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THETONGHAKRELIGIONANDUPRISING: CHOECHEUONLEARNINGTRUTH AND TWELVEREFORMSPROCLAIMEDBYTHETONGHAKOVERSEERS OFFICE Introduction TonghakwasanewKoreanreligionfoundedbyChoeCheu(18241864)in1860.AfterChoeCheuwasexecuted (asanallegedCatholic)in1864,ChoeSihyng(18271898)becameleaderofthereligion.In18941895,therewas anuprisingthatsweptKoreathatwasassociatedwithTonghakbelievers(theleaderwasalocalTonghakleader namedChnPongjun[18541895])andspreadalongTonghaknetworks,thoughscholarscontinuetodebatejust howcentralthereligiousdoctrinesweretothisevent.

ent. At the time of Choe Cheus mystical revelation in 1860, Catholic doctrine and teachings, though illegal, were becoming known in Korea. In 1860, furthermore, British and French troops sacked Beijing, sending shock waves throughoutEastAsia.Formanyintellectuals,includingChoe(adownonhisluckliteratus),Westernreligionand technological/militarypowerwereassociated.CatholicismwasknowninKoreaasShak,orWesternLearning; therefore, Choe titled his new religion, which sought the revitalization of Korea beginning with the spiritual, TonghakorEasternLearning. IndocumentsfromtheTonghakuprising,meanwhile,abroadsetofconcernssocial,political,nationalist,etc. are evident. The historical meaning(s) of Tonghak have been debated for over a century by scholars who have highlighteddifferenthistoricalmomentsanddifferentaspectsofitsreformistgoals. The first document below is one of those in which Choe Cheu described his revelation. The second was a proclamationfromalocalTonghakauthorityinacitycontrolledbytherebelsinthecourseofthe1894revolt. DocumentExcerptswithQuestions(Longerselectionfollowsthissection)
From Sources of Korean Tradition, edited by Yngho Choe, Peter H. Lee, and Wm. Theodore de Bary, vol. 2 (New York: ColumbiaUniversityPress,2000),232234,256266.2000ColumbiaUniversityPress.Reproducedwiththepermissionofthe publisher.Allrightsreserved.

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TheTonghakReligionandUprising: ExcerptsfromChoeCheuonLearningTruth [FromtheChndogyokyngjn,pp.617] InApril1860thewholeworldwasinturmoil,andtheheartsofthepeopleturnedevil. Andastrangerumorspreadintheworld,saying:TheWesternerscultivatedhighethics,and thereisnothingtheycannotdo.Thereisnoonewhocanstandbeforetheirattackingmilitary power, and even China is being destroyed. May we not suffer the same fate? Their Way is

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called the Western Way, their religion Christianity, and their teaching the Heavenly teaching. CoulditbethattheyknowthetimeofHeavenandreceivedtheMandateofHeaven? They asked: You say there is similarity. Then would you call your way the Western Learning? I replied: Not so. I was born in the East and received the truth in the East. Therefore, the Way is the Heavenly Way and the doctrine is the Eastern Learning (Tonghak). . [TranslatedbyYongChoonKim]
Question: 1. How does Choe relate Christianity to Western military power? Should ChosnsimplybecomeChristianinhisview?Whyorwhynot?

TheTonghakReligionandUprising: ExcerptsfromTwelveReformsProclaimedbytheTonghakOverseersOffice [FromtheTonghaksa,pp.126127] 4. 5. ThewickedamongtheConfucianliteratiandtheyangbanclassshallbeorderedtomend theirways. Slaveregistrydocumentsshallbeburned. 10. Personswhoareinleaguewithforeignenemiesshallbeseverelypunished. [TranslatedbyHanKyoKim]


LongerSelectionwithQuestions
From Sources of Korean Tradition, edited by Yngho Choe, Peter H. Lee, and Wm. Theodore de Bary, vol. 2 (New York: ColumbiaUniversityPress,2000),232234,256266.2000ColumbiaUniversityPress.Reproducedwiththepermissionofthe publisher.Allrightsreserved.

TheTonghakReligionandUprising: ExcerptsfromChoeCheuonLearningTruth [FromtheChndogyokyngjn,pp.617] InApril1860thewholeworldwasinturmoil,andtheheartsofthepeopleturnedevil. Andastrangerumorspreadintheworld,saying:TheWesternerscultivatedhighethics,and

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thereisnothingtheycannotdo.Thereisnoonewhocanstandbeforetheirattackingmilitary power, and even China is being destroyed. May we not suffer the same fate? Their Way is called the Western Way, their religion Christianity, and their teaching the Heavenly teaching. CoulditbethattheyknowthetimeofHeavenandreceivedtheMandateofHeaven? To all of my feelings there seems no end. And as I was in fear and anxiety, I felt the terrible cold in my body. I then encountered the divine spirit, and, from within, I heard the revelatoryvoice.Ilooked,yetIcouldnotseeanyone;Ilistened,yetIcouldnothear.Therefore, Ifeltstrangeandmysterious.WithattentivemindIasked,Howisitso? Godsaid:Mymindisyourmind.Howcouldmenknowit?TheymayknowHeaven and earth, but they know not the spirit. Yet I am the spirit. Now you shall attain this eternal truth,cultivateit,writeit,andteachittoallpeople.Andyoushallestablishthelawandpublish it.Thenyoushallbeimmortalandshineallovertheworld. After meditating and reflecting upon this for almost a year, I came to realize the principleoftheuniverse.Hence,IwrotetheincantationandthelawofcommunionwithGod andcomposedthesongofwisdom.TheheartoftruthiscontainedintheIncantationofTwenty OneLetters.1 In the following year, 1861, many scholars and gentlemen came from everywhere and askedme,Weheardtheheavenlyspirithasdescendeduponyou.Howcouldithappenso?I replied,Ithappenedaccordingtotheprincipleofchangeintheuniversalhistory.Theyasked, Then what is the name of the Way? I said, It is called the Heavenly Way (chndo). They asked,IsitanydifferentfromtheWesternWay,fromChristianity?Ireplied,TheWestern religionissimilartoourreligionbutalsodifferent.TheyworshipaGodwhoisnotreal.The formsofthetruthmaybesimilar,buttheirdoctrinesarereallydifferent. Theyasked:Howisitso?Isaid:OurWayemphasizesaccomplishingthingsthrough naturalaction.Ifonecultivateshismind,balanceshisenergy,receivesthedivineteaching,and follows the divine nature, things will be accomplished naturally. But the Westerners have no order in their words and no pure concern for God. They pray really for their flesh, and they havenoeffectiveGod.IntheirdoctrinethereisnorealteachingofGod.Theyhaveform,butno substance. They seem to think, but they have no incantation. Their way is vain, and their doctrine does not really deal with God. Thus, how can one say that there is no difference betweenourwayandtheirway?

TheIncantationofTwentyOneLetters,importantinChndogyobeliefandritual,reads: TheUltimateEnergyhereandnow, Iprayforitsgreatdescent. ServingGod, Iamtransformedtofollowthedivinewill. Eternallynotforgetting, Ibecomeawareofall.


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They asked: You say there is similarity. Then would you call your way the Western Learning? I replied: Not so. I was born in the East and received the truth in the East. Therefore, the Way is the Heavenly Way and the doctrine is the Eastern Learning (Tonghak). Moreover, since there is division of East and West in geography, how could one say West is EastandEastisWest?ConfuciuswasborninthestateofLuandspreadhisteachinginthestate of Chu. Thus, the intellectual traditions of Lu and Chu spread in this world. Our way was raisedinthislandandwillspreadinthisland.SohowcanonecallittheWesternDoctrine? Theyasked:Whatisthemeaningoftheincantation?Ireplied:Itisthewordsofthe highestreverenceforGod,anditmaybecalledprayer.Itsspiritmaybefoundinotherpresent andancientwritings. They asked: What do the words used in this incantation mean? I answered: The Ultimate means nothing beyond; the Energy is spiritual, infinite, pervades all things, and directsallthings.Itisformlessand,therefore,difficulttodescribe.Itseemssometimesthatone canhearit,butitishardlyvisible.Itistheultimate,original,OneEnergyoftheuniverse.Here andnowmeansbeinginitiatedintotheWayandcomingincontactwiththeUltimateEnergy. To pray is to entreat. Great descent means participation in the Ultimate Energy. Serving meanshavingthespiritwithin,experiencingtheUltimateEnergyexternally,andkeepingwhat one has realized. God must be venerated as one would serve ones parents. To transform means change without selfconscious effort. To follow the divine will means incorporating Godsvirtueandmakinguponesmind.Eternalmeansoneslifespan.Notforgettingmeans the constant preservation of thought. All means innumerable things. Becoming aware indicates realizing the truth and receiving wisdom. Therefore, if you fully comprehend Gods virtueandneverforgetit,youshallattainunionwiththeUltimateEnergy,andyoushallattain thesupremeholiness. Theyasked:IfGodsmindismansmind,whyisitthatgoodandevilcoexist?Isaid: Althoughitissaidthatonesnobilityandbaseness,onesjoyandsuffering,arepredestined, actuallythevirtueofthesuperiorpersonisinharmonywiththevirtueoftheuniversebecause of his righteous mind and conduct, but the petty individual is in conflict with the will of the universebecauseofhisunrighteousmindandconduct.Isntthisreallytheprincipleofriseand fall? Ah, how wonderful and how brilliant you are to ask such questions about the truth. My writings convey the right and true principle, and there is no other way by which one can become righteous in bodily, intellectual, and spiritual cultivation. All the precepts of the universeandtheeternaltrutharecontainedinmywriting.Thus,mydearfriends,receivemy wordsreverentlyandupholdtheholyvirtue.Thenyoushallbetomelikeadeliciousspiceto foodandbeautifulcolortomerewhiteness.Nowmyjoyinthetruthissoexceedinglygreatthat Ihaveexplainedthisandtaughtittoyou.Therefore,considerthiscarefullyanddonotforget thisprofoundtruth. [TranslatedbyYongChoonKim]

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TheTonghakReligionandUprising: TwelveReformsProclaimedbytheTonghakOverseersOffice [FromtheTonghaksa,pp.126127] 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12.


TheillwillthathaslongpersistedbetweenTonghakbelieversandthegovernmentshall beeradicated.Thereshouldbecooperationinallaspectsofgovernance. Crimes committed by greedy and corrupt officials shall be investigated and severely punished. Thewrongdoersamongtherichandpowerfulshallbeseverelypunished. ThewickedamongtheConfucianliteratiandtheyangbanclassshallbeorderedtomend theirways. Slaveregistrydocumentsshallbeburned. There shall be improvements in the treatment of the seven classes of lowborn (chilban chnin),andbutchersshallnolongerberequiredtowearthePyngyanghat. Ayoungwidowshallbeallowedtoremarry. Improperleviesofsundrytaxesshallbecompletelyterminated. In recruiting officials, regionalism shall be eliminated, and talented persons shall be appointedirrespectiveoftheirbirthplace. Personswhoareinleaguewithforeignenemiesshallbeseverelypunished. Allpastdebts,privateorpublic,shallbedeclarednullandvoid. Farmlandshallbeequitablyredistributedforcultivation. [TranslatedbyHanKyoKim]
Questions: 1. 2. 3. HowdoesChoerelateChristianitytoWesternmilitarypower?ShouldChosn simplybecomeChristianinhisview?Whyorwhynot? Do the social reforms mandated by the Tonghak authorities in 1894 seem revolutionary? Do they aim for the fundamental overthrow of the Chosn socialorder?Whyorwhynot? Between the two documents, how would you describe the Tonghak attitude towards the Western and Japanese power and influence that were spreading withintheKoreanpeninsula?

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