EMERGING ENERGY-EFFICIENT INDUSTRIAL TECHNOLOGIES APPENDIX Table of Contents Introduction....................................................................................................................... 3 Technologies ......................................................................................................................

3
Twin chamber pulp lifter (alumina production) ......................................................................................... 3 Pot lining additive (aluminum)................................................................................................................... 3 Improve casting furnace technology (aluminum) ....................................................................................... 4 Improvements to the aluminum grain refinement process (aluminum) ...................................................... 4 Innovative Tunnel kiln (bricks and tiles).................................................................................................... 4 Advanced coating processes (car manufacture).......................................................................................... 5 Cogen--exhaust gas drying of blast furnace slag for blended cements (cement)........................................ 5 New refractory materials (cement) ............................................................................................................. 5 Fluidized bed kiln (cement)........................................................................................................................ 6 Mineral polymers (cement) ........................................................................................................................ 6 Heat recovery for cogeneration (cement) ................................................................................................... 6 Advanced communition (cement) .............................................................................................................. 6 High efficiency roller mills-raw material (cement) .................................................................................... 7 Ammonia adiabatic pre-reformer (chemicals) ......................................................................................... 7 Ammonia process control technology (chemicals)..................................................................................... 7 Ammonia - membrane reactor for steam reforming (chemicals)................................................................ 8 Ammonia - membrane reactor for selective ammonia removal (chemicals) .............................................. 8 Advanced chlorine cells (chemicals) .......................................................................................................... 8 Corn fiber fractionation (chemicals)........................................................................................................... 9 Selective cracking ethylene (chemicals).................................................................................................. 9 Oxy-burners (chemicals) ............................................................................................................................ 9 Direct production of silicones from sand (chemicals) .............................................................................. 10 Chlorate cathodes for ClO2 production (chemicals) ................................................................................. 10 Catalytic autothermal oxydehydrogenization (CAO) (chemicals)............................................................ 10 Advanced reactor design methanol (chemicals) .................................................................................... 11 Electrodeionization (chemicals) ............................................................................................................... 11 Advanced recovery systems fractionation (chemicals).......................................................................... 11 Melt crystallization - benzene (chemicals) .............................................................................................. 11 Alkane functionalization catalysts (chemicals) ........................................................................................ 12 Solvent recovery using liquid nitrogen (chemicals) ................................................................................. 12 Dividing wall column olefins production (chemicals)........................................................................... 12 Oxy-fuel burners (metal casting) (cross-cutting)...................................................................................... 13 Tube feeder (cross-cutting)....................................................................................................................... 13 Meta-lax stress relief method (cross-cutting) ........................................................................................... 13 Energy management systems (cross-cutting) ........................................................................................... 14 Clean energy systems (cross-cutting) ....................................................................................................... 14 Heat pumps (cross-cutting)....................................................................................................................... 14 Advanced electrogalvinization (cross-cutting) ......................................................................................... 15 Written pole motor (cross-cutting) ........................................................................................................... 15 Copper rotor motor (cross-cutting)........................................................................................................... 15 Electronically commutated permanent magnet motor (cross-cutting) ...................................................... 15 Efficient transformers (cross-cutting)....................................................................................................... 16 General heat recovery (cross-cutting)....................................................................................................... 16 Molten metal filtering (cross-cutting)....................................................................................................... 17 GFX drainwater heat recovery (cross-cutting) ......................................................................................... 17 High-efficiency welding (cross-cutting)................................................................................................... 17 Low friction working fluids (cross-cutting) ............................................................................................. 17 Recuperative regenerative boilers (cross-cutting) .................................................................................... 18 Advanced polysilicon production (electronics) ........................................................................................ 18

Heat recovery food - high temperature (food processing) ........................................................................ 18 Freeze concentration (food processing) .................................................................................................... 18 4 or more effect evaporator for cooling (food processing) ....................................................................... 19 Heat pump dryer (food processing) .......................................................................................................... 19 Condi-cyclone dryers (food processing).................................................................................................. 19 Controlled atmosphere packaging (food) ................................................................................................. 20 Efficient cooling systems (food)............................................................................................................... 20 Process control-glass tanks (glass) ........................................................................................................... 20 New glass melting technologies (glass).................................................................................................... 21 Efficient burners for glass furnaces (glass)............................................................................................... 21 Electric forehearth with indirect cooling (glass)....................................................................................... 21 Ion-exchange system float glass (glass)................................................................................................. 21 High levels of pulverized coal injection (iron and steel) .......................................................................... 22 Advanced coke oven gas co-generation technology (iron and steel) ........................................................ 22 On-site pickling HCl regeneration (iron and steel)................................................................................... 23 Intelligent inductive processing (iron and steel)....................................................................................... 23 Improved EAF refractories (iron and steel) .............................................................................................. 23 Coke dry quenching (iron and steel)......................................................................................................... 24 Non-recovery coke ovens (iron and steel) ................................................................................................ 24 Waste oxides recycling in steelmaking furnaces (iron and steel) ............................................................. 24 Heat recovery in sinter plants (iron and steel) .......................................................................................... 25 Scrap pre-heating electric arc furnace (EAF) technologies (iron and steel) ............................................. 25 Recuperative burners in the rolling mill (iron and steel) .......................................................................... 26 Direct steel strapping production (iron and steel)..................................................................................... 26 Improved drying systems (lumber and wood products............................................................................. 27 Heat recovery turbine (metalcasting)........................................................................................................ 27 Furnace process modeling and control (metal casting)............................................................................. 27 Unconventional yield improvement methods (metal casting) .................................................................. 28 Simulation programs for process management (metal casting) ................................................................ 28 New metal heating approaches (metal casting) ........................................................................................ 28 Die casting copper motor rotors (metal casting)....................................................................................... 29 Ceramic filters (mining) ........................................................................................................................... 29 Vibration fluidized bed separation (mining)............................................................................................. 29 Ramex tuneller (mining)........................................................................................................................... 30 Ammonia absorption refrigeration unit (petroleum refining) ................................................................... 30 Hydrogen purification improvements (petroleum refining)...................................................................... 30 Selective oxidation of benzene to phenol (petroleum refining) ................................................................ 30 Liquid membranes in refining (petroleum refining) ................................................................................. 31 Low profile FCC (petroleum refining) ..................................................................................................... 31 Fluidized bed reactor for plastics recovery (plastics) ............................................................................... 32 Heat recovery in plastics (plastics) ........................................................................................................... 32 Water as cooling refrigerant (plastics)...................................................................................................... 32 Tunnel kiln (plastics) ................................................................................................................................ 33 Heat recovery printing (printing).......................................................................................................... 33 Flotation deinking for stickies removal (pulp and paper) ......................................................................... 33 Bacterial reduction of sulfur to sulfide in kraft mills (pulp and paper)..................................................... 34 Press drying (pulp and paper) ................................................................................................................... 34 Biopulping (pulp and paper)..................................................................................................................... 34 Fluidized bed combustion for sludge/bark/wood fiber waste (pulp and paper) ........................................ 35 Air/Steam impingement drying (pulp and paper) ..................................................................................... 35 Freeze concentration mill effluent (pulp and paper)................................................................................. 35 Fiber loading equipment for PCC (pulp and paper).................................................................................. 36 Thermodyne pulp dryer (pulp and paper) ................................................................................................. 36 Super pressurized groundwood pulping (pulp and paper) ........................................................................ 36 Direct drying cylinder firing (pulp and paper).......................................................................................... 36 Molten metal paper dryer (pulp and paper) .............................................................................................. 37

Multi-port drying cylinder (pulp and paper)............................................................................................. 37 Fluidized bed heat exchanger (pulp and paper) ........................................................................................ 37 New refractory materials-lime kiln (pulp and paper) ............................................................................... 38 Supercritical extraction and protein separation (textile)........................................................................... 38 Suction slot dewatering (textile)............................................................................................................... 38 Direct contact water heating (textile) ....................................................................................................... 39 Textile heat recovery (textile)................................................................................................................... 39 Dyeing vacuum system (textile) ............................................................................................................... 39 Automated dyebath reuse technology (textile) ......................................................................................... 39 Membrane technology textiles (textile) ................................................................................................. 39

Introduction
In the main body of this report (ACEEE Report #IE003), Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory and the American Council for an Energy-Efficient Economy identified 173 emerging energy-efficient industrial technologies. Because of resource constraints, only the 54 highest scoring technologies were profiled in detail in the main body of the report. The selection process used was by no means perfect, with those selected or rejected based upon the researchers judgment and sponsors interests. Many technologies not profiled offer significant opportunities, particularly to some states and regions in which the applicable industries dominate. To capture the information collected in the initial research phase of the study, the authors have prepared this appendix. A brief profile is provided for each technology that was not selected for detailed profiling in the second phase of the study. Included with each profile are the key reference sources identified in the initial screening. While these profiles lack the detail of those provided in the main body of the report, the authors hope that the information included can provide a starting point for future efforts investigating these technologies.

Technologies
Twin chamber pulp lifter (alumina production) Alumina, the precursor used in the production of aluminum, is extracted from bauxite ore using the Bayer process. In the first stage of this process, crude bauxite ore is dried, crushed and blended with recycled plant liquor (containing dissolved sodium carbonate and sodium hydroxide). This is formed into a slurry that is then further processed (Margolis, 1997). The flow of the grinding mills is essentially controlled by the efficiency of the grate and pulp lifters. One manufacturer, JK Tech, developed a twin chamber pulp lifter that prevents the pulp from flowing backward and thereby impeding throughput. Alcoa installed the JKJetLift pulp lifter in one of their semi-autogenous grinding mills in Western Australia in 1999. Results from this installation indicated an increase in throughput by 15% compared to existing mill configurations resulting in a decrease in electricity use of 0.7 kWh/ton (Cameron, 2000). U.S. alumina capacity has been stable at 5 million tons (USGS, 2000). Potential energy savings for this application are limited (less than 1 TBtu). Margolis, N. 1997. Energy and Environmental Profile of the U.S. Aluminum Industry. DOE97-IOFA12. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Energy, Office of Industrial Technologies. Cameron, Peter. 2000. Improved slurry transport in AG and SAG mills with JKJetLift, Personal communication and informational materials provided by Alcoa Wagerup. United States Geological Survey (USGS), 2000. Mineral Commodity SummariesBauxite and Alumina. (http://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/commodity/bauxite/) Pot lining additive (aluminum) Primary aluminum production involves the electrolytic reduction of alumina into alumina (Hall-Heroult smelting process). This is accomplished in a series of cells or pots that are connected in long lines. In each cell the refractory material is overlaid with a carbon lining and a carbon cathode. Preliminary research by EMEC Consultants indicates that cell operation, cathode performance and options for the disposal of spent pot lining will be improved by additives to the pot lining (OIT, 1999). An R&D project funded by the U.S. Department of Energys Office of Industrial Technology focused on using the addition of boron oxide to pot

lining as a way to suppress cyanide formation and potential reducing ohmic cell resistance and sludge formation (OIT, 1999). Potential projected energy savings in 2010 based on OIT calculations are 2 TBtu with cost savings of $23 million annually. The technology is expected to yield savings in both O&M and reduced disposal costs for spent pot liners. The product is still pre-commercial, with a full test in a working cell planned for 2002 (OIT, 1999). Office of Industrial Technology, U.S. Department of Energy, 1999. Boron Oxide Added to Pot lining will Increase Energy Efficiency and Operations in Primary Aluminum Production, project fact sheet. (http://www.oit.doe.gov/factsheets/aluminum/pdfs/potliningadd.pdf) Improve casting furnace technology (aluminum) The production of secondary aluminum involves the smelting of pre-treated scrap in melting furnaces. Depending on the quality of the scrap various furnace types are used. Several opportunities exist to further improve melting furnace efficiency and reduce energy consumption, including improved agitation in the bath, the use of alternative fluxes, and improved furnace designs (F.T. Gerson Ltd, 1993). In one U.S. Department of Energy project, Air Products and Chemicals in collaboration with Argonne National Laboratory, Wabash Alloys, and Brigham Young University are developing a low-NOx combustion system combined with an on site oxygen generation system (OIT, 1999). The use of enriched air in furnace combustion is expected to improve heat transfer to the melt as well as reduce emissions. The goal of this particular project is to increase melting productivity by 30%. The system is currently in the demonstration phase and is expected to reach commercial viability in the near future (OIT, 1999). Potential savings in 2015 could reach 6-8 TBtu. F.T. Gerson Ltd., 1993. Processes, Equipment and Techniques for the Energy Efficient Recycling of Aluminum, prepared for Efficiency and Alternative energy technology Branch, Canada Centre for Mineral and Energy Technology (CANMET). Office of Industrial Technology, U.S. Department of Energy, 1999. High-efficiency, high-capacity, Lox-NOx Aluminum Melting Using Oxygen-Enhanced Combustion, project fact sheet. (http://www.oit.doe.gov/factsheets/aluminum/pdfs/lownox.pdf) Improvements to the aluminum grain refinement process (aluminum) Almost all aluminum cast in the U.S. is grain refined, which involves the reaction of salts with aluminum. A new method for grain refining aluminum castings, the fy-Gem process offers significant cost, energy and environmental benefits. The development of this process by several project partners (Alcoa, GKS Engineering, GRAS Inc, JDC Inc., Littlestown Hardware and Foundry, Touchstone Laboratory) is being supported by the Office of Industrial Technology, U.S. Department of Energy. DOE estimated that by 2010, potential energy savings from the use of this process could reach 2 TBtu as well as the elimination of several million pounds of spent salt. Office of Industrial Technology, U.S. Department of Energy, 1999. New Effective Method will Produce Cleaner, Higher Quality Aluminum Castings, project fact sheet. (http://www.oit.doe.gov/factsheets/aluminum/pdfs/grainref.pdf) Innovative Tunnel kiln (bricks and tiles) Several new designs that reduce energy consumption in kilns used for brick and tile manufacture have become commercialized. Conventional kilns are normally constructed with a fire-proof inner wall, insulation, a brick outer wall and a concrete floor. The walls of the kiln are air-cooled which adds to air leakage into the kiln thereby reducing efficiency. The tunnel kiln design reduces air leakage in the heating zone as a new method of water-cooling rather than air-cooling is used for the kiln carts. Product passage through the kiln is also reduced. Energy savings in tunnel kilns are significant. Based on case studies reported in the Netherlands, the new kiln is expected to use 1,100-1,900 ft3/ton finished product of gas (1.0-1.7 MBtu/ton) consumption and 85 kWh/short ton electricity (CADDET, 1993; CADDET, 1994). This represents energy savings of 15-50% over conventional processes. A U.S. tunnel kiln that uses ceramic fiber insulation and a lower profile stack was able to reduce kiln preheat time by over 20 hours and also reduce energy consumption by 50% (OIT, 1997). Investment costs are estimated to be 10-20% higher than traditional kilns with a simple payback (based on Dutch gas prices) of 4-6 years.

(CADDET) Centre for the Analysis and Dissemination of Demonstrated Energy Technologies, 1994. Energy saving production unit for roof tiles, technical brochure. , 1994. Efficient tunnel kiln for baking roof tiles, technical brochure. Office of Industrial Technology, U.S. Department of Energy, 1997. Brick Kiln Using Low Thermal Mass Technology, NICE3 project fact sheet (http://www.oit.doe.gov/nice3/projects/fctshts/brick.shtml). Advanced coating processes (car manufacture) While auto painting was traditionally dried using gas ovens, there has been a shift to the use of low VOC coatings with the use of infrared curing technologies. One case study noted the installation of an infrared oven installed in 1991 at the Peugeot Talbot Motor Co. The new stoving system resulted in 85% energy cost savings in the drying section of the plant as well as a significant reduction in labor cost since the technology is computer based. These systems are increasingly becoming standard because of the competing priorities for maintaining a high quality finish on autos but reducing emissions. Surface quality considerations do limit the applicability of some IR cured coatings. Another potential trend is molded-in color where the final surface is part of a molded plastic product. Currently, this is used for some textured body parts (e.g., bumpers) but again surface quality is not acceptable for smooth body panels, like those used on Saturns which are still painted. A number of auto suppliers are currently working on improved surface quality in molded panels. If this can be achieved, it is likely to be adopted more broadly by manufacturers because of the reduced cost, time savings from elimination of paint step, and durability benefits. Due to limited data on energy consumption in auto assembly and existing market penetration we do not estimate potential savings in 2015. (CADDET) Centre for the Analysis and Dissemination of Demonstrated Energy Technologies, 1992 Computerized infra-red stoving oven for use in car manufacture. Cogen--exhaust gas drying of blast furnace slag for blended cements (cement) Clinker production is the most energy intensive step in U.S. cement production accounting for over 90% of primary energy use (336 TBtu). Clinker is produced in large kiln systems that evaporate free water in the raw materials, calcine the carbonate constituents, and form Portland cement minerals (Martin et al. 1999). Typical fuel use for the clinker kiln is ranges from 3.6-5.1 MBtu/ton clinker. Blast furnace slag has been demonstrated to be an effective clinker substitute in cement, and several European countries have added up to 30-40% blast furnace slag into the final cement mixture (PCA, 1997). One cement plant in the Netherlands installed a system in which a gas turbine was used to dry granulated blast furnace slag, resulting in both reduced cost for electricity production and effective kiln energy savings for the slag substitution. We assume a fuel savings potential of 1.2 MBtu/ton which accounts for both the kiln fuel savings and the additional fuel requirements to dry the slags. Electricity production is estimated at 63 kWh/ton slag. Incremental investment costs are $0.7/ton for new storage and grinding capacity and $750/kW for the gas turbine system (Alsip, 2000). We estimate potential savings of 5-8 TBtu by 2015 based on the displacement of 3-4 million tons of clinker. Alsip, J. 2000. Combined Heat and Power Capital Costs, presented at International Symposium Combined Heat and Power, Energy Solutions for the 21st Century. Feb. 1-2. Martin, N., E. Worrell, and L. K. Price., 1999.Energy Efficiency and Carbon Dioxide Emissions Reduction Opportunities in the U.S. Cement Industry. LBNL-44182. Portland Cement Association, 1997. Blended Cement Potential Study. Skokie, IL: Portland Cement Association. New refractory materials (cement) Clinker production is the most energy intensive step in U.S. cement production accounting for over 90% of primary energy use (336 TBtu). Clinker is produced in large kiln systems that evaporate free water in the raw materials, calcine the carbonate constituents, and form Portland cement minerals (Martin et al. 1999). There can be considerable heat losses through the shell of the kiln, especially in the burning zone. The use of better insulating refractories can reduce heat losses (Venkateswaran and Lowitt, 1988). A U.S. Department of Energy, OIT, project identified a potential savings of 5% of the heat load with the use of a new high temperature ceramic refractory. O&M costs would also be reduced since the refractory would last longer than its conventional counterparts (OIT, 1999). We assume the improved materials such as Lytherm can reduce fuel consumption by 0.15 GJ/t with estimated installation costs of $0.25/tonne clinker. We estimate potential energy savings of 7 TBtu in 2015 based on application to 50% of kiln systems.

Energy Information Administration, U.S. Department of Energy, 1997. Manufacturing Energy Consumption Survey, 1994. EIA: Washington, DC. Martin, N., E. Worrell, and L. K. Price., 1999.Energy Efficiency and Carbon Dioxide Emissions Reduction Opportunities in the U.S. Cement Industry. LBNL-44182. Office of Industrial Technology, U.S. Department of Energy, 1999. Monolithic Refractory Material project fact sheet (http://www.oit.doe.gov/factsheets/inventions/pdfs/monolithic.pdf) Venkateswaran, S.R. and H.E. Lowitt, 1988.The U.S. Cement Industry, an Energy Perspective, U..S. Department of Energy, Washington, DC. Fluidized bed kiln (cement) Clinker production is the most energy intensive step in U.S. cement production accounting for over 90% of primary energy use (336 TBtu) (Martin et al. 2000). The fluidized bed kiln (FBK) is a new concept for clinker production. In the FBK, the rotary kiln is replaced by a stationary kiln, in which the raw materials are calcined in a fluidized bed (Martin et al. 1999). An overflow at the top of the reactor regulates the transfer of clinker to the cooling zone. This system can yield lower capital costs (since it is more compact), lower operating temperatures and therefore reduced NOx emissions, and a broader choice in fuel types. Expected energy consumption is 10-15% lower than conventional processes (van der Vlueten, 1994). Early developments of this technology have not been successful, although a U.S. manufacturer, Fuller, was in the lead on technology development. Further research, development, and demonstration will be needed before this technology can become commercially viable. We conservatively estimate potential energy savings of 12 TBtu in 2015, based on application of FBK to 5% of clinker production. Martin, N., E. Worrell, and L. K. Price., 1999.Energy Efficiency and Carbon Dioxide Emissions Reduction Opportunities in the U.S. Cement Industry. LBNL-44182. van der Vlueten, F.P., 1994. Cement in Development: Energy and Environment, Netherlands Energy Research Foundation, Petten, the Netherlands. Mineral polymers (cement) Clinker production is the most energy intensive step in U.S. cement production accounting for over 90% of primary energy use (336 TBtu) (Martin et al. 2000). Calcining limestone (calcium carbonate) produces clinker. The reaction releases carbon dioxide into the atmosphere leaving calcium silicates as binding agents. Mineral polymers can be made from inorganic alumino-silicate compounds instead of clinker. They can be produced by blending three elements: calcined alumino-silicates (from clay), alkali-disilicates, and granulated blast furnace slag or fly ash (Martin et al. 1999). Research on mineral polymers has been going on in Eastern Europe and the U.S. since the early 1980s and the silica-alumina raw materials can be found on all continents. The calcining of alumino-silicates occurs at 1400F (750C) although no energy consumption data for the whole process have been found in the literature (Martin et al. 1999). Martin, N., E. Worrell, and L. K. Price., 1999.Energy Efficiency and Carbon Dioxide Emissions Reduction Opportunities in the U.S. Cement Industry. LBNL-44182. Heat recovery for cogeneration (cement) Waste gas discharged from the kiln exist gases, the clinker cooler system, and the kiln pre-heater system all contain useful energy that can be converted into power. We focus on combined heat and power systems that involve the installation of a waste heat boiler system that operate a steam turbine. (The use of direct gas turbine systems is also possible.) Although electrical efficiencies are low, electricity savings are estimated at 18 kWh/ton clinker. We estimate installation costs of $2-4/ton clinker and operating costs of $0.2-0.3/ton clinker (Martin et al. 1999). This type of technology is particularly applicable to long dry kilns but not to the more advanced pre-heater, pre-calciner kiln technology which do not produce enough high grade waste heat to merit the installation of a CHP system. Estimated national energy savings in 2015 are 5 TBtu based on estimated long-dry kiln capacity. Martin, N., E. Worrell, and L. K. Price., 1999.Energy Efficiency and Carbon Dioxide Emissions Reduction Opportunities in the U.S. Cement Industry. LBNL-44182.

Advanced communition (cement) In cement manufacture grinding is an important power consumer. Grinding mills consume 27-54 kWh/ton. Much of the energy input (over 95%) with current grinding technologies is dissipated as waste heat (Venkaterswaran and Lowitt, 1988). Some of this heat can be used to dry raw materials either in the preparation of limestone or at the finish grinding stage. In particular, longer-term efficiency improvements can be expected when non-mechanical milling technologies become available such as laser, thermal shock, electric shock or cryogenics. While the theoretical energy savings associated with these technologies are large, these technologies are still in the research phase and are not commercially available. We estimate U.S. energy savings potential of 16 TBtu in 2015, applying savings to a quarter of industry capacity. Martin, N., E. Worrell, and L. K. Price., 1999.Energy Efficiency and Carbon Dioxide Emissions Reduction Opportunities in the U.S. Cement Industry. LBNL-44182. Venkateswaran, S.R. and H.E. Lowitt, 1988.The U.S. Cement Industry, an Energy Perspective. U.S. Department of Energy, Washington, D.C., USA. High efficiency roller mills-raw material (cement) In cement manufacture, once the raw materials are mined and quarried, they need to be prepared into a meal that is then fed into a clinker kiln. In dry processing of raw materials (used in modern plants) the materials are ground into a flowable powder in ball mills or in roller mills. High efficiency grinding equipment includes the use of a vertical or horizontal roller mill, which can save an estimated 6 kWh/ton when compared to an average ball mill. We estimate an investment cost of $4.5/ton raw material based on (Holderbank, 1993) (Martin et al., 1999). Nationally, high-efficiency roller mills are estimated to save 2-5 TBtu in 2015, based on their application to at least half the processed raw material. Holderbank Consulting, 1993.Present and future Energy Use of energy in the Cement and Concrete Industries in Canada, CANMET, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada. Martin, N., E. Worrell, and L. K. Price., 1999.Energy Efficiency and Carbon Dioxide Emissions Reduction Opportunities in the U.S. Cement Industry. LBNL-44182. Ammonia adiabatic pre-reformer (chemicals) In the adiabatic pre-reformer incoming natural gas is partially converted to synthesis gas, using highly active catalysts. The pre-reformer uses excess steam, and hence lowers the steam production in the convection section of the reformer furnace. This results in a reduction of the primary reformer duty and hence a reduction in gas consumption. The technology can only be implemented in older plants with an excess steam production. The system is developed by Haldor-Topsoe, and has been installed in several plants around the world. One of the first plants was an ammonia plant from 1968 by Kemira in Rozenburg, The Netherlands installed a system in 1991. The investments were equal to about 5$/ton ammonia annual production capacity (10 Dfl/tonne) (CADDET, 1991), with a simple payback period of 1.2 years under Dutch conditions. The energy savings are approximately 4% of the initial energy consumption of the plant, or 1.4 MBtu/ton (HHV) (Worrell and Blok, 1994). It is difficult to estimate the share of ammonia production capacity in the US to which the technology could be applied, as we have limited age data of the ammonia plants (Worrell et al., 2000). We assume that it can potentially be applied to 25% of U.S. capacity by 2015, saving approximately 5.6 TBtu. [CADDET] Centre for the Analysis and Dissemination of Demonstrated Energy Technologies, 1991. PreReformer and Convection Section, (DEMO 21), Project NL.90.049, IEA-CADDET, Sittard, The Netherlands. Worrell, E. and K. Blok, 1994. Energy Savings in the Nitrogen Fertilizer Industry in The Netherlands, Energy 2 19 pp.195-209. Worrell, E., D. Phylipsen, D, Einstein, and N. Martin, 2000. Energy Use and Energy Intensity of the U.S. Chemical Industry, Berkeley, CA: Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory (LBNL-44314). Ammonia process control technology (chemicals) Every ammonia plant uses some kind of process control systems. In common process control systems energy use varies more widely, e.g., within a range of 3-5%. Advanced control systems use automated sampling and data analysis to optimize process control. The optimization process is always a process with multiple objectives, but as energy is the feedstock in the ammonia process, energy efficiency is always improved with

advanced improved process control systems. Various manufacturers are developing advanced control systems, such as M.W. Kellogg (CADDET, 1993) and GE (Lin et al., 1998) in the U.S. Energy savings will depend on the operation of the plant. Typically savings of 0.6 MBtu/ton of ammonia can be achieved, although larger savings have been achieved, e.g., 1.5 MBtu/ton at Agrium Nitrogen Operations (TX) (Berkowitz, 1997). We estimate typical savings at 1.6% (CADDET, 1993; Lin et al., 1998). Assuming use in 50% in ammonia plants by 2015, the technology could result in natural gas savings of 4.9 TBtu. Average payback period may vary between six months and 2.5 years (CADDET, 1993; Berkowitz and Poe, 1997). Berkowitz, P.N., 1997. Optimization of an Ammonia Plant from Advanced Process Control, PI Users Conference, San Francisco, CA, April 6-9, 1997. Berkowitz, P.N. and W. Poe, 1997. Improved Ammonia Plant Control from Integrated Information Systems, OSI Process Monitoring Seminar, Houston, November 20, 1997. CADDET, 1993. An Optimiser for an Ammonia Factory, (Demo 29), Project 92.017, IA-CADDET: Sittard, The Netherlands. Lin, R., R. de Boer and W. Poe, 1998. The Application of Model Based Predictive Control for Ammonia Plants, GE Continental Controls, Inc., Houston, TX. Ammonia - membrane reactor for steam reforming (chemicals) The relative gas pressures of the reactants and products limit the conversion efficiency of chemical reactions in the gas phase. Pushing the chemical equilibrium towards a higher conversion rate for hydrogen production can be achieved by reducing the reaction temperature (by using highly active catalysts), or by removing hydrogen from the reactor. Several membranes are being developed that can be used in a membrane reformer reactor, e.g., dense and porous membranes. The type of membrane affects the reactor design. Strm et al. (1997) analyzed the potential energy use of a membrane reactor, and found that it may vary between 26 and 29 MBtu/ton (HHV), depending on the design. De Beer (1998) estimated the net savings of a membrane reactor at 1.5 MBtu/ton ammonia. Membranes would be less than 10% of the total capital costs of a new ammonia plant. However, the membranes may need to be replaced several times over the lifetime of the plant, leading to increases in capital costs. The design of the membranes and membrane reactor is still under research, and hence potential application of the technology 2015 is limited. De Beer, J.G., 1998. Potential for Industrial Energy Efficiency Improvement in the Long Term, Ph.D. Thesis, Utrecht, The Netherlands: Utrecht University. Strm T., T. Pettersen, T. Sundset, and J. Sogge, 1997. Use of Membrane Reactor in Production of Synthesis Gas Process Options, Paper presented at ECCE-1, Florence, Italy, May 5-7, 1997. Ammonia - membrane reactor for selective ammonia removal (chemicals) The production efficiency of the ammonia loop is restricted by the equilibrium of the ammonia synthesis reaction, i.e., the relative gas pressures of the reaction inputs and products. This reaction leads to a conversion rate of approximately 18%. Hydrogen and nitrogen gases need to be recycled through recompression, which consumes energy in the large compressors. R&D has taken two directions; the first direction is the development of low pressure reactors using new catalysts to reduce the need for compression energy, and the second option is to selectively remove the ammonia from the reactor vessel, so that thermodynamics drive the reaction to more ammonia production. This removal can be done using membranes or sorbents (De Beer, 1998). Energy savings are roughly estimated at 1.5 MBtu/ton ammonia, based on a reduction of 50% of the compressor load. In theory overall energy savings could be as much as 24 TBtu, assuming full market saturation. R&D is going on at various places around the world in developing membranes with a high selectivity, or to new reactor designs for selective removal. However, none of the projects have yet delivered results that are demonstrated at large industrial scale. Hence, energy savings by 2015, if any, will be limited. De Beer, J.G., 1998. Potential for Industrial Energy Efficiency Improvement in the Long Term, Ph.D. Thesis, Utrecht, The Netherlands: Utrecht University. Advanced chlorine cells (chemicals) The production of chlorine is a highly electricity-intensive process requiring between 2780 kWh/ton and 3590 kWh/ton depending on the cell type (Worrell et al.,2000; Pletcher and Walsh, 1989). Total energy consumption for the U.S. was estimated 200 TBtu in 1994 (Worrell et al., 2000). In the chlorine production process a brine

solution is converted through electrolysis into chlorine and caustic soda. The most efficient conversion cell on the market, the membrane cell technology, occupied an 8% market share in the U.S. in 1994 (Worrell et al., 2000). Even membrane cells have opportunities to be further developed. The European Union is currently sponsoring research to decrease the existing membrane cell energy consumption by an additional 25% by increasing the current density in the cell from the existing 4 kA/m2 to 5-5.5 kA/m2. Akzo Nobel, one of the leading European companies in the chemical industry, is currently demonstrating a pilot project using a cell developed by Krupp Uhde GmbH (EU, 1999). Applying 25% savings to 25% of the industry would yield a primary energy savings of roughly 40 TBtu in 2015. European Union, 1999. SESAME project information sheet. Project number IN/0107/98-DE Worrell, E.; Phylipsen, D.; Einstein, D.; Martin, N. 2000. Energy Use and Energy Intensity of the U.s. Chemical Industry, Berkeley, CA: Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory (LBNL-44314) Pletcher, D. and Walsh, F. 1989. The Chlor-Alkali Industry, in Industrial Electrochemistry, 2nd Ed. Corn fiber fractionation (chemicals) For the industrial chemicals industry, corn fiber fractionation promises to be an energy-saving and cost-saving source of polyol feedstock. Corn fiberthe outer covering of the corn kernel after the wet milling processis an inexpensive and abundant renewable feedstock available as a by-product of the corn milling industry. More than 10 billion pounds of corn fiber is sold as animal feed at $0.03 to 0.04 per pound, an extremely low-value use for the material. Innovative new technology is being developed to cleanly and selectively remove hemicellulose from the corn fiber and to subsequently separate and isolate the xylose and arabinose fraction. Hemicellulose makes up 60 to 70 percent of the weight of corn fiber, and xylose and arabinose make up about 60 to 70 percent of the weight of the hemicellulose. Catalytic conversion of xylose and arabinose into ethylene and propylene glycol (polyols) would produce a valuable feedstock with a very large market and a variety of applications (4.3 billion per pound of ethylene glycol and 0.8 billion per pound of propylene glycol are produced each year). The cost of xylose and arabinose would be very competitiveabout $0.03 to 0.05 per pound. This technology could potentially lead to a saving of 0.3 TBtu by 2015 (OIT 1999). Office of Industrial Technology, U.S. Department of Energy, 1999. Fractionation of Corn Fiber for the Production of Polyols, project fact sheet. http://www.oit.doe.gov/factsheets/chemicals/pdfs/cornfiber.pdf Selective cracking ethylene (chemicals) Kellogg Brown & Root (KBR), Houston, Texas, announced the release of selective cracking optimum recovery ethylene (SCORE) process. This process is a hybrid; combining the best features from three leading olefin technologies (M. W. Kellogg, Brown & Root and Exxon Chemical Co.). The heart of the new process focuses on raising the severity of the furnace, thus enabling higher conversions, improved selectivity and greater product yields. For gas cracking applications, increased conversion reduces recycling requirements. This allows savings through the recovery-section capital costs. (See "HP Innovations".) M. W. Kellogg, Brown & Root and Exxon Chemical Co. website. http://www.hydrocarbonprocessing.com/archive/archive_99-04/99-04_insight.html Oxy-burners (chemicals) A waste acid regeneration and recycle plant can be modified to use pure oxygen instead of combustion air. The technology can save up to 16,400 metric tons (3,723 English tons) of oil equivalent per year of natural gas and achieve reduced emissions of sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides (CADDET 1992). An example of where oxyburners can be used is in the process of Spent Acid Recovery. The process of Spent Acid Recovery (SAR) has three phases: 1. Preconcentration, where water and light organics are removed from the BPA stream. 2. Acid Pyrolysis, where the concentrated BPA stream is burnt to produce sulfur dioxide. 3. Acid Regeneration, where the sulfur dioxide is regenerated to sulfuric acid. During phase two of the process, hot air is normally used in the combustion of spent sulfuric acid. After heat recovery, cleaning and the removal of water, the sulfur dioxide is converted back to pure sulfuric acid.

Replacing air with oxygen eliminates the need to heat and process large volumes of nitrogen present in air. This gives substantial improvements in energy use and furthermore results in a reduction in equipment size. If this technology is applied to the production of sulfuric acid, a savings of 0.135 TBtu per year can be expected. (CADDET) Centre for the Analysis and Dissemination of Demonstrated Energy Technologies, 1992. Combustion Air Replaced by Oxygen in an Acid Regeneration Plant, technical brochure. Direct production of silicones from sand (chemicals) A new process is proposed for producing silicones from low-cost silicon dioxide (sand, quartz) that will bypass several energy-intensive stages and reduce many of the wastes generated by the present technology. Researchers hope to develop a new silicon-carbon bonding reaction that will allow a variety of silicon-carbon linkages. The new chemistry will in turn permit development of new lower-cost silicone materials that will be useful to industry and to consumers. The competitive cost of the new products will encourage wider application in elastomers, copolymers, flame-retardants, and additives. Silicone-organic copolymers also offer attractive capabilities for industrial applications if they can be produced cost-effectively. The new process eliminates the electrochemical conversion of silicon dioxide to elemental silicon. The use of high-risk hazardous reagents and processes will also no longer be necessary, leading to a significant reduction in the use of electricity and coal, carbon dioxide emissions, and production of salt and other solid wastes by industry. This technology is still in the research and development stage, and must overcome several technological barriers before becoming commercially viable. Direct production of silicones from sand will most likely not enter the marketplace by 2015. Office of Industrial Technology, U.S. Department of Energy, 1999. Direct Production of Silicones from Sand, project fact sheet. http://www.oit.doe.gov/factsheets/chemicals/pdfs/silicone.pdf Chlorate cathodes for ClO2 production (chemicals) There are environmental constraints against the use of molecular chlorine in bleaching operations in the pulp and paper industry, and the industry is turning to chlorine dioxide (ClO2) as an alternative bleaching agent. The most efficient method for producing ClO2 involves purchasing sodium chlorate (NaClO3) and reducing it to chlorine dioxide through a reaction with hydrochloric acid or sulfur dioxide. It is important to the industry that the cost of NaClO3 is kept low to make this process cost-effective. Unfortunately, the increased demand for chlorine dioxide as a bleaching agent has raised the price of its precursor, and the industry must look for other options to produce chlorine dioxide. Electrochemical methods for generating chlorine dioxide directly are expensive or the processes have other penalties. New electrode technologies are needed to overcome present limitations to on-site/on-demand production of ClO2. Investigators at Auburn University believe that a unique three-dimensional structure they have developed for the primary cathode will provide U.S. mills with an efficient and cost-effective method for producing ClO2. The cathode is an intermingled network of metal fibers and of activated carbon fibers to which appropriate combinations of catalytic metals have been added. The cathode technology is revolutionary in that it is made on high-speed, papermaking equipment, and forms a strong, conductive structure. http://www.oit.doe.gov/factsheets/forest/pdfs/chlorine.pdf Catalytic autothermal oxydehydrogenization (CAO) (chemicals) The production of the chemical ethylene has been ranked as the most energy-intensive process in the chemical industry. A new technology, catalytic autothermal oxydehydrogenation (CAO), somewhat similar to oxidative coupling of methane, could help revolutionize the manufacture of many organic chemicals, including ethylene. Replacing the current steam cracking process with CAO could provide high yields of ethylene and other olefins with lower energy requirements and waste generation. Unlike the conventional method, CAO is an internally fired process that does not require a furnace and produces no flue gas. This simplified process produces the required olefin, along with water and small amounts fuel gas containing methane, hydrogen, and carbon monoxide. This fuel gas can be used in existing heating applications or reformed to synthesis gas for chemical and/or liquid fuel synthesis. Because CAO does not leave a coke residue in the reactor, decoking shutdowns, their associated waste streams, and energy expenditures for restarts are all eliminated. These savings further increase operational efficiency and indicate that the application of CAO could yield significant energy savings;

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reductions in greenhouse gases (CO2 and NOx); and cost-savings for operations, capital investments, and retrofits. Estimated energy savings of 11 to 15 trillion Btu per year are possible by 2020 (OIT 1999). Office of Industrial Technology, U.S. Department of Energy, 1999. Oxidative Cracking of Hydrocarbons to Ethylene, project fact sheet. Advanced reactor design methanol (chemicals) In the state-of-the-art methanol production processes the conversion of synthesis gas to methanol is only 40-50 percent. To use the raw material economically recycling is necessary. First, the reactor product is cooled so that methanol condenses. Then, the unconverted syngas is recompressed, heated and recycled to the reactor feed. This brings along large investment costs and a large energy consumption. A low energy (and capital requirement) process should be directed at avoiding the equilibrium of the reaction, that is 'taking the product away. The process with a reactor section with interstage product removal (RSIPR) seems most promising. Methanol is selectively removed in a liquid absorber at interstage reaction zones. Absorption takes place close to the reaction temperature to avoid heating and cooling of large streams. The process has been tested in a mini-plant. It was shown that a 97 percent conversion per pass is possible. The efficiency of the process is expected to increase to 8085 percent (80-85 percent of the raw material is converted to methanol) as compared to 60-65 percent of current commercial processes. This measure only affects the energy consumption of the synthesis processes. We assume that the future methanol plant includes combined reforming and an advanced reactor. The process will be 20 percent (15 percent combined reforming, 5 percent synthesis) more energy efficient than the 1990 average. Investment costs are like that of a conventional plant. http://www.ekinteractive.com/Kellogg/services/technol/methanol/effic.htm http://www.hydrocarbonprocessing.com/archive/archive_99-07/99-07_general-dutta.htm De Beer et al. 1994. Electrodeionization (chemicals) Electrodeionization, also called electrochemical ion-exchange, is an established technology that blends the features of ion-exchange (an adsorption technology) and electrodialysis (a membrane-separation technology). Advantages of electrodeionization over these single technologies include greater energy efficiency, elimination of chemical regenerants (acids and bases), and elimination of salty waste water streams. Electrodeionization can also handle very dilute feed streams of low electrical conductivity. Until now, this technology has primarily been applied to purifying water for the pharmaceutical, semiconductor, and biotechnology sectors. This technology would expand its application to the chemical industry for economically purifying products, recovering waste, and recycling water. The industrys process streams and waters are highly complex, and electrodeionization has the potential to handle such challenges as organic foulants, multivalent ions, and an acidic or basic pH. This technology is estimated to save 5.3 TBtu in 2020 (OIT 1999). The authors believe that this claim is a bit optimistic, but possible if widespread adoption of the technology takes place. Office of Industrial Technology, U.S. Department of Energy, 1999. Advanced Electrodeionization Technology for Product Purification, Waste Recovery, and Water Recycling, project fact sheet. Advanced recovery systems fractionation (chemicals) In olefins processing, the gases that leave the cracking furnace are quickly chilled (quench) and fractionated in the products (ethylene, propylene. butadiene, aromatics and fuel gas). Fractionation is done by distillation at very low temperature and high pressures. The chilling of the cracking can be made more efficient using advanced recovery systems (ARS). ARS uses an exchanger in the demethaniser that achieves mass transfer as well as heat transfer. Total plant energy will be reduced by 5 percent relative to conventional designs. Investment costs will reduce significantly when a new plant is built. In revamp situation the throughput of the fractionation section can be increased with 40 percent, while compression power per ton of ethylene is reduced by 10-15 percent. Investment costs in revamp situation are not known but can be contributed to higher ethylene yield. We assume a 5 percent saving is possible on the energy demand of olefin production without additional investment costs. De Beer, et al. 1994.

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Melt crystallization - benzene (chemicals) Although static melt crystallization is not a new process, lower-priced equipment, the quest to eliminate toxic or highly reactive solvents, and the need to generate high-purity chemicals in small batches is creating renewed interest in this technology. In this process, solid material is crystallized from a liquid feed without solvents, separated from the liquid, a portion is melted to remove impurities, and the remainder is removed as product. The use of melt crystallization has been driven by a number of factors such as in-creasing purity requirements for targeted applications or new products, more stringent environmental laws concerning plant emissions, a strong interest in reducing energy consumption and operating costs, in addition to the simple need for more capacity. Primary benefits of static melt crystallization include: no moving parts except pumps and valves; the absence of slurry handling, filtration or centrifugation; and solvent-free operation. Adaptation of the conventional distillation scheme with a melt crystallization unit offers a saving of 27 percent on the energy demand for the production of benzene. De Beer, et al. 1994. Alkane functionalization catalysts (chemicals) Despite being the most abundant and least expensive hydrocarbon feedstock available, alkanes (e.g., methane, ethane, and propane) are rarely used as chemical building blocks because few viable methods exist for their direct conversion into valuable products. Methanol, for example, is not produced directly by oxidation of methane, but by high-temperature, energy-intensive steam reforming and subsequent hydrogenation processes which date back to the 1920s (OIT 1999). A homogeneous catalyst system is under development that will enable direct oxidation of methane to methanol at ambient temperatures, offering considerable reductions in energy use and waste generation over current processes. The new system will use catalysts that operate in environmentally benign media (e.g., water or dense-phase carbon dioxide), and will eliminate the byproduct formation of carbon dioxide, which occurs during conventional steam reforming. Another major application of the technology would be conversion of methane to methanol at petroleum drilling sites. Methane at these sites is often flared or re-injected rather than utilized because of prohibitive transportation costs (methane must be compressed for transport). Conversion of these considerable methane reserves (about 3 million tons in 1995 [OIT 1999]) would obviate the need for methane flaring and eliminate the associated emissions of carbon dioxide, which are considerable. This technology could result in an estimated energy saving of 7 trillion Btu per year by 2020 (OIT 1999). [OIT] Office of Industrial Technology, U.S. Department of Energy, 1999. Alkane Functionalization Catalyst, project fact sheet. Solvent recovery using liquid nitrogen (chemicals) Large quantities of solvents are used in the manufacture of magnetic recording films, adhesive tapes, and other polymeric films. In order to both save resources and meet environmental protection requirements, it is important to recover these solvents from the dryers and ovens used in the coating processes. The recovery processes demand efficient measures that are both benign to the environment and low in energy consumption and running costs. With the aim of satisfying these criteria, Osaka Sanso Kogyo Ltd. (OSK), in co-operation with Airco in the USA, has developed the ASRS (Airco Solvent Recovery System). In conventional drying processes, during the coating of film or tape tens of thousands of cubic meters of heated air have to be fed into the dryers/ovens every hour. This must be done to dilute solvent gases in order to maintain their concentrations below 1/4 of the upper safety limits. Large amounts of energy are consumed in heating and circulating this air. In addition, the processes involving cooling, absorption, desorption and solvent recovery treatment of such large volumes of gases also require large amounts of energy. In contrast, the ASRS makes it possible to increase safely the concentration of solvent gases in the drying and solvent recovery processes to 20 or 30 percent (CADDET 1996). [CADDET] Centre for the Analysis and Dissemination of Demonstrated Energy Technologies, 1996. Solvent Recovery Using Liquid Nitrogen, technical brochure. Dividing wall column olefins production (chemicals) Utilization of the dividing wall column technology enables at least two conventional distillation columns to be replaced by a single dividing wall column. Dividing wall columns exhibit significantly lower capital and energy

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costs than a conventional column system. The principle of the dividing wall column has been recognized for several decades now. The implementation of a simple metal sheet in a distillation column results in 2 integrated columns, useful for the separation of a 3 component or multi-component mixtures into 3 pure product streams or fractions. In this way a fully thermally coupled distillation column is achieved, which reduces energy consumption. Capital savings will also result because of the application of a single shell and a single reboilercondenser unit. A case study for butane separation showed that 36 percent saving can be achieved and a 30 percent cost reduction. We assume a 40 percent savings is possible on the energy use for fractionation of the olefines when this measure is combined with advanced recovery. No additional investment costs are involved with this measure. This measure replaces all previous measures that apply on fractionation. These systems have existed for 50 years, but are rarely used. Reasons for this are lack of experience with this type of unit, and relatively high cost of retrofitting of a separation unit. http://www.basf.de/en/produkte/chemikalien/catalysts/licence/dividing/ http://www.aiche.org/conferences/techprogram/paperdetail.asp?PaperID=617&DSN=spring01 De Beer et al. 1994 Oxy-fuel burners (metal casting) (cross-cutting) In many industrial activities air quality regulation drives the demand for high efficiency but low emissions (NOx, CO) in the combustion process. NOx formation is reduced by reducing the amount of nitrogen in contact with oxygen at high flame temperatures. Oxy-fuel burners are one technology to both increase efficiency and reduce emissions. These burners are used throughout industry, including the steel and glass sectors. The high velocities of the gases in the burner ensure that the fuel is completely combusted at a lower temperature zone of the flame. For the metal casting industry, one case study discussed the installation of an oxy-fuel melting furnace in an iron foundry. The furnace achieved a 30% reduction in energy use as well as a 20% improvement in operational costs with lower initial investment costs than a conventional electric furnace (CADDET, 1995). There are several manufacturers of oxy-fuel burners for the steel industry, including American Combustion, Praxair, and Bricmont. Estimates of cost for the burner installation in the steel industry were $2.5/t capacity, and we would assume slightly higher costs for the metal casting sector. [CADDET] Centre for the Analysis and Dissemination of Demonstrated Energy Technologies, 1995. A rotating, gas fired oxy-fuel furnace in an iron foundry, technical brochure 204. Tube feeder (cross-cutting) Many industrial sectors, such as cement, pulp and paper, food processing and others require the handling and transport of bulk materials. One particular technology, a tubefeeder was designed for continuous discharge of bulk solids from silos, hoppers, and pile storage. This technology is basically a screw conveyor working inside a rotating tube with slots. As the tube rotates, the bulk material is drawn in uniformly through the slots while an inside screw rotates in the opposite direction thereby allowing the material to be conveyed along the tube (CADDET,1990). Because there are few components wear and tear are minimized. Costs for this technology are also lower than costs for installing a standard parascrew feeder (CADDET, 1990). Compared to a standard screw reclaimer, the energy consumption of the tubefeeder for moving wood chips was reduced by 75%, with an average consumption of 46 kWh/1000m3. This translates to savings of 0.2 kWh/ton. Overall savings in the US by 2015 are expected to be small, less than 2 TBtu. [CADDET] Centre for the Analysis and Dissemination of Demonstrated Energy Technologies, 1990. Tubefeeder Advances Simplicity of Bulk Material Handling. Meta-lax stress relief method (cross-cutting) The Meta-lax process was developed by Bonal Technologies (OIT 1999a) as a solution to the problem of distortion and cracking that can occur as a result of sharp temperature drops during metal processing. The most common methods of relieving thermal stress involve slowing the cooling process down. This is an energyintensive process in which fuel must be consumed while process temperatures are maintained. Meta-lax, short for metal relaxation, process relieves thermal stress by using sub-harmonic vibrations to prevent the damage associated with thermal stress. This process is a proven substitute for 80 percent to 90 percent of heat-treatment stress relieve in metal working applications. Meta-lax can treat a wide variety of work pieces with a versatile, portable unit and yields results much more quickly than conventional stationary heat-treating furnaces. This

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method of stress relief reduces energy consumption by 98 percent compared with a natural-gas-fired heattreating furnace (OIT 1999b). This technology may save 180 trillion Btu in the primary metal industry by 2020 according to the DOE Office of Industrial Technologies. Office of Industrial Technology, U.S. Department of Energy, 1999. Meta-lax Stress Relief Process Saves Energy, project fact sheet. Office of Industrial Technology, U.S. Department of Energy, 1999. Impacts. Office of Industrial Technologies: Summary of Program Results. Energy management systems (cross-cutting) Controlling energy costs during production is a prominent consideration for managers in all industries. Monitoring and Targeting Setting (CADDET 1995) techniques have been developed to increase energy performance information transfer from shop floor operators to the top managers by using appropriate reporting formats for various personnel levels. This presentation of performance has provided the information to indicate exceptional energy consumption figures, which may require further investigation. Ivaco Rolling Mills Division of Ivaco Inc. installed a predictive "smart" Demand Side Management System (DMS) in its steel plant/rolling mill complex to reduce energy consumption and also to improve the efficiency of existing equipment (CADDET 1992). Two years after initiation, the system resulted in a demand reduction of 9,894 kW and existing load cost savings in excess of CAD 864,000. Over the same period, productivity increased 8 percent. Quantifying the benefits of energy management systems is difficult, however, based on savings such as those reported by Ivaco Inc., it could be estimated that U.S. industry can reduce energy consumption by approximately 4 percent by 2015 for a savings of approximately 1,200 trillion Btu (MECS). [CADDET] Centre for the Analysis and Dissemination of Demonstrated Energy Technologies, 1992. Energy Monitoring and Targeting Setting, technical brochure. , 1995. DSM Technology Benefits Steel Producer, technical brochure. Clean energy systems (cross-cutting) Combust hydrocarbon fuel with oxygen in the presence of water to produce high-temperature, high-pressure gas composed of steam and CO2. Clean Energy Systems (CES) can sequester CO2producing sellable CO2, oxygen, nitrogen, and argon. Fuel used in the CES system can come from several sources so long as it is composed of almost entirely of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. The primary requirements for the fuel are that it is a fluid and free of ash. Hydrocarbons such as methane, alcohols, hydrogen, and carbon monoxide are suitable fuel sources. Oxygen is used to combust the fuel rather than air as in conventional systems thereby eliminating the formation of NOx and the large volume of exhaust gas. The oxygen is obtained from air via a number of processes, including a commercially available air separation plant. The CES gas generator is the key enabling element of this advanced power system. The gas generator embodies numerous rocket-based materials and design features. The end result is a small gas generator that produces steam and CO2 at virtually any desired controlled temperature and pressure. The CES compares favorably with simple and combined cycle gas turbines. Depending on size, the CES can range from approximately 45-67 percent fuel conversion efficiency (not including losses in the air separation plant) (CES 2000). Clean Energy Systems, Inc. Brochure. Sacramento, California. Heat pumps (cross-cutting) Increasingly, heat transformers are offering practical solutions to industrys high-energy costs and environmental problems. By taking waste heat from an industrial process and increasing its temperature, they produce useful low-cost energy, and considerably reduce emissions. The aim of this analysis is to identify those industrial processes in which the use of heat transformers can be economically favorable. The heat transformer operates on the principle that the temperature at which water vapor condenses (is absorbed) in a salt solution is above the temperature at which water evaporates, provided both processes are at the same pressure. Absorption of water vapor releases heat, increasing the temperature of the salt solution. This heat is then used to generate steam for the production process by circulating the salt solution through special heat exchangers. This technology has been demonstrated in a variety of industries including the chemical (CADDET 1990) and steel (CADDET 1993) industries. Typically, the use of heat pumps is currently limited to relatively low temperatures

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and is mainly recover waste heat for the production of steam. Applications of open cycle heat pumps (up to a few MW) can be found in fully integrated processes, e.g., for the production of styrene and propylene oxide. Energy savings depend on the specific applications and even the local layout of the process, as do the capital costs. Energy savings may vary between 10 percent and 15 percent. [CADDET] Centre for the Analysis and Dissemination of Demonstrated Energy Technologies, 1990. Heat Transformer in the Chemical Industry, technical brochure. , 1993. Heat Transformer in the Steel Industry, technical brochure. Advanced electrogalvinization (cross-cutting) Electrogalvinization accounts for almost 8 percent of the total electricity consumption in the fabricated metals industry. This process deposits a corrosion-inhibiting layer of zinc on steel by electrolysis. Electricity consumption accounts for 15-35 percent of the total production cost in this process (Elliott 1994). Because all the new equipment used in this process is patented, operation data is not publicly available. Reduced electricity consumption must be considered with increased capital costs since electrogalvanization equipment is very expensive. Processing lines cost $50-150 million with the more expensive equipment generally being more energy-efficient. Advanced electrogalvanization processes could lead to streamlined production. Specific energy savings are unknown. Elliott, R. N. 1994. Electricity Consumption and the Potential for Electric Energy Savings in the Manufacturing Sector. ACEEE. Washington D.C. Written pole motor (cross-cutting) The written pole (WP) motor is a single phase AC motor that acts like an induction motor during startup, then acts like a synchronous motor upon reaching full operating speed. Much like a PC hard drive, which records data onto a disk, the WP writes the number of poles, and their locations, electronically onto the rotor. This allows the WP motor to obtain higher energy efficiency and lower startup inrush current. The lower inrush inherent in the WP design may extend the expected life of the motor by reducing the inrush stresses. WP motors were originally intended to replace three phase motors that use phase converters because they can operate on single phase power systems, particularly in rural applications such as drying fans, conveyors and irrigation pumps. However, in these cases efficiency was not considered to be a significant issue. The primary barriers facing WP motor technology are its limited market niche, high first cost, and lack of product understanding by the purchasing public. Potential energy savings could be on the order of 0.75 TWh (Nadel, et al. 1998). Nadel, S., L. Ranier, M. Shepard, M. Suozzo, and J. Thorne. 1998. Emerging Energy-Saving Technologies and Practices for the Buildings Sector. Washington, D.C.: American Council for an Energy-Efficient Economy. Copper rotor motor (cross-cutting) The substitution of copper for aluminum as the rotor core material in random-wound, induction motors represents the most significant opportunity to improve the efficiency of these widely used general-purpose motors. Currently, rotor cores are made from aluminum, because it can be easily cast and machined. Copper, a more energy-efficient choice because of its superior conduction characteristics, is expensive and has manufacturability problems. While copper costs significantly more than aluminum, the cost of the rotor core would not pose an unacceptable barrier for high-end products. However, only a relatively small number of rotors can be cast using a die made from conventional materials. Since these dies can cost hundreds of thousands of dollars each, the die-cost makes the production of these rotors uneconomic Designs for using a copper rotor have been developed, and the use of alternative die materials is now the focus of research by the Copper Development Association, Inc., which is working in cooperation with EPRI and several motor manufacturers. Potential savings could approach 5 billion kWh (Nadel, et al. 1998). Nadel, S., L. Ranier, M. Shepard, M. Suozzo, and J. Thorne. 1998. Emerging Energy-Saving Technologies and Practices for the Buildings Sector. Washington, D.C.: American Council for an Energy-Efficient Economy.

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Electronically commutated permanent magnet motor (cross-cutting) Electronically commutated permanent magnet motors (ECPMs) consist of a rotor with multiple permanent magnets bonded to it and a stator made of electrical windings, creating a varying magnetic field to drive the rotor. The stator field is driven electronically using solid state power devices and feedback from angular-position sensors. This arrangement eliminates rotor resistive losses, brush friction, and maintenance associated with conventionally commutated motors. Other advantages are precise speed control, lower operating temperature and higher power factor than induction motors. ECPM efficiency cannot match induction motor efficiency for fixed-speed, full-load operation, but has a significant advantage at reduced speeds. Under these part-load conditions, common with many motor applications, induction motor efficiency drops significantly while ECPM efficiency remains flat. These motors compete with other motor speed control technologies such as written pole motors and variable frequency adjustable speed drives. ECPMs are available from many manufacturers in sizes from fractional hp up to 600 hp. Potential savings could approach 5 billion kWh (Nadel, et al. 1998). Nadel, S., L. Ranier, M. Shepard, M. Suozzo, and J. Thorne. 1998. Emerging Energy-Saving Technologies and Practices for the Buildings Sector. Washington, D.C.: American Council for an Energy-Efficient Economy. Efficient transformers (cross-cutting) All electric power passes through one or more dry-type transformers on its way to service equipment, lighting, and other loads. Transformers experience two types of losses: no-load and load losses. Transformer energy losses are constant at no-load and vary with the square of the load on the transformer. In typical commercial and industrial applications, transformers are loaded on average at 30 to 35 percent of their rated output. E Source reports that transformer losses represent two to six percent of a typical building's electricity use (Nadel, et al. 1998). An LBNL steel report (Worrell et al., 1999) found that transformer losses can be as high as 7 percent, and assumed savings of 4 percent due to new UHP transformers. Currently available materials and designs can considerably reduce both load and no-load losses. More efficient transformers with attractive payback periods are estimated to save 40 to 50 percent of the energy lost by a "typical" transformer, which translates into a one to three percent reduction in electric bills for commercial and industrial customers. Typical paybacks range from 3 to 5 years (Nadel, et al. 1998). Worrell, E., N. Martin and L. Price, 1999. Energy Efficiency and Carbon Dioxide Emissions Reduction Opportunities in the U.S. Iron and Steel Sector. Berkeley, Calif.: LBNL. Nadel, S., L. Ranier, M. Shepard, M. Suozzo, and J. Thorne. 1998. Emerging Energy-Saving Technologies and Practices for the Buildings Sector. Washington, D.C.: American Council for an Energy-Efficient Economy. General heat recovery (cross-cutting) Flue-gas cleaning with a condensing scrubber allows waste-heat recovery and reduces pollutants. Flue gas contains a large amount of heat that is left unused in a conventional boiler system. Using a flue-gas scrubber, this heat is absorbed in the scrubber water, cooling down the flue gas, thereby furnishing low-temperature heat. This heat can be used directly, e.g., for preheating tap water and ventilation air or for floor heating. However, if the direct use of low-temperature heat is not feasible, a heat pump can be installed on the secondary side of the scrubber heat exchanger, producing high-temperature heat that can be used directly in a district heating plant. Boiler efficiency approaches 100 percent based on the higher heating value of the boiler fuel. The principle of a condensing scrubber involves a liquid being led through hot flue gas in counter-flow, washing out particles (dust) and water-soluble gases. As the hot flue gas meets the cold liquid, the water vapor in the gas condenses. To wash out the acidic gases in the gas flow, Cambi APC AS uses a diluted soda lye as washing water. The water is then neutralized, cooled in a heat exchanger, and reused in the scrubber. The products formed, for example Na2SO4, may be discharged into the sea as they are found there naturally. A high pH and a low washing-water temperature in the scrubber enable high pollutant absorption. The materials used in the system have been carefully chosen, considering the corrosion problems that may arise due to the saline water. Corrosion-resistant materials such as polypropylene and glass fiber reinforced polyvinyl ester are used in the system. Flue-gas waste heat is transferred to the scrubber water as detectable and latent heat (condensation heat). The flue-gas temperature is reduced from approximately 200C to 10C. This process produces lowtemperature heat, which is further used in a heat pump. The temperature of the water (40C) is increased to be

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used directly in a district heating plant at KNP. New heat-pump fluids make it possible to supply water at temperatures of approx. 70C. This technology provides annual savings in oil consumption of more than NOK 900,000. [CADDET] Centre for the Analysis and Dissemination of Demonstrated Energy Technologies, 1998. Flue Gas Cleaning and Heat Recovery, technical brochure. Molten metal filtering (cross-cutting) Casting molten metal presents many opportunities for contamination, often with particles as small as a few microns. This contamination may be slag, dross, or pieces of refractory from the melting crucible. Metal that contains impurities will have reduced strength, requiring a heavier section thickness to compensate. Impurities also present serious stress points if they are located on the surface of castings subjected to mechanical forces. The standard ceramic cellular or reticulated foam filters are not readily adaptable to the highly automated die casting and permanent mold casting operations. This invention circumvents these problems by creating a filter system that has a continuous supply of filter material. Before each pour of metal into the shot tube or mold, the filter material is advanced to present a clean filter area. As the next section of clean filter material is advanced, the impurities that were filtered out can be observed on the exiting used filter. Office of Industrial Technology, U.S. Department of Energy. 1999. Filtering Molten Metal, project fact sheet. GFX drainwater heat recovery (cross-cutting) Very little of the heat in hot water is actually used; the vast majority of the energy goes down the drain after the water is used for such tasks as crystal rinsing and drying applications . Economical recovery of the heat for reuse has been a goal of many inventions over the years using various heat exchange and storage devices. The GFX falling-film heat exchanger uses a vertical five-foot piece of 3" copper drainpipe wrapped with a spiral of 1/2" copper water supply pipe. As the drain water from a shower falls down the drain it forms a falling film on the inside surface of the drain. This results in very high exchange efficiency with the incoming water in the 1/2" line with typical efficiencies on the order of 40 to 75 percent. This technology crosscuts many industrial sectors, but has particular usage in process with relatively hot wastewater streams. The chemical and food processing industries may benefit from the use of this technology. Precise energy savings are unknown. Nadel, S., L. Ranier, M. Shepard, M. Suozzo, and J. Thorne. 1998. Emerging Energy-Saving Technologies and Practices for the Buildings Sector. Washington, D.C.: American Council for an Energy-Efficient Economy. High-efficiency welding (cross-cutting) Laser assisted arc welding provides greater flexibility in materials and joint geometries while maintaining welding speed. This process, when applied to steel welding, meets the needs for a new joining technology. Among other things, the benefits of the combined laser and arc welding process would ease the current requirement for precise fit-up when laser welding alone. In addition, with the use of filler metals in the arc welding component of the process, there would be greater flexibility in the choice of materials that are joined and the process could be easily applied to non-linear joint geometries. It is expected that the Laser-Assisted Arc Welding (LAAW) process would be advantageous in many applications including tailored-blank welding, dissimilar metal welding, and mill coil joining applications. This project is designed to develop and apply the LAAW process for steel welding. The system design would be optimized for steel applications to bridge the wide joint gaps that are currently unacceptable for autogenous laser welding. Process development will focus on the application to low-carbon and high strength, low alloy steels. This technology offers some energy savings in that geometries that formerly required a slower welding speed can take advantage of higher speeds. Sources have not been able to offer concrete estimates of energy savings. Office of Industrial Technology, U.S. Department of Energy. 2000. Development and Application of Laserassisted Arc Welding to Steel, project fact sheet. Low friction working fluids (cross-cutting) A significant energy consumer in many industrial heat transfer processes is the pumping energy required to move heat-transfer working fluids through heat exchangers and piping. A significant portion of this energy is

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used to overcome the friction in these devices. Pumping energy can be reduced significantly by using lowfriction piping and heat exchangers and increasing cross sectional areas. An alternate, novel approach is to reduce the viscosity of the working fluid. Some research has been undertaken on formulating new working fluids that preserve the attractive heat transfer properties while reducing friction. Degens, P. (Northwest Energy Efficiency Alliance). 2000. Personal communication to author. April. Recuperative regenerative boilers (cross-cutting) Within casting furnaces and boilers, a compact bed of heat storing material within each burner accomplishes heat reclamation. Alternate rapid cycling of each burner pair allows short term heat storage and reclamation. This efficient design preheats the combustion air to within 85-95 percent of flue gas temperature. These natural gas burners use heat reclaimed from the hot flue gases to preheat the combustion air. The objective is to reduce natural gas consumption by 35-50 percent compared with conventional burners, while still maintaining the required flame temperature. The approach is to preheat the combustion air using energy reclaimed from the hot flue gases. The furnace can produce 20 percent more product using less energy. [CADDET] Centre for the Analysis and Dissemination of Demonstrated Energy Technologies, 1993. Regenerative type heat recuperation in a retort furnace, technical brochure. Advanced polysilicon production (electronics) AKT's polysilicon technology features a multi-step (SiN/SiO2/a-Si) single-chamber deposition process that provides the industry's highest quality, hydrogen-controlled polysilicon precursor film at temperatures up to 430C. A separate pre-heat/post-deposition chamber significantly reduces hydrogen in the deposited silicon film while increasing system throughput. The reduced hydrogen content in the polysilicon precursor film enables rapid conversion of the film into polysilicon with an excimer laser annealing process performed in a separate system. AKT's polysilicon systems continue the use of AKT's patented remote plasma source cleaning technology, which reduces particles and process contamination to the lowest levels in the industry, and dramatically extend the lifetime of process chamber components and time between wet cleans. http://www.eurosemi.co.uk/industry_news/news_oct_nov_2000/stories/akt.htm Heat recovery food - high temperature (food processing) The food processing industry is one of the largest consumers of energy in manufacturing (1,500 TBtu primary energy in 1994). There are many opportunities to take advantage of heat recovery, where excess heat from some production process is utilized in another process step. This can be accomplished by using part of the exhaust gases from one process as inlet gases to another process, or through the use of heat exchange networks. High temperature heat recovery refers to the recovery of high temperature waste heat from combustion processes such as steam production or gas combustion in ovens. A CADDET case study of a heat exchanger that was installed in a bakery for proofing the over found a payback of 1.5-3.5 years (CADDET, 1997). Another case study in a coffee company installed a system that cleaned and then recombusted exhaust gases in order to comply with local environmental requirements, achieving savings of 70%. We assume a 2% savings in industry fuel use or 22 TBtu in 2015. [CADDET] Centre for the Analysis and Dissemination of Demonstrated Energy Technologies, 1997 Heat pipe saves energy in the baking industry , 1997 "Energy efficiency and Environmental Benefits for a Coffee Roasting Company," Freeze concentration (food processing) Freeze concentration separates mixtures by crystallizing one or more components and has the potential to produce and almost completely dry product (de Beer et al. 1994). This type of process shows particular promise in the food processing industry for heat sensitive liquid foods, and has been applied to fruit juices, beer, wine, vinegar, milk, and coffee (SCE, 2000). Because the process takes place at low temperatures aroma losses can be avoided. Several freeze concentration systems are in use with the main commercial system developed by Grenco N.V. (Worrell et al., 1997). A study performed by the Electric Power Research Institute on the potential for freeze concentration in the milk and whey industry found that the heat demand could almost be fully eliminated while electricity demand increased by 30% (de Beer et al. 1994). Some of the challenges of this

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technology are its high cost (three to four times higher than evaporation) and the difficulty in separating ice from solid (Worrell et al., 1997). We assume a potential savings of 15-20 TBtu in 2015 as this technology penetrates into the dairy industry. De Beer, J.; K, Blok, M.T. van Wees, and E. Worrell. 1994. Icarus-3. The Potential of Energy efficiency Improvement in the Netherlands up to 2000 and 2015. Utrecht, The Netherlands: Utrecht University. Southern California Edison, Business Advisor website. http://www.scebiz.com/electroscc/fprocess/freeze.htm Worrell, E.; J.W. Bode; J. de Beer, 1997. Analyzing Research and Technology Development Strategies the Atlas Project. Utrecht, The Netherlands: Utrecht University. 4 or more effect evaporator for cooling (food processing) Evaporation refers to the process of heating liquid to the boiling point to remove water as vapor. This is used in the dairy industry to produce evaporated milk products. Standard evaporators are two-stage that require 0.3-0.5 kg of steam to evaporate 1 kg of water. State of the art technology (6 stage evaporators) require only 0.09 kg steam per kg water. The operating costs of evaporation are relative to the number of effects and the temperature at which they operate. The boiling milk creates vapors that can be recompressed for high steam economy through adding energy to the vapor in the form of a steam jet, (thermo-compression) or by a mechanical compressor (mechanical vapour recompression (MVR)) (Goff, 2000). A powdered milk production plant in Tokyo installed a quadruple effect evaporator with MVR and saved 75% of the operating costs. Incremental investment that was 20% greater than the standard system (CADDET, 1992). A second Japanese dairy company installed an MVR plant in its whey production facilities realizing a savings of 0.4 kWh/kg steam evaporated (CADDET, 1997). We assume a savings of 10-20 TBtu in 2015 depending on the rate at which evaporators are able to penetrate into the fluid milk products sector. [CADDET] Centre for the Analysis and Dissemination of Demonstrated Energy Technologies, 1992 "Quadruple effect milk evaporator uses mechanical vapor recompression" , 1997. Learning from Experiences with Industrial Heat Pumps. Analysis Series No. 23 Goff, D. 2000. Dairy Science and Technology Web site, University of Guelph. Evaporation. Heat pump dryer (food processing) Heat pumps use waste process heat and deliver this heat at higher temperatures for process use or for space heating. Heat pumps can be used for food processing for various purposes, such as drying and other water removal methods. One CADDET case study noted the application of heat pump technology to recover waste heat from the bottle sterilization process in a dairy and used it for space heating. In another demonstration project a thermal vapor recompression unit was installed in a distillery to recover heat from condensers and from flash steam, and achieved an energy savings of 15% (CADEET, 1997). Another case study notes the use of heat pump dryer technology for drying fruit and vegetables in a Norwegian food processing company that saved 50-80% of energy use (CADDET, 1997b). Although energy savings can be significant, the higher first cost can be a barrier to investment. We estimate a savings of 5 TBtu based on the application of heat pumps to fruit and vegetable drying. IEA Heat Pump Centre newsletter, 1999 www.heatpumpcentre.org, [CADDET] Centre for the Analysis and Dissemination of Demonstrated Energy Technologies, 1997. Learning from Experiences with Industrial Heat Pumps. Analysis Series No. 23 CADDET Newsletter, No. 4, 1997 "Low temperature drying of food materials using energy efficient heat pump dryers" Condi-cyclone dryers (food processing) In a condi-cyclone dryer system the exhaust air of a dryer is expanded and the water vapor is condensed. The latent heat of the water vapor is then recovered. This dry heated air is then recycled to the dryer (de Beer et al., 1994). Because of the pressure loss over the cyclone a compressor is required. If electric driven compressor systems are used, electricity demand increases while steam demand savings are estimated to be 40% (de Beer et al. 1994). This technology is still under development. Stork Product Engineering in the Netherlands first patented the technology in 1989, and has been developing a condi-cyclone device for drying gas on behalf of Shell Technology Ventures (Stork, 2000). We estimate a potential savings of 15 TBtu based on the application of condi-cyclone systems to the dairy industry.

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De Beer, J.; K, Blok, M.T. van Wees, and e. Worrell. 1994. Icarus-3. The Potential of Energy efficiency Improvement in the Netherlands up to 2000 and 2015. Utrecht, The Netherlands: Utrecht University. Stork engineering web site, 2000. (http://www.spe.storkgroup.com/en/projects/08_condi.html) Controlled atmosphere packaging (food) The concept of Controlled Atmosphere or Modified Atmosphere Packaging (CAP or MAP) is fast emerging as the leading packaging option for preservation of fresh and processed foods which are required to be stored over longer periods of time and under diverse storage temperatures and conditions. Via CAP system, the food product is packaged in a High Barrier Film or laminate, following which the atmosphere inside the pack is controlled via various gas flushing and vaccumising options. After the pack is sealed or vacuum packed, the High Barrier film prevents further transmission of gasses in or out of the pack, thus extending the shelf life and ensuring that the product reaches the customer in a fresher condition. CAP films and pouches are based on polyamide (nylon) and EVOH High Barrier polymers, the contents of which are adjusted to meet the shelf life requirements of individual products. They are an ideal cost effective replacement to the expensive tin packing and aluminum foil based laminates, plus they offer the added advantage that the packed product can be visually inspected by the consumer prior to purchase. Exact energy savings have not yet been determined. http://www.hitkaripackaging.com/cap.html Efficient cooling systems (food) The cooling method developed in this technology involves a new technique, in which the products can be brought directly into contact with the coolant without the risk of bacteriological contamination. This technique could be replicated in a number of different foodstuff industries. In comparison to the old situation, where items are cooled by contact with air, the new cooler saves about 140,000 kWh/year of electricity. The heat pump saves about 235,000 kWh/year. The overall savings are 375,000 kWh per year. This assumes an average power generation efficiency of 37 percent. If this technology is adopted by the food industry, an industry that makes use of many cooling processes, savings of approximately 6 TBtu can be expected by 2015. [CADDET] Centre for the Analysis and Dissemination of Demonstrated Energy Technologies, 1995. Efficient cooling system with heat recovery for tofu production, technical brochure. Process control-glass tanks (glass) In 1997, the glass industry produced 21 million short tons of glass and used in excess of 250 TBtu of energy. Over 80% of the energy use in the industry is natural gas, primarily applied for glass melting (EIA, 1996). Opportunities to reduce energy use in the glass melt can have a significant impact in reducing overall energy use in the sector. One particular area is the use of advanced process control. The Office of Industrial technologies (U.S. Department of Energy) has been sponsoring research in this area including: 1) the development of a more comprehensive model of glass melting furnaces (OIT, 1999a; OIT, 1999d), 2) the development of more robust and sophisticated sensors, including the use of laser technology (OIT, 1999b; OIT, 1999e; OIT, 2000a; OIT, 2000b), and the development of dynamic expert system controls (OIT, 1999c). We estimate that potential savings from the deployment of these technologies could be as high as 20% of fuel use in the melt. Installation costs will depend on the specific technology being deployed. We estimate energy savings of 15-20 TBtu in 2015 based on the application of the technology to melting furnaces. OIT, 1999. Glass Furnace Simulation Model Will Improve Energy Use And Efficiency While Reducing Emissions project fact sheet OIT, 1999b Robust Sensor Will Improve Product Quality project fact sheet OIT, 1999c Automatic Controls Will Optimize The Overall Performance Of The Glass Manufacturing System OIT, 1999d Combustion Space Models Will Allow Cost-Effective Furnace Design And Modification For Increased Energy Efficiency OIT, 1999e In-situ, real-time measurements of melt constituents OIT, 2000a. Diagnostics and Control of Natural-gas fired furnaces via flame image analysis Diode laser sensor for combustion control OIT, 2000b Diode laser sensor for combustion control

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New glass melting technologies (glass) In 1997, the glass industry produced 21 million short tons of glass and used in excess of 250 TBtu of energy. Over 80% of the energy use in the industry is natural gas, primarily applied for glass melting (EIA, 1996). While melting a ton of glass theoretically requires about 2.2 MBtu of energy, in practice a minimum of twice this amount of energy input is used due to losses and inefficiencies (OIT, 1997). The U.S. glass industry has identified the development of new melting technologies as one of its top technical research priorities (OIT, 1997). However, this research is still being undertaken and there are no major technological breakthroughs yet for the major segments of the industry. For some niche applications there have been some new developments including a rotary electric glass furnace (not currently being funded) for re-pressing glass (Marino, 2000). Also, in the area of optics manufacture, Toshiba has developed a finished molded lens machine that combines pressing and molding into one step (Marino, 2000). Marino, A. 2000. Advanced Glass Industries. Personal Communication. OIT, 1997. Glass Technology Roadmap Workshop. Document prepared by Energetics, Inc. Workshop held in Alexandria, VA on April 24-25th. Efficient burners for glass furnaces (glass) In 1997, the glass industry produced 21 million short tons of glass and used in excess of 250 TBtu of energy. Over 80% of the energy use in the industry is natural gas, primarily applied for glass melting (EIA, 1996). One of the success stories for the U.S. glass industry has been the relatively rapid uptake of oxy-fuel burner technology which is now installed in about one-fourth of the glass making capacity in the U.S. (OIT, 2000). While opportunity still exists to further integrate oxy-fuel combustion into the industry, there are also opportunities to further improve these combustion systems. For example, some systems generate relatively high NOx emissions. One DOE sponsored research project in conjunction with Combustion Tec and Owens Corning sought to develop a high-luminosity, low NOx oxy-fuel burner system. Laboratory results indicated a 12% improvement in heat transfer efficiency, which translates to a savings of 7 TBtu when applied to 50% of the gas consumption in the industry (OIT, 1999). Other burner technology research for applications in the glass industry and elsewhere is going on throughout the world, and is part of the U.S. Department of Energys crosscutting research vision. We estimate a potential savings of 10-15 TBtu in 2015. OIT, 1997. Oxy-fuel firing, Office of Industrial Technology, Program Impacts Document. OIT, 1999. High-luminosity, how NOx Burner. Project fact sheet. Electric forehearth with indirect cooling (glass) In 1997, the glass industry produced 21 million short tons of glass and used in excess of 250 TBtu of energy. Over 80% of the energy use in the industry is natural gas, primarily applied for glass melting (EIA, 1996). While melting a ton of glass theoretically requires about 2.2 MBtu of energy, in practice a minimum of twice this amount of energy input is used due to losses and inefficiencies (OIT, 1997). One of the gas saving technologies highlighted by the Centre for the Analysis and Dissemination of Demonstrated Energy Technologies was the replacement of a gas forehearth with an electric forehearth. (A forehearth conditions the molten glass before it is fed to the forming machine). Savings using this technology were significant for this section of the conditioning process (over 50%) while the payback on the investment was estimated at 1.5 years. The technology also improves yield (CADDET, 1989). We estimate that the forehearth accounts for about 20% of the gas consumption in the industry. Applying savings of 30% to a quarter of the container industry yields a national savings potential of 5-10 TBtu in 2015. OIT, 1997. Glass Technology Roadmap Workshop. Document prepared by Energetics, Inc. Workshop held in Alexandria, VA on April 24-25th. [CADDET] Centre for the Analysis and Dissemination of Demonstrated Energy Technologies, 1989. Electric forehearth with Indirect cooling saves energy. Ion-exchange system float glass (glass) While chemically strengthened glass has better optical properties and is stronger than conventional, thermally tempered glass, it requires a lengthy treatment time that often makes it an uneconomical and inefficient option for manufacturers. Project partners are researching and developing several innovative systems using ion

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exchange, a process which substitutes one chemical ion for another, decreasing strengthening time. This shortened treatment time will make chemical strengthening a more commercially viable and cost-effective option for glass manufacturers. Researchers will experiment with mixed alkali compositions that have higher exchange rates and with non-isothermal exchange processing, in which gradual glass bath temperature reduction increases the exchange rate. This process results in increased energy efficiencyreducing glass mass in a container or float product by 25 percent could reduce the required energy more than 1MBtu/ton of glass produced (OIT 1999). The ion-exchange process is an innovative way of inserting compounds evenly within a glass structure, however the claims of OIT on this technology are perhaps exaggerated. While the process can reduce the glass mass in a container, it is not quite clear that such a large energy savings will be had. Office of Industrial Technology, U.S. Department of Energy, 1999. Integrated Ion-Exchange Systems for High-Strength Glass Products, project fact sheet. High levels of pulverized coal injection (iron and steel) Pulverized coal injection replaces the use of coke in blast furnaces. This in turn reduces coke production and energy consumption in coke making, and reduces emissions and associated maintenance costs from coke ovens. Coal injection has increased in recent years. This increase is due in part to environmental regulations of cokemaking and an aging stock of coke batteries in the U.S. In the blast furnace, the coal replaces part of the coke that is used to fuel the chemical reactions. Coke is still used as support material in the blast furnace. The maximum fuel injection depends on the geometry of the blast furnace and impact on the iron quality. Maximum theoretical coal injection rates are around 560-590 pounds/ton hot metal (280-300 kg/tonne). In the U.S. the coal injection rate varies. A 1994 survey of seven blast furnaces in the U.S. gave fuel injection rates between 80 and 450 pounds/ton (41 and 226 kg/t) hot metal (Lanzer and Lungen, 1996). The highest injection rates, of 450 pounds/ton (225 kg/t), have been reached at USX Gary (Schuett et al., 1997). O&M costs for the measure show a net decrease due to reduced coke purchase costs and reduced maintenance costs of existing coke batteries. This decrease is partly offset by the increased costs of oxygen injection and increased maintenance of the blast furnace and coal grinding equipment. We estimate the reduced operation costs on the basis of 1994 prices of steam coal and coking coal to be $14/ton. This is a low estimate, as cost savings of up to $30/ton are possible, resulting in a net reduction of 4.6% of the costs of hot metal production. We assume increased pulverized coal injection to 450 lb/ton hot metal (225 kg/tonne, as reached at USX Gary blast furnace 13) for the large volume blast furnaces only (approximately 30% of total US production). Net fuel savings are estimated at 0.5 MBtu/ton hot metal (Worrell et al., 1999) while total energy savings are estimated at 4.1 TBtu (assuming a penetration rate of 15% by 2015). Lanzer, W. and H.B. Lungen, 1996. Roheisenerzeugung in Nordamerika, Stahl und Eisen 116(8): 61-69. Schuett, K.J., and D.G. White, 1997. Record Production on U.S. Steel Gary Works No. 13 Blast Furnace with 450 Pounds/THM Co-Injection Rates, Iron and Steelmaker, 24(3): 65-68. Worrell, E., N. Martin, and L. Price, 1999. Energy Efficiency and Carbon Dioxide Emissions Reduction in the U.S. Iron and Steel Sector, Berkeley, CA: Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory (LBNL-41724). Advanced coke oven gas co-generation technology (iron and steel) All plants and sites that need electricity and steam are candidates for cogeneration. Conventional cogeneration uses a steam boiler and back-pressure turbine technology to generate electricity. Steam systems generally have a low efficiencies and high investment costs. Modern cogeneration units are gas turbine based, using either a simple cycle system (gas turbine with waste heat recovery boiler), or a combined cycle integrating a gas turbine with a steam cycle. Gas turbine systems mainly use natural gas. Integrated steel plants produce significant levels of off-gases (coke oven gas, blast furnace gas, and basic oxygen furnace-gas). Specially adapted turbines can burn these low calorific value gases at electrical generation efficiencies of 45% (low heating value, LHV) but internal compressor loads reduce these efficiencies to 33% (Mitsubishi, 1993). Mitsubishi Heavy Industries has developed such a turbine and it is now used in several steel plants, e.g., Kawasaki Chiba Works (Japan) (Takano et al., 1989) and Hoogovens (The Netherlands). These systems are also characterized by low NOx emissions (20 ppm) (Mitsubishi, 1993). We assume that steel production facilities that have ready access to coke oven gas (55% of integrated plants) re-power their steam turbine generating systems with a combined cycle. This results in net primary energy savings of 7 TBtu. Investments for the turbine systems are $1090/kWe (Anon.,1997), resulting in a simple payback period of 6 years (Worrell et al., 1999).

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Anonymous, 1997. Warmtekrachteenheid van 144 MWe bij Hoogovens Energie en Milieuspectrum, October 1997, p.9 (in Dutch) Mitsubishi Heavy Industries, 1993. High Efficiency From Low BTU Gas, Outline of 145 MW Combined Cycle Power Plant for Kawasaki Steel Corporation, Chiba Works, Mitsubishi Heavy Industries, Ltd., Tokyo, Japan. Takano, H., Kitauchi, Y., and Hiura, H., 1989. Design for the 145 MW Blast Furnace Gas Firing Gas Turbine Combined Cycle Plant, Journal of Engineering for Gas Turbines and Power, 111 (April): 218-224. Worrell, E., N. Martin, and L. Price, 1999. Energy Efficiency and Carbon Dioxide Emissions Reduction in the U.S. Iron and Steel Sector, Berkeley, CA: Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory (LBNL-41724). On-site pickling HCl regeneration (iron and steel) Heated Hydrochloric acid (HCl) is used in the pickling line before the cold rolling mill to remove any metallic impurities on the surface of the steel that is to be rolled. When the iron content of the pickling solution becomes too high, the pickling solution is treated to remove the iron and recycle any HCl-solution to the pickling line. The acid is currently sent off-site for treatment or disposal, or it is recovered. Energy use for recovery may vary between 0.2 and 5.2 kWh/ton cold rolled steel and between 20 and 125 kBtu/tonne steel (IISI, 1998). US DOE and NYSERDA have supported the development of recovery processes for the steel industry (DOE, 2000a) as well as small-scale industries (DOE, 2000b) using different chemical reactions to treat the pickling solution. The fact sheets do not give energy consumption data for the new equipment, but still claim savings compared to off-site treatment of the solution. Given the lack of this data. we are not able to independently evaluate the claims, but estimate the primary energy savings at 1.5 TBtu (assuming 90 kBtu/ton energy savings in the steel industry, 35 Million tons of cold rolled steel and a 50% implementation rate by 2015). No investment data is available. International Iron and Steel Institute, 1998. Energy Use and the Steel Industry, Brussels, Belgium: IISI. U.S. Department of Energy, 2000a. Energy-Saving Regeneration of Hydrochloric Acid Pickling Liquor, Fact Sheet NICE3, Washington, DC: US DOE-OIT. U.S. Department of Energy, 2000b. Hydrochloric Acid Recovery System, Fact Sheet NICE3, Washington, DC: US DOE-OIT. Intelligent inductive processing (iron and steel) Carburization, used to harden metal parts, now often happens by thermal heating or by inductive (electric) heating. Improved inductive (electric) heating technologies can improve product quality and reduce the rejection rate due a better control of the carburization process. However, it is difficult to assess the energy savings from this technology, without detailed data on rejection rates and other process inefficiencies that could potentially be reduced by this process. The project developers claim savings of up to 1 Quad by 2015 if half of all steel parts currently carburized would be treated with the improved technology (DOE-OIT, 2000). We are unable to independently evaluate this claim within the limitations of this project. However, as the technology is in the early stages of development, a 50% penetration rate by 2015 seems very high. U.S. Department of Energy, 2000. Improvements in Induction Heating Technology Can Increase Yields and Improve Quality, Project Fact Sheet, Washington, DC: US DOE-OIT. Improved EAF refractories (iron and steel) EAFs (and other furnaces as well as ladles) are lined with a refractory material to insulate and manage the molten metal. On average about 9 pounds/ton (3.5 kg/t) of steel of refractory material is needed (IISI, 1983). The refractory material wears off and has to be repaired or replaced. R&D programs in different countries are aimed to develop and select better refractories, although the choice will also depend on the specific furnace and raw material used. Increased lifetime of refractories will lead to less wastes, and may lead to indirect energy savings in steelmaking due to the reduce demand for refractory materials. These savings however may be offset by increased energy demand for manufacture of the material itself. The new materials may also reduce costs due to less downtime, and may lead to better control of the slag foaming process, an indirect energy efficiency improvement (DOE, 1999). Based on Worrell et al. (1999), we estimate that potential energy savings through better slag foaming are 1-2 kWh/ton (additional to improved foamy slag practices). This will lead to electricity savings of 1.8 GWh and primary energy savings of 0.2 TBtu (assuming a 30% implementation rate by 2015).

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International Iron and Steel Institute, 1983. The Electric Arc Furnace, Brussels, Belgium: IISI. U.S. Department of Energy, 1999. Improving Refractory Service Life and Recycling Refractory Materials in EAF Steel Production, Washington, DC: U.S. DOE OIT. Worrell, E., N. Martin, and L. Price, 1999. Energy Efficiency and Carbon Dioxide Emissions Reduction in the U.S. Iron and Steel Sector, Berkeley, CA: Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory (LBNL-41724). Coke dry quenching (iron and steel) Coke dry quenching is an alternative to the traditional wet quenching of the coke. Dry quenching reduces particulate emissions, improves the working environment, and recovers the sensible heat of the coke. Dry coke quenching is typically implemented as an environmental control technology. Various systems are used in Brazil, Finland, Germany, Japan, Russia and Taiwan (IISI, 1993). All recover the heat in a vessel where the coke is quenched with an inert gas (nitrogen). The heat is used to produce steam (approximately 800-1000 lb steam/ton coke), equivalent to 700-1000 kBtu/ton coke (Stelco, 1993; Dungs and Tschirner, 1994). For new coke plants the costs are estimated to be $45/ton coke, based on the construction costs of a recently built plant in Germany (Nashan, 1992). However, it is very unlikely that new coke plants will be constructed in the U.S. Retrofit capital costs depend strongly on the layout of the coke plant and can be very high, i.e., $63/ton coke. Operating and maintenance costs are estimated to increase slightly. Implementation of this technology will be driven by environmental regulation, as the investment is not economic based on energy savings alone. Dungs, H. and U. Tschirner, 1994. Energy and Material Conversion in Coke Dry Quenching Plants as Found in Existing Facilities, Cokemaking International 6(1): 19-29. International Iron and Steel Institute, 1993. World Cokemaking Capacity, Brussels, Belgium: IISI. Nashan, G., 1992. Conventional Maintenance and the Renewal of Cokemaking Technology, In: IISI, Committee on Technology, The Life of Coke Ovens and New Coking Processes under Development, Brussels: IISI. Stelco, 1993. Present and Future Use of Energy in the Canadian Steel Industry, Ottawa, Canada: CANMET. Non-recovery coke ovens (iron and steel) Coke ovens produce a lot of potentially hazardous chemicals as by-products. Traditionally, many of the byproducts are recovered and used to produce chemicals. However, coke ovens produce a large amount of emissions, both to the air and to water. Non-recovery coke ovens try to overcome this by burning all the byproduct gas, based on older process designs. This results not only in fewer emissions, but may also result in lower capital and operating costs. However, non-recovery coke ovens may lea to higher SO2 emissions. The only energy recovered is waste heat of the flue gases, which in turn can be used to produce power. If used for power approximately 700 kWh/ton coke can be produced (IISI, 1998). Various designs are available (Buss et al., 1999; Westbrook, 1999), and plants are operating in the U.S., Mexico and Australia. Inland Steel in the US started a new non-recovery coke oven in 1998, producing 1.33 Million tons of coke per year, while generating 87 MW of power and supplying steam to Inland Steel. The technology actually needs a higher coal input (1.54 t/t coke) than traditional coke plants (1994 US average 1.37 t/t) (Stelco, 1993). Hence, compared to a state-ofthe-art coke oven using traditional technology a non-recovery coke oven does not save energy. However, compared to the average 1994 performance of US coke ovens, small primary energy savings may be achieved of 0.56 MBtu/ton coke if all heat is recovered to produce power. Assuming a penetration rate of 20% by 2015 (due to air quality regulation) this would be equivalent to primary energy savings of 2.1 TBtu. Investment costs for a non-recovery coke oven battery are estimated at 270-300 $/ton annual capacity (Stelco, 1993) Buss, W.E., M.A. Merhof, H.G. Piduch, R. Schumacher and U. Kochanski, 1999. Thyssen Still Otto/PACTI Nonrecovery Cokemaking System, Iron and Steel Engineer 1 75 pp.33-38. International Iron and Steel Institute, 1998. Energy Use and the Steel Industry, Brussels, Belgium: IISI. Stelco, 1993. Present and Future Use of Energy in the Canadian Steel Industry, Ottawa, Canada: CANMET. Westbrook, R.W., 1999. Heat Recovery Cokemaking at Sun Coke, Iron and Steel Engineer 1 75 pp.25-28. Waste oxides recycling in steelmaking furnaces (iron and steel) Different processes in the steel mill produce wastes that contain a high concentration of iron oxides, e.g., mill scale, sludges. These so-called waste oxides can be landfilled or recycled. The waste oxides can be recycled in the sinter process (adding to the iron ore) (Worrell et al., 1999) or the agglomerated waste oxides can be recycled in a steelmaking furnace (BOF or EAF). Research is ongoing in several parts of the world, e.g.,

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Luxembourg, Japan and the U.S. The U.S. research project aims at improved recycling of the waste oxides in the BOF through better understanding and control of the melting and reduction process. Successful recycling would divert about 3 Million tons of waste oxides from landfills, containing about 50% iron. As energy is still needed to agglomerate and reduce the iron oxide, energy savings are mainly due to reduced need for mining of iron ore and transport of the ore and wastes. The reduced landfilling and recycling will however result in large cost savings to the industry. However, the claims for energy savings of the U.S. project vary widely; from 30 Billion Btu (AISI, 2000) to 15 TBtu (DOE, 1999). Assuming transport by rail open pit mining, (150 miles) and barge (Great Lakes), we estimate the primary energy savings at 0.2 TBtu. American Iron and Steel Institute, 2000. Recycling of Waste Oxides in Steelmaking Furnaces, http://www.steel.org/mt/projects/rswf/descrip.htm, accessed December 8th, 2000 U.S. Department of Energy, 1999. Recycling of Waste Oxides in Steelmaking Furnaces, Project Fact Sheet, Washington, DC: US DOE-OIT. Heat recovery in sinter plants (iron and steel) Heat recovery at the sinter plant is a means to improve the efficiency of sinter making. The recovered heat can be used to preheat the combustion air for the burners and to generate high-pressure steam that can be run through turbines. Various systems exist for new sinter plants (e.g., Lurgi EOS process) and existing plants can be retrofit (Stelco, 1993; IISI, 1998). The implementation is likely to be driven by environmental regulation, as the systems substantially reduce emissions (NOx, SOx, PM). In 1994, only 15% of the blast furnace feed consisted of sinter. We estimate the fuel savings associated with production of 13.4 Million tons (12.2 Mt) of sinter to be 0.5 MBtu/ton (0.55 GJ/t) sinter, based on a retrofitted system at Hoogovens in The Netherlands. The retrofit is expected to increase electricity use by 1.4 kWh/ton (1.5 kWh/t) sinter (Rengersen et al., 1995). The measure has capital costs of approximately $3/ton sinter (Farla et al., 1997). We do not estimate costs for new sinter plants since it is unlikely that such plants will be built in the U.S., due to the large investment required. Farla, J.C.M., E. Worrell, L. Hein, and K. Blok, 1997. Actual Implementation of Energy Conservation Measures in the Manufacturing Industry 1980-1994, The Netherlands: Dept. of Science, Technology & Society, Utrecht University. International Iron and Steel Institute, 1998. Energy Use and the Steel Industry, Brussels, Belgium: IISI. Rengersen, J., Oosterhuis, E., de Boer, W.F., Veel, T.J.M. and Otto, J. 1995. First Industrial Experience with Partial Waste Gas Recirculation in a Sinter Plant, Revue de Metallurgie-CIT 3 92 pp. 329-335 (1995). Stelco, 1993. Present and Future Use of Energy in the Canadian Steel Industry, Ottawa, Canada: CANMET. Scrap pre-heating electric arc furnace (EAF) technologies (iron and steel) Scrap preheating is a technology that can reduce the power consumption of EAFs, using the waste heat of the furnace to preheat the scrap charge. Old (bucket) preheating systems had various problems, such as emissions, high handling costs, and a relatively low heat recovery rate. Modern systems have reduced these problems, and are highly efficient. Energy savings depend on the preheat temperature of the scrap. Various systems have been developed and are in use at various sites in the U.S. and Europe, i.e., Consteel tunnel-type preheater, Fuchs Finger Shaft, and Fuchs Twin Shaft (the latter only for new plants). All systems can be applied to new construction, and also as retrofit technologies in existing plants. The new construction has already been included in the advanced EAF design. In this description we focus on retrofit scrap preheating systems. The Consteel process consists of a conveyor belt with the scrap going through a tunnel, down to the EAF through a hot heel. Various U.S. plants have installed a Consteel process, including Florida Steel (now AmeriSteel, Charlotte, NC) New Jersey Steel (Sayreville, NJ) and Nucor (Darlington, SC), and one plant in Japan. The installation at New Jersey Steel is a retrofit of an existing furnace (Lahita, 1995). Besides energy savings, the Consteel-process results in a productivity increase of 33% (Jones, 1997), reduced electrode consumption of 40% (Jones, 1997) and reduced dust emissions (Herin and Busbee, 1996). Electricity use can be decreased to approximately 335-354 kWh/ton (370-390 kWh/t) (Herin and Busbee, 1996) without supplementary fuel injection in a retrofit situation. We estimate the electricity savings to be 54 kWh/ton (60 kWh/t) for retrofit of existing EAFs. The investments are estimated to be $2M (1989) for a capacity of 400-500,000 ton per year (Bosley and Klesser, 1991), resulting in specific investments of approximately $4.4 to $5.5/t. The annual costs savings due increased productivity, reduced electrode costs and increased yield are estimated to be $1.9/t (Bosley and Klesser, 1991).

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The FUCHS shaft furnace consists of a vertical shaft that channels the offgases to preheat the scrap. The scrap can be fed continuously (4 plants installed worldwide) or through a so-called system of fingers (15 plants installed worldwide). The Fuchs-systems make almost 100% scrap preheating possible, leading to potential energy savings of 90-108 kWh/ton (100-120 kWh/t) (Hofer, 1997). The energy savings depend on the scrap used, and the degree of post-combustion (oxygen levels). In the U.S. Fuchs systems have been installed at North Star (single shaft (1996), Kingman, AZ), North Star-BHP (double shaft (1996), Delta, OH), Birmingham Steel (finger shaft (1997), Memphis, TN). Two other Finger shaft processes have been ordered by Chapparel (TX) and North Star (Youngstown, OH). Carbon monoxide and oxygen concentrations should be well controlled to reduce the danger of explosions, as happened at North Star-BHP. The scrap preheating systems lead to reduced electrode consumption, yield improvement of 0.25-2% (CMP, 1997), up to 20% productivity increase (VAI, 1997) and 25% reduced flue gas dust emissions (reducing hazardous waste handling costs) (CMP, 1997). A special system has been developed for retrofitting existing furnaces called the Fuchs Optimized Retrofit Shaft, with a relatively short shaft. Retrofit costs are estimated at $5.4/ton ($6/t) (Hofer, 1997) for an existing 100 t furnace. Using postcombustion the energy consumption is estimated at 308-317 kWh/ton (340-350 kWh/t) (Jones, 1997d) and 0.6 MBtu/ton (0.7 GJ/t) fuel injection (Hofer, 1996). The production costs savings amount up to $4.5/t (excluding saved electricity costs) (Hofer, 1997). On average, we assume that retrofit of existing furnaces can lead to primary energy savings of 8.8 TBtu, retrofitting 40% of the EAF capacity (only large EAFs). Bosley, J. and D. Klesser,1991. The Consteel Scrap Preheating Process, CMP Report 91-9, Center for Materials Production, Pittsburgh, PA. Center for Materials Production. 1997. Electric Arc Furnace Scrap Preheating. Tech Commentary, Pittsburgh, PA: Carnegie Mellon Research Institute. Herin, H.H. and T. Busbee, 1996. The Consteel Process in Operation at Florida Steel Iron & Steelmaker 23(2): 43-46. Hofer, L.,1996. Electric Steelmaking with FUCHS Shaft Furnace Technology, Linz, Austria: Voest Alpine Industrieanlagenbau Gmbh, VAI. Hofer, L.,1997. Personal communication, Voest Alpine Industrieanlagenbau Gmbh, Linz, Austria, 25 September 1997. Jones, J. A. T. 1997a. "New Steel Melting Technologies: Part X, New EAF Melting Processes." Iron and Steelmaker 24(January): 45-46. Lahita, J.A.,1995. The Consteel Process in Operation at New Jersey Steel Corporation Proceedings 5th European Electric Steel Congress, Paris, June 19-23, 1995. Recuperative burners in the rolling mill (iron and steel) Recuperative burners in the reheating furnace can reduce energy consumption, competing with low NOx oxy-fuel burners (see Martin et al., 2000). Energy use in a reheating furnace will depend on production factors (e.g., stock, steel type), operational factors (e.g., scheduling), and design features. Therefore, in practice energy consumption can vary widely between 0.6 and 3.0 GJ/t (Flanagan, 1993), with the low figures due to hot charging. Based on a survey of 151 furnaces (representing 20% of Western world steel production) in Japan, Australia, UK and Canada, it was found that 18% of the furnaces had no heat recovery and 75% had separate heat recovery (Flanagan, 1993). As no specific U.S. data were available, we assume a similar distribution for the U.S. Installing recuperative or regenerative burners may require substantial changes in the furnace construction and may have high investment costs. New designs have typically low NOx emissions, despite higher flame temperatures. We assume installing regenerative burners in 20% of the furnaces, saving approximately 25% on fuel in these (mostly small) furnaces, based on experiences in the UK (Flanagan, 1993), or roughly estimated at 0.6 MBtu/ton product. We assume investment costs $2.3/ton product. Assuming installing regenerative burners in 20% of the furnaces, this measure will result in primary energy savings of 10.6 TBtu Flanagan, J.M., 1993. Process Heating in the Metals Industry, CADDET Analyses Series 11, Sittard, The Netherlands: CADDET. Martin, N., 2000. Emerging Technologies Report

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Direct steel strapping production (iron and steel) The U.S. produces about 500,000 tons of steel strapping. Similar to near-net-shape casting technologies this technology aims to produce steel strap (and strip) from a rod. Though, the process is similar it uses a cold rod, instead of hot metal. It reduces the number of production steps in strapping production, and improves product quality. However, the process may still save energy compared to the conventional strapping production process (DOE, 1999). Given the specific nature of this process we are unable to independently evaluate the claimed energy savings. The claimed energy savings (380 kWh/ton of strapping), though, seem relatively high, based on experience with induction heaters (Flanagan, 1993). We assume lower electricity savings (200 kWh/ton of strapping) and implementation of this technology for 25% of the strapping production by 2015. This results in electricity savings of 25 GWh, or 0.3 TBtu in primary energy by 2015. The technology will have productivity benefits and increased product quality. This will make the technology economically more attractive. Flanagan, J.M., 1993. Process Heating in the Metals Industry, CADDET Analyses Series 11, Sittard, The Netherlands: CADDET. US Department of Energy, 1999. Method of Making Steel Strapping and Strip, Fact sheet Inventions and Innovation Program, Washington, DC: US DOE-OIT. Improved drying systems (lumber and wood products The U.S. lumber and wood products industry consumes an estimated 570 TBtu of primary energy. The drying of lumber is one of the most energy intensive processes. We identified several drying technologies that could potentially reduce energy use in this sector. For permeable wood species the use of microwave and radio frequency drying has shown promise, while for impermeable wood, OIT has sponsored research on a new technology that used high-speed microwave drying (OIT, 1998). Infrared drying has shown promise with the drying of wood particulates with savings of 80% claimed beyond conventional gas drying processes (OIT, 1999a). The use of a smart control system technology in the drying of red oak veneer yielded improved drying efficiencies of 20-30% while increasing production by up to 10% (OIT, 1999b). Finally, several countries have experience in the application of waste heat pumps for wood drying which can eliminate fuel use (with an electric heat pump) while increasing electricity consumption by 20% (de Beer et al., 1994; CADDET, 1994). We assume that 20% savings are possible, and estimate industry-wide savings of 12-20 TBtu in 2015. OIT, 1998.High speed microwave treatment for rapid wood drying CADDET, 1994. Industrial Drying Technologies. Analysis series #12 CADDET, 1997, "Drying wood waste with flue gas in a wood fuel dryer"; CADDET 1995 "Improved drying of wood wool cement plates" OIT, 1999a Long wave catalytic infra-red drying system for wood fiber. OIT, 1999b New Technology Revolutionizes Industrial Drying Heat recovery turbine (metalcasting) Heat from FeSi furnaces is converted into electric energy using a heat recovery turbine with the waste heat ordinarily vented to the atmosphere. The approximately 750C heavily dust-laden flue gas (10g/m3 silicon) from the furnaces passes a specially designed heat recovery boiler, which converts the gas heat into superheated steam for steam turbine power generation. In 1987, a turbine produced 90 GWh of electric energy, corresponding to 28 percent of the waste gas heat and 16.5 percent of the electric power consumption of the furnaces. The hot gases from the furnaces are conveyed to the bottom of the boiler and the cooled gas is filtered in a bag filter unit. The boiler produces superheated steam at 460C and 50 bar which is fed into a multi-stage reaction turbine, with capacity of about 22 MW (CADDET 1989), resulting in net annual primary energy savings of about 900 TBtu. Other potential applications outside the metal casting industry, include glass, cement, and steel production. [CADDET] Centre for the Analysis and Dissemination of Demonstrated Energy Technologies. 1989. Electricity Production by Heat Recovery at a Ferrosilicon Plant, technical brochure. Furnace process modeling and control (metal casting) The foundry cupola has historically been the primary method for melting iron because of its low cost and simplicity. Recently, however, the need for pollution control devices and foreign competition has contributed to

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a decline in the domestic market. The design and application of automatic control technology for the cupola furnace with reduce material and processing costs for cupola operation, reduce energy requirements and environmental impacts and improve product quality. This technology applies advanced intelligent control methods to the cupola melter in a furnace using pig iron, scrap steel, cast iron scrap, foundry return scrap, and ferroalloys to a specified tapping temperature and chemical composition. An 18-inch experimental research cupola was designed and constructed. A neural network model of the cupola, and techniques for training the neural network have been developed. Exact energy savings have not yet been determined. Office of Industrial Technology, U.S. Department of Energy, 1999. Intelligent Control of the Cupola Furnace, project fact sheet. http://www.oit.doe.gov/factsheets/metalcast/pdfs/cupola2.pdf Unconventional yield improvement methods (metal casting) Substantial yield increases are possible by using alternatives to current rules for risering design. Researchers are identifying techniques for decreasing the size and number of risers required to produce quality castings. These techniques include: - conventional methods (feeding rules, riser insulation, block chills) - unconventional methods (active heating and cooling, directional solidification) Novel yield improvement techniques are being developed promoting directional solidification through a variety of active heating/cooling schemes. It is envisioned that the techniques will allow certain castings to be produced with a yield that is at least 25 percent higher than the current level. Energy savings in melting estimated to be 1.8 trillion BTUs per year when yield is increased by 10 percent. Office of Industrial Technology, U.S. Department of Energy, 1999. Unconventional Methods for Yield Improvement, project fact sheet. http://www.oit.doe.gov/factsheets/metalcast/pdfs/yieldproj.pdf Simulation programs for process management (metal casting) A simple qualitative method is being developed to visualize potential design problems in die-casting. The software, CastView, is intended to help minimize flow-related filling problems, thermal problems in the die casting die, and solidification-related defects in the cast part. CastViews intended uses are different from typical simulation programs. It is designed to complement numerical simulation by quickly providing the part design team with a limited amount of data relevant to thermal and flow problems in die-castings. The analysis is qualitative and provides information based only on the part geometry. Material properties are not required and process details are not required. This enables analysis times of only a few minutes. Simulation programs for process management addresses thermal issues by allowing the user to locate and display thick and thin sections in the part and thin sections in the die. Thick sections in the part will typically correlate well with the last sections to solidify and with shrinkage porosity. Thin sections in the part may present premature solidification. Detecting problems early in the process enables the die caster to negotiate a modification of the part geometry with the part designer to achieve a more castable part. This tool will greatly increase the ability of die casters and designers to communicate with one another and to quickly evaluate a large number of design alter- natives. Simulation programs for process management will lead to better designs, resulting in less scrap, fewer operational problems and a reduction in associated energy consumption. Exact energy savings are unknown. Office of Industrial Technology, U.S. Department of Energy, 1999. Visualization Tools for Die Casting, project fact sheet. [CADDET] Centre for the Analysis and Dissemination of Demonstrated Energy Technologies. 1997. Casting process improved using simultaneous engineering, technical brochure. . 1994. New simulation program predicts quality of castings, technical brochure. New metal heating approaches (metal casting) Metal casting is among the most energy-intensive industries in the United States. The heating and melting of metals consume large amounts of energy. It has been estimated that as much as 20 million Btu are required to melt and cast one ton of salable iron castings, although 13 to 15 million Btu per ton is more typical. Most of this energy use (an average of 55 percent of total energy costs) can be attributed to melting. There are several

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innovative casting processes that can reduce this energy use. They include: squeeze casting, semi-solid metal casting, the FM process, and rheocasting and thixomolding. These innovative casting processes can lower the energy used in the melt by 15-20 percent. The 1994 energy use of the metal casting industry was approximately 200 trillion Btu. Utilizing new metal heating approaches could result in an energy savings of 4 trillion Btu by 2015 if 20 percent of all forgers adopt energy saving casting processes. U.S. Department of Energy, 1999. Energy and Environmental Profile of the U.S. Metalcasting Industry. Washington, D.C.: USDOE Die casting copper motor rotors (metal casting) Though it conducts electricity less efficiently than copper, aluminum is preferred for manufacturing conductors in electric induction motor rotors. Aluminum can be die cast relatively easily and is the industry's preferred fabrication material. Before aluminum die-casting was developed, rotors were hand-fitted with individual copper conductors that were then joined into a complete rotor conductor system by hand labor. Die casting copper conductor rotors (CCRs) has not been successful because conventional casting molds suffer thermal shock, shortening mold life and increasing production costs. ThermoTrex Corporation proposes to fabricate cost-effective molds using high-temperature, thermal shock-resistant materials designed to perform for economically acceptable life spans of thousands of casting cycles (OIT 1999). This technology responds to the Congressional mandate to increase the electrical efficiency of integral horsepower motors sold in the United States (OIT 1999). Electrical motors are used throughout U.S. manufacturing agricultural irrigation. Motors account for more than 60 percent of all electricity use in the Nation. The market for electric motors totals about $35 billion per year internationally and about $10 billion in the United States. Die copper motor rotors is expected to improve motor efficiency by 15 percent to 20 percent. Office of Industrial Technology, U.S. Department of Energy, 1999. Die Casting Copper Rotor Motors, project fact sheet. http://www.oit.doe.gov/factsheets/nice3/pdfs/25029motorrotor.pdf Ceramic filters (mining) Filters remove heavy metals resulting from enameling processes. Typically, Polymer Membrane Filters are used, but are unsatisfactory for two main reasons. Firstly, the membranes tend to block easily, reducing capacity from 3000 liters per hour (l/h) to 500 l/h. This blockage requires daily cleaning, increasing the working hours on the installation. Secondly, a large pump capacity is necessary to maintain pressure across the membrane. In response, Ferro Techniek BV developed ceramic filters to replace the polymer membranes, and using an existing prototype, changed the pump configuration to obtain the required pressure build-up. One of the demands to be met was a guaranteed capacity of 1,000 liters per hour. Immediately after installation, capacity was 2,400 l/h, however, capacity dropped to and stabilized at 800 l/h. The results of this project are useful to any industry that requires the removal of very small particles from effluent water (CADDET 1994). This measure offers dramatic increases in volumetric flow rate in a given process, rather than marked energy savings. The overall productivity of a process will be increased while pumping energy remains the same. [CADDET] Centre for the Analysis and Dissemination of Demonstrated Energy Technologies, 1994. Ultrafiltration, technical brochure. Vibration fluidized bed separation (mining) In large mining operations, a thousand or more tons of coal may be processed each hour. The best large-scale separation method available until now has been water flotation, which requires drying the material after separating and disposing of the wastewater. To reduce the energy needed to dry mined coal and reduce the generation of wastewater, a new method of separating coal through complex-mode vibration in a fluidized bed has been developed. These innovative vibrating beds eliminate the need to process the coal through a wet slurry removal process, saving energy and time. Unlike simple linear vibrations, the adjustable vibration inducing system can be tuned to produce optimum separations from a variety of different materials. This process is projected to save one million gallons of fuel oil (0.138 TBtu by 2015) and $500 million in expenditures from energy for drying if the new process is used for 10 percent of the coal produced annually in the United States (OIT 1999).

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Office of Industrial Technology, U.S. Department of Energy, 1999. Density Separation in Complex-Mode Vibration Fluidized Beds, project fact sheet. Ramex tuneller (mining) The Ramex Group has developed a new method of rock cutting that uses impact to fracture and create slots in hard rock. The Ramex IKC cutting tool is as easy to use as a hydraulic breaker, it produces larger rock cuttings for easier handling and allows the energy-efficient mining of any shape opening in rock. In addition, Ramex slot cutting eliminates the costly and energy intensive use of drill holes needed to place explosives. The dieselpowered cutting head has an injector that combusts fuel, creating an explosion that drives a piston forward in a bounce chamber. This forces the cutting head against the rock face at the rate of eight or nine times per second. The first generation cutter was field tested on a free-piston, diesel driven, impact ram developed by Ramex. The ram developed 3,200 foot-pounds force (ft-lbf) at 460 blows per minute (bpm) and excavated hard rock at a rate of over sixteen cubic yards per hour (16 cu. yd./hr.) (i.e., 36 tons/hr.) (OIT 1999). Office of Industrial Technology, U.S. Department of Energy. 1999. Ramex Tuneller, project fact sheet. Ammonia absorption refrigeration unit (petroleum refining) The U.S. petroleum refining industry is one of the largest energy consumers, with a primary energy consumption of roughly 3,300 TBtu in 1994. Modern complex refineries use about 6-10% of the energy content of the incoming oil to process and produce final products. Flaring in refineries occurs when waste refinery gas can not be used in boiler systems and is burned. The propane fraction of this waste stream represents a valuable co-product that could be salvaged. One DOE sponsored project funded the development of an ammonia absorption unit run on waste heat chilled the gaseous waste stream from the reformer to recover 200 barrels per day (1% of output) from a Denver refinery. This technology boosted profit (by $900,000 annually) and paid for itself in less than 2 years (OIT, 1999). We assume that potential savings in the U.S. from reduced flaring could be 2-5 TBtu in 2015. OIT, 1999. Ammonia Absorption Refrigeration Unit Provides Environmentally-friendly Profits for an Oil Refinery. Hydrogen purification improvements (petroleum refining) Hydrogen is used in petroleum refineries to desulfurize petroleum products, as well as to upgrade production to lighter end products. However, the production of hydrogen is energy-intensive, and produced by steam reforming or partial oxidation of hydrocarbon feedstocks (e.g., natural gas, HC residues). Total hydrogen use is estimated at 874 TBtu (US DOE-OIT, 1998). The hydrogen-using processes produce tailgases with a loss of some hydrogen. Given the high energy content of these gases it is worthwhile to recover the hydrogen. Technologies used for the separation of hydrogen include PSA and membranes, while oleophobic/hydrophobic treatment can be used to remove any liquids. Increasingly refineries are installing hydrogen recovery processes. Improvements in the separation efficiency can further increase hydrogen recovery, as well as save on compression energy (membranes), or lead to reduced costs. Argonne National Laboratory is developing a longterm technology using microwaves to split H2S into hydrogen and sulfur, potentially reducing the energy needs for hydrogen makeup (ANL, 1999). However, it is impossible to evaluate future energy use of this technology yet, as the development is in the early stages. For 2015 we expect further development of current technologies to increase efficiency and lower costs. We assume an increased recovery of 1% overall, leading to energy savings of approximately 9 TBtu. Payback periods vary depending on the type and size of the installation, between 1 and 2 years (Shaver, 1991). ANL, 1999. Recovering Hydrogen and Sulfur from Refinery Wastes, Argonne, IL: Argonne National Laboratory (http://www.es.anl.gov/htmls/refinery.wastes.html). Shaver, K.G., G.L. Poffenbarger and D.R. Grotewold, 1991. Membranes Recover Hydrogen, Hydrocarbon Processing 6 71 pp.77-80. US DOE OIT, 1998. Energy and Environmental Profile of the U.S. Petroleum Refining Industry, Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Energy Office of Industrial Technologies.

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Selective oxidation of benzene to phenol (petroleum refining) Currently, the chemical industry uses the three-step cumene process to produce 95 percent of the 4.5 billion pounds of phenol it requires annually for manufacturing phenol-formaldehyde resins (OIT 1999). A proposed new process, still being developed, would convert benzene to phenol in only one step and would eliminate the need to neutralize acids, separate organic products, or to be concerned with a potentially unstable intermediate product in the cumene process. Theoretically, the new process also produces no by-products, whereas the cumene process leaves several hazardous compounds that must be disposed of properly and acetone that must be sold to make the process economical. The new process could generate considerable energy savings and reduce by-products and hazardous wastes. Further, phenol is the second-largest commodity produced from the inexpensive raw material, benzene. The bottom line result for industry will be production cost savings, reduction in environmental impacts, and more effective carbon management. Phenol production normally consumes approximately 7,850 Btu/lb. (OIT 2000). This technology could reduce this figure by approximately 10 percent leading to an estimated energy savings of 4 trillion Btu in 2015 (OIT 2000). Office of Industrial Technology, U.S. Department of Energy, 1999. New Catalyst Technology for the Selective Oxidation of Feedstock Aromatic Compounds to Commodity Chemicals, project fact sheet. http://www.oit.doe.gov/factsheets/chemicals/pdfs/feedstock.pdf Office of Industrial Technology, U.S. Department of Energy, 2000. Energy and Environmental Profile of the U.S. Chemical Industry. Washington, D.C. Liquid membranes in refining (petroleum refining) Membrane separation process can be treated as a good alternative traditional filtration, ion exchange and chemical treatment systems. Although the basic scientific principles behind membrane technology have been developed in the 1950s, it was not until the 1970s that crossflow membrane technology, in the form of UF and RO, began to be recognized as an efficient, economical and reliable separation process. Purification systems utilizing crossflow membrane filtration, such as reverse osmosis (R0), nanofiltration (NF) or ultrafiltration (UF) can be a good alternative to conventional systems. Membranes also offer an alternative to liquid-liquid extraction, a technology used to separate aqueous, organic, or azeotropic mixtures. Liquid membranes can perhaps be utilized to replace the energy intensive cracking of petroleum feedstock into the various saleable fractions. The annual energy use of fluid catalytic cracking, most likely the process that liquid membranes would replace is just over 100 trillion Btu per year in the U.S. Liquid membranes could reduce the energy use of the cracking process by 10% or more. The cost of liquid membrane unit is potentially much lower than the cost of a conventional cracking unit, but equipment retrofits and process changes are generally frowned upon by refinery operators. U.S. Department of Energy. Energy and Environmental Profile of the U.S. Petroleum Industry. 1998. Blok, et al. 1994. Low profile FCC (petroleum refining) Petroleum refiners use fluid catalytic cracking (FCC) technology to convert crude oil to blending stocks for use in gasoline, diesel, and heating oil. Construction and operation of the 200-foot tall FCC units are expensive, and process control improvements are slow to be adopted. Process Innovators, Inc., will demonstrate a new, lowprofile FCC process that will increase yields and lower costs for any size of refining operation (OIT 1999). By using multiple reactors instead of the current single-reactor technology, the company will be able to confine the units height to 50 feet and also incorporate advances such as a short residence time, rapid disengaging, a high catalyst-to-oil ratio, and the matching of feed reactivity to catalyst activity. Because of its low profile design, this technology can be scaled down cost-effectively. This will enable the small refiner of the future to be competitive. The projected annual energy savings, as reported by the DOE Office of Industrial Technologies are estimated at 122 billion Btu for each unit processing 10,000 barrels of finished product daily. Reduced air emissions of more than 10,000 tons per year per unit are also projected (OIT 1999). These figures would apply if industry-wide adoption of this technology took place. This however is a highly unlikely scenario due to the high capital cost of petroleum refining equipment. Office of Industrial Technology, U.S. Department of Energy, 1999. Catalytic Cracking Distillation Plant, project fact sheet.

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Fluidized bed reactor for plastics recovery (plastics) In the United States plastics production has grown significantly over the last two decades, with the production of plastics accounting for 2% of primary energy use in manufacturing (400 TBtu). While some progress has been made in recovering plastics from various waste streams, the overall recovery rate of post-consumer waste in the U.S. is very low. Thermoset plastics are particularly challenging to recycle since they can not be remelted without destroying their original properties. The U.S. Department of Energy has been funding research on a procedure for recovering chemicals from thermoset plastics. This process involves the use of a small fluidized bed reactor and distilling out high-value monomers (OIT, 1999). A demonstration reactor has been built and Merichem corporation has been testing products. Initial claims are that savings of 44 TBtu can be achieved in the U.S. by 2020, although we have not been able to fully evaluate this calculation. OIT, 1999. Production of Chemicals from Thermoset Plastics. Project fact sheet. Heat recovery in plastics (plastics) The manufacturing processes of plastic products consume a large amount of energy. Electric heaters are used to dry and melt plastic materials, and chilled water from a chiller is used to cool and solidify molded products. Thus, heating and cooling are carried out in the same process at the same time. The processes of kneading and molding use a fair amount of electrical energy through their oil hydraulic circuits. The temperature of hydraulic fluid in these circuits must be controlled to stabilize the operations of molding machines. These hydraulic circuits discharge large amounts of waste heat. On the other hand, an air-conditioning system for a molding factory of plastic products, which is indispensable to sophisticated quality control and improvements to labor environment and productivity, consumes only about half the amount of electrical power (CADDET 1991a,b). By recovering the waste heat from the hydraulic circuits and the molding processes, a molding factory in Ibarki, Japan manufacturing plastic electrical parts utilizing the excess heat as the heat source for a water-cooled heat pump air-conditioning system. This saved electric power and brought excellent economical benefits. Adding heat recovery to this system can reduce energy usage by approximately 15 percent. The 2015 impact could be 20 TBtu. [CADDET]Centre for the Analysis and Dissemination of Demonstrated Energy Technologies, 1991a. Heat Recovery from Plastic Injection Molding Machines at a Factory in Inchinnan, Scotland, technical brochure. . 1991b. Waste heat recovery from the manufacture of plastic products, technical brochure. Water as cooling refrigerant (plastics) As a result of a research and development project initiated by the Danish Technological Institute a 2 MW cooling plant was built in 1994 using only water as refrigerant for process cooling water. Since 1995 the installation has been in operation refrigerating process water from 600 injection molding machines producing LEGO bricks around the clock. Substantial environmental benefits result from the use of water as refrigerant. Energy savings are estimated to approximately 20-50 percent compared to traditional technology. The process resembles a normal gas compression cycle (evaporation, compression, condensation and expansion) with a difference of being an open cycle where the water is used as primary and secondary refrigerant. 13.5C water is led to the evaporator where it expands to approximately 11mbar corresponding to a saturation temperature of 8C. 1 percent of the water evaporates and the remaining 99 percent is chilled to 9C. The evaporated water, now the primary refrigerant (working fluid), is compressed in a two-stage turbo compressor system with intermediate cooler. The water vapor is condensed directly on the injected cooling tower water, which is heated 4-5C to a temperature very close to the condensing temperature. The temperature difference is less than 1-1.5 C. All non-condensable gasses must be removed from the cooling water before entering the condenser, which happens in an efficient two-stage deaeration system. Total project budget for the LEGO plant was 20 million DKK ($2.3 million USD). The prototype demonstration plant at LEGO cost 9.3 million DKK ($1.0 million USD). The estimated payback period for this technology is 36 months. Within in a complete operational period, comparable measurements show that the power consumption of the new plant represents approximately half of the consumption of a conventional R22 refrigeration plant placed at LEGO systems A/S. In relation to traditional plant the price would be higher. Further development is at this moment carried out in order to reduce the overall production costs of the plant.

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[CADDET] Centre for the Analysis and Dissemination of Demonstrated Energy Technologies. "Cooling plant at LEGO uses water as refrigerant. Technical brochure. Tunnel kiln (plastics) In order to shield television tubes from the influence of the earth's magnetic field, special backs are built in, which requires a special structure of the glass crystals. This is obtained by subjecting the tubes to a three-stage heat treatment in three separate electric kilns: first stage: decarbonizing and recrystallizing. This takes place in a kiln at 700C. Second stage: steam-blackening in a second kiln, where steam is injected at 650C. This causes an oxide layer to form, which improves the corrosion resistance and the heat emission. Third stage: controlled cooling in a third kiln. In the new situation, a single, continuous kiln, consisting of three sections separated by air locks will replace these kilns. The result will be a reduction in electricity of approx. 60 percent, because the average passage time will be shortened, the separate sections can be heated continuously and the tubes only have to be heated up once. Also, the use of steam will become more efficient, as at present the steam pipes have to be blown through before each batch enters the second stage, in order to obtain dry steam. The technique can be used at companies where heat-treatments are common, especially in the ceramics, steel and metal industry. [CADDET] Centre for the Analysis and Dissemination of Demonstrated Energy Technologies, 1994. Blackening of the Steel Back Caps for Television Tubes, technical brochure. Heat recovery printing (printing) Printing processes are generally done in the presence of heat. Normally the waste heat is vented to the atmosphere. A novel technology has been developed to capture some of the waste heat and use it for drying of the wet printing ink. After each stage of a multicolor printing process, the ink is dried with hot air, and heated in a hot oil heat exchanger. The drying air, which is polluted with hydrocarbons (used as solvents for the ink), is led to the afterburner. Prior to entering the afterburner, the air is preheated in a heat exchanger, using the waste heat of the clean air flowing to the exhaust. In the afterburner the hydrocarbons are converted catalytically, with natural gas as an additional fuel. The waste heat of the exothermic process is used to heat the hot oil for the drying air heat exchanger, for space heating and to preheat the polluted drying air entering the afterburner. The savings of this technology are approximately proportional to the number of colors that have been printed, so multi-colored prints result in a high energy savings. [CADDET] Centre for the Analysis and Dissemination of Demonstrated Energy Technologies, 1993. Heat recovery after catalytic combustion in a printer's shop, technical brochure. Flotation deinking for stickies removal (pulp and paper) The pulp and paper industry is a large industrial energy user, and consumed about 13% of U.S. manufacturing energy use in 1994. Energy requirements for the production of paper from virgin pulp are significant, given the high energy requirements associated with pulp production processes and for paper drying. Increasing the use of recycled paper can have a significant impact on reducing energy use. Flotation deinking is the current best practice for processing recycled pulp. In flotation deinking, recovered paper is dumped into the top of the hydrapulper and is pulp and blended into a slurry. The pulp exits at the bottom of the machine while the impurities exit out of the side. Current flotation deinking technologies have trouble handling wax and sticky contaminants that are part of the stock of old corrugated containers (OCC). The U.S. department of energy and Voith Paper sponsored research on new separation methods to handle the particle size, shape, and density of wax and stickies without incurring excessive fiber losses (OIT, 1998). If successful this technology can both reduce cost penalties associated with disposing of wax and sticky contaminants and can provide increased recovered paper thereby lowering production costs. A related technology that could be promising for photocopier waste is column flotation, which has shown in early trials a production of higher quality pulp with similar yields (Chaiarrekj et al. 1999). Costs for the construction of recycled pulp processing facilities are estimated at $485/tonne pulp in the analysis although significant operation and maintenance cost savings are possible ($74/tonne pulp). Energy savings in 2015 will depend on the amount of OCC paper that can be recovered for recycling. OIT, 1998. The Removal of Wax Stickies from OCC.

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Martin, N.; Anglani, N.; Einstein, D.; Khrusch, M.; Worrell, E.; Price, L.K. 2000. Opportunities to Improve energy Efficiency and Reduce Greenhouse Gas emissions in the U.S. Pulp and Paper Industry. Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory. Report No. LBNL-46141. Chaiarrekij, H.; Dhingra, H.; Ramarao, B.V, 1999. Deinking of Recycled Pups Using Column Flotation: Energy and Environmental Benefits, in Industry and Innovation in the 21st Century Proceedings of the 1999 American Council for an Energy Efficient Economy summer study on energy efficiency in industry. Washington, DC: ACEEE. Bacterial reduction of sulfur to sulfide in kraft mills (pulp and paper) The pulp and paper industry is a large industrial energy user, and consumed about 13% of U.S. manufacturing energy use in 1994. Pulping is one of the most energy intensive process stages in an integrated mill. In a typical pulp mill black liquor is concentrated and combusted in a large recovery boiler. The smelt is then recausticized (after being formed into green liquor), into white liquor which is re-used in the pulping process. Capacity constraints in the recovery boiler can be a bottleneck for mill expansion. One technology being supported by the U.S. Department of energy is the bacterial reduction of oxidized sulfur produced during pulping to sulfide. This process reduces the load on the kraft recovery boiler and enhances longetivity (OIT, 1998). It is not clear to what extent furnace efficiency will be improved from the technology, although it will bring about cost-savings in operation. The technology is still in the research and demonstration phases. OIT, 1998. Biological Augmentation of Kraft Cycle. Martin, N.; Anglani, N.; Einstein, D.; Khrusch, M.; Worrell, E.; Price, L.K. 2000. Opportunities to Improve energy Efficiency and Reduce Greenhouse Gas emissions in the U.S. Pulp and Paper Industry. Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory. Report No. LBNL-46141. Press drying (pulp and paper) The pulp and paper industry is a large industrial energy user, with an estimated primary energy consumption of 2,970 TBtu in 1994. In current drying practices, after the paper is formed and pressed and no more water can be removed mechanically, the sheet moves through a series of 40-50 steam heated cylinders, with the final consistency being about 90-95% solids content. In press drying the sheet is pressed between two hot surfaces or pressing cylinders at a temperature of 100-250C. In most cases the cylinders are installed in the conventional pressing section of the machine. Energy savings have been estimated at 5-30% and the drying rate can be increased by 2-10 times conventional processes (de Beer, 1998). We estimate a savings of 10% and apply this to 15% of 2015 paper throughput for a 2015 savings potential of 50 TBtu. De Beer, J. 1998. Potential for Industrial Energy efficiency Improvement in the Long Term. PhD thesis. Utrecht, the Netherlands: Utrecht University. Biopulping (pulp and paper) The pulp and paper industry is a large industrial energy user, and consumed about 13% of U.S. manufacturing energy use in 1994. Pulping is one of the most energy intensive process stages in an integrated mill. Biopulping is a process in which the wood chips are pre-treated with biological agents to degrade the lignin. The chips are treated for a 1 to 4 week period that can create space constraints in some mills. Electricity savings from biopulping are estimated at 30%, or 512 kWh/ton pulp (565 kWh/t pulp) compared to mechanical refining, however there are some additional steam requirements estimated at 0.4 MBtu/ton (0.5 GJ/t) pulp (Martin et al. 2000). Estimates for the investment in biopulping facilities are $25/ton pulp while operations and maintenance costs are expected to increase $8.5/ton pulp (Scott and Swaney, 1998). The biopulping may extend machine life in mills and improve product quality. The system has been demonstrated in several large-scale tests but is not commercial as there are several unresolved technical issues. Based on a recent analysis for the U.S. pulp and paper industry (Martin et al. 2000), we assume a potential energy savings of 4 TBtu based on the installation of the technology in 20% of all mechanical pulp mills with output of less than 600 tons per day. Martin, N.; Anglani, N.; Einstein, D.; Khrusch, M.; Worrell, E.; Price, L.K. 2000. Opportunities to Improve energy Efficiency and Reduce Greenhouse Gas emissions in the U.S. Pulp and Paper Industry. Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory. Report No. LBNL-46141. Scott, G.M. and Swaney, R. 1998. New technology for papermaking: biopulping economics. Tappi Journal v.81, no. 12.

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Fluidized bed combustion for sludge/bark/wood fiber waste (pulp and paper) The pulp and paper industry is a large industrial energy user, with an estimated primary energy consumption of 2,970 TBtu in 1994. Unique to this sector is the fact that 50% of the energy supplied for the industry is biomass (black liquor, wood wastes). This biomass is burned either in large recovery boilers or in biomass boilers to raise steam for process use. There are however additional opportunities to utilize additional biomass resources and offset the need to purchase commercial fuels through the use of fluidized bed combustion technology. The Tomakomai Mill at Oji paper company installed a fluidized bed boiler (replacing waste heat and bark boilers) to combust pulp sludge from the waste water treatment system.. The heating value of the pulp sludge (as fired was 4 GJ/t) and the boiler was able to generate electricity savings that yielded a project payback of 2 years (CADDET, 1991). A similar system concept installed by a Dutch newsprint manufacturer, Parenco BV, with a payback of less than 4 years (CADDET, 1993). Applying this technology to 50% of the mills where de-inking sludge is available could yield savings of 20-30 TBtu. [CADDET] Centre for the Analysis and Dissemination of Demonstrated Energy Technologies, 1991. Fluidised bed combustion boiler for power generation. , 1993. Steam production by burning residual material in a fluidised bed boiler. Air/Steam impingement drying (pulp and paper) The pulp and paper industry is a large industrial energy user, with an estimated primary energy consumption of 2,970 TBtu in 1994. In current drying practices, after the paper is formed and pressed and no more water can be removed mechanically, the sheet moves through a series of 40-50 steam heated cylinders, with the final consistency being about 90-95% solids content. Air and steam impingement drying involves blowing hot air or superheated steam (300C) against the wet sheet. For steam impingement drying 10-11 tons of superheated steam is required to dry 1 ton of paper, with an additional 4-9 tons to cover losses and inefficiencies. This technology can be combined with existing technologies (de Beer et al., 1998). Fuel savings estimates are 1040% for air impingement drying and less (10-15%) for steam impingement. Electricity requirements are expected to slightly increase in the air impingement process (0-5%) and slightly decrease in the steam impingement process (5-10%). Although the complexity of the technology increases investment costs can be reduced due to the shortening of the drying section (de Beer, 1998). (Fleming, 1997) claims that the system is economical with respect to gas consumption and noted that trials showed a 13% increase in bonding strength. Air impingement drying has been applied for sanitary paper while considerable R&D is still required in the steam impingement drying technology (de Beer, 1998). We estimate a savings of 10% and apply this to 15% of 2015 paper throughput for a 2015 savings potential of 50 TBtu. De Beer, J. 1998. Potential for Industrial Energy efficiency Improvement in the Long Term. PhD thesis. Utrecht, the Netherlands: Utrecht University. Fleming, 1997. Linerboard Technology Developments Changing "Round and Brown" Image. Pulp and Paper. Volume 71, Issue 6. Freeze concentration mill effluent (pulp and paper) Freeze concentration separates mixtures by crystallizing one or more components and has the potential to produce and almost completely dry product (de Beer et al. 1994). While this process shows promise in the food processing industry (see technology write up in this appendix) it also can be applied to the pulp and paper industry and other sectors as well. In particular, research work sponsored by the Office of Industrial Technologies in the U.S. Department of Energy has been focusing on the application of freeze concentration in recovering volatile and complex contaminants found in mill effluent. Energy consumption for this system is 15% less than energy required for evaporation and early demonstration projects found that 96 percent of the adsorbable organic halides and chlorides were removed from an elemental chlorine free bleaching effluent (OIT, 1998). We estimate that the technology could be applied to half the mills with a potential energy savings of 5-10 TBtu in 2015. De Beer, J.; K, Blok, M.T. van Wees, and e. Worrell. 1994. Icarus-3. The Potential of Energy efficiency Improvement in the Netherlands up to 2000 and 2015. Utrecht, The Netherlands: Utrecht University. OIT, 1998. A New Freeze Concentration Process for Minimum Effluent Processes in Bleached Pulp Mills.

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Fiber loading equipment for PCC (pulp and paper) In the manufacture recycled waste paper pulp, precipitated calcium carbonate (PCC) filler can be added to increase brightness, remove color, and reduce residual ink and contaminants. Currently PCC is produced in a satellite plant adjacent to a paper mill. A new Voith fiber loading process produces PCC by adding calcium hydroxide to moist pulp reacted with carbon dioxide in a pressurized refiner. This technology has a 30% cost savings, and an estimated energy savings of 2 MBtu/ton recycled paper (OIT, 1999). Additional benefits include reduced solid waste production. A demonstration facility has been built and the technology is now commercially available. Applying the technology to 25% of recycled paper production would yield a savings of 15 TBtu in 2015. OIT, 1999. Fiber Loading for Paper Manufacturing Thermodyne pulp dryer (pulp and paper) In situations where the pulp and paper mills are not located in the same area, then pulp must be dried. Market pulp is dried on average to 20% water, and then shipped to a paper mill where it is re-pulped (Martin et al. 2000). Pulp drying is an energy intensive process that consumes an estimated 3.9 MBtu/ton of steam and an estimated 140 kWh/ton electricity (Martin et al. 2000). The Thermodyne evaporator produced by Merrill Air Engineers is a higher efficiency technology capable of replacing conventional systems. The dryer produces superheated steam in a sealed environment that is directed onto the material being dried rather than having the water vapor exhausted outdoors (OIT, 1997). Energy requirements are reduced by 50% compared to conventional technology (OIT, 1997). We estimate potential energy savings of 10 TBtu based on an application of the technology to half the dried pulp in the U.S. Martin, N.; Anglani, N.; Einstein, D.; Khrusch, M.; Worrell, E.; Price, L.K. 2000. Opportunities to Improve energy Efficiency and Reduce Greenhouse Gas emissions in the U.S. Pulp and Paper Industry. Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory. Report No. LBNL-46141. Office of Industrial Technology, U.S. Department of Energy, Impacts report, 1997. Thermodyne evaporator, a molded pulp products dryer. Super pressurized groundwood pulping (pulp and paper) Pulp production is one of the largest energy consumers in an integrated mill. Pressurized groundwood pulping was first developed in Scandinavia in the 1970s. In this process, grinding takes place under pressure where water temperature is high (greater than 95C) thereby allowing for higher grinding temperatures without steam flashing (Martin et al. 2000). Savings estimates are significant (36% electricity savings) as compared to conventional thermomechanical pulping (CADDET, 1992). Super-pressurized groundwood achieves better smoothness and opacity. Installation costs are estimated at $200/ton with a savings in O&M of $2/ton (Martin et al. 2000). Compared to atmospheric grinding, the strength properties of super pressurized groundwood pulp improve by 30-50% (EPA, 1994). Based on an application of the technology to 50% of thermomechanical pulp we estimate a savings potential of 5-10 TBtu. Martin, N.; Anglani, N.; Einstein, D.; Khrusch, M.; Worrell, E.; Price, L.K. 2000. Opportunities to Improve energy Efficiency and Reduce Greenhouse Gas emissions in the U.S. Pulp and Paper Industry. Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory. Report No. LBNL-46141. [CADDET] Centre for the Analysis and Dissemination of Demonstrated Energy Technologies. 1992. Super Pressurized Groundwood Process Produces High Quality Mechanical Pulp. Sittard, The Netherlands: CADDET. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) -- Office of Water. 1994. "Pressurized Groundwood (PGW) and Super Pressurized Groundwood (PGW-S) Processes Produce Pulps of Almost Same Strength Properties as TMP (Thermomechanical) Pulps Using Less Energy" in 7. 820R94005 International (Non-U.S.) Industrial Pollution Prevention: A Case Study Compendium, by O. o. W. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). Washington, D.C.: EPA, pp. pp. 2-198--2-200. Direct drying cylinder firing (pulp and paper) The pulp and paper industry is a large industrial energy user, with an estimated primary energy consumption of 2,970 TBtu in 1994. In current drying practices, after the paper is formed and pressed and no more water can be removed mechanically, the sheet moves through a series of 40-50 steam heated cylinders, with the final

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consistency being about 90-95% solids content. Direct drying/cylinder firing is a modification of the existing drying process. Instead of heating the drying cylinders with steam, direct drying cylinder firing heats the cylinders using natural gas or other petroleum products, thereby reducing the intermediate step of steam production. The technology can achieve significant savings 0.95 MBtu/ton paper but does require additional operation and maintenance (Martin et al. 2000). A gas fired cylinder system was successfully installed at Willamette's No. 3 paper machine in Albany, Ore. The paper machine significantly improved efficiency and experienced a 5% increase in overall drying capacity (Fleming, 1997). We estimate a savings potential of 45 TBtu in 2015 based on the application of the technology to 10% of throughput. Fleming, 1997. Linerboard Technology Developments Changing "Round and Brown" Image. Pulp and Paper. Volume 71, Issue 6. Martin, N.; Anglani, N.; Einstein, D.; Khrusch, M.; Worrell, E.; Price, L.K. 2000. Opportunities to Improve energy Efficiency and Reduce Greenhouse Gas emissions in the U.S. Pulp and Paper Industry. Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory. Report No. LBNL-46141. Molten metal paper dryer (pulp and paper) The pulp and paper industry is a large industrial energy user, with an estimated primary energy consumption of 2,970 TBtu in 1994. In current drying practices, after the paper is formed and pressed and no more water can be removed mechanically, the sheet moves through a series of 40-50 steam heated cylinders, with the final consistency being about 90-95% solids content. The molten metal paper dryer is an alternative drying technology being developed with support of the U.S. Department of Energys Office of Industrial Technologies. When the paper web comes into contact with a molten metal bath heat is transferred rapidly to the paper surface and boils off the water in the web. Because of its high surface tension the molten metal does not stick to the surface of the paper as it exits the bath (OIT, 1999). Compared to other advanced drying technologies energy savings moderate (0.6 MBtu/ton paper), although capital investment costs are significantly lower (80%) than conventional drying machines (OIT, 1999). Currently the technology has been tested at the laboratory level but has not yet been developed on a commercial scale. We estimate potential savings at 10-20 TBtu in 2015. OIT, 1999. Molten Film Paper Dryer. Project Fact Sheet. Multi-port drying cylinder (pulp and paper) The pulp and paper industry is a large industrial energy user, with an estimated primary energy consumption of 2,970 TBtu in 1994. In current drying practices, after the paper is formed and pressed and no more water can be removed mechanically, the sheet moves through a series of 40-50 steam heated cylinders, with the final consistency being about 90-95% solids content. Argonne National Laboratory has been researching the opportunity to upgrade existing cylinder technology with the use of a multiport drying cylinder. The concept involves the flow of steam through multiport passages that are in close proximity to the cylinder dryer surface, thereby achieving high drying rates than conventional cylinders by minimizing condensate formation and maximizing heat transfer (OIT, 1998). In theory, the technology could increase the drying rate by 30%, although we did not locate data on the performance of the technology during its demonstration phase. The technology is capable of being incorporated into existing machines. Applying an electricity savings of 10% to 20% of paper production, we estimate a potential savings in 2015 of 15 TBtu. OIT, 1998. Design and Demonstration of Multiport Cylinder Dryers. Fluidized bed heat exchanger (pulp and paper) The pulp and paper industry is a large industrial energy user, with an estimated primary energy consumption of 2,970 TBtu in 1994. Most of this energy is used to produce steam and electricity for process use. Steam efficiency measures can be highly cost-effective and many opportunities exist throughout a mill to improve steam production and distribution efficiency such as boiler maintenance, improved process control, flue gas heat recovery, steam trap maintenance and monitoring, and reusing hot condensate (Martin et al. 2000). A particular CADDET project identified was the use of newly developed fluidized bed heat exchangers that enabled the transfer of heat from chip refiner exhausts to pre-heat white water used in the pulp manufacturing process. These particular heat exchangers were specially designed to be able to operate successfully in a highly corrosive environment (see also Chemicals-3 Heat Recovery in Harsh Environments in the main report for additional

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information). Energy savings from the system were 0.3 MBtu/ton with a payback of less than two years. We estimate savings of 10 TBtu in 2015. [CADDET] Centre for the Analysis and Dissemination of Demonstrated Energy Technologies, 1991. Fluidised bed heat exchangers in paperboard mill. Martin, N.; Anglani, N.; Einstein, D.; Khrusch, M.; Worrell, E.; Price, L.K. 2000. Opportunities to Improve energy Efficiency and Reduce Greenhouse Gas emissions in the U.S. Pulp and Paper Industry. Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory. Report No. LBNL-46141. New refractory materials-lime kiln (pulp and paper) The pulp and paper industry is a large industrial energy user, with an estimated primary energy consumption of 2,970 TBtu in 1994. Within the industry, chemical pulping accounts for 77% of total pulp production and consumes an estimated 300 TBtu of site energy (Martin et al. 2000). As part of the chemical recovery process calcium carbonate precipitate is heated and converted to lime (CaO) in the lime kiln. The lime is then dissolved in water to produce calcium hydroxide used in other parts of the chemical recovery process. Lime kilns are usually fueled by oil or gas and require an average of 2 MBtu/ton pulp of fuel and 13 kWh/ton electricity (Martin et al. 2000). Several modifications can improve the efficiency of lime kilns. One measure, the installation of high efficiency refractory insulation brick to reduce heat losses in the kiln. A U.S. Department of Energy, OIT, project identified a potential savings of 5% of the heat load with the use of a new high temperature ceramic refractory. O&M costs would also be reduced since the refractory would last longer than its conventional counterparts (OIT, 1999). DOE claims savings of nearly 23 TBtu were these refractory materials installed in all existing kilns in the U.S. Office of Industrial Technology, U.S. Department of Energy, 1999. Monolithic Refractory Material Martin, N.; Anglani, N.; Einstein, D.; Khrusch, M.; Worrell, E.; Price, L.K. 2000. Opportunities to Improve energy Efficiency and Reduce Greenhouse Gas emissions in the U.S. Pulp and Paper Industry. Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory. Report No. LBNL-46141. Supercritical extraction and protein separation (textile) The food industry is dependent on energy to perform unit operations and processes. Because the food and kindred products industry is diverse, there are many types of operations. Energy-dependent processes preserve freshness and food safety. Thermal processing and dehydration are the most commonly used techniques for food preservation. Process heating accounts for approximately 29.1 percent of total energy input in the food industry. It is also necessary to cool and refrigerate processed food to ensure safety and quality of the products. In the food industry sector, process cooling and refrigeration demand about 15.5 percent of total energy inputs (Okos, et al. 1998). Supercritical extraction and protein separation processes can save energy and reduce wastewater formation in the food industry. This processing method can be used in the soy industries (for the extraction of soy protein) and the dairy industry (for the manufacture of casein). Okos, M., N. Rao, S. Drescher, M. Rode, and J. Kozak. 1998. Energy Usage in the Food Industry. American Council for an Energy-Efficient Economy, Washington D.C. Suction slot dewatering (textile) Drying is the most energy-intensive process in the textile industry. A suction slot dewatering unit can be retrofitted to the top of the pad-mangle assembly and connected to a water separator and exhauster, thus increasing production capacity by improved mechanical dewatering before drying (CADDET 1996). The slot face configuration comprises a single row of orifices in a herringbone pattern and does not give rise to any problems of stripes on the finished fabric. Two major advantages are established: rates of throughput of the main fabric types can be boosted considerably; and certain types of fabric can be effectively dewatered without first being passed through the mangle, eliminating many of the problems of fabric creasing. Other advantages include the removal of loose fiber from the fabric and a more thorough impregnation of the material by finishing chemicals. Mechanical dewatering uses less than the primary energy of thermal drying. [CADDET] Centre for the Analysis and Dissemination of Demonstrated Energy Technologies, 1996. Suction slot dewatering in textile finishing, technical brochure.

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Direct contact water heating (textile) The textiles industry uses considerable quantities of steam for processing fabric. Traditionally, the steam is supplied from central boilers and distributed to the points of use. To reduce energy costs, direct contact water heating involves converting dyeing and after- print processes to local direct gas firing, thereby moving towards the elimination of wasteful central boiler plants and steam distribution system. Natural gas-fired direct contact water heater replaces the steam calorifier (CADDET 1991). This unit heats the water by a submerged, gas-fired immersion tube and by direct contact with hot combustion gases. The heater is fully condensing and operates at an efficiency of about 93 percent. Substantial energy savings resulted from replacing heat generated in a central boiler plant from interruptible gas, with heat generated local to the process from firm gas. Savings are realized from the higher efficiency of direct-contact hot water generation (approximately 93 versus 82 percent), and reduced piping and reduced steam system losses. [CADDET] Centre for the Analysis and Dissemination of Demonstrated Energy Technologies, 1991. Direct Gas Firing Technology for Dyeing and After-Print Processing of Textile Fabrics, technical brochure. Textile heat recovery (textile) The installation of a boiler blowdown heat exchanger, a specialty boiler economizer, other energy conservation measures, and an extensive monitoring and control system can enable a textile facility to satisfy its needs for boiler steam during peak winter operation and conserve energy. The system also contributes to increased boiler efficiency. The heat exchanger recovers heat from the waste steam and transfers it to the cold water makeup to the hot water system. The boiler economizer installed at National Spinning Company's textile plant in Washington, North Carolina also takes into account the particular needs of the facility (CADDET 1994). The boiler economizer walls are lined with Teflon sheets. All exposed tubes have an extruded Teflon surface applied for corrosion protection. The economizer operates in parallel with the existing boilers. Stack gases are drawn off from the existing boiler stacks only when needed. The uses of these corrosion resistance coatings allow for low approach temperatures. This technology is applicable in many industries where steam systems are deployed. [CADDET] Centre for the Analysis and Dissemination of Demonstrated Energy Technologies, 1994. Heat Recovery System Saves Energy in a Textile Plant, technical brochure. . 1989. Filtration and Recycling of Stenter Exhaust in Textile finishing, technical brochure. Dyeing vacuum system (textile) See Suction Slot De-watering. These two technologies are so similar as to be identical. Automated dyebath reuse technology (textile) The Georgia Institute of Technology (GIT) has developed an effective automated dyebath analysis and reuse system that improves the energy, environmental, and economic performance of dyehouse batch operations. The new system enables dyeing solutions to be accurately monitored and adjusted for reuse. According to industry estimates, 160 pounds of water are used to produce each pound of textile product (OIT 1999). The current wasteful batch dyeing process requires all water and residual chemicals, as well as the energy required to heat the mixture for dyeing, to be dumped after one application. Spent dyebaths can only be reused after they are sampled, analyzed, and reconstituted, a process requiring labor and expertise unavailable in dyehouses. Therefore, successful commercial reuse depends on an automated analysis system that precisely analyzes dyebath samples in real-time and provides for reconstitution and reuse. If fully implemented throughout the carpet industry, this innovation is expected to reduce energy consumption by 3.6 trillion Btu/year if the textile industry uniformly adopts this technology by 2020. More likely, a market penetration of 10-15 percent would result in 0.4 TBtu/year of savings. Waste and cost savings will also be substantial. Office of Industrial Technology, U.S. Department of Energy, 1999. Dyebath Reuse in Carpet Manufacture, project fact sheet. http://www.oit.doe.gov/nice3/pdfs/factsheets/GTRI.pdf Membrane technology textiles (textile) The textile industry continually strives to minimize pollution, particularly when dyeing cotton and cotton blend fabrics where a large amount of salts and color dye pollutants are discharged into water. The current processes to remove these pollutants from wastewater are difficult and costly. National Textiles, Inc., formerly Sara Lee Knit Products Corporation, uses a membrane technology in the dyeing process that recovers and reuses about 50

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percent of saltwater (brine) (OIT 1999). Use of a polymer needed for conventional color treatment is also eliminated. This technology significantly reduces the amount of colored wastewater generated and the need for associated processing equipment. The overall volume of water to be treated is also significantly reduced. This volume reduction dramatically downsizes the entire water treatment cycle, and also reduces capital equipment expenditures and associated maintenance costs. The energy required to transport salt will be cut in half, because of the reuse of the brine. Office of Industrial Technology, U.S. Department of Energy, 1999. Textile Brine Separation, project fact sheet. http://www.oit.doe.gov/nice3/projects/fctshts/texbrine.shtml

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