(a) Define Assessment as it applies to diagnostic, formative and summative assessment.

Introduction Assessment is the systematic collection, review, and use of information about educational programs undertaken for the purpose of improving student learning and development (Palomba and Banta, 1999). It is also the systematic gathering of information about what students know, are able to do and are working toward (LearnNowBC, 2009). It can also be defined as the process of observing and measuring learning; a tool that provides an understanding of what students are learning and engage them more deeply in the learning process (Slattery, 2009). John Deweys (1916) in his view of assessment as cited in the article by Herrick (1996) Assessment of Student Achievement: What would John Dewey say? posits that: The key to good assessment is simply providing feedback to students about their achievement and their potential so that they can advance to new stages in their growth and development. To do this well, teachers must know their students well. They must present opportunities for student learning, observe when they have achieved a satisfactory habit of thinking or doing, and then present additional opportunities for new habit formations. This is the purpose of assessment and instruction -- to help students achieve new and higher level habits. Traditionally assessment and tests or examinations were synonymous and their role was clear and consistent that of testing segmented competencies and knowledge from the school curriculum as a way of sorting students into groups and deciding about future schooling. Assessment was based on the concordance and fidelity of the students responses to the
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material that was taught. Although some of this might be evident today, educators are becoming more aware that assessment has multiple purposes and that they need a myriad of assessment ideas to address them all (Earl, 2003). The purpose of assessment is to understand how educational programs are working and to determine whether they are contributing to student growth and development. It involves making expectations explicit and public; setting appropriate criteria and high standards for learning quality; systematically gathering, analysing and interpreting evidence to determine how well performance matches. Skevington (1993) cites the ASE Policy Statement (ASE, 1992) making suggestions that there are three major purposes of assessment: 1. To help learners and teachers by highlighting areas of achievement and weakness of students so that decisions can be made about the next stage of learning and corrective actions can be taken where necessary. 2. To provide relevant information to others; information concerning the level of achievement by the learner eg. Progress reports or end of term/year reports. It should provide an accurate record of the learners progress over a period and inform decisions about the learners educational needs. 3. To help institutions to perform better by using the results of assessment in planning and reviewing teaching and learning experiences to take corrective measures where necessary or to improve on existing strategies to reinforce teaching and learning. The Ministry of Education, Jamaica Student Assessment Unit views assessment as having a two-fold purpose; to determine and certify student achievement and to provide information to guide and support the development and improvement of educational programmes (Ministry of
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Education Student Assessment Unit, 2007). The ROSE (Reform of Secondary Education) Teachers guide (2007) for grades 7-9 in Jamaican high schools sets out several guidelines for assessment which should provide a systematic frame work for student assessment. Some of these guidelines include: (1) Assessment should relate to the goals of instruction (2) Assessment should be integrated into the teaching and learning process. (3) Assessment should be continuous. (4) The results of assessment should determine future education objectives and instructional plans (5) Students should be involved in assessment process for self as well as for peers. The world we live in is in an ever-changing state and countries and governments are looking to education as a means to cope with these changes to ensure survival. As a result of this there is much talk about educational reform as the societal needs vary and grow. Teachers and administrators are caught in the middle of conflicting and countervailing demands, struggling to maintain a balance. They are expected to navigate their way through the unrest and uncertainty about how schools should be organized, what should be taught how it should be taught and how assessment should occur. The issue of assessment will be examined further.

Types of Assessment In this assignment assessment is defined with respect to the following three (3) modes diagnostic, formative and summative assessments. There are other forms of assessment such as alternative, authentic and performance assessments which will be dealt with in the next chapter.
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Diagnostic assessment occurs at the beginning of the teaching/learning cycle and can be viewed as a readiness assessment. This type of assessment will provide the teacher with an understanding of the prior knowledge and skills a student brings to a particular topic as well as the strengths and specific learning needs of an individual or groups of students in relation to the expectations that will be taught. Diagnostic assessment is conducted prior to and during teaching and learning to determine: (1) what existing knowledge, skills, attitudes, interests and/or needs the student has (2) the range of individual differences (3) what programs plans and/or modifications are needed to meet the needs of individuals or groups of students (Greater Essex County District School Website, 2004). There are certain key elements of diagnostic assessment: 1. It must be linked to predetermined learning objectives. 2. It should be systematically built into the curriculum. 3. Students should be involved in the identification of learning needs in this process. 4. The teacher should modify the course and/or teaching approaches in light of the assessment information (Highland Schools Virtual Library (HSVL), 2009). The approach to diagnostic assessment may be formal or informal. In the formal approach, proprietary tests are given to assess particular skills and these tests are used to give objective, standardized data on student skill levels. Informal diagnostic assessment can take place in the classroom in various ways such as setting specific assignments with a view to assessing key skills or giving occasional test items to students on an ad hoc basis (HSVL, 2009). The Grade One Individual Learning Profile (formally the Grade One Readiness Test) and the Grade Three
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Diagnostic Test are diagnostic tests conducted at the primary level in Jamaican Primary schools. In the article Grade One Individual Learning Profile to begin Monday published in the Jamaica Information Service Magazine dated August 25, 2008, the Senior Officer of the Student Assessment Unit stated that the assessment instrument was designed to measure students academic progress and their social readiness for primary school. It is structured with two sections; tests administered by teachers and observation of students in the classroom setting over a period of several weeks. The assessment will provide baseline information for each student so that teachers will know what skill the child comes to school with and be able to plan appropriately for each child. The Grade Three Diagnostic Test provides teachers with information on how the students are performing at his/her age at this grade level so they will know areas in which students are performing well and areas in which students need more assistance (Ministry of Education, Jamaica, 2007).

Formative Assessment Formative assessment refers to frequent, interactive assessments of student progress and understanding (Centre for Educational Research and Innovation, 2005). It can also be described as a means of providing feed back to teachers and students over the course of instruction. This form of assessment can be used to diagnostically alter teaching and learning. Formative assessment then includes teacher observation, classroom discussion and analysis of student work such as homework and tests (Boston, 2002).
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Assessments become formative when they are used to adapt teaching and learning to meet the needs of the students. It must be embedded into classroom learning (Tuttle, 2009). When teachers have information on how students are progressing and where they have problems, they can use it to make necessary instructional adjustments such as reteaching or trying alternative strategies or offering more opportunity for practice. This can lead to improved student success (Boston, 2002). It is thought that formative assessment is one of the most effective strategies for promoting high student performance, improving equity of student outcomes and developing students learning to learn skills (Centre for Educational Research and Innovation, 2005). These can be achieved as the feedback given as a part of formative assessment helps learners to become aware of any gaps that exist between their desired goal and current knowledge, understanding or skills. The feedback given can be more helpful to students when specific comments are made about errors and specific suggestions are given on how to improve the quality of work (Boston, 2002).

There are several strategies that can be employed to carry out formative assessment: 1. Invite students to discuss their thinking about a question or topic in small groups, and then ask a representative to share the thinking with the larger group. 2. Ask all students to write down an answer to a question, and then have a selected few being read. 3. Have students write their understanding of vocabulary or concepts before and after instruction. 4. Culminating Activities.
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5. Assign brief in-class writing assignments (Black and William,1998 as cited in Boston, 2002) These are just some strategies that can be used and they can be reinforced with the use of unit tests and homework. Formative assessment can be developed to inform planning which would eventually influence learning. It focuses on the process of learning not just the product; teachers are better able to facilitate learning armed with the information gained from formative assessments (Hall & Burke, 2004).

Summative Assessment Summative assessment is the formal testing of what has been learned in order to produce marks or grades which may be used for reports of various types (Highland Council Education, 2009). It is usually undertaken at the end of a period of learning and the traditional unseen end of module examination is often presented as a typical form of summative assessment (The Higher Education Academy, 2000). Summative assessment is cumulative in nature and is used to determine whether students have met the goals of the course or unit. It answers the question: What are the best ways to obtain evidence for students mastery of the desired learning outcomes? It may take the form of end of course/term tests as well as external tests (Liu, 2009). It can also be a combination of class work, exams and the terms grade to achieve a final grade that
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can be used for promotion, certification of a skill example in vocational training such as that offered by the HEART Trust NTA in Jamaica. The HEART organization offers certification of competence as proof that an individual, having completed a course of study, has acquired the requisite skills, knowledge, and understanding to perform in accordance with workplace requirements (McIntosh (Jamaica Information Service), 2008). The CSEC (Caribbean Secondary Education Certificate) exam conducted at the end of the five year period of high school and the GSAT (Grade Six Achievement Test) conducted at the end of the six year period of primary school are summative forms of assessment.

(b) Define traditional assessment and justify the use of alternative, authentic and performance assessment in evaluating students learning outcomes in science in the Jamaican school. Traditional assessment has been widely used in the past and still used today. It can be defined as evaluations that include standardized and classroom achievement tests with mostly closed-ended items such as true/false, multiple choice and fill-in-the-blanks-paper and pencil tests (Belle, 1999). Traditional assessment normally takes place at the end of a chapter or unit and students are tested individually. Students normally receive a letter or numerical grade and the emphasis is on pass or fail. In this form of assessment, the subject areas are normally isolated (no integration). It is thought of as an indirect measure since test items are designed to represent competence by extracting knowledge and skills from their real life contexts (Liskin-Gasparro,
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1997). Traditional assessment has the philosophical underpinning of behaviourism which lends to curricula a logical and prescriptive approach where learning outcomes are evaluated in relation to the goals and objectives (Ornstein and Hunkins, 2004). Traditional assessment relies on a single correct response to each item and offers no opportunity for demonstration of thought processes. There is limited potential for traditional forms of assessment to measure higher order thinking skills since by definition these skills involve analysis, interpretation and multiple perspectives. It is difficult for students to learn by doing while being engaged in traditional forms of assessment. However, when the question of validity and reliability (which are essential features of good assessment) comes into play, traditional assessment is a good answer. Validity speaks to the faithfulness of a test to its purpose and reliability refers to the consistency and precision of test scores; on both counts traditional assessment satisfies the bill. Therefore, traditional assessment lends itself to a wide range of statistical analyses and comparisons because one can be fairly confident that the true score on a test is very close to the reported score (Liskin-Gasparro, 1997). Traditional assessment also increases efficiency and makes the assessment system more manageable, standardized, easily administered, objective, comparable and inexpensive especially as the numbers of examinees grow continually (Madaus & ODwyer, 1999). Alternative, Authentic and Performance Based Assessments. Alternative assessment refers to any type of assessment in which students create a response to a question or task. This is in contrast to traditional assessment where students choose a response from a given list such as multiple choice or true/false items. Alternative assessment can take the form of essays, short answer questions, performance assessment, authentic assessment, oral
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presentations, demonstrations, portfolios and exhibitions among others (North Central Regional Educational Laboratory, 2004). Alternative assessments provide a more comprehensive assessment of students abilities when compared to traditional assessments (Bowers, 1989). Performance based assessment is evaluation requiring students to construct or supply answers, perform a task or produce something. This assessment hails from the new paradigm that is rooted in the belief that there is construction of knowledge in a socio-cultural context that embodies investigational styles of learning. This is the basis of the philosophical view of constructivism. The emphasis is on assessing higher order thinking skills (Madaus & ODwyer, 1999). Authentic assessment refers to a form of assessment in which students are asked to perform real world tasks that demonstrate meaningful application of knowledge and skills (Mueller, 2008). Wiggins (1993) sees it as engaging and worthy problems or questions of importance, in which students must use knowledge to fashion performances effectively and creatively. Authentic assessment calls upon the examinee to demonstrate specific skills and competencies, that is, to apply the skills and knowledge they have mastered (Stiggins, 1987). An authentic assessment usually includes tasks for students to perform and a rubric by which their performance or the task will be evaluated (Mueller, 2008). Many educators consider performance and authentic assessment as synonymous. A method that uses evaluative measures other than traditional objective tests is an alternative assessment. In addition to this, almost all alternatives engage students in a performance or in the recording of a performance (Ornstein & Hunkins, 2004). Carol Meyer (1992) in her journal article Whats the difference between Authentic and Performance Assessment? argues that performance and
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authentic assessment are not the same. For an alternative assessment to be authentic, it must engage students in tasks or activities that are real world or resemble the real world (Meyers, 1992 as cited in Ornstein & Hunkins, 2004).

The important question driving justification for change is why use alternative (authentic, performance) assessment instead of traditional assessment to evaluate science learning outcomes? The University of the West Indies, Mona Student Assessment Essentials Handbook by EdwardsHenry, Allen and Grant (2006) in its Philosophy on Assessment stated: Increasingly schools, colleges and universities are moving away from the well known traditional learning and assessment avenues and are moving along new paths of learning and less traditional modes of assessment. This movement is underpinned by well documented research which demonstrates that traditional assessment does not necessarily provide the kind of support that students need to be successful at their studies in this rich and technology driven world. More and more it is being agreed that alternative or innovative assessment is based on the premise that students can get the most out of their learning experience through seeing knowledge with new eyes and understanding the reasons why assessment decisions are made. (p.1)

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Science by nature and definition requires an exploration of the natural world by collecting information through observation, experimentation and peer verification. It involves problem solving through conclusive evidence and testing of hypotheses. This speaks to a more hands-on, minds-on approach to teaching and learning science. Scientific ideas are developed through reasoning; inferences or logical conclusions are made based on observable facts (Rutherford & Ahlgren, 1991). Consequently, there are a number of skills that are important to the discipline of science and these must be engendered in the learner; therefore it is important that these skills permeate teaching strategies and assessment methods. These skills include classification, inference, predicting, measuring, analysing among others (Hill, 2003). The use of alternative (authentic, performance) assessment promotes the use of the science process skills by the very nature of such assessment: It asks students to perform, create or produce something encouraging a hands-on approach. This type of assessment encourages self reflection. It taps into higher level thinking and problem solving skills. It encourages real world applications and uses tasks that represent meaningful instructional activities (EmTech, 2002). The assessment methods employed in evaluating science learning outcomes at the secondary level in Jamaican schools take on a more summative format and involve mostly traditional assessment with standardized and objective tests such as the ROSE (Reform of Secondary Education) exams administered to students at the end of grade 9 (this exam has been discontinued)
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and the CSEC (Caribbean Secondary Education Certificate) administered to students at the end of grade 11 (Ministry of Education (MOE) Student Assessment, 2007). However, the ROSE Science syllabus suggests the use of alternative assessment methods for formative assessments; these include creating models, conducting field trips and experiments both at home and in the lab, portfolios and oral presentations. The Caribbean Examination Council (CXC) has incorporated in its assessment portfolio some form of alternative assessment with the inclusion of School Based Assessment (SBA) for science subjects. This assessment is designed to enable teachers to provide opportunities for students to acquire skills and attitudes through various activities done during the course of study. This assessment can include portfolios, projects, field trip reports and lab reports of experiments conducted over the course of study; they cover 25% of the total grade for each subject (CXC Overview of Examination, 2009). Despite the inclusion of alternative assessment methods in the high school science curricula, at the end of the day the assessment used for high stakes purposes (student retention, promotion, and graduation) is traditional in nature with the use of standardized tests. The underlying issue in this could be linked to some limitations of alternative (authentic, performancebased) assessment that of fairness in developing, scoring and developing these methods; there are challenges of specifying criteria for judging students work (Winking, 1997). Professor Griffith of the Institute of Education, University of the West Indies Mona Campus in his article The truth about school-based assessment published in the Gleaner dated April 26, 2009 commented on some possible drawbacks of this assessment tool. He commented that the teacher has a dual role of instructor and final assessor and this may be a challenge for less experienced teachers. In addition to this differences in the nature and magnitude of teacher inputs into the SBA work of students
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may unfairly overcompensate some students while unfairly penalising others. The suggestion was made that there needs to be adequate understanding of the lines of demarcation between the teacher role of guiding the student in SBA and his or her role in assessing the students achievement to avoid improper action on the part of the teacher. In concluding his article, he emphasized the importance of the SBA component and reiterated that existing practices should be enhanced and improved to ensure its integrity.

(c) Select a topic of your choice from a NAMED Jamaican curriculum and describe how you would assess learning in the topic (knowledge, skills and attitude) using science assessment strategies that are alternative, authentic and performance based (include checklists, rubrics and activities to be used). The curriculum that the topic is chosen from is the CSEC Integrated Science Curriculum. Topic: Pests and Parasites/Sanitation Grade level: 11/5th Form Specific Objectives: Students should be able to: Describe the conditions which promote the growth of micro-organisms. Discuss methods for retarding and preventing the growth of micro-organisms. Justify the need for preservation in the food industry.

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Activity This activity should be done over a two week period. Students must plan, design and conduct an experiment with the aim of investigating the conditions which promote the growth of microorganisms. Students will work in groups of two. On the first day each group will be given the following materials, equipment and reagents: six slices of bread (all must be of the same size), clean, clear plastic bags, ties for bags, vinegar, sugar, salt, water, tags and labels, beakers, plastic bowls and toaster.

Ensure that the bags are labelled appropriately. Leave the bags in the various conditions for TWO WEEKS ensuring that you make careful observations DAILY. Record your observations in an appropriate format noting the appearance of the bread slices. Make drawings of the bread slices in the bags at the beginning of the experiment and at the end. Create a portfolio that should contain a LAB REPORT using the headings Aim, Apparatus and Materials, Method/Procedure, Results, Discussion and Conclusion ; the drawings of the bread and a one page essay on the importance of preservation in the food industry. The portfolio should be creative and neat in its appearance. It will be marked out of fifty (50). Observation Checklist for following instructions On the space in front of each item, a plus (+) sign denotes satisfactory and a minus (-) sign denotes unsatisfactory. ________ 1. Follows steps listed in the instructions given. ________ 2. Selects appropriate materials to use.
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________ 3. Uses equipment and materials correctly for each task. _________ 4. Works carefully to avoid waste of material. __________ 5. Uses time efficiently and completes tasks on schedule. (Gronlund, 2000).

The scoring rubric below will be used to grade the lab reports. CRITERIA Clearly stated Aim Apparatus and Materials: appropriate list Method/Procedure: written in proper sequence including apparatus and materials listed Results: done in an appropriate format, clear drawings of before and after two weeks Discussion: detailed discussion of results including Background information, conditions that promote microorganism growth, conditions that retard/prevent growth, identification and justification of control and variables Conclusion accurately and clearly stated relating to the aim Appearance of report: neatness/Correct grammar: proper use of tenses for each section TOTAL MARKS 2 2 30 SCORE 1 3 4 8 10

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Scoring Rubric to grade the essay (Total marks: 15) Criteria

Knowledge & Application of Information All elements of the topics are addressed The information is technically sound Information is relevant to content. Coherence of information

Fail
The essay is not objective and poorly addresses the issues referred in the topic. The provided information is not necessary or not sufficient to discuss these issues.

Good
The essay is objective and for the most part analytically addresses most of the issues referred in the topic. The provided information is generally necessary and sufficient to discuss the central issue.

Excellent
The essay is objective and addresses with an in depth analysis all the issues referred in the topic. The provided information is necessary and sufficient to discuss these issues.

Range: 0-4

Range: 5-7

Range: 8-10

Students Score:___/10 Quality of Writing Clarity of sentences and paragraphs No errors of spelling, grammar and use of English Organization and coherence of ideas

The essay is not well written, and contains many spelling errors, and/or grammar errors and/or use of English errors. The essay is badly organized, lacks clarity and/or does not present ideas in a coherent way. Range: 0-2

The essay is generally well written, with little spelling, grammar or use of English errors. The essay is appropriately organized, clear and presents ideas in a coherent way.

The essay is well written from start to finish, with very little or no spelling, grammar or use of English errors. The essay is well organized, clear and presents ideas in a coherent way.

Range: 2-3

Range: 4-5

Students Score: ___/5

Overall Presentation and Creativity of Portfolio is worth 5 marks.

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The total marks for the portfolio is fifty (50): Lab Report: 30 mks, Essay: 15mks; Presentation and Creativity: 5mks; TOTAL: 50MKS.

References Belle, D. (1999). Traditional Assessment vs. Alternative Assessment: A Masters Thesis. Kean University of New Jersey. Electronic Version. Retrieved June 7, 2009 from http://www.eric.ed.gov/ERICWebPortal/custom/portlets. Boston, C. (2002). The Concept of Formative Assessment: Practical Assessment Research and Evaluation, 8 (9). Retrieved June 5, 2009 from http://PAREonline.net/getvn Bowers, B. (1989). Alternatives to Standardized Educational Assessment. ERIC Digest Series No. EA40. Retrieved June 12, 2009 from www.eric.ed.gov/ERICDocs/ Data/ericdocs22sq1/content_storage_01 Caribbean Examination Council (CXC) (2009). Overview of Examinations. CXC website. Retrieved July 26, 2009 from http://www.cxc.org/section.asp Centre for Educational Research and Innovation (2005). Formative Assessment: Improving Learning in Secondary Classrooms. OECD Publishing. Electronic Book. Retrieved June 5, 2009 from www.books.google.com.jm/formativeassess

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Caribbean Examination Council (CXC) (2000). CSEC Integrated Science Syllabus Earl, L.M. (2003). Assessment as Learning: Using Classroom Assessment to maximize Student Learning. Corwin Press, California Edwards-Henry, A.; Allen, B.; Grant, J. (2006, April). Student Assessment Essentials Handbook. Instructional Development Unit, University of the West Indies, Mona and Cavehill Emerging Technologies. (2002). Alternative Assessment. EmTech Consulting. Retrieved June18, 2009 from http://www.emtech.net/index.ghtml Greater Essex County District School Website (2004, May). Diagnostic Assessment. Retrieved June 2, 2009 from www.gecdsb.on.ca/onlinepd/Assessment Gronlund, N.E. (2000). Assessment of Student Achievement. Sixth Edition. Allyn & Bacon Boston, MA. Hall, K. & Burke, W. (2004). Making Formative Assessment Work: Effective Practice in the Primary School Classroom. Open University Press, McGraw-Hill House, England Herrick, M. (1996). Assessment of Student Achievement and Learning: What would John Dewey Say? Journal of Vocational and Technical Education Vol.13, No.1 Electronic Version. Retrieved July 12, 2009 from http://scholar.lib.vt.edu/ejournals/JTVE/v13n1

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Highland Schools Virtual Library (2009, February). Diagnostic Assessment. Highland Council Education and Culture Services. Retrieved June 2, 2009 from www.highlandschools-virtualib.org.uk/diagnostic.htm Hill, A. (2003). What are Science Process Skills? WiseGeek Conjecture Cooperation. Retrieved July 2, 2009 from www.wisegeek.com/whatarescienceprocessskills Jamaica Information Service Magazine (2008, August). Grade One Individual Learning Profile Assessment to begin Monday. JIS Magazine Education Section Electronic Version. Retrieved August 15, 2009 from http://www.jis.gov.jm/education/html Learn Now BC (2009, May). Assessment. Virtual School Society. Retrieved July 25, 2009 From www.learnnowbc.ca/glossary Liskin-Gasparro, J. (1997). Comparing Traditional and Performance-Based Assessment. A Paper presented at the Symposium on Spanish Second Language Acquisition, University of Texas. Electronic Version. Retrieved June 8, 2009 from www.sedl.org/loteced/comparing-assessment.html Liu, X. (2009). Essentials of Science Classroom Assessment. SAGE Publications, Inc. Electronic Book. Retrieved June 6, 2009 from www.coursesmart.com/search/ summative assessment.

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Madaus, G.F. & ODwyer, L.M. (1999). A Short History of Performance Assessment: Lessons Learned. Phi Delta Kappan, Bloomington

McIntosh, D. (2008, August). HEART Trust/NTA Developing Five-Year Strategic Plan. Jamaica Magazine, Jamaica Information Service Ministry of Education Page. Retrieved July 12, 2009 from www.jis.gov.jm/education/html/200808 Ministry of Education, Jamaica (2007). Student Assessment. Student Assessment Unit Retrieved August 15, 2009 from http://www.moec.gov.jm/division/ed/assessment Mueller, J. (2008). What is Authentic Assessment? Authentic Assessment Toolbox Retrieved June 14, 2009 from http://jonathan.mueller.faculty.noctrl.edu/toolbox North Central Regional Educational Laboratory (2004). Alternative Assessment. Pathways Retrieved June 12, 2009 from www.nrcel.org/sdrs/areas/issues/methods/assment Ornstein, A.C. & Hunkins, F. P. (2004). Curriculum: Foundations, Principles and Issues. Fourth Edition. Allyn and Bacon: Boston, MA Palomba, C.A.; Banta, T.W. (1999). Assessment Essentials: Planning, Implementing and Improving Assessment in Higher Education, Electronic Version. Jossey-Bass Publishers: San Francisco. Rutherford, F.J. & Ahlgren, A. (1991). Science for All Americans Project 2061. Advancing
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Science Serving Society. Retrieved July 26, 2007 from http://www.project2061.org

Skevington, J. (1993). Assessing and Evaluating in Science Education. In Levison, R. (Ed) Teaching Science (pp.155-128). London. Routledge Slattery, W. (2009). What is Assessment? Starting Point: Teaching Entry Level Geoscience. Retrieved June 1, 2009 from http://serc.carleton.edu Stiggins, R.J. (1987). The Design and Development of Performance Assessments. Educational Measurement: Issues and Practice, 6, 33-42. Electronic Journal Retrieved June 13, 2009 from www.ncme.org/pub/items/ITEMS_Mod_1 The Higher Education Academy (2000). Formative vs. Summative Assessment. The UK Centre for Legal Education. Retrieved June5, 2009 from http://www.ukcle.ac.uk Wiggins, G.P. (1993). Assessing Student Performance. Electronic Book. Jossey-Bass Publishers: San Francisco

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