CHAPTER 10

PHASE DIAGRAMS

PROBLEM SOLUTIONS

Solubility Limit

Excerpts from this work may be reproduced by instructors for distribution on a not-for-profit basis for testing or instructional purposes only to students enrolled in courses for which the textbook has been adopted. Any other reproduction or translation of this work beyond that permitted by Sections 107 or 108 of the 1976 United States Copyright Act without the permission of the copyright owner is unlawful.

Microstructure

Excerpts from this work may be reproduced by instructors for distribution on a not-for-profit basis for testing or instructional purposes only to students enrolled in courses for which the textbook has been adopted. Any other reproduction or translation of this work beyond that permitted by Sections 107 or 108 of the 1976 United States Copyright Act without the permission of the copyright owner is unlawful.

Binary Isomorphous Systems

10.7 Given here are the solidus and liquidus temperatures for the germanium-silicon system. Construct the phase diagram for this system and label each region. Composition (wt% Si) 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 Solution The germanium-silicon phase diagram is constructed below. Solidus Temperature (C) 938 1005 1065 1123 1178 1232 1282 1326 1359 1390 1414 Liquidus Temperature (C) 938 1147 1226 1278 1315 1346 1367 1385 1397 1408 1414

Excerpts from this work may be reproduced by instructors for distribution on a not-for-profit basis for testing or instructional purposes only to students enrolled in courses for which the textbook has been adopted. Any other reproduction or translation of this work beyond that permitted by Sections 107 or 108 of the 1976 United States Copyright Act without the permission of the copyright owner is unlawful.

Interpretation of Phase Diagrams

10.8 Cite the phases that are present and the phase compositions for the following alloys: (a) 90 wt% Zn-10 wt% Cu at 400C (750F) (b) 75 wt% Sn-25 wt% Pb at 175C (345F) (c) 55 wt% Ag-45 wt% Cu at 900C (1650F) (d) 30 wt% Pb-70 wt% Mg at 425C (795F) (e) 2.12 kg Zn and 1.88 kg Cu at 500C (930F) (f) 37 lbm Pb and 6.5 lbm Mg at 400C (750F) (g) 8.2 mol Ni and 4.3 mol Cu at 1250C (2280F) (h) 4.5 mol Sn and 0.45 mol Pb at 200C (390F) Solution This problem asks that we cite the phase or phases present for several alloys at specified temperatures. (a) That portion of the Cu-Zn phase diagram (Figure 10.19) that pertains to this problem is shown below; the point labeled A represents the 90 wt% Zn-10 wt% Cu composition at 400C.

As may be noted, point A lies within the and phase field. A tie line has been constructed at 400C; its intersection with the + phase boundary is at 87 wt% Zn, which corresponds to the composition of the phase. Similarly, the tie-line intersection with the + phase boundary occurs at 97 wt% Zn, which is the composition of the phase. Thus, the phase compositions are as follows:

Excerpts from this work may be reproduced by instructors for distribution on a not-for-profit basis for testing or instructional purposes only to students enrolled in courses for which the textbook has been adopted. Any other reproduction or translation of this work beyond that permitted by Sections 107 or 108 of the 1976 United States Copyright Act without the permission of the copyright owner is unlawful.

C = 87 wt% Zn-13 wt% Cu C = 97 wt% Zn-3 wt% Cu

(b) That portion of the Pb-Sn phase diagram (Figure 10.8) that pertains to this problem is shown below; the point labeled B represents the 75 wt% Sn-25 wt% Pb composition at 175C.

As may be noted, point B lies within the + phase field. A tie line has been constructed at 175C; its intersection with the + phase boundary is at 16 wt% Sn, which corresponds to the composition of the phase. Similarly, the tie-line intersection with the + phase boundary occurs at 97 wt% Sn, which is the composition of the phase. Thus, the phase compositions are as follows:

C = 16 wt% Sn-84 wt% Pb C = 97 wt% Sn-3 wt% Pb

(c) The Ag-Cu phase diagram (Figure 10.7) is shown below; the point labeled C represents the 55 wt% Ag-45 wt% Cu composition at 900C.

Excerpts from this work may be reproduced by instructors for distribution on a not-for-profit basis for testing or instructional purposes only to students enrolled in courses for which the textbook has been adopted. Any other reproduction or translation of this work beyond that permitted by Sections 107 or 108 of the 1976 United States Copyright Act without the permission of the copyright owner is unlawful.

As may be noted, point C lies within the Liquid phase field. Therefore, only the liquid phase is present; its composition is 55 wt% Ag-45 wt% Cu. (d) The Mg-Pb phase diagram (Figure 10.20) is shown below; the point labeled D represents the 30 wt% Pb-70 wt% Mg composition at 425C.

Excerpts from this work may be reproduced by instructors for distribution on a not-for-profit basis for testing or instructional purposes only to students enrolled in courses for which the textbook has been adopted. Any other reproduction or translation of this work beyond that permitted by Sections 107 or 108 of the 1976 United States Copyright Act without the permission of the copyright owner is unlawful.

As may be noted, point D lies within the phase field. Therefore, only the phase is present; its composition is 30 wt% Pb-70 wt% Mg. (e) For an alloy composed of 2.12 kg Zn and 1.88 kg Cu and at 500C, we must first determine the Zn and Cu concentrations using Equation 5.6

CZn =

mZn 100 mZn + mCu

2.12 kg 100 = 53 wt% 2.12 kg + 1.88 kg

Likewise, for Cu

CCu =

mCu 100 mZn + mCu

1.88 kg 100 = 47 wt% 2.12 kg + 1.88 kg

That portion of the Cu-Zn phase diagram (Figure 10.19) that pertains to this problem is shown below; the point labeled E represents the 53 wt% Zn-47 wt% Cu composition at 500C.

Excerpts from this work may be reproduced by instructors for distribution on a not-for-profit basis for testing or instructional purposes only to students enrolled in courses for which the textbook has been adopted. Any other reproduction or translation of this work beyond that permitted by Sections 107 or 108 of the 1976 United States Copyright Act without the permission of the copyright owner is unlawful.

As may be noted, point E lies within the + phase field. A tie line has been constructed at 500C; its intersection with the + phase boundary is at 49 wt% Zn, which corresponds to the composition of the phase. Similarly, the tie-line intersection with the + phase boundary occurs at 58 wt% Zn, which is the composition of the phase. Thus, the phase compositions are as follows: C = 49 wt% Zn-51 wt% Cu C = 58 wt% Zn-42 wt% Cu (f) For an alloy composed of 37 lbm Pb and 6.5 lbm Mg and at 400C, we must first determine the Pb and Mg concentrations using Equation 5.6 as

CPb =

mPb 100 mPb + mMg

=
And similarly for Mg

37 lb m 100 = 85 wt% 37 lb m + 6.5 lb m

CMg =

6.5 lb m 100 = 15 wt% 37 lb m + 6.5 lb m

That portion of the Mg-Pb phase diagram (Figure 10.20) that pertains to this problem is shown below; the point labeled F represents the 85 wt% Pb-15 wt% Mg composition at 400C.

Excerpts from this work may be reproduced by instructors for distribution on a not-for-profit basis for testing or instructional purposes only to students enrolled in courses for which the textbook has been adopted. Any other reproduction or translation of this work beyond that permitted by Sections 107 or 108 of the 1976 United States Copyright Act without the permission of the copyright owner is unlawful.

As may be noted, point F lies within the L + Mg2Pb phase field. A tie line has been constructed at 400C; it intersects the vertical line at 81 wt% Pb, which corresponds to the composition of Mg2Pb. Furthermore, the tie line intersection with the L + Mg2Pb-L phase boundary is at 93 wt% Pb, which is the composition of the liquid phase. Thus, the phase compositions are as follows: C
Mg2Pb

= 81 wt% Pb-19 wt% Mg

CL = 93 wt% Pb-7 wt% Mg (g) For an alloy composed of 8.2 mol Ni and 4.3 mol Cu and at 1250C, it is first necessary to determine the Ni and Cu concentrations in weight percent (inasmuch as the bottom, horizontal axis is scaled in wt%). It is first necessary to compute the mass (in grams) of both Ni and Cu. This is possible using Equation 5.7 as follows [here
' ' mNi and mCu denote masses of the respective metals (in grams), nNi amd nCu represent numbers of moles, while ANi

and ACu are atomic weights.] Thus,

' mNi = nNi ANi = (8.2 mol)(58.69 g/mol) = 481.3 g

' nCu = n m Cu ACu = (4.3 mol)(63.55 g/mol) = 273.3 g

Now, using these values, we calculate the composition in weight percent using Equation 5.6; for nickel

CNi =

' mNi 100 ' ' mNi + mCu

481.3 g 100 = 63.8 wt% 481.3 g + 273.3 g

Likewise for copper

CNi =

' mCu 100 ' ' mNi + mCu

273.3 g 100 = 36.2 wt% 481.3 g + 273.3 g

The Cu-Ni phase diagram (Figure 10.3a) is shown below; the point labeled G represents the 63.8 wt% Ni-36.2 wt% Cu composition at 1250C.

Excerpts from this work may be reproduced by instructors for distribution on a not-for-profit basis for testing or instructional purposes only to students enrolled in courses for which the textbook has been adopted. Any other reproduction or translation of this work beyond that permitted by Sections 107 or 108 of the 1976 United States Copyright Act without the permission of the copyright owner is unlawful.

As may be noted, point G lies within the phase field. Therefore, only the phase is present; its composition is 63.8 wt% Ni-36.2 wt% Cu. (h) For an alloy composed of 4.5 mol Sn and 0.45 mol Pb and at 200C, it is first necessary to determine the Sn and Pb concentrations in weight percent (inasmuch as the bottom, horizontal axis is scaled in wt%). It is first necessary to compute the mass (in grams) of both Sn and Pb. This is possible using Equation 5.7 as follows [here
' ' mSn and mPb denote masses of the respective metals (in grams), nSn amd nPb represent numbers of moles, while ASn

and APb are atomic weights.] Thus

' mSn = nSn ASn = (4.5 mol)(118.71 g/mol) = 534.2 g

' mPb = nPb APb = (0.45 mol)(207.2 g/mol) = 93.2 g

Now, using these values, we calculate the composition in weight percent using Equation 5.6; for tin

CSn =

' mSn

' mSn 100 ' + mPb

Excerpts from this work may be reproduced by instructors for distribution on a not-for-profit basis for testing or instructional purposes only to students enrolled in courses for which the textbook has been adopted. Any other reproduction or translation of this work beyond that permitted by Sections 107 or 108 of the 1976 United States Copyright Act without the permission of the copyright owner is unlawful.

=
Likewise for lead

534.2 g 100 = 85.1 wt% 534.2 g + 93.2 g

CSn =

' mSn

' mPb 100 ' + mPb

93.2 g 100 = 14.9 wt% 534.2 g + 93.2 g

That portion of the Pb-Sn phase diagram (Figure 10.8) that pertains to this problem is shown below; the point labeled H represents the 85.1 wt% Sn-14.9 wt% Pb composition at 200C.

As may be noted, point H lies within the + L phase field. A tie line has been constructed at 200C; its intersection with the L + L phase boundary is at 74 wt% Sn, which corresponds to the composition of the L phase. Similarly, the tie-line intersection with the + L phase boundary occurs at 97.5 wt% Sn, which is the composition of the phase. Thus, the phase compositions are as follows: C = 97.5 wt% Sn-2.5 wt% Pb CL = 74 wt% Sn-26 wt% Pb

Excerpts from this work may be reproduced by instructors for distribution on a not-for-profit basis for testing or instructional purposes only to students enrolled in courses for which the textbook has been adopted. Any other reproduction or translation of this work beyond that permitted by Sections 107 or 108 of the 1976 United States Copyright Act without the permission of the copyright owner is unlawful.

Excerpts from this work may be reproduced by instructors for distribution on a not-for-profit basis for testing or instructional purposes only to students enrolled in courses for which the textbook has been adopted. Any other reproduction or translation of this work beyond that permitted by Sections 107 or 108 of the 1976 United States Copyright Act without the permission of the copyright owner is unlawful.

10.12 A 50 wt% Pb-50 wt% Mg alloy is slowly cooled from 700C (1290F) to 400C (750F). (a) At what temperature does the first solid phase form? (b) What is the composition of this solid phase? (c) At what temperature does the liquid solidify? (d) What is the composition of this last remaining liquid phase? Solution Shown below is the Mg-Pb phase diagram (Figure 10.20) and a vertical line constructed at a composition of 50 wt% Pb-50 wt% Mg.

(a) Upon cooling from 700C, the first solid phase forms at the temperature at which a vertical line at this composition intersects the L-( + L) phase boundary--i.e., about 560C; (b) The composition of this solid phase corresponds to the intersection with the -( + L) phase boundary, of a tie line constructed across the + L phase region at 560C--i.e., 21 wt% Pb-79 wt% Mg; (c) Complete solidification of the alloy occurs at the intersection of this same vertical line at 50 wt% Pb with the eutectic isotherm--i.e., about 465C; (d) The composition of the last liquid phase remaining prior to complete solidification corresponds to the eutectic composition--i.e., about 67 wt% Pb-33 wt% Mg.
Excerpts from this work may be reproduced by instructors for distribution on a not-for-profit basis for testing or instructional purposes only to students enrolled in courses for which the textbook has been adopted. Any other reproduction or translation of this work beyond that permitted by Sections 107 or 108 of the 1976 United States Copyright Act without the permission of the copyright owner is unlawful.

Excerpts from this work may be reproduced by instructors for distribution on a not-for-profit basis for testing or instructional purposes only to students enrolled in courses for which the textbook has been adopted. Any other reproduction or translation of this work beyond that permitted by Sections 107 or 108 of the 1976 United States Copyright Act without the permission of the copyright owner is unlawful.

10.14 Determine the relative amounts (in terms of mass fractions) of the phases for the alloys and temperatures given in Problem 10.8. Solution This problem asks that we determine the phase mass fractions for the alloys and temperatures in Problem 10.8. (a) From Problem 10.8a, and phases are present for a 90 wt% Zn-10 wt% Cu alloy at 400C, as represented in the portion of the Cu-Zn phase diagram shown below (at point A).

Furthermore, the compositions of the phases, as determined from the tie line are C = 87 wt% Zn-13 wt% Cu C = 97 wt% Zn-3 wt% Cu Inasmuch as the composition of the alloy C0 = 90 wt% Zn, application of the appropriate lever rule expressions (for compositions in weight percent zinc) leads to

W =

C C0 C C

97 90 = 0.70 97 87

W =

C 0 C 90 87 = = 0.30 C C 97 87

Excerpts from this work may be reproduced by instructors for distribution on a not-for-profit basis for testing or instructional purposes only to students enrolled in courses for which the textbook has been adopted. Any other reproduction or translation of this work beyond that permitted by Sections 107 or 108 of the 1976 United States Copyright Act without the permission of the copyright owner is unlawful.

(b) From Problem 10.8b, and phases are present for a 75 wt% Sn-25 wt% Pb alloy at 175C, as represented in the portion of the Pb-Sn phase diagram shown below (at point B).

Furthermore, the compositions of the phases, as determined from the tie line are C = 16 wt% Sn-84 wt% Pb C = 97 wt% Sn-3 wt% Pb Inasmuch as the composition of the alloy C0 = 75 wt% Sn, application of the appropriate lever rule expressions (for compositions in weight percent tin) leads to

W =

C C 0 C C

97 75 = 0.27 97 16

W =

C 0 C 75 16 = = 0.73 C C 97 16

(c) From Problem 10.8c, just the liquid phase is present for a 55 wt% Ag-45 wt% Cu alloy at 900C, as may be noted in the Ag-Cu phase diagram shown below (at point C)i.e., WL = 1.0

Excerpts from this work may be reproduced by instructors for distribution on a not-for-profit basis for testing or instructional purposes only to students enrolled in courses for which the textbook has been adopted. Any other reproduction or translation of this work beyond that permitted by Sections 107 or 108 of the 1976 United States Copyright Act without the permission of the copyright owner is unlawful.

(d) From Problem 10.8d, just the phase is present for a 30 wt% Pb-70 wt% Mg alloy at 425C, as may be noted in the Mg-Pb phase diagram shown below (at point D)i.e., W = 1.0

Excerpts from this work may be reproduced by instructors for distribution on a not-for-profit basis for testing or instructional purposes only to students enrolled in courses for which the textbook has been adopted. Any other reproduction or translation of this work beyond that permitted by Sections 107 or 108 of the 1976 United States Copyright Act without the permission of the copyright owner is unlawful.

(e) From Problem 10.8e, and phases are present for an alloy composed of 2.12 kg Zn and 1.88 kg Cu (i.e., of composition 53 wt% Zn-47 wt% Cu) at 500C. This is represented in the portion of the Cu-Zn phase diagram shown below (at point E).

Furthermore, the compositions of the phases, as determined from the tie line are C = 49 wt% Zn-51 wt% Cu C = 58 wt% Zn-42 wt% Cu Inasmuch as the composition of the alloy C0 = 53 wt% Zn and application of the appropriate lever rule expressions (for compositions in weight percent zinc) leads to

W =

C C0 C C C 0 C C C

58 53 = 0.56 58 49 53 49 = 0.44 58 49

W =

(f) From Problem 10.8f, L and Mg2Pb phases are present for an alloy composed of 37 lbm Pb and 6.5 lbm Mg (85 wt% Pb-15 wt% Mg) at 400C. This is represented in the portion of the Pb-Mg phase diagram shown below (at point F).

Excerpts from this work may be reproduced by instructors for distribution on a not-for-profit basis for testing or instructional purposes only to students enrolled in courses for which the textbook has been adopted. Any other reproduction or translation of this work beyond that permitted by Sections 107 or 108 of the 1976 United States Copyright Act without the permission of the copyright owner is unlawful.

Furthermore, the compositions of the phases, as determined from the tie line are C = 81 wt% Pb-19 wt% Mg
Mg2Pb

CL = 93 wt% Pb-7 wt% Mg Inasmuch as the composition of the alloy C0 = 85 wt% Pb and application of the appropriate lever rule expressions (for compositions in weight percent lead) leads to

WMg 2Pb =

CL C0 93 85 = = 0.67 C L CMg 2Pb 93 81

85 81 = 0.33 93 81

WL =

C L CMg 2Pb

C 0 CMg 2Pb

(g) From Problem 10.8g, just the phase is present (i.e., W = 1.0) for an alloy composed of 8.2 mol Ni and 4.3 mol Cu (i.e., 63.8 wt% Ni-36.2 wt% Cu) at 1250C; such may be noted (as point G) in the Cu-Ni phase diagram shown below.

Excerpts from this work may be reproduced by instructors for distribution on a not-for-profit basis for testing or instructional purposes only to students enrolled in courses for which the textbook has been adopted. Any other reproduction or translation of this work beyond that permitted by Sections 107 or 108 of the 1976 United States Copyright Act without the permission of the copyright owner is unlawful.

(h) From Problem 10.8h, and L phases are present for an alloy composed of 4.5 mol Sn and 0.45 mol Pb (85.1 wt% Sn-14.9 wt% Pb ) and at 200C. This is represented in the portion of the Pb-Sn phase diagram shown below (at point H).

Furthermore, the compositions of the phases, as determined from the tie line are
Excerpts from this work may be reproduced by instructors for distribution on a not-for-profit basis for testing or instructional purposes only to students enrolled in courses for which the textbook has been adopted. Any other reproduction or translation of this work beyond that permitted by Sections 107 or 108 of the 1976 United States Copyright Act without the permission of the copyright owner is unlawful.

C = 97.5 wt% Sn-2.5 wt% Pb CL = 74 wt% Sn-26 wt% Pb Inasmuch as the composition of the alloy C0 = 85.1 wt% Sn, application of the appropriate lever rule expressions (for compositions in weight percent lead) leads to

W =

C0 CL 85.1 74 = = 0.47 C C L 97.5 74

C C 0 C C L 97.5 85.1 = 0.53 97.5 74

WL =

Excerpts from this work may be reproduced by instructors for distribution on a not-for-profit basis for testing or instructional purposes only to students enrolled in courses for which the textbook has been adopted. Any other reproduction or translation of this work beyond that permitted by Sections 107 or 108 of the 1976 United States Copyright Act without the permission of the copyright owner is unlawful.

Excerpts from this work may be reproduced by instructors for distribution on a not-for-profit basis for testing or instructional purposes only to students enrolled in courses for which the textbook has been adopted. Any other reproduction or translation of this work beyond that permitted by Sections 107 or 108 of the 1976 United States Copyright Act without the permission of the copyright owner is unlawful.

Development of Microstructure in Isomorphous Alloys

10.25 (a) Briefly describe the phenomenon of coring and why it occurs. (b) Cite one undesirable consequence of coring. Solution (a) Coring is the phenomenon whereby concentration gradients exist across grains in polycrystalline alloys, with higher concentrations of the component having the lower melting temperature at the grain boundaries. It occurs, during solidification, as a consequence of cooling rates that are too rapid to allow for the maintenance of the equilibrium composition of the solid phase. (b) One undesirable consequence of a cored structure is that, upon heating, the grain boundary regions will melt first and at a temperature below the equilibrium phase boundary from the phase diagram; this melting results in a loss in mechanical integrity of the alloy.

Excerpts from this work may be reproduced by instructors for distribution on a not-for-profit basis for testing or instructional purposes only to students enrolled in courses for which the textbook has been adopted. Any other reproduction or translation of this work beyond that permitted by Sections 107 or 108 of the 1976 United States Copyright Act without the permission of the copyright owner is unlawful.

Excerpts from this work may be reproduced by instructors for distribution on a not-for-profit basis for testing or instructional purposes only to students enrolled in courses for which the textbook has been adopted. Any other reproduction or translation of this work beyond that permitted by Sections 107 or 108 of the 1976 United States Copyright Act without the permission of the copyright owner is unlawful.

Development of Microstructure in Eutectic Alloys

10.28 Briefly explain why, upon solidification, an alloy of eutectic composition forms a microstructure consisting of alternating layers of the two solid phases. Solution Upon solidification, an alloy of eutectic composition forms a microstructure consisting of alternating layers of the two solid phases because during the solidification atomic diffusion must occur, and with this layered configuration the diffusion path length for the atoms is a minimum.

Excerpts from this work may be reproduced by instructors for distribution on a not-for-profit basis for testing or instructional purposes only to students enrolled in courses for which the textbook has been adopted. Any other reproduction or translation of this work beyond that permitted by Sections 107 or 108 of the 1976 United States Copyright Act without the permission of the copyright owner is unlawful.

The Last Problem: a) The Gibbs curves which correspond to the temperatures 900 C, 600 C, 577C, and 400 C are shown on the next page. The common tangent lines are shown to denote the areas in which two phases are in equilibrium. Otherwise, a single phase is in equilibrium when it has the lowest Gibbs free energy.

Excerpts from this work may be reproduced by instructors for distribution on a not-for-profit basis for testing or instructional purposes only to students enrolled in courses for which the textbook has been adopted. Any other reproduction or translation of this work beyond that permitted by Sections 107 or 108 of the 1976 United States Copyright Act without the permission of the copyright owner is unlawful.

Excerpts from this work may be reproduced by instructors for distribution on a not-for-profit basis for testing or instructional purposes only to students enrolled in courses for which the textbook has been adopted. Any other reproduction or translation of this work beyond that permitted by Sections 107 or 108 of the 1976 United States Copyright Act without the permission of the copyright owner is unlawful.

b) The alloy with a composition of 5 wt% silicon is the figure labeled ii, shown below. As this alloy cools from the melt, it will first form proeutectic -Al phase. Upon cooling below the eutectic temperature, the remaining liquid will solidify into eutectic colonies, which is the darker, lamellar structure that makes up the rest of the microstructure pictured.

The alloy with composition 12% is shown in the figure labeled iii. This composition is very close the eutectic composition, which is shown in the phase diagram to be 12.6 wt% Si. As this alloy cools from the melt, a small amount of proeutectic -Al phase will form. As the alloy cools below the eutectic temperature, the remaining liquid, will solidify into the eutectic phase. The microstructure shown below consists primarily of eutectic microstructure, with a little bit of lighter -Al phase.

Excerpts from this work may be reproduced by instructors for distribution on a not-for-profit basis for testing or instructional purposes only to students enrolled in courses for which the textbook has been adopted. Any other reproduction or translation of this work beyond that permitted by Sections 107 or 108 of the 1976 United States Copyright Act without the permission of the copyright owner is unlawful.

The alloy with composition 19% is shown in the figure labeled i. As the alloy cools from the melt, the first solid phase to form will be silicon, which is shown as the darker spots in the microstructure. As the alloy cools below the eutectic temperature, the remainder of the liquid will solidify into eutectic colonies, which is the lighter, lamellar structure shown in the figure.

Excerpts from this work may be reproduced by instructors for distribution on a not-for-profit basis for testing or instructional purposes only to students enrolled in courses for which the textbook has been adopted. Any other reproduction or translation of this work beyond that permitted by Sections 107 or 108 of the 1976 United States Copyright Act without the permission of the copyright owner is unlawful.