2.3.

1Wind load A mass of air moving at a certain velocity has a kinetic energy, equal to MV 2 , where Mand V are the mass and velocity of air in motion. When an obstacle like a building is met inits path, a part of the kinetic energy of air in motion gets converted to potential energy of pressure. The actual intensity wind pressure depends on a number of factors like angle of incidence of the wind, roughness of surrounding area, effects of architectural features, i,e.sh ape of the stru cture etc. an d lateral resistan ce of th e structu re. Ap art f ro m these, th e maximum design wind load pressure depends on the duration and amplitude of the gusts andthe probability of occurrence of an exceptional wind in the lifetime of building. It is possibleto take into account the above factors in determining the wind pressure.The lateral load due to wind is the major factor that causes the design of high rise buildingsto differ from those of low rise to medium rise build ings. For buildings of up to about 10storied and of typical properties and the design is rarely affected by the wind loads. Above th is h eight, ho wev er, th e increase in size of th e stru ctu ral me mb ers, and th e possible rearrangement of the structure to account for wind load, incurs a cost premium that increases p rog ressiv ely with h eigh t. With innov ation s in arch itectu ral treatmen t, in crease in th e strengths of materials, and advances in method of analysis, tall building structures becomemore efficient and lighter and, consequently, more prone to deflect and even to sway under wind load. 17 Along windGust pressureMean pressureAcross windWind Fig. 2.7

Simplified two dimensional flow of wind. Fig. 2.8 Schematic representation of mean wind and gust velocity 2.3.1.1 Determination of Design Wind Load Wind is the general word for air naturally in motion, which by virtue of the mass and velocity possesses kinetic energy. If an obstacle is placed in the path of the wind so that the movingair is stopped or deflected from its path, then all or part of the kinetic energy of the movingair is transformed into pressure (Fig. 2.7 & 2.8). The intensity of pressure at any point on anobstacle depends on the shape of the obstacle, the angle of the incidence of the wind, the velocity and density of the air, and the lateral stiffness of the engaged structure.Under the action of a natural wind, a tall building is continually buffeted by gusts and othersa e r o d y n a m i c f o r c e s . T h e structure deflects about a mean position and will o s c i l l a t e continuously.If the wind energy that is absorbed by the structure is larger than the energy dissipated by thestructural damping, then the amplitude of oscillation continues to increase and finally leads todestruction and the structure comes aerodynamically unstable.T h e s e factors have increased the importance of wind as a d e s i g n c o n s i d e r a t i o n . F o r estimations of the overall stability of a structure and of the local pressure distribution on the b u i l d i n g , knowledge of the maximum steady or time averaged w i n d l o a d s i s u s u a l l y sufficient. 2.3.1.2 Methods for Determining Wind Load Here, two methods are described. The first method is Quasi-Static method (static approach),in th at it assu mes the build ing is fix ed rigid b od y in th e wind . Qu asi -Static method isapp rop ri ate fo r tall bu ilding , slend erness o r su scep tibility to vib ration in th e wind . The 18

second meth od is Dyn amic Method . It is app rop riate fo r ex cep tion ally tall, slend er o r vibration-prone building. The two methods are described in UBC. a . Q u a s i - S t a t i c M e t h o d The quasi-static method has generally proved satisfactory. However, in very tall and slender buildings, aerodynamics instability may develop. This is because of the fact that during awindsto rm an d the b uilding is constantly buffeted b y gu sts and starts v ib rating in its fundamental mode. If the energy absorbed by the building is more than the energy it candissipate by structural damping, the amplitude of the vibration goes on increasing till failureoccurs. A detailed study supported by wind tunnel experiments is often necessary in thiscase.It is representative of modern static methods of estimating wind load in that it accounts for th e effects of gu st and fo r local ex tre me pressures over the f aces of th e bu ild ing . It also accounts for local differences in exposure between the open country side and a city center, aswell as allowing for vital facilities such as hospitals, state bank, power station, and fire and police stations, whose safety must be ensured for use after an extreme wind storm.Th e d etermin ation of win d d esign fo rces on a structu re is b asically a d yn amic p rob lem. However, for reasons of tradition and for simplicity, it has been used practice to use a quasi-static approach and treat wind as a statically applied pressure, neglecting its dynamic nature.The wind has calculated as per following section, 2.3.2.Some of the considerations that enter into the choice of design wind pressure are, The anticipated life time of the structure and its relation to the return period of maximumwind velocity The duration of gusts

The magnitude of gusts Variation of wind speed with height Angle of inclination of the wind Influence of the ground Influence of the architectural features Influence of the internal pressure Lateral resistance of structure 19 b . D y n a m i c M e t h o d If the building is exceptionally slender or tall, if it is located in extremely severe exposureco nd ition , th e eff ectiv e wind lo ad on th e build ing is in creased by d ynamic in teraction between the motion of the building and the gust of the wind. If it is possible to allow for it inthe budget of the building, the best method of assessing such dynamic effects is by windtunnel tests. For buildings that are not so extreme as to demand a wind tunnel test, but for which the simple design procedure is inadequate, alternative dynamic methods of estimatingthe wind load by calculation have been developed. i.Wind Tunnel Experimental Method Wind tunn el tests to d etermin e lo ad is qu asi stead y f or d etermin ing the static p ressu re distribution on a building. The pressure coefficients so developed are then used in calculatingthe fullscale load through on of the prescribed method. This approach is satisfactory for building whose motion is negligible and therefore has little effect on the wind load.If the building slenderness or flexibility is such that its response to excitation by the energyof the gusts may significantly influence the effective wind load, the wind tunnel test is a

fullydynamic one. In this case, the elastic structural properties and the mass distribution of the building as well as the relevant characteristics of the wind are modeled.Building models for wind tunnel test are constructed with a scale of 1:400 being common(Coull, 1991). Tall buildings typically exhibit a combination of shear and bending behaviour th at h as a fund amen tal sway mo d e co mp rising a f lexu rally sh ap ed lo wer regio n and a relatively linear upper region. This is represented approximately in wind tunnel tests by arigid model with flexurally sprung base. It is not necessary in such a model to represent thedistribution of mass in the building, but only its moment of inertia about the base.The wind characteristics that are generated in the wind tunnel are the vertical profile of thehorizontal velocity, the turbulence intensity and the power spectral density of the longitudinalcomponent, special boundary layer wind tunnels have been designed to generate thosech aracteristics. So me u se long wo rking sections in wh ich th e bound ary layer develops naturally over a rough floor, others shorter ones include grids, fences, or spires at the testsection entrance together with a rough floor, while some activate the boundary layer by jetsor driven flops. The working sections of the tunnel are up to a maximum of about 1.8 sq. m(20 sq.ft) and it operates at atmospheric pressure. 20