What is signal and system?

Signal: A signal is a physical quantity that varies with time, space or any other independent variable.by which information can be conveyed. A signal is an electric current or electromagnetic field used to convey data from one place to another. There are two types of signal: 1). Analog Signal 2). Digital Signal System: A system may also be defined as a physical device that performs an operation on a signal. System is any physical set of components that takes a signal, and produces a signal. Signal Processing: Signal processing is the science of analyzing, synthesizing, sampling, encoding, transforming, decoding, enhancing, transporting, archiving, and in general manipulating signals in some way. A system characterized by the type of operation that it performs on the signal. For example, if the operation is linear, the system is called linear. If the operation is non-linear, the system is said to be nonlinear, and so forth. Such operations are usually referred to as Signal Processing. Processing of signal can be classified in two classes: 1. Analog Signal Processing 2. Digital Signal Processing Basic Elements of a Signal Processing System: Analog Signal Processing: Generally most of the signal encountered in science and engineering are analog in nature. It means the signals are functions of a continuous variable such as time or space, and usually take one values in a continuous range.

These signals may be processed directly by selecting appropriate analog system for the objective of changing their characteristics. In this case we say that the signal has been processed directly in its analog form. The input signals as well as output signal are in analog form. Digital Signal Processing: Digital Signal processing is an alternative method for processing the analog signal as shown below. For performing the processing digitally there is a need for an interface between the analog signal and the digital processor. This interface is named as analog to digital converter. The digital signal processor may be either a large programmable digital computer or a small microprocessor programmed for performing the desired operation on the digital input signal.

Advantages of digital signal processing over analog processing Flexibility: Digital programmable systems allow flexibility in reconfiguring its operation by changing the program. Analog systems require redesign of the hardware, testing and verification. Accuracy: Digital systems provide much better control of accuracy requirement by proper choice of A/D converter, digital signal processor in terms of word length, floating point versus fixed point arithmetic etc. etc. But tolerances in analog circuit components make it extremely difficult for tuning the proper accuracy. Digital signals can be easily stored on any magnetic media or optical device using semiconductor device. Processed off-line in a remote laboratory. Digital signal processing based systems can be easily modified Cost: Cost effectiveness Special applications like lossless comparison Programmability: a digital system can be programmable changed to change the functionality Limitations of digital signal processing The following are a few of the limitations of Digital Signal Processing: Processing of signals involves more power consumption Processing of signals beyond higher frequencies and below lower frequencies involves limitations Information is lost because we only take samples of the signal at intervals. Cheaper as a result of the flexibility for modification. Bandwidth restriction Finite word length problem Applications of digital signal processing: o Speech processing o Signal transmission on telephone network o Image processing and transmission o Seismology and geographic o Oil/Petroleum exploration o Detection of nuclear exploration o Processing of signal received from outer space o Human voice is Text digitally. o Analysis of Seismic waves. o Detection of underground objectives like submarines. o RADAR for detection of distance object.

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Bio-medical applications. Used in electronic music synthesizers. Boolean market to estimate next days Sensex. Military Applications Consumer Electronics

Multichannel Signals: Signals which are generated by multiple sources or multiple sensors are called Multichannel signals. These signals are represented by vector. S(t) = [(S1(t) S2(t) S3 (t)] Above signal represents a 3-channel signal. In electrocardiography, 3-lead and 12-lead electrocardiograph is often used in practice, which results in 3-channel and 12-channel signals, respectively. Multi-dimensional Signals: A signal is called multidimensional signal if it is a function of M independent variables. For example: Speech signal is a one dimensional signal because amplitude of signal depends upon single independent variable, namely, time. TV Picture Signal: A B/W picture signal is an example of 2-dimensional signal because brightness of the signal at each point is a function of two spatial independent variable, namely, x and y. Variables x and y are width and height of the picture element. A colored picture signal is an example of 3-dimensional signal because brightness of the signal at each point is a function of three independent variables, namely, x, y and time (t). Continuous-time signals or Analog Signals: A signal that varies continuously with time is called continuous-time signal. These are defined for every value of independent variable, namely, time. For example speech signal and temperature of the room are continuous-time signals. Discrete-time Signals or Digital Signals: Discrete-time signals are signals which are defined at discrete times. These are represented by sequences of numbers. For example: Rail traffic signal is a discrete-time signal. Discrete-time signals can be recovered by periodic sampling and quantization of continuous-time signals.

Continuous-Valued Signals: If a signal takes on all possible values on a finite or an infinite range, it is said to be continuous-valued signal. For example: A sine wave signal takes on values on an infinite range and square wave signal takes on a values on a finite range 0 and 1.

Discrete-Valued Signals: If the signal takes on values from a finite set of possible values, it is said to be discrete-valued signal. Usually, these values are equidistant and hence can be expressed as an integer multiple of the distance between two successive values. Descrite timesignal may in two ways: - By selecting values of an analog signal at descrete timeinterval - By accumulating a variable over a period of time Representation of continious time (Analog) sinusodial signal: A simple harmonic oscillation is mathematically describe as: ( ) ( ) The subscription a used with x(t)denoted as analog signal. This signal is completely characterize by three parameters: A is the amplitude of the sinusoid, is the frequency and is the phase. We often use the frequency In term of F we can be written as

( ) ( ) Using the both form we represent the sinusoidal signals:

Properties of Analog Signal 1. For every fixed value of the frequency F, xa(t)preidic where the functional periodic of the signal ( ) 2. Continous time sinusoidal signals with different frequencies arethemselves distinct 3. Increasint the frequency F results in an increase in the rate of oscillation of the signal. Representation of descrete time (Digital) sinusodial signal: Descrete time (Digital) sinusodial signal may be expressed as ( ) ( ) If instead of we used the frequency variable f defined by So the relation becomes ( ) ( )

we represent the sinusoidal signals:

Properties of descrete time (Digital) sinusodial signal: 1. A discrete time sinsuidal is periadical only if its frequency f is a rationalnumber. X(n+N) = x(n) for all n 2. Discrete time sinusoids whose frequencies areseperated by an integer multiple of 2 are indentical. 3. The highest rate of oscillation in a descrete-time sinusoid is attained when ( or equivalently , f= (or f=1/2)

Analog to Digital Conversion To process analog signals by digital means, it is first necessary to convert them into digital form, i.e., to a sequence of numbers having finite precision. The procedure is called analog to digital conversion. A/D conversion is a three step process: Sampling: This is the conversion of continuous time signal into a discrete time signal by taking samples of the continuous time signal at discrete time instants. Quantization: This is the conversion of discrete time continuous valued signal into discrete time discrete valued signal. The value of each signal sample is represented by a value selected from a finite set of possible values. The difference between non-quantized sample and quantized output is known as quantization error. Coding: Each discrete value is represented by a b-bit binary sequence.

Deterministic signals: Deterministic signals are those signals whose values are completely specified for any given time. Thus, a deterministic signal can be modeled by a known function of time. A deterministic signal can be represented using mathematical equations Random signals: Random signals are also called non deterministic signals are those signals that take random values at any given time and must be characterized statistically. A random signal cannot be represented using mathematical equation. Sampling: A sampling process, in which a continuous time signal is converted to a discrete time signal, and a reconstruction process, in which the original continuous signal is recovered from the discrete time signal.

Sampling Theorem: If the highest frequency contained in an analog signal y(t) is Fmax = B and the signal is sampled at a rate FS > 2Fmax = 2B, then y(t) can be exactly recovered from its sample values using the interpolation function

Thus y(t) may be expressed as follows

where 'y(n)'s are samples of y(t). The sampling rate FS = 2B = 2Fmax is called the Nyquist rate. Example Math: Consider the analog signal: ( )

a. Determine the minimum sampling rate required to avoid aliasing b. Suppose that the signal sampled at the rate Fs=200 Hz. What is the discrete-time signal obtained after sampling? c. Suppose that the signal sampled at the rate Fs=75 Hz. What is the discrete-time signal obtained after sampling? d. What is the frequency 0 < F < Fs/2 of a sinusoid that yields sampled identical to those obtained in part ( c )? Solution: a. The frequency of the analog signal is F=50Hz. Hence the minimum sampling rate required to avoid aliasing is Fs=100 Hz b. If the signal is sampled at Fs=200 Hz, the discrete-time signal is X(n) = c. If the signal is sampled at Fs=200 Hz, the discrete-time signal is X(n) = ( )

Quantization: This is the conversion of discrete time continuous valued signal into discrete time discrete valued signal. The value of each signal sample is represented by a value selected from a finite set of possible values. Quantization error: In analog-to-digital conversion, the difference between the actual analog value and quantized digital value is called quantization error or quantization distortion. The difference between non-quantized sample and quantized output is known as quantization error

Some elementary discrete time signal:

Energy Signal:

Aliasing: Proble ariese during the reconstruction of signal is called aliasing. Due to this problemsuignal can not be properly identify or signal remain indistinguisable.

Periodical signal and aperiodical signals: A signal X(n) is periodic with period N (N>0) if and only if x(n+N) =x(n) for all n The smallest value of N for which holds is called the periodic and if the signal does not shows such a properly is called aperiodic signal. Symmetric (even) and antisymmetric (odd) signals: A real valued signal x(n) is called symmetric (even)if

x(-n) =x(n) on the other hand, a signal x (n) is called antisymmetric (odd) if x(n) = -x(n)

Example of (a) even and Odd signal Discrete-time systems: A discrete-time system is a device or algorithm that operates on a discrete-time signal, called the input or excitation,accroding to somewell-defined rule, to produce another discretetime signalcalled the output or response of the system.

Here the input signal is x(n) and output signal is y(n), Example: A signal x(n) is graphically illustrated in Fig. Show a graphical representation of the signals x(n-3) and X(n+2)

Solution: For the signal x(n-3) the graphical representation is:

For the signal x(n+2) the graphical representation is:

Addition, multiplication and scaling of sequences: Amplitude modification include addition,multiplication and scaling of sequences of discrete-time signals.

Scaling : y(n)=Ax(n) Sum : y(n)=X1(n)+X2(n) Multiplication : y(n)= X1(n).X2(n) Block Diagram Representation of Discrete-Time System: An Adder: In the below figure illustrates a adder that perform the addition of two signal X1 (n) and X2 (n) sequence to form another sequence which we denoted as y (n).

Graphical Representation of an adder A constant multiplier: In the below figure illustrates and simply represents applying a scale factor on the input x (n).

Graphical Representation of a constant multiplier A signal multiplier: In the below figure illustrates multiplication of two signal X1 (n) and X2 (n) sequence to form another sequence which we denoted as y (n).

Graphical Representation of a signal multiplier A unit delay element: In the below figure illustrates the unit system delay element. If the input signalis x (n), the output is x (n-1). Y (n) = x(n-1) The use of the symbol z-1 to denote the unit of delay will become apparent.

Graphical Representation of a unit delay element A unit advancec element: In the below figure illustrates a unit advancec element with the operarte z denote the unit advance. The input signalis x (n), the output y (n) is x (n+1).

Graphical Representation of a unit advance element Sketch the block diagram representation of the discrete-time system described by the input-output relation

Where x (n) is the input and y (n) is the output of the system.

Block diagram relization of the system y(n)= 0.25 y(n-1) + 0.5x (n) + 0.5x (n-1)