mbps Twisted Pair Ethernet)

Uses Star physical topology (stations are connected to hubs) and bus Logical topology. Stations use twisted pair cables to connect to hubs. Uses Carrier Sense Multiple Access / Collision Detection (CSMA / CD) access method. Uses Manchester encoding (also called phase encoding) Transceivers are usually embedded on NICs Maximum data rate of 10 Mbps. Maximum cable length is 100 meters for CAT 5 cable. Hubs can be connected with one another. Some 10 base T hubs can be connected to thinwire or thickwire Ethernet
10 Base T (10 Mbps Twisted Pair Ethernet) Physical Layer

Usually Embedded in NIC

Computer A Computer B
NIC
Twisted pair cable Twisted pair cable
NIC
Medium Attachment Unit (MAU) (Transceiver) Medium
10 Base T Hub NIC = Network Interface Card Transceivers transmits and receives signals, detects collisions PLS encodes and decodes signals
10 Base FL (IEEE 802.3j -10 Mbps Fiber Link Ethernet)

Uses Star physical topology and Bus logical topology. Stations use two pairs of fiber optic cables to connect to hubs, usually via external transceivers Uses Carrier Sense Multiple Access / Collision Detection (CSMA / CD) access method Maximum data rate of 10 Mbps.
10 Base FL (10 Mbps Fiber Link Ethernet) Physical Layer

Computer A
Computer B
NIC Transceiver Cable Transceiver

Two pairs Fiber Optic Cable
NIC Medium Attachment Unit (MAU) (Transceiver) Medium
Transceiver
10 Base FL Hub
NIC = Network Interface Card Transceivers transmits and receives signals, detects collisions PLS encodes and decodes signals
100 Base TX (100 Mbps Twisted Pair Ethernet)

Also known as fast Ethernet. Uses Star physical topology (Stations are connected to hubs) Stations use two pairs, (CAT 5 UTP or STP twisted pair cables to connect to hubs. Uses Carrier Sense Multiple Access / Collision Detection (CSMA / CD). access method for backward compatibility. For full duplex operation, CSMA/CD is no longer needed. Frame format, minimum and maximum frame lengths are the same as 10 Base 5 and 10 Base 2 Transceivers are usually embedded on NICs. Maximum data rate of 100 Mbps. Maximum cable length is 100 meters for CAT 5 cable. Some 100 base T hubs can be connected to 10 Base T hubs, thinwire Ethernet, or thickwire Ethernet. Added feature is Autonegotiation which allows negotiation of data rate. (stations operating at 10 Mbps could communicate with stations operating at 100 Mbps)
100 Base TX (100 Mbps Twisted Pair Ethernet) Physical Layer

Reconciliation Usually Embedded in NIC
Medium Independent Interface (MII) Physical Layer Entity (Transceiver) Does Encoding / Decoding Medium Dependent Interface
NIC
Two pairs twisted pair Cable (CAT 5 or STP)
NIC
Two pairs twisted pair Cable (CAT 5 or STP)
Medium
100 Base TX Hub
NIC = Network Interface Card Reconciliation Sends parallel data in 4 bit format to Physical layer Entity Transceivers transmits and receives signals, detects collisions
100 Base FX (100 Mbps Fiber Optic Ethernet)

Uses Star physical topology (Stations are connected to hubs) Stations use two pairs fiber optic cables to connect to hubs. Uses Carrier Sense Multiple Access / Collision Detection (CSMA / CD) access method for backward compatibility. For full duplex operation, CSMA/CD is no longer needed. Frame format, minimum and maximum frame lengths are the same as 10 Base 5 and 10 Base 2 Transceivers are usually embedded on NICs. Maximum Data rate of 100 Mbps. Added feature is Autonegotiation which allows negotiation of data rate. (stations operating at 10 Mbps could communicate with stations operating at 100 Mbps)
100 Base FX (100 Mbps Fiber Optic Ethernet) Physical Layer

NIC
NIC
Medium
100 Base FX Hub
100 Base T4 (100 Mbps Twisted Pair Ethernet)

Uses Star physical topology (Stations are connected to hubs) Stations use 4 pairs twisted pair Cat 3 or higher cables to connect to hubs. Uses Carrier Sense Multiple Access / Collision Detection (CSMA / CD) access method for backward compatibility. For full duplex operation, CSMA/CD is no longer needed. Frame format, minimum and maximum frame lengths are the same as 10 Base 5 and 10 Base 2 Transceivers are usually embedded on NICs. Maximum data rate of 100 Mbps. Some 100 base T hubs can be connected to 10 Base T hubs, thinwire Ethernet, or thickwire Ethernet. Added feature is Autonegotiation which allows negotiation of data rate. (stations operating at 10 Mbps could communicate with stations operating at 100 Mbps)
100 Base T4 (100 Mbps Twisted Pair Ethernet) Physical Layer

NIC
4 pairs twisted pair Cable (CAT 3 or higher)
NIC
4 pairs twisted pair Cable (CAT 3 or higher)
Medium
100 Base T4 Hub
1000 Base SX (1 Gbps Fiber Optic, Short Wave Laser Ethernet)

Uses Star physical topology (Stations are connected to hubs) Stations use two short wave fiber optic cables to connect to hubs. Uses Carrier Sense Multiple Access / Collision Detection (CSMA / CD) access method for backward compatibility. For full duplex operation, CSMA/CD is no longer needed. Transceivers are usually embedded on NICs. Maximum data rate of 1Gbps.
1000 Base LX (1 Gbps Fiber Optic, Long Wave Laser Ethernet)

Uses Star physical topology (Stations are connected to hubs) Stations use two long wave fiber optic cables to connect to hubs. Uses Carrier Sense Multiple Access / Collision Detection (CSMA / CD) access method for backward compatibility. For full duplex operation, CSMA/CD is no longer needed. Transceivers are usually embedded on NICs. Maximum data rate of 1Gbps.
1000 Base SX and 1000 Base LX (1 Gbps Fiber Optic Ethernet) Physical Layer
Gigabit Medium Independent Interface (GMII) Physical Layer Entity (Transceiver) Does Encoding / Decoding Medium Dependent Interface
NIC
NIC
1000 Base SX or LX Hub
Medium
NIC - Network Interface Card Reconciliation Sends 8 bit parallel data to Physical layer Entity GMII Gigabit Medium Independent Interface; resides only inside the NIC Transceivers transmits and receives signals, detects collisions
1000 Base T (1 Gbps CAT 5 Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP) Ethernet)

Uses Star physical topology (Stations are connected to hubs) Stations use four pairs of twisted pair Cat 5 cables to connect to hubs. Uses Carrier Sense Multiple Access / Collision Detection (CSMA / CD) access method for backward compatibility. For full duplex operation, CSMA/CD is no longer needed. Transceivers are usually embedded on NICs. Maximum data rate of 1Gbps.
1000 Base T (1 Gbps Twisted Pair Ethernet) Physical Layer

NIC
4 pairs Twisted Pair Cat 5 cable
NIC
4 pairs Twisted Pair Cat 5 cable
Medium
1000 Base T Hub
NIC = Network Interface Card Reconciliation Sends 8 bit parallel data to Physical layer Entity GMII Gigabit Medium Independent Interface; resides only inside the NIC Transceivers transmits and receives signals, detects collisions
Fiber Distributed Data Interface (FDDI)

Optical fiber-based token ring network featuring: dual counter-rotating logical rings, each with a data transmission capacity of 100 Mb/s reliable data transfer active link monitoring station management survivability features The data rate of an FDDI ring may be doubled to 200 Mb/s, with loss of redundancy. The standards used for FDDI are: ANSI X3T9.5, containing Physical Media Dependent (PMD) specifications ANSI X3T9.5, containing the Physical (PHY) specifications ANSI X3.139, containing Media Access Control (MAC) specifications ANSI X39.5, containing the Station Management (SMT) specifications Can extend in range up to 200 kilometers (124 miles). Its protocol is derived from the IEEE 802.4 token bus. Initially uses fiber optic cables. Today, it can use copper cable, in which case it may be referred to as CDDI (Copper Distributed Data Interface). Has provisions to form sub rings when a ring has a problem.
IEEE 802.11 (Wireless Ethernet)

IEEE 802.11 is a set of standards which can be used for LANs, WANs, and MANs. IEEE implement wireless Ethernet using the 802.11 standard. It covers data link and physical layers. It uses CSMA/CA CSMA/CD could not be used because of difficulty of detecting collisions in wireless setups. Defines two kinds of services, namely: Basic service set (BSS) Extended service set (ESS) Basic service set (BSS): Building block of a wireless LAN Made up of stationary or mobile wireless stations and a possible central base station, known as the access point (AP) BSS without an AP is a standalone network and cannot send data to other BSSs. (It is called ad hoc architecture.)
IEEE 802.11 (Wireless Ethernet)

Extended service set (ESS) Made up of two or more BSSs with APs BSSs are connected through distribution system, which is usually a wired LAN IEEE 802.11 does not restrict distribution system to wired LAN. When BSSs are interconnected, it is called infrastructure network Communications between stations in different BSSs usually occur through APs. A mobile station can belong to more than one BSS at the same time, and can connect to different APs as it moved to other locations.
IEEE 802.11 Station Types

Three types of stations are defined: No-transition BSS-transition ESS-transition A station with no transition mobility is either stationary or moving only inside a BSS. A station with BSS-transition mobility can move from one BSS to another, but movement is confined inside one ESS. A station with ESS-transition mobility can move from one ESS to another. However, communication is not guaranteed during the move.
IEEE 802.11
The physical layer specifications are: Frequency hopping spread spectrum (FHSS) Direct sequence spread spectrum (DSSS) Orthogonal frequency division multiplexing (OFDM) High rate DSSS (HR-DSSS) Frequency hopping spread spectrum (FHSS) Frequency hopping spread spectrum (FHSS) First used by the military to secure communications. Message or data is broken into fixed size blocks of data, and each block is transmitted in sequence on a different carrier frequency. Sender sends on one carrier frequency for a short amount of time, then hops to another carrier frequency for the same amount of time, and so on. Cycle is repeated. A pseudorandom code is used to generate a unique frequency hopping sequence, which is known by both transmitter and receiver. Each transmitter-receiver combination can use the same frequency spectrum but each uses a different frequency hopping sequence to prevent interference. Spread spectrum bandwidth = bandwidth of original signal X no. of hops. Spreading makes it difficult for unauthorized persons to reconstruct the transmitted signal.
IEEE 802.11
Frequency hopping spread spectrum (FHSS) (cont.) Uses a industrial, scientific, and medical (ISM) band Band is divided into 79 subbands of 1 Mhz. A pseudorandom number generator selects the hopping sequence. System allows 1 or 2 bits per baud (2 level FSK or four level FSK) Direct sequence spread spectrum (DSSS) A high bit rate pseudorandom code is added to a low bit rate information signal to generate a high bit rate pseudorandom signal closely resembling noise that contains both data and pseudorandom code. Each bit sent by the sender is replaced with a sequence of bits called chip code. Each transmitter-receiver combination knows the pseudorandom code. Time needed to send one chip code must be the same as the time needed to send one bit. DSSS is implemented in the physical layer. Uses a ISM band Allows 1 or 2 bits per baud.
IEEE 802.11
Orthogonal frequency division multiplexing (OFDM) The same as FDM except that all the subbands are used by one source at any given time. Sources contend for access at the data link layer. Uses ISM band, which is subdivided into 52 subbands, with 48 subbands for sending 48 groups of bits at a time and 4 subbands for control information. High rate DSSS (HR-DSSS) Similar to DSSS except for encoding method, which is called complementary code keying (CCK), wherein 4 or 8 bits are encoded to one CCK symbol.
IEEE 802.11
Protocol Freq. (GHz) 2.4 802.11a 802.11b 802.11g 5 2.4 2.4 Bandwidth (MHz) 20 20 20 20 Data Rate per stream (Mbit/s) 1, 2 6, 9, 12, 18, 24, 36, 48, 54 1, 2, 5.5, 11 1, 2 , 6, 9, 12, 18, 24, 36, 48, 54 6.5, 13, 19.5, 26, 39, 52, 58.5, 65 13.5, 27, 40.5, 54, 81, 108, 121.5, 135
(Source: WiFi Alliance)
20 802.11n 2.4/5 40
CSMA/CA Used for IEEE 802.11

Wireless LANs cannot use CSMA/CD because: Collision may not be detected by stations because frames can take different paths in the communications medium and because of obstructions. Signal fading may be great in wireless LANs. Before sending a frame, transmitting station senses the medium for any transmission. If medium is found to be idle, transmitting station waits for a period of time called distributed interframe space (DIFS), then it sends a request to send (RTS) to the destination station. Destination station, after receiving the RTS, waits for a short period of time called short interframe space (SIFS), then sends clear to send (CTS) to the transmitting station.
CSMA/CA Used for IEEE 802.11

Transmitting station sends the data after waiting for a short time equal to SIFS. Destination station, after waiting for an amount of time equal to SIFS, sends an acknowledgement to the transmitting station. To avoid collisions, a station which transmits an RTS, also includes a duration of time it needs to occupy the channel. The stations which receive this information create a timer called network allocation vector (NAV) which shows how much time must pass before these stations are allowed to check the channel for idleness.
IEEE 802.11 Frames

Data are cut into small frames because the transmission medium is generally noisy. The frame includes: Frame control D used to indicate the duration of network allocation vector, or in one control frame the ID of the frame. Addresses Sequence control sequence number of frame Frame body contains information FCS contains CRC
IEEE 802.5 Token Ring

The Token Ring network was originally developed by IBM. The IEEE 802.5 specification is modeled after and completely compatible with IBM's Token Ring network. IBM's Token Ring network specifies a star physical topology and a logical ring topology, with all end stations attached to a device called a multistation access unit (MSAU). IEEE 802.5 does not specify a topology, although virtually all IEEE 802.5 implementations are based on a star physical topology and a logical ring topology. MSAUs can be wired to form a ring. IEEE 802.5 does not specify a media type, while IBM Token Ring networks use twisted-pair wire. Token-passing networks move a small frame, called a token, around the network. The token grants the right to transmit. Token ring LAN speeds of 4 Mbit/s and 16 Mbit/s were standardized by the IEEE 802.5 working group. An increase to 100 Mbit/s was standardized and marketed during the wane of token ring's existence.

STANDARDS ORGANIZATIONS

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STANDARDS ORGANIZATIONS

Prepared by: Armando V. Barretto

ITU Landmark Dates (Source: ITU)

ITU Landmark Dates (Source: ITU)

ITU Landmark Dates (Source: ITU)

Series of ITU Recommendations (Source: ITU )

Series of ITU Recommendations (Source: ITU)

Series of ITU Recommendations (Source: ITU)

Series of ITU Recommendations (Source: ITU)

Series of ITU Recommendations (Source: ITU)

Series of ITU Recommendations (Source: ITU)

Series of ITU Recommendations (Source: ITU)

Classification of Computer Networks According to Geographic Scope

Classification of Computer Networks According to Type of Physical Connection

Classification of Computer Networks or Protocols According to Type of Connection

PHYSICAL LAN TOPOLOGY

Point to Point Topology

Point to Point Topology

Physical Mesh Topology

Physical Star Topology

Physical Bus Topology

Physical Ring Topology

Multipoint Network Access Methods / Protocols

Multipoint Network Access Methods Random Access Protocols

2. Carrier Sense Multiple Access (CSMA)

Multipoint Network Access Methods Random Access Protocols (continuation)

Multipoint Network Access Methods Controlled Access Protocols 1. Reservation

Multipoint Network Access Methods

Code D Station 4 Bit = 1 +1

Encoding rules: 0 = -1, 1= +1, silent = 0

Decoding rules: 0 = -1, 1= +1, silent = 0

Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) Model

Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) Model

Data Link Layer

Data Link Layer

Data Link Layer

Cisco Three Layer Model

TCP/IP Three Layer Model Model

TCP/IP Four Layer Model

Physical Layer Standards / Protocols

Physical Layer Standards / Protocols

EIA RS232 / CCITT or ITU V.24 And V.28

RS232 / V.24 And V.28

RS232 / V.24 And V.28

RS232 Pin Assignments Using DB25 Connector

RS232 Pin Assignments Using DB25 Connector

RS232 Pin Assignments Using DB25 Connector

RS232 Pin Assignments Using DB25 Connector

RS232 Signal Level

RS 530 (Also called EIA 530 or TIA 530)

RS422 / CCITT V.11 Standard

RS423 / CCITT V.10 Standard

RS422 and RS423 Signal Level

Centronics Parallel Interface

Centronics Parallel Interface

IEEE 1284 Standard (Parallel Interface)

IEEE 1284 Standard (Parallel Interface)

Universal Serial Bus (USB) Standard

IEEE 1394 Interface Standard (Also called Firewire)

Manchester Encoding (Digital Biphase or Diphase)

Data Link Layer Standards / Protocols

Data Link Layer Standards / Protocols