Covalent Bonding Non-metals often react with one another to form molecules.

The atoms do not transfer electrons to one another as each need to gain electrons to achieve a full electronic configuration. Instead, they share their valance electrons with other atoms such that each has eight valence electrons. The sharing of a pair of electrons between two atoms is called a covalent bond. Covalent bonds are formed between two atoms of non-metals and can be found in o Molecules of non-metallic elements o Molecules of covalent compounds Covalent compounds are made up atoms of two or more different non-metallic elements held by covalent bonds.

Giant Molecular Structures Some covalent substances consist of elements such as carbon and silicon. Carbon and silicon have four valance electrons and thus are able to form a maximum of four covalent bonds. This gives rise to their ability to bond with both itself and other elements in many ways. Some of these substances can form a giant network of atoms that are held together by strong covalent bonds. These substances are known as giant molecular structures or giant covalent structures. Pure carbon can exists in different forms called allotropes. o Diamond o Graphite o Fullerene

Diamond Is formed at very high temperature and pressure. In diamond, each carbon atom is bonded to four other carbon atoms, forming a tetrahedral structure.

Graphite Graphite is another allotrope of carbon. In graphite, carbon atoms are arranged in flat layers. Layers are held together by weak van der Waals forces and thus can slide past one another.

Physical Properties of Giant Molecular Substances Physical State

All substances that are made up of giant molecular structure exist as hard solids at room temperature This is because all the atoms are held in fixed positions by strong covalent bonds. Due to their hardness, diamonds are used at the tips of drills and other cutting tools. An exception is graphite, which is soft and slippery This is because the graphite layers can slide past one another easily due to the presence of weak van der Waals forces. Hence graphite is used as a lubricant and pencil lead.

Melting and Boiling Points To melt or boil substances with giant molecular structures, the strong covalent bonds between each atom must be broken. This requires enormous amounts of energy and hence these substances have very high melting and boiling points.

Electrical Conductivity Substances with giant molecular structures do not conduct electricity at any state. This is because all the valence electrons in the atoms are used for bonding and there are no free moving electrons to conduct electricity. Graphite is the only non-metal that conducts electricity. Each carbon atom has one valence electron that is not used for bonding and is free to move. Hence, graphite is used as contacts for electric motors and as electrodes in electrolysis.

Solubility All substances with giant molecular structures are insoluble in water.

Metallic Bonding In a metal, atoms are packed very closely together in a regular arrangement and they lose their valance electrons easily to form positive ions. These electrons move freely between the positive ions and are said to be mobile or delocalized. The forces of attraction that hold the positive metal ions and the negative delocalized electrons together are called metallic bonds.

Physical Properties of Metals Melting and Boiling Points To melt or boil metals, the strong metallic bonds between the metal ions and negative electrons must be broken. This requires enormous amounts of energy and hence metals have very high melting and boiling points and exist as solids at room temperature.

An exception is mercury, which has a low melting point of -39 Degree c and exists as a liquid at room temperature.

Electrical conductivity Metals can conduct electricity in both solid and molten states.

Thermal Conductivity Metals are good conductors of heat. When one end of a metal is heated, the delocalized electrons gain more energy and move faster. As they move, the electrons collide with one another and with the positive ions. This facilitates the transfer of heat from the hotter to the cooler end and the whole piece of metal becomes hot quickly.