e_conservation

the online magazine No. 10, June 2009

Web 2.0: Collaborative Conservation-Restoration?

On June 11th the conservation community received shocking news: Conservation DistList and CoOL (Conservation OnLine) were coming to an end, mainly due to the harsh economic times we are all experiencing. For those who are not aware, ConsDistList is an e-mail distribution list created in 1987, nowadays with just under 10,000 registered users from all around the globe, and CoOL is a resource website online since 1993, both maintained with the support of Stanford University Libraries. In fact, the list has proved to be the most efficient means of world wide communication between conservators up until now. I take the chance to thank Walter Henry, the brain behind this project, for his continuous work and professionalism over the years. Fortunately, soon after Stanford announced the discontinuance of CoOL support, AIC stood up and took the responsibility for both CoOL and ConsDistList, saving this important tool from disappearing. We all are glad that the eminent loss was prevented but it surely raises some questions we should address. The presence of the internet in the last decades has greatly affected our lives, becoming indispensable. ConsDistList is a perfect example of an early collaborative tool that was (and is) still running because it worked effectively. Meanwhile, the internet has evolved and so our perception and use of it. Although I am not apologist of using catchy terms like Web 2.0, I do have to confess it translates well the new paradigm that the internet has come to. And, while we are still struggling to understand what Web 2.0 is, a 3.0 is already on its way. So, what is Web 2.0 and what can it do for conservation-restoration? Web 2.0 is a new approach to internet content that could certainly do more for conservation than what it is doing now. Whilst before the web was dominated by static websites, nowadays we have dynamic content, weblogs, podcasts (a 2.0 term for sound recording files), video broadcasting, dozens of social networks, forums, wikis, RSS feeds, and more recently micro-blogging, CC licensing and so many other tools. Of course, none of these is focused directly on conservation but an enormous potential is out there to build new paradigms. Organisations are now adopting new approaches to their projects. This year, the theme of AICs Annual Meeting was Conservation 2.0 - New Directions and participants had shared their experience online, using tools such as Twitter and blogs. Indeed, the most important advantage that these tools have is the extraordinary ability to allow in real-time free and open dissemination of knowledge. To my understanding, to integrate and profit from the advantages that internet offers to our domain should be the next step of a necessary evolution. The future of conservation-restoration will have a strong online presence, unquestionably based on virtual collaborative tools. Still, it is not that we havent tried before: there are dozens, if not a few hundred initiatives around, like forums or wikis, but an effective collaboration is still to be achieved. There are initiatives that proved successful, like ConsDistList, but there are also dozens of other smaller projects that have failed one way or another in bringing conservator-restorers together into a community until now. So, in the end, we do know that we need these tools and that we have the means to use them. However, I often ask myself what is actually lacking in this equation? The end of ConsDistList and CoOL would have been a shame but perhaps this incident will somehow prove useful. Naturally conservatives, we should raise some concerns about the best ways to profit from these new technologies we literally have in our hands. We should reflect on it, we should discuss it, but most important, we should do something about it. Rui Bordalo Editor in Chief

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editorial

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INDEX

NEWS

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CONFERENCE REVIEWS AURUM: Authentication and Analysis of Gold Work

May 11-13, 2009, Paris, France Review by Ana Bidarra

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SECOND ARP SEMINAR The Practice of Theory. Treatments of Conservation-Restoration

May 29-30, 2009, Lisbon, Portugal Review by Rui Bordalo

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TECHNART 2009 Non-destructive and Microanalytical Techniques in Art and Cultural Heritage
April 27-30, 2009, Athens, Greece Review by Ana Bidarra

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HISTORIA X Contemporary Art Installation, Heritage Exhibition

By DALA Foundation

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ANNOUNCEMENTS UPCOMING EVENTS

August-September 2009

EVENTS ARTICLES

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30

CONSERVATION SCIENCE Innovative Terahertz Spectroscopy and Imaging Technique for Art Conservation Science
By Kaori Fukunaga

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PAINTINGS CONSERVATION Scottish Renaissance Timber Painted Ceilings

By Ailsa Murray

ART HISTORY

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Wooden Churches in Southern Transylvania and Northern Oltenia. Part I

By Ovidiu Danes

HERITAGE IN DANGER
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Trgoviste, Monuments at Risk. The Holy Emperors Constantine and Helen Church
By Oliviu Boldura and Anca Din

new

AURUM Authentication and Analysis of Gold Work

Review by Ana Bidarra

May 11-13, 2009 Louvre Palace Paris, France http://www.aurum.cnrs.fr/ Financial support: C2RMF, the LC2RMF UMR 171 CNRS, the Work package 5 of AUTHENTICO, the MRT Ministre de la Culture et de la Communication, CNRS, the GdR 3174 CNRS ChimArc and Bruker AXS Microanalysis GmbH.

Organisers: The workshop was organised by the Centre of Research and Restoration of the French Museums (C2RMF, Centre de Recherche et de Restauration des Muses de France) and by Work Package 5 of AUTHENTICO, with the support of the French National Centre for Scientific Research (CNRS, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique) and the Research and Technology Department (MRT-Mission de la Recherche et de la Technologie) of the Ministry of Culture and Communication.

AURUM Authentication and analysis of gold work proposed to get together international experts on the production of gold work, on the science-base techniques used for authentication of gold work and also representatives of law enforcement agencies that fight against illicit traffic of cultural heritage objects. The workshop comprised oral presentations invited and regular and poster contributions on the different aspects of ancient gold work production from the exploitation of gold ores to the manufacture of the gold objects and their conservation, restoration and trade, focusing also on the examination and analysis of the objects. More than 100 delegates from 28 countries attended the conference:

Austria, Belgium, Brazil, Bulgaria, Canada, Colombia, Cyprus, Czech Republic, Egypt, France, Greece, Germany, Hungary, Iran, Ireland, Italy, Malta, Mexico, Netherland, Portugal, Romania, Russia, Spain, Tajikistan, Tunisia, United Kingdom and United States of America. During the three days four main sessions covered the different aspects of the gold work study: Questions on the production and circulation of gold work, Scientific techniques of exam and analysis for gold work study, Gold mines and provenance and Gold jewellery, coinages and other artefacts - The Americas, Europe and Egypt. In the last day a special session on forgery, trade and authentication was held as well as a round table on the same subject. A light lunch was served during the three days at the conference facilities and when the weather allowed it was possible to spend the lunch hour at the Carrousel gardens.
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In the first day after the opening remarks by Maria Filomena Guerra and Maria Luisa Vitobello, the morning was dedicated to the first part of the session on Production and circulation of gold work. Alicia Perea, an invited speaker, from Grupo de Investigacon Arqueometal (Madrid) started with a communication entitled Wands in the hand! Or Potters powers. In this presentation several aspects of expertise and validation of gold works were focused, but a particular emphasis in two powerful wands was given: the electron beam microscope/microprobe and ion beam analysis, which includes PIXE, PIGE and RBS methods. The session continued with four communications about the production technology and the art of goldsmithing of several gold objects: the ancient Scythians (7th c. BC), the gold inlaid decoration from the early Sarmatian barrows (5th and 4th c. BC), the gilding of metals in the first millennium AD in the Germanic area and the filigree work of the Tara brooch (700 AD). The afternoon started with the invited speakers Pavlos Flourentzos and Maria Luisa Vitobello presenting a pilot study to help future attribution of a certain historical period production, authentication and anti-fraud measures. The study was focused on the excavated collection of jewellery from a Phoenician tomb at Kition (Cyprus). The afternoon proceeded with a communication about the gold jewellery study from the Koukova tumulus (5th ct. BC) and from the necropolis of Duvanli (Bulgaria), then a technical study and methods of analysis applied to the filigree and granulation in the northern Levant in the 2nd millennium BC was presented and finally a very interesting communication entitled The various interrogations and observations of an archaeologist-restorer working in situ, in gold objects was performed. This was a very interactive approach that raised several questions to the audience, with clear case studies and questions that involved artefacts conservation.
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The second session (Scientific techniques of exam and analysis for gold work study) started with Guy Demortier, invited speaker, and an historical approach to the application of several non destructive techniques using external beams on the investigation of gold artefacts. The external beams that were experimented for the first time in the beginning of the 70s are now frequently used for the characterisation of a wide selection of artefacts. A comparative approach to the use of PIXE, RBS and differential-PIXE was made, focusing on the good performance of differential-PIXE, which allows a better approach to the gold alloys study. The session continued with the presentation of other techniques: X-ray fluorescence (for the analysis of precious metals alloys), U-Th-He dating (to the detect forgeries among ancient gold objects), synchrotron radiation and induced X-ray fluorescence (characterization of ancient gold objects), -XRF, coupled SEM and externalbeam PIXE, X-ray structural analysis of gold and silver and the application of a multi-analytical approach for the identification of technological process in ancient jewels. The presentation of Otto Eugster, invited speaker, Detecting forgeries among ancient gold objects using the U-Th-He dating was based on several studies that are being held by the author to overcome the fact that the authentication of archaeological gold objects is a major problem once gold is probably the most difficult material for detecting modern forgeries, and there is no characteristic patina and sometimes it is impossible to unequivocally recognize forgeries based on manufacturing and decoration characteristics. His work started in 1996 when he used the U-Th-He method to detect forgeries among gold objects. These elements (U and Th) are radioactive and are incorporated into the crystal lattice of the gold. Although a systematic and quantitative study of He, Th and He in a large
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number of ancient and modern gold objects were performed, a final conclusion was far from being achieved since the results presented a large gap of certainty and some inconclusive results. An always interesting topic is the application of synchrotron radiation to the study of art works. In this case, Martin Radtke (BAM) brought an application of The use of synchrotron radiation and induced X-ray fluorescence for the characterization of ancient gold objects. Synchrotron radiation (SR) is among the most versatile tools for characterisation of materials, combining a high spatial resolution with good detection limits essential to the trace elements detection - and the possibility to work in normal atmosphere during the examination of large objects. In nearly all cases measurements with SR are non destructive. During this presentation several questions were raised. The first day ended with a welcome reception in the Louvre laboratories, where the participants had the opportunity to see the particle accelerator AGLAE (Acclrateur Grand Louvre pour lAnalyse lmentaire), to take a look at the C2RMF facilities and to ask some questions about the work that is currently being done. The second day started with a new theme session Gold mines and provenancing. The invited speaker Batrice Cauuet presented a study on the Elites in the Antique industry: supervision of the production and the work in the goldmines of Gallia and Roman Dacia. These goldmines reveal a high technical level and a well organised structure, where mining prospection took place before the opening of mines. The other presentations focused on several studies from different countries in different periods: Gold mining and surviving technologies in French Guyana, Mine8

ralogy and isotope signature of Au-Ag ores exploited during roman times en Alburnus Maior (Rosia Montana, Romania), Gold in Georgia, Caucasus: analytical investigations of gold artefacts and native gold from the Caucasus and Transcaucasus, Gold deposits and the earliest gold objects from Italy and Gold alloys in early southeast Asia. The poster session took place during the lunch break, with more than 20 posters being presented by the authors, covering some of the presented themes. After the lunch break, the 4th session Gold jewellery, coinages and other artefacts - The Americas started with Jean-Franois Bouchard (Archologie des Amriques, UMR 8096 CNRS): The pre-Hispanic jewellery from Tumaco and La Tolita: balance and perspectives. The presentation focused on the scarce documentation regarding the artefacts recovered from these regions and the development of a project that will allow a better study due to the possibility of using a portable and non-destructive equipment. The objects from Tumaco (Colombia) and La Tolita (Equator) are among the most ancient metallurgical productions in South America and like many other objects from these countries they came to light by pillages, which make the study and tracing of these objects a hard task. Other communications came from Mexico, Peru and Panama. After the coffee break, the second part of the session started with Europe and Egypt. Two of the presentations were related to specific objects such as a necklace from Qurneh (Egypt) or the funeral golden masks, rings and sandals from Trebeniste (Macedonia), a broader study about the technological study of gold jewellery from the 17th dynasty in Egypt was also presented. New finds for an old treasure, focused on the
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archeometric study of the new gold objects found in the Phoenician sanctuary of El Carambolo (8th c. BC). A different approach to gold was made in two communications: The illusion of gold: gold imitation in medieval mural paintings and Composition and technology of the gold leaf: the baroque altarpieces in Portuguese northwest. Three Porto altarpieces. The second day ended with a group dinner in a central restaurant in Paris, where some typical specialties were served along with good wine and good talk. In the last day, a special session on forgery, trade and authentication took place. The morning began with three invited speakers: Pieter Meyers (Authenticity studies of ancient gold artefacts), Susan La Niece (Fakes and public collections) and Alberto Deregibus (The Carabinieri Department for the Protection of Cultural Heritage and the

forgery of metal works of art) and ended with a round table on the same subject hosted by Thilo Rehren and Maria Luisa Vitobello and open to the audience. The round table was composed of several specialists from different parts of the world and from different areas museums, police, universities and archaeological institutes. A special attention was given to the necessity to create good legal background concerning the trade and illegal commerce of artworks. After the lunch break the last presentations focused on several themes: Scientific analysis and provenance determination of ancient gold (Ernst Pernicka), Faked ancient jewellery (Edilberto Formigli), gold analysis using LA-ICP-MS, MicroPIXE and Micro-SR-XRF and case studies such as trace analysis of Chinese gold, studies of Romanian gold, gold Thracian applications, gold jewellery from devotional images (Mexico), jewellery from the casket of Maria Pia of Savoy (Portugal) and analysis of gold foils on wall paintings again a different presentation focusing on other application of gold far from sculpture or jewellery. This event was possible due to the professionalism and diligence of Maria Filomena Guerra who made this three day meeting to comprise very interesting contributions, a variety of themes and multidisciplinary specialists from different countries. The ambience was very familiar, fulfilling the workshop aspiration: a learning place where everyone could change ideas and experiences. Furthermore, Paris is always a beautiful place to visit!

Group photo, May 2009 (Elsa Lambert, C2RMF)

About the author: Ana Bidarra has a Degree in Conservation-Restoration and a Master Degree in GeoSciences on white structured pigments for restoration. Currently she is a PhD candidate researching the compositional and technological aspects of gold leaf from Portuguese baroque altarpieces. She works as conservatorrestorer in private practice since 1999.
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SECOND ARP SEMINAR The Practice of Theory Treatments of Conservation-Restoration

Review by Rui Bordalo May 29-30, 2009 Lisbon, Portugal Organiser: ARP - the Professional Association of ConservatorRestorers of Portugal http://www.arp.org.pt/

Following last years initiative, ARP - the Professional Association of Conservator-Restorers of Portugal - organised its second seminar. This years edition was entitled II Jornadas ARP A Prtica da Teoria Tratamentos de Conservao e Restauro (Second ARP Seminar - The Practice of Theory Treatments of Conservation-Restoration) and it was held at the auditorium of the National Museum of Ancient Art (MNAA) in Lisbon on May 29-30, 2009. While last years edition was fully dedicated to the latest scientific research in the field, this years seminar was dedicated to The Practice of Theory where professional members of the association presented case studies of current or past projects and conservation-restoration interventions. Among its main objectives, the seminar aimed to divulge and discuss theories, methodologies and
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treatments of conservation-restoration as well to discuss the role of the professional in the study and protection of Cultural Heritage. The seminar was open to the general public and to other professionals of the field. Attendance was free for members only. During this 2 days seminar 15 presentations were given, organised in 4 sessions with 8 different specialties. The moderators - Isabel Raposo de Magalhes, vice-director of the Institute of Museums and Conservation (IMC), Maria Vlachou, from ICOM-Portugal, and Joo Coroado, director of the Department of Art, Conservation and Restoration of the Polytechnic Institute of Tomar conducted the sessions and moderated the final discussions on the presentations.
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intervention was the display method that had to be found. A new display method was mandatory in order to avoid similar deterioration of the photographs and to allow the landscape to be seen as a single unit. Therefore, a special frame was prepared in Mahogany wood and the photographs were protected by an acrylic sheet, museum protection type (UV filter). This was a simple but very imaginative intervention, with an impressive outcome.
First session discussion panel (from left to right): lia Roldo Constantinople panoramic view, moderator Isabel Raposo de Magalhes (IMC), Joo Paulo Dias Chinese Paintings and Calligraphies, Vasco Antunes and Snia Casquio Photographic Albums.

This type of meeting is the perfect opportunity to share knowledge and experience that other way would not be possible. Conservator-restorers do not have very often such occasion to interact with other professionals and the seminar allowed them not only to follow what projects are being developed in Portugal but also offered participants a demonstration of new materials, new techniques and, even more important, new imaginative solutions to old problems. The first presentation was given by lia Roldo, conservator-restorer of photography in private practice, who presented an interesting intervention on a panoramic view of Constantinople dated from 1895. The albumen photographs were maintained in an original album but when put side by side the view had 3.42 meters long. The degradation state of the album was due to a flood that occurred in the owners house, which justified this emergency intervention. The photographs were affected by the water, being all covered by mud and also showing signs of deterioration at the edges due to the album closing system. As much important as the conservation-restoration
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In the same area, Vasco Antunes and Snia Casquio, both conservator-restorers in private practice, introduced their work project on the treatment of 16 albums from the Art Library of the Calouste Gulbenkian Foundation. After the initial diagnostic procedure, the authors established a workflow that included the disassembly of the works, cleaning, consolidation, planification, digitalisation, protection and assembly. Some examples of the most significant phases were given. Personally, I found very interesting the conception and the construction of the custom-made archival cases that will allow the correct protection of the documents while in storage at the Library. An impressive intervention was the one presented by Catarina Alarco, conservator-restorer at the National Museum Machado de Castro in Coimbra. The object of this intervention is the Lord's Supper, a set of 13 life size clay sculptures that were made by the sculptor Philippe Hodart in 15301534 for the Refectory of the Monastery of Santa Cruz in Coimbra. During time, the sculptures suffered severe degradation due to the human factor, especially in the 19th century, resulting in their mutilation and the separation in pieces. In 1997, they were detached in hundreds of small and unordered fragments. The intervention of conservation-restoration started in 2002 and has been since then a continuous work for the team. Beyond the initial study, the work included the
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Second session discussion panel (from left to right): Andr Varela Remgio Sanctuary Relicars, Elsa Murta The use of wax-resin in golden surfaces, moderator Joo Coroado (IPT), Catarina Alarco The Last Supper, by Hodart and Ins Coutinho Large Jar and Glass Vase.

removal of wood supports, cement, gypsum and fibbers from the sculptures. On a personal note, I was impressed with the complex interior metal structure, almost like a true skeleton, made by the conservators in order to provide the necessary structural integrity to each of the sculptures. The work is still on progress. Another impressive intervention was the one performed by Andr Varela Remgio, conservatorrestorer in private practice, to a set of 58 Baroque reliquaries, namely 48 busts and 10 arms, belonging to the Alcobaa Monastery (Mosteiro de Santa Maria de Alcobaa), one of the most important national monasteries and World Heritage Site since 1989. These polychrome clay sculptures are part of an even bigger set that are located in the sanctuary. Part of it (89 reliquaries) had been restored before by Instituto Jos de Figueiredo in the 80s. The current intervention aimed to the continuation of the past work and to the maintenance of the set. The complex reassembling procedure of the reliquaries in the retable was explained, including statues with 2 meters height and 1 ton weight.
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Carlos Costa, conservator-restorer in private practice, introduced the audience to the intervention he performed on Mudjar ceilings. The Mudjar art is the art made by Muslims that stayed in the Iberian Peninsula after the Reconquista, flourished between the 12th and 16th centuries. Mudjar art has little representation in Portugal, unlike Spain, justifying the importance of this intervention. This ceiling is constituted by a series of panels made in the late 15th century and was originally part of the Romanesque Old Cathedral of Coimbra (S Velha) but was removed in 1911. The panels are now part of the National Museum Machado de Castro where they were adapted to the new building. Inserted in a museum context, the author discussed his intervention approach as well as ethical issues and modus operandi due to the required adaptation. One of my favourite presentations for its simplicity but high interest was given by Lus Figueira, conservator-restorer in private practice. The subject of his presentation was the construction of wooden stretchers for paintings, a subject not often discussed in conferences. In regular paintings, which are normally square or rectangular, the canvas tension is easily controlled by the stretcher. However, when the painting has an irregular shape, the tension is much more difficult to control through the stretcher. In this case, a custom-made dynamic frame has to be built to substitute the original, usually static. The presentation summarised the last 10 years of experience with a carpenter specialised in the construction of stretchers, giving plenty of examples of their careful preparation for paintings. These were just some examples from among many other interesting presentations given during this seminar. For those interested to read the papers, e-conservation magazine will publish the postprints in a special section of the next editions.
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TECHNART 2009 Non-destructive and Microanalytical Techniques in Art and Cultural Heritage
Review by Ana Bidarra April 27-30, 2009 Athens, Greece National Hellenic Research Foundation

Organisers: The Institute of Nuclear Physics at NCSR Demokritos (Athens) and the Institute of Electronic Structure and Laser at FORTH (Heraklion, Crete) Financial support: NCSR Demokritos, European X-Ray Spectrometry Association, Acutech Ltd., Amptek Inc., Analytical Instruments S.A., Anelis E.E., Bruker AXS, Forth Photonics, Innov-X Systems, Horiba Scientific, Renishaw and Rigaku.

Technart 2009 proposed to present and promote the use of the state-of-the-art analytical techniques in the field of cultural heritage, offering an opportunity to exchange knowledge on the latest advances in analytical instrumentation, methodology and application. Particle (neutrons and ions) and photon probes, generated in large infrastructures, bench-top or even mobile instruments, but also mass spectrometry and separation techniques, implemented separately or in a combined and synergistic methodology, offer nowadays a unique mean for advanced and non-destructive characterisation, imaging and remote sensing of cultural heritage materials. The contributions highlighted these new developments and the multidisciplinary character on the emerging field of analytical techniques in cultural heritage, presenting studies of objects and materials in the context of archaeology, art history and conservation science. Technart 2009 followed the previous organisation of Technart 2007 in Lisbon, Portugal. The next edition will take place in Berlin, Germany in 2011.
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More than 150 delegates, 11 invited speakers and 51 regular speakers from different countries attended the four days conference. Additionally, more than 100 posters were presented in two sessions. Selected contributions will be published in a special issue of Analytical Biochemical Chemistry (ABC). During the intense four days, eleven main sessions covered different aspects of non-destructive and microanalytical techniques in art and cultural heritage: Innovative techniques & methodologies, Confocal X-ray microanalysis and imaging, Optics and lasers, Neutrons, Synchrotron radiation, Diagnostic techniques and conservation, Mobile spectroscopy, Organic materials, Combined non-destructive techniques, Sensing and spectroscopy and X-ray microanalysis and complementary techniques. On the first day the opening remarks were made by Andreas-Germanos Karydas and Demetrios Anglos. The first session Innovative techniques & methodologies started with G. Demortier and
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a polemic presentation entitled The construction of the big monuments in ancient Egypt: new insight from elemental and structural analyses, focusing on the Chops pyramid and the construction technique applied: the use of limestone aggregates. The following invited speaker, B. Kanngieer, presented a work about the application of confocal X-ray microscopy on the study of art and cultural heritage using 3D micro-XRF and micro-PIXE analysis combined, with experimental features focusing on the possibilities and restrictions of both methods. The next speaker, R. J. Clark focused on the application of Raman microscopy to several art and historical works such as codex, painting, archaeological finds, stuccoes, manuscripts, ceramics or miniatures, showing many examples of pigment analysis and how this technique made such an impact on different areas. The last invited speaker was I. Nakai with the communication On site analysis of artefacts excavated from Egypt by using newly developed portable diffractometer and fluorescence spectrometer. The speaker brought a case study about the use of this instrument in the analysis of blue pigments from ancient Egypt; the results revealed the existence of two different pigments: Egyptian blue and cobalt blue. Regarding the first session other contributions were made focusing on various techniques applied to several materials: neutron imaging (renaissance bronzes), X-ray tomographic spectroscopy (paint cross-sections), fluorescence and vibrational spectroscopy (natural varnishes), nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy (molecular characterization of organic compounds) and automated eXpert spectral image analysis (AXSIA) multispectral imaging (ancient manuscripts). Two other presentations were made focusing on the use of combined techniques in the analysis of craft large bronzes masterpieces and the analysis of painting techniques and conservation of wall paintings.
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The second session Confocal X-ray microanalysis and imaging included three presentations: Nondestructive, depth resolved investigation of historical glass objects by 3D micro X-ray fluorescence analysis X-ray tube and synchrotron radiation measurements, 3D imaging with a confocal PIXE arrangement and 3D micro-XRF analysis of ancient Attic black glazed ceramics. The first method enables a three-dimension resolved, nondestructive investigation of elemental distribution in samples in the micrometer regime while the second method allows, in principle, the determination of 3D concentration distributions down to a micron spatial resolution, which can be applied to the study of samples such as pictorial layers, gemstones inclusions or glazed ceramics. The first day ended with Poster Session I - with 50 posters being presented - regarding case studies of the conference themes. After the poster session a welcome reception was offered by the organising committee. Identification and topography of pigments and varnishes by different optical techniques by M. Elias was the second days first presentation of the session Optics and lasers. The study was based on the need of a non-destructive, contact-

A view from the poster session.

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less and portable method that leads to results in real-time, allowing the simultaneous identification of pigments and varnishes in the same instrument. Several examples were showed such as the study of Gioconda, imaging of varnished violins or stratified pictorial layers. The results in real time are an important help for restorers who can choose the location of the analysis and repeat it at will. The following communications were on the application of terahertz time-domain-spectroscopy (THz-TDS) in art particularly, in the analysis of painting materials, the study of red lakes in wall paintings by Masolino, the compositional depthprofiles of excavated marble patinas and its use in authenticity investigations and the multifunctional encoding system for assessment of movable cultural heritage. The session on Neutrons had three speakers that presented studies on Japanese artworks of Tokugawa age, on the content of ancient Tibetan metallic Buddha statues and on archaeological objects using neutron diffraction, neutron transmission radiography and a combination of prompt gamma activation imaging (PGAI) and neutron radiography-tomography (NR/NT). W. Kockelmann, invited speaker, made a presentation on non-destructive neutron analysis at ISIS (UK) focusing on the characterisation of metal objects. The main advantage of this technology is the extraction of the element, phase and microstructural information from an intact object. The afternoon started with the session on Synchrotron radiation and the presentation entitled Combined use of X-ray milli and microprobes for non-destructive analysis of large cultural heritage artifacts. K. Janssens, invited speaker, brought a case study on Van Goghs paint Patch of grass. The performed exams revealed that most elements found corresponded to the pigments on the top layer but two elements were directly related to a
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covered area. This exam allows to obtain information about burial layers in a non-destructive manner. The following presentations were on the study of the Dead Sea scrolls, Italian armours and Celtic ceramic sherds. After the coffee break started the 6th session on Diagnostic techniques in conservation with presentations on indoor museum environment and its impact on complex organic materials, the use of near infrared spectroscopy to characterise historic silks, a study on roman rostrum and a combined application of energy dispersive X-ray fluorescence (EDXRF) and Fourier transformed infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) to the study of archaeological artworks from Crete, in order to identify pigments from Hellenistic figurines, to characterize Late Minoan metallic finds, to analyse mortars and plasters from Minoan to Turkish domination period and to assess the efficiency of stone consolidating agents. The day ended with a guided tour through the city of Athens and to the Acropolis. A. Markowickz started the third day with a lecture entitled The IAEA activities related to applications of nuclear analytical techniques for characterization and protection of cultural heritage objects. The International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) provides support in applications of nuclear analytical techniques in the field of cultural heritage through coordinated research projects, technical cooperation projects, training and development of prototype instruments. The session on Mobile Spectroscopy continued during the first part of the morning and the first part of the afternoon with several presentations: Quantitative X-ray fluorescence analyse of an Egyptian faience pendant and comparison with PIXE, Novel extensions of pulsed Raman and laser induced breakdown spectroscopy (LIBS) in art conservation, A novel portable XRF spectrometer: first application to a gilded bronze from the Florence baptis15

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tery, A portable, vacuum-chamber equipped XRF-instrument, designed for the sophisticated needs of the KHM, Vienna, A combined use of FORS, XRF and Raman spectroscopy in the study of mural paintings in the Aosta Valley (Italy) and Micro-XRF and LIBS analysis of gilded bronze figurines at the National Archaeological Museum of Damascus. The main idea, besides the application of non-destructive techniques in the analysis of art works, was also the need of a reliable, versatile and practical instrumentation that can be used in situ, without any sample preparation. Some comparisons were made between PIXE and XRF, showing similarly accuracy of the results. The XRD technique can be applied for the mineralogical characterisation of materials; generally the technique is applied with non-transportable instruments, limiting the field of application to small dimension objects or the need to collect samples in objects that can not be transferred to laboratories. The presentation of F. P. Romano brought the latest results on the non-destructive portable XRD system that has been upgraded in LANDIS laboratories and applied in the characterisation of ancient pigments in Roman frescoes. Since ancient times, a wide variety of natural organic materials have been used as adhesives, sealants, painting and coating materials. Proteins, oils, gums, natural resins and resinous materials have intrinsic properties that enable them to be used not only as painting materials, adhesives, hydro-repellent coatings and sealing agents, but also as flavours, incense, ingredients for cosmetics, medicine and mummification balms. This was the introduction to the second morning session on Organic materials by M. P. Colombini with a very interesting presentation on Macromolecules in art and archaeology. The study of these materials is a hard task due to the complexity of their chemical composition, the use in mixtures, the change of the chemical composition and the
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M. P. Colombini, Macromolecules in art and archaeology.

degradation due to ageing. The lecture reviewed the most significant results obtained by the application of analytical procedures, mainly based on mass spectrometry techniques, to painting and archaeological samples. The other presentations were focused on the study of egg-tempera and oil on canvas in Post-Byzantine period, the identification of protein media used in coloured glazes on silver leaf, the characterisation and deterioration of parchment and a comparative study on the extraction methods for the analysis of natural dyes in historical textiles. The afternoon started with the second part of the Mobile spectroscopy session and ended with four presentations on Combined non-destructive techniques focusing on the combined use of optical microscopy, X-ray diffraction and X-ray fluorescence on the study of tesserae from
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non-invasive identification of organic materials in wall paintings and the composition, identification and thickness of different lining glues used in paintings using non-linear measurements. The second session focused on the study of Venetian-type glass from Lezha (Albania), glass beads from Thebes (Greece), a bronze statue (Croatian Apoxiomenos) discovered in the North Adriatic sea in 1999, the silver analysis of coins from the hoard of Bein and the non-destructive determination of the silver content in Roman coins dated 308-311 A.D. During the four-day conference and after many presentations, the lecture on the Croatian Apoxiomenos bronze statue by D. Mudronja, was probably one of the most interesting lectures, focusing not only on the laboratorial studies necessary to material characterisation and art history approach but also on the seek to define an accurate methodology for the statues conservation and restoration. It was a clear and practical application of science to art. The statue was found in the sea with the majority of the surface being covered with a layer of corrosion products and organic limestone. These deposits protected the bronze from electro-chemical deterioration although the back of the statue that was buried in the sand revealed a large corroded area. After the desalinisation process, the restoration and conservation started in 2000 and was completed in 2005. During all this process an extensive investigation that included many physical and chemical methods was carried out. The afternoon started with M. L. Carvalho and a communication entitled -EDXRF and XRD on lead-based glazes. The investigation intends to be an initial output for the results expected for lead-based glazes, since the complete study will be extended to ancient faiences fragments from
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M. L. Carvalho, -EDXRF and XRD on lead-based glazes.

mosaics, the use of micro-XRF and Raman spectroscopy for non-invasive analysis of art works, the use of ionoluminescence to characterise lapis lazuli provenance and the use of a diamond cell for FTIR characterisation of binding and pigments in contemporary paintings. Poster Session II ended the third day sessions, with other 50 posters being presented by the authors. The day ended with a gala dinner in a restaurant in the centre of Athens. The fourth and last day was dedicated to Sensing and spectroscopy and Ion-beam analysis and complementary techniques in the morning and X-ray microanalysis and complementary techniques in the afternoon. G. Karagiannis presented a study on Non-destructive identification of art objects using multispectral images and spectra combined with acoustic microscopy. This technique is based on the combination of acoustic microscopy and diffuse reflectance spectroscopy and imaging from the ultraviolet up to the mid infrared area of the spectrum (UV/VIS/nIR/mIR). The final result is material mapping images for the upper layer and the existing under layers. Two more studies were presented regarding the
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CONFERENCE REVIEW

Coimbra (Portugal) from the 16th to 19th centuries. The analysis of the elemental and compositional profile will allow the attribution of the manufacturing technique, since there are still some doubts regarding the date and place of production, e.g. Coimbras production is often attributed to Lisbon. Apart from this study several other applications of -EDXRF were presented. The final communications of the last session were on the application of X-ray micro-analysis in outdoor copper monuments, glazed ceramics, Indonesian paintings and copper-based pigments. The final remarks were made by some of the members of the international scientific committee and the local organising committee. For those who could stay another day, Friday was reserved to a one day cruise in the islands near the coast. As a final note, it should be highlighted the perfect organisation of the conference and the social events. Despite the high number of participants, the majority were physicists and chemists and for a conference that aimed to promote the bridge between art and science the presence of historians, archaeologists, conservators and restorers was rather scarce, maybe because many of the presentations were too focused on technological aspects of the equipments or maybe the purpose of some studies is yet far from a concrete and practical application. The reading of the abstracts (already online) and the future articles is strongly recommended.

The News section is publishing diverse information on cultural heritage topics, such as on-site conservation projects reports, conferences, lectures, talks or workshops reviews, but also course reviews and any other kind of appropriate announcements. If you are involved in interesting projects and you want to share your experience with everybody else, please send us your news or announcements. For more details, such as deadlines and publication guidelines, please visit www.e-conservationline.com

About the author: Ana Bidarra has a Degree in Conservation-Restoration and a Master Degree in GeoSciences on white structured pigments for restoration. Currently she is a PhD candidate researching the compositional and technological aspects of gold leaf from Portuguese baroque altarpieces. She works as conservatorrestorer in private practice since 1999.

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NEWS

HISTORIA X Contemporary Art Installation, Heritage Exhibition

23 April 7 May 2009 Bucharest, Romania The former Central Military Bakery Factory Organiser: DALA Foundation http://www.dala.ro http://historiaxproject.blogspot.com/ Curators, on-site research: Ovidiu Danes and Petruta Vlad On-site research (Oltenia): Luiza Zamora, colaborator Visual artists: Lea Raszovsky, Dan Condurache, Dimitris Palade Photographer: Sorin Onisor Writer: Chris Tanasescu Wall designer: Ergo

HISTORIA X exhibition, a hybrid between contemporary art and cultural heritage, has brought to light the two-year long research of DALA foundation on 18th -19th century wooden churches from southern Transylvania and northern Oltenia. The event took place between 23 April - 7 May 2009 and proposed a new approach to cultural heritage management: the project was shown for the first time to the public as a silent motion picture revealing the on-site research and inventory made by the foundation. Projected as a contemporary art installation, the exhibition made use of more visual languages, such as photography and urban architecture rehabilitation. The event also combined the visual experience with workshops on architecture, art history, conservation, folklore and literature, which took place on the entire period, bringing together important speakers from the culture sector and the public. The industrial space of the former Central Military Factory was given a new function, being restored into an expositional space and reconsidered as an urban industrial heritage. Apparently, between the ruins of the wooden churches and the ruins of the Military Factory there are no similarities. Rural patrimony and urban industrial patrimony are two very different
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forms of culture that express two parallel ways of living. There is no difference, however, between the deserting of the village churches and the deserting of the Military Factory. This was the central focus of the dialog proposed by HISTORIA X the re-evaluation of the heritage condition in Romania at the beginning of the 21st century.
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NEWS

Wooden church, dated as of 1757, Popesti commune, Valcea county. Fresco on wood; condition: disastrous. High quality painting, severely affected by the buildings structure shortcomings and by the improvised rooftop cladding. Emergency repairs needed: replacement of the present roof, vertical systemizing, replacement of present buttresses. A dazzling light comes in through the Imperial Doors and through the southern window. A chandelier hangs wryly and totally out of place against the northern wall, the flat wooden floors are unfurnished and a broom was left leaning against the wall covered with saints paintings.

Those are only two instances of certain ways to understand history. There are a number of X ways and X methods to recount History or, for that matter, an X number of histories. Between archival memory and poetic enthusiasm it is hard to find a place for genuine patrimony approaching thought. Between fabricating an identity by declaring history a patrimony object and the pleasure of contemplating a patrimonialized object, a harder and harder to understand gap is opening. That quibbling between watching and writing as well as between contemplating and recording runs
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through the whole of western thinking, no matter if it is about philosophy, art history or patrimony theory. The conceptual inconsistency between those two verbs becomes even more apparent and poignant when the subject matter we deal with consists of an object of worship. When we decide to patrimonialize the church, which should be morphologically speaking a plain activity, we actually patrimonialize humanity. When we place a sign post that reads MUSEUM between the sacred and the people we tear apart a transcendent connection. Such action bears a twofold significance. First of all we are presented with a secularizing of the church, which aims at building up a
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NEWS

new, purely intellectual relationship to it. The choice made between to see and to write becomes crucial at this time. The aesthetic attitude typical of all museal work and, consequently, of any patrimonializing activity, leaves no room for verbalizing. Mute contemplation, the simple pleasure of measuring and analyzing proportions, colors, etc. of the object at hand are, in extremity, instances of musealization. The entering of such objects into certain repertoires and inventories become secondary activities, facts that come naturally as a sequel to that will to preserving the object as such for its beauty only. Amassing data turns that object into a mere piece of information. Archives swarm with such records, thickly intricate bibliographies, conferences and thinktanks focused on that subject, where both professional and amateurish researchers meet to carry on that titanic work. The results are more than often catastrophic: once that record has been completed and published the topic is forgotten for a while and the plethoric discourse gets to drown the object itself. What is then there left of that object, of the church we can no longer enter the way we used to, of the object that we now reinvest with a sacred value that comes under a different disguise, intellectual for sure, in a mode at the same time more profound and shallower as well? That dichotomy represents only one of the patrimonys paradoxes: to preserve in order to get to know better, to know better in order to establish what is and what is not to be preserved. Two activities that merge and thus make it impos-

sible for us to tell which one comes first. But what happens when we do not even do that, for one thing? When the monument churches are so many that we decide to not even cast a look on them, and we no longer patrimonialize anything? The HISTORIA X exhibition comes along as the result of an inventory. How many of the 19th century wooden churches in southern Transylvania and northern Oltenia recorded as patrimony B are visitable nowadays? How many of them have survived being patrimonialized, since once intellectually resacralized they were completely forsaken? To exhibit, to show or to disclose are verbs that define such a challenge. A mute exhibition where the churches have showed up naked in the full splendor of their dereliction. This exhibition thus proves a certain vocation one can read as romantic, a spellbinding opportunity for a historians or artists mind to contemplate the pasts ruins and indulge in the deception that they who, after a spell of silence, rediscover that site are its only rightful owners. An illusion historians shall entertain for quite a while yet. The life of those monuments is actually the life of the communities that begot them. Behind them there is nothing more or less than an honest approach: the will to survive by building up an identity, an idea that us, nave historians, have neglected for so long a period of time. Our question wavers between to see and to remember, between to know how to see and how to re-

NEWS

member. How should we approach that patrimony? Within that theoretical oscillation between to (de)scribe and to see the art object, the concept of patrimony itself is linked to the interpretation one. Seen as an art in Hans-Georg Gadamers outlook or, later on, a science, according to Jurgen Habermas, interpretation represents for museums a technique and a rational principle. A certain patrimony is the result of an interpretation through which we render history, and an exhibition an interpretative discourse addressed to our viewers. The twofold vocation half scientific and half artistic secures a privileged place among other history methods, for in spite of all debates, history remains an abstract concept around which the objectivity boundary becomes more and more fragile. A short example in that respect is the concept of "abandonment". Certain peoples typically patrimonialize excessively by recording things into archives and by displaying in museums the most meager traces of the past, from a notary public document stating the foundation of the cathedral that towers that city to the worn out shoe of an early medieval royal figure and from a pre-Christian relic to the recent bus ticket with the Olympic Games sign printed on it. To other peoples such approaches would seem ridiculous, especially those peoples that use a liturgical object only for one procession and than throw it away, as well as those who preserve only accidentally the architectural vestiges that are more than two or three centuries old.

Those are cultural differences that cover huge geographical areas. In Europe, for instance, the penchant for patrimonializing is almost a definition of the typical way of life and at the same time, maybe the main feature of that culture. Where and how does that idea of abandonment loom on the horizon as another way of life within this tight European area? It is too deep a question to some people but completely irrelevant to others. The exhibition HISTORIA X does not undertake to answer that question but simply to ask it, and thus

NEWS

relinquish to come up with any interpretation key to the abandonment related values. HISTORIA X is not an interpretation in any way art and society museums have usually presented us with, and it is nor a protest neither a manifesto. The exhibition HISTORIA X is an enumeration, a sequence of pieces of information, an inventory meant to demonstrate that abandonment in Romanian culture plays an alienating effect, that forsaking the cult objects annihilates history and that, moreover and maybe most relevantly, historical information is best translated into images rather than into words and numbers. How are the 19th century Romanian village wooden churches recorded in the history archives and what is their actual condition nowadays, on site? What is the spiritual life of those villages at the turn of the 21st century, as bereft of those churches?

We will probably never know what they initially looked like, how and who built them? But we do know that they are the result of communal work put up by wood-cutters, carpenters, and anonymous peasant painters and we do know that they are the illustration of a certain local spirituality and an identity trademark. We know that those peasant painters also passed away anonymously and that what they left behind was to some people regrets and nostalgia, and to others just cold indifference. How do we put up with the loss, who are we going to turn into when they are completely gone? Despite its stated neutrality, HISTORIA X is not an innocent exhibition. The site and its appearance put together a discourse that dismisses any possible subtle interpretation, by making two different conditions of patrimonialization in early 21st century confront each other: urban industrial patrimony versus rural patrimony. As a contradictory and contrasting choice it cannot but open an avenue for new debates and interpretations we are all invited to involve in. The former Central Military Bakery Factory founded in 1877 has meanwhile fallen into ruin. The pictures of those derelict churches hosted by the abandoned bakery factory halls stand for a forced interpretation of patrimony. Their conjunction is an act of visual violence.

NEWS

FORTHCOMING PUBLICATION Conservation: Principles, Dilemmas, and Uncomfortable Truths

across subjects and disciplines. By wrestling with and offering ways of disentangling the ethical dilemmas confronting those who maintain and sustain cultural heritage for today and tomorrow, Conservation: Principles, Dilemmas, and Uncomfortable Truths provides an essential reference text for conservation professionals, museum and heritage professionals, art and cultural historians, lecturers and students, and all others invested in cultural heritage theories and practices". The publication of the book will be followed by a two-day symposium on the same subject, organised by The Royal Academy of Arts, to take place in London on 24-25 September 2009.

Editors: Alison Richmond, Alison Bracker Publisher: Elsevier Science & Technology Imprint: Butterworth-Heinemann Ltd ISBN-13: 978-0-7506-8201-5 ISBN-10: 0-7506-8201-9 Pages: 236 Publication Date: September 2009 A new book on conservation principles is going to be published in September 2009 by Butterworth-Heinemann. The book, edited by Alison Richmond and Alison Bracker, gathers contributions of highly regarded professionals of the conservation field. According to the publisher, "Conservation: Principles, Dilemmas, and Uncomfortable Truths presents multi-perspective critical analyses of the ethics and principles that guide the conservation of works of art and design, archaeological artefacts, buildings, monuments, and heritage sites on behalf of society. Contributors from the fields of philosophy, sociology, history, art and design history, museology, conservation, architecture, and planning and public policy address a wide range of conservation principles, practices, and theories from the US, Canada, Europe, Australia and New Zealand, encouraging the reader to make comparisons
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CALL FOR SUBMISSIONS

e_conservation magazine is open to articles submission on a wide range of topics relevant for the cultural heritage sector. Next deadlines for submissions are: For Issue 12, October 2009 submissions due 1st September 2009 For Issue 13, December 2009 - submissions due 1st November 2009 Nevertheless, you can always submit your manuscript when it is ready. Between the receival of the manuscript until the final publication may pass up to 3 months according with: - the number of the manuscripts on hold, submitted earlier by other authors - the release date of the upcoming issue - the pre-allocated space in the magazine to each section Please check our publication guidelines for more information.
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The events in this section are linked to the original homepage of the organisers or to the calendar of events at www.conservationevents.com. Click on "Read more..." to find out more details about each event.

Physical and Chemical Methods in Archaeology, Art and Cultural Heritage Conservation
Date: 16 August Place: Cancun, Mexico The objective of this joint symposium is to present and to discuss the most recent and new Latin-American researches for the study of the cultural heritage and the historical past using the most diverse techniques and scientific methodologies, including non destructive methods, nuclear techniques and ion beam accelerators, optical and electronic microscopy, imaging techniques, experimental archaeology, archaeo-magnetism and paleo-magnetism, all kind of chemical methods, dating, deterioration studies and conservation procedures. Read more...

Roman Ceramics and Conservation: a Hands-on Experience August 2009

Date: 27 July - 21 August Place: Lisbon, Portugal In this course, students will be presented the theoretic basis of practical conservation of archaeological objects and given an introduction into ceramic wares while being closely instructed and supervised by both a ceramicist and professional conservationist. All activities developed during the course of the program and conducted by the students, will be documented photographically and annotated for the posterity of the restored pieces and for the benefit of students portfolios. Read more...

3rd International Conference on Remote Sensing in Archaeology

Date: 17-21 August Place: Tamil Nadu - Tiruchirappalli, India The conference will discuss a wide range of perspectives, approaches and issues on the use of remote sensing and digital technologies in documenting, analyzing and interpreting archaeological and anthropological contexts. Read more...

IUPAC 2009 - Heritage Science Symposium: Chemistry Solutions

Date: 27 August Place: Glasgow, UK Theme: Analysis and Detection This symposium offers the opportunity to make the significance of Heritage Science and its relationship with many of the mainstream science disciplines clear to a wider scientific community. It will feature a keynote lecture by Dr. Jan Wouters, a chemist with wide experience in the field and publications that have contributed significantly both to art-historical understanding and to improved conservation processes. Read more...

CIMCIM 2009 conference

Date: 6-12 September Place: Italy, Florence and Rome The conference is trying to offer a critical perspective as wide as possible of the present role of musical instruments in the idea of national heritage. To this aim the sessions will deal with public display, preservation and legal protection of musical instruments. Papers will focus on the following subjects: New museums and innovative presentation of musical instruments; New methods of scientific analysis aimed at the preservation and conservation of musical instruments; Legal status and protection of musical instruments. Read more...

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EVENTS

8th International Conference on Archaeological Prospection September 2009

Mmoire du sol, Espace des hommes
Date: 9-12 September Place: Paris, France The conference intends to offer a global vision of the relationships between the environment and human settlement. Study of the environment is effectively inseparable from a study of an archaeological site: the study of water supply, contriol of natural ressources, soil evolution and landscape history allow us to restore the environmental but also the economic and social context of human occupation. Read more...

Studying Old Master Paintings Technology and Practice

The National Gallery Technical Bulletin 30th Anniversary Conference
Date: 16-18 September Place: London, UK The central theme of the Conference will be all subjects relating to the technical study of Old Master paintings and the history and technology of painting materials and techniques, research topics which have been the focus of the National Gallery Technical Bulletin over the last thirty years. The overall programme of papers should prove of interest to conservators, curators, art-historians and scientists working in the heritage and museum fields. Read more...

Medieval Colours: Between Beauty and Meaning

Date: 10-11 September Place: Lisbon, Portugal The conference is dedicated to the study of colour in medieval manuscript illuminations, for a better knowledge, access and conservation of this centenary heritage. It will focus on issues such as technical studies and history of manuscript illuminations. An optional workshop on the practice of medieval illumination will be organized (9 September). The topics presented will be of interest to conservators, curators, art-historians and scientists. Read more...

RAA2009 - 5th International Congress on the Application of Raman Spectroscopy in Art and Archaeology
Date: 14-18 September Place: Bilbao, Spain The scientific programme will include all applications and studies performed with Raman spectroscopy on Cultural Heritage and related materials. The conference offers an outstanding and unique opportunity for exchanging knowledge on leading edge developments. Cultural Heritage studies are interpreted in a broad sense, including, amongst others, pigments, inks, new materials, gemstones, stones, precious stones, glass, ceramics, chemometrics on artwork studies, palaeontology, resins, fibers, forensic applications in art and archaeology, industrial archaeology, etc. In the present edition of the International Congress on the Application of Raman Spectroscopy in Art and Archaeology, applications of Raman spectroscopy on the study of the contamination affecting the Cultural Heritage (decaying, corrosion, etc.) , will be highlighted. Read more...

VIII Jornada de Restauracin y Conservacin del Patrimonio 2009

Date: 10-11 September Place: Buenos Aires, Argentina Los pases de Iberoamrica poseen un rico y diversificado patrimonio tangible correspondiente a diferentes pocas de su historia as como a distintos tipos funcionales y tecnolgicos. El creciente deterioro a que se ven sometidos por diversas causas los edificios, sitios y bienes heredados de generaciones anteriores, llev a la toma de conciencia acerca de la necesidad de su preservacin. Read more...

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EVENTS

LACONA 8 September 2009

Date: 21-25 September Place: Sibiu, Romania The conference will gather professionals involved in projects on laser equipment and applications for artwork conservation. It will include presentations on the following topics: Laser cleaning of monuments and artifacts - innovations, case studies, evaluations; Laser based techniques for analysis and diagnostics; Imaging, 3D documentation and modelling; Optoelectronic devices and sensors; Laser for monitoring of environmental conditions; Projects, Networks, Education; Safety and health aspects. Read more...

Water and Paper: Conservation Principles

Date: 25-26 September Place: Vienna, Austria The topic of this lecture, given by Hildegard Homburger and Doris Muller-Hess, is the interaction between cellulose and water, that influences the behaviour of the paper and it's ability to absorb and desorb water. Various treatment methods of humidification and washing and drying techniques will be demonstrated and discussed. Read more...

Documentation in the XXI Century: Connecting Cultural Heritage Information

Date: 27 September - 1 October Place: Santiago de Chile, Chile Read more...

Conserving Public and Private Collections

AICCM National Conference 2009
Date: 21-25 September Place: Fremantle, WA, Australia The conference will cover the range of issues that conservators face when working on collections: private, public or as part of collaborative projects. Topics may include: conservation treatments, scientific analysis, and/or conservation, curatorial, and management issues raised when conserving cultural material in public or private hands. Read more...

CIDOC2009 will be focused on cultural heritage information connectivity. Museum specialists and researchers know that collection documentation is the most effective way of preserving cultural heritage and information about objects. The challenge is for museum professionals to link their information with that created by other institutions. To what extent can current documentation initiatives draw together the different strands of cultural heritage data? That is the real challenge that we face in the 21st Century.

Conservation: Principles, dilemmas and uncomfortable truths

Date: 24-25 September Place: London, UK The symposium seeks to re-examine conservation principles, theories, and taboos regarding art, artefacts, buildings, monuments and sites, human remains, natural history, the arts and antiquities markets, and cultural heritage institutions within the context of the changing global economic and environmental climate of the early 21st century. Read more...

7th North American Textile Conservation Conference

Date: 30 September - 3 October Place: Quebec, Canada NATCC will focus on topics relating to the conservation of 3-D textiles: case studies of treatments; innovative uses of materials; conservation initiatives and policy; and cultural and ethical concerns. Subjects include, but are not limited to, costumes and accessories; upholstery; fiber art; needlework; ethnographic and archaeological objects. Read more...

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September 2009

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article

Innovative Terahertz Spectroscopy and Imaging Technique for Art Conservation Science
By Kaori Fukunaga

Terahertz (THz) spectroscopy and imaging are emerging techniques for non-invasive analysis. THz waves can penetrate opaque materials and fingerprint spectra appear as those in infrared bands. Various THz imaging systems have been developed to detect concealed weapons, illegal drugs, and defects in materials. Several attempts have been made to analyse artworks by reflection and/or transmission. To encourage the activities, we have developed a spectral database of painting materials including traditional mineral pigments. Time domain reflection imaging uses THz pulses that propagate in specimens, and in this technique, pulses reflected from the internal boundaries of the specimen indicate the internal structure nondestructively. Examples of THz spectra of various art materials and their mixtures, and some imaging results including the first ever non-invasive cross-section image of a tempera masterpiece by Giotto were introduced. These results prove that THz imaging can yield useful information for the art conservation science.

INNOVATIVE TERAHERTZ SPECTROSCOPY

Introduction Terahertz (THz) spectroscopy and imaging are emerging techniques in the field of optics research and they have been used as solutions in security problems; drug detection in envelopes is one such application [1-4]. THz imaging can be performed either by the transmission or reflection of THz waves and the internal structure can be observed non-invasively. Moreover, the 3D internal structure can be obtained if necessary. There have been several attempts to analyse paintings using THz spectroscopy [5]. We have proved that THz spectroscopy can distinguish pigments with same colours [6], and spectra of binders are also discussed [7, 8]. Jackson et al. applied THz imaging in mural painting and determined the difference in reflection depending on pigments [9]. There are some studies that detect pencil drawing (graphite) in a paper block [10]. We have also applied character recognition [11]. Recently, the non-invasive cross-section measurement of oil on canvas model painting was carried out as a trial measurement of hidden painting [12]. This paper compares the transmission and reflection imaging of model paintings prepared care-

fully in the traditional manner. Finally, the first ever THz imaging results of a tempera masterpiece "Polittico di Badia" by Giotto, now part of the permanent collection of the Uffizi Gallery, are introduced. We believe that the THz spectroscopy should be considered as a complementary non-invasive measurement method in the art conservation science research field, which commonly uses radiation ranging from X-rays to infrared region for analysis. Terahertz spectroscopy and imaging Terahertz (THz) waves (frequency: 0.1 to 10 THz; 3 to 300 cm1; wavelength: 30 m to 3 mm), which exist between radio waves (electronics) and light waves (optics), are perfectly non-invasive, and can penetrate opaque materials. As in infrared bands, fingerprint spectra of substances appear in THz frequency region, and the spectral features depend on molecular and intermolecular behaviour. THz waves had not been used due to the lack of stable sources, referred to as THz gap, as shown in Figure 1. In addition, spectral databases have not been constructed, and thus only specialists, such as space physicists, use the THz spectroFigure 1. Terahertz Gap, an illustration of the THz band.

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KAORI FUKUNAGA

scopy to analyse their materials of interest. We have developed a spectral database of more than 250 art materials, including pigments, dyes, binders, and materials used for conservation activities [13], to encourage the use of THz spectroscopy. Figure 2 shows examples of THz images which can suggest possible applications to cultural heritage. The image of a red pepper [14] in Figure 2 (a) proves that THz can observe internal structure of non-metal substances, and a drying leaf in Figure 2 (b) [15] suggests that THz can monitor the water content during the conservation process of historic objects.

THz-Fourier Transform Spectroscopy (THz-FT) Transmission and reflection spectra of gas, liquid or solid specimens can be obtained by conventional Fourier Transform Spectroscopy (FTIR) systems with far-infrared option. Most of commercially available systems covers the frequency range from 0.5 THz to 15 THz, and often require specimens to be under vacuum or in nitrogen to avoid strong absorption by water vapour in THz region. Figure 3 shows a THz-FT system with a ceramic or a mercury lamp source, a silicon beam splitter [16, 17], and a triglycine sulphate (TGS) detector. In this system, a sample is placed between an air gap of 10 mm for transmission and on the window for reflection. Since other parts are enclosed in vacuum, the influence of water vapour becomes

Figure 2. Examples of THz imaging. (a) Internal structure of a red pepper (K. Kawase, "Terahertz Imaging", Optics and Photonics News, Oct. pp. 34-39, 2004), (b) a drying leaf from freshly cut to after 48 hours (B. B. Hu and M. C. Nuss, " Imaging with terahertz waves", Optics Letters, Vol. 20, No. 16, pp. 1716-1718, 1995).

Figure 3. An example of THz-FT system (JASCO, Japan).

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INNOVATIVE TERAHERTZ SPECTROSCOPY

negligible, and specimens such as powders and liquids can be measured without special preparation. Similar to the case in the mid-infrared region, total reflection spectroscopy (ATR) is also commercially available. Since the THz frequency region corresponds to the molecule and intermolecular behaviour, it has been used in pharmaceutical industries to distinguish crystal polymorphs [18]. The spectra of art materials obtained by THz-FT systems will be discussed in the next chapter. Although systems are available, there is no commercial spectral library for THz spectroscopy as mentioned above. Therefore, users must have reference materials in the research field of interest so as to analyse unknown specimens. THz-Time Domain Spectroscopy (THz-TDS) THz-TDS is similar to the time domain reflectometry (TDR) that has been widely used to detect objects in soil. Figure 4 shows a schematic diagram of the THz-TDS system that applies a short THz pulse generated by various types of THz sources to a specimen and detects the transmission or reflection pulse by various types of detectors [4]. Commercially available systems often use a photoconductive antenna with a femto-second fibre laser as a THz source and a photoconductive detector that covers the frequency range from approximately 0.1 THz to 3 THz. The optical delay line is used to control the sampling time in one pulse, i. e., the point in the wave form, and by collecting signals from each point, the output signal can be reconstructed as a pulsed shape. Since the output signal includes information on the amplitude and phase, the refractive index can be obtained directly. Figure 5 shows an example of the THz-TDS system TPS Spectra 3000 of Teraview (Cambridge, UK) [19]. ATR systems have been recently developed
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Figure 4. Schematic diagram of time domain spectroscopy. Figure 5. Example of THz-TDS system: TPS Spectra 3000 (Teraview, Cambridge, UK).

and are used to characterise hydrogen state in solutions [20-22]. The advantage of TDS can be found in imaging techniques, i.e., either by transmission or reflection. In particular, in the case of reflection imaging, a THz pulse can penetrate into an object, and reflection pulses generated inside the specimen can provide useful information on obtaining the internal
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structure, as shown in Figure 6. In other words, non-invasive cross-section images can be obtained by using THz-TDS, which is often referred to as THz tomography. Moreover, the 3D internal structure can be obtained by scanning the surface using this technique. Pencil drawings in an envelop or a bunch of paper were clearly observed by several systems [23]. Figure 7 shows a transportable system T-Ray 4000 of Picometrix (Michigan, USA) [24] used for the analysis of Giottos tempera painting. The results will be introduced in the last paragraph of THz imaging section. There are other imaging systems with various sources and detectors. For example, an imaging system with a compact-free electron laser and waveguides developed by Gallerano et al. at ENEA (Ente per Nuova tecnologia, Energie e Ambiente, Frascati, Italy) has been used in an Italy-Japan collaboration project THz-ARTE (Terahertz Advanced Research TEchniques for non-invasive analysis in

art conservation) [25]. A brief description of the imaging system and an example of the imaging result is introduced in THz imaging section. Real-time THz imaging system The THz imaging system using THz-TDS depends on the scanning system, so that a certain time of measurement, for example 20 minutes for an area of 200 mm x 200 mm, is required. Recently, real-time imaging systems have been proposed [26, 27]. A portable system using a quantum cascade laser as a source and a micro-bolometer array as a detector has been also developed [28, 29]. They can be applied to monitor conservation process, such as water content level of drying objects, because THz is very sensitive to water. Figure 8 shows an example of the THz camera system developed by NICT and NEC (Tokyo, Japan).

Figure 6 (below). Schematic diagram of time domain tomography. Figure 7 (upper right). Example of THz-TDS imaging system: T-Ray 4000 (Picometrix, Michigan, USA) Figure 8 (lower right). A THz real time imaging system (NICTNEC, Tokyo, Japan)

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Spectra of pigments, binders and mixtures The spectra of several inorganic pigments in the THz region, including most of the important pigments in historic paintings, such as cinnabar (HgS) and orpiment (As2S3) [30], were already observed in 1969 by using the very first THz-FT system. We have developed a database of art materials by using THz-FT and THz-TDS systems with more than 250 specimens as mentioned before. The specimens were placed on a cyclo-olefin polymer (Zeon Corporation, Japan) plate which has high transmission in the THz frequency range. The data was calibrated automatically by measuring a reference of the plate. Pigments were applied using painting oil of which main component is purified petrol that was more than 99% transparent in the entire frequency range in this work. A binder or a mixture specimen was applied directly on a cyclo-olefin polymer.

Figure 9. THz transmission spectra of art materials obtained by THz-FT system. (a) Four white pigments, (b) binders.

Figure 10. THz transmission spectra of cobalt blue pigments and mixtures obtained by THz-FT system. (a) Cobalt blue pigments, (b) binders, (c) mixtures of cobalt blue (A) and binders.

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KAORI FUKUNAGA

Figure 9(a) shows the transmission spectra of four white pigments. All spectra have particular features and they can be easily distinguished in the THz region. Since calcite is generally used as a body pigment, the spectra often appear in other colours. Figure 9(b) shows the transmission spectra of several binders. Oil and natural resins are rather transparent and Venetian turpentine has characteristics of oil and resin. The spectra of Beva includes the characteristics of polyvinyl acetate (PVAc) and natural resin. The transmission spectra of mixtures are examined by using a blue pigment (cobalt blue) and four binders. Having observed spectra of 20 cobalt blue pigments from around the world, only two types of spectra appeared, shown in Figure 10 (a). The cobalt blue (A) was used to mix with binders whose spectra are shown in Figure 10 (b). Figure 10 (c) proves that spectra of mixture of a pigment and binders reflect each spectrum before mixing. These results suggest that THz transmission spectroscopy is useful to identify mixtures if the database is properly developed, although performing quantitative analysis in a real painting would be difficult because materials change in time. Transmission can be of two types: one is a simple straight transmission through a specimen and the other is a double transmission as a reflection from the metalized, i.e., gold or silver finished area. Figure 11 shows an example of madder lake. Specific peaks appeared at the same frequency in both spectra of transmission and spectra of reflection from the gold base. Figure 12 shows the reflection and transmission spectra of three pigments. Transmission spectra
Figure 11 (upper right). THz transmission and double reflection spectra of madder lake obtained by THz-FT system. Figure 12 (lower right). Reflection and transmission spectra of three pigments, natural cinnabar, lead white and verdigris by FT-IR system.

Madder lake

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INNOVATIVE TERAHERTZ SPECTROSCOPY

Figure 13. THz transmission and reflection imaging using a model painting specimen. (a) Visible image, (b) spectra of natural and artificial ultramarine pigments, (c) spectra of lamp black and two binders, (c) spectra of lead and zinc white pigments. The frequency band used for imaging was also indicated.

are often used to identify the absorption lines. A low value in transmission can either mean absorption or reflection. The spectral features of cinnabar and lead white shown in Figures 12(a) and 12(b) prove that these materials are reflective. On the contrary, almost no reflection was observed in verdigris, as shown in Figure 12(c); the lines of low transmission are considered to be due to absorption. Although the reflection measurement is strongly affected by the surface conditions, including the thickness of the paint and brush stroke, traditional paintings such as tempera on wood with a smooth surface can be analysed in the reflection mode.
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THz imaging Reflection and transmission imaging of model specimens The THz transmission and reflection images in this section were obtained by the T-ray 4000 system of Picometrix (Michigan, USA). Figure 13(a) is a Mondrian-like specimen with various
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paints. The spectra of the pigments and binders are also shown in Figure 13 (b), (c), (d). Black spots were painted with lamp black with PVAc, and others were painted with a mixture of petrol and linseed oil. Artificial ultramarine is almost transparent, similar to cadmium red, whereas natural ultramarine exhibits low transmission. The black paint of lamp black and PVAc exhibits low transmission due to its synthetic binder. The white parts were painted using two pigments; lead white for the central area and zinc white for the top and bottom areas. Zinc white exhibits a considerably higher transmission than lead white for which the reflection is high. Figure 14(a) shows the transmission image in which natural ultramarine and lamp black appeared as black spots

(low transmission), artificial ultramarine and cadmium red appeared white (high transmission), and the area of lead white became grey (relatively low transmission). The reflection image shown in 14(b) proves the high reflection from lead white (see Figure 12(b)), judging from the white area recognised in this figure. It is clear that the spectral features determine the imaging results, either by transmission or reflection. Figure 15(a) shows an oil painting specimen with organic dyes on the gold area (spectra are shown in Figure 15(b). Raw umber (face and hands) and ivory black (sleeves) are almost transparent in the frequency range of the imaging system. Since all area of this specimen, except the green background, was covered by gold before painting, the reflection from the gold should have been directly observed if the paints on the gold would not absorb reflected THz waves. As shown in Figure 15(c), dark spots and dots appeared corresponding to the area painted with stil de grain and madder lake. The areas painted by hatching with raw umber, such as face and hands, did not disturb the reflection
Figure 14. THz transmission and reflection image of a model painting shown in Fig. 13, by Picometrix T-Ray 4000. Figure 15. THz reflection imaging of an oil on wood model painting. (a) Specimen, (b) Spectra of colours on gold, (c) THz reflection image.

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INNOVATIVE TERAHERTZ SPECTROSCOPY

from the gold underneath. Although the difference in transmittance between stil de grain/madder lake and raw umber in the measured frequency range is not too large as materials themselves, the amount of binder and thickness should have affected the transmission of reflected THz waves. Thus, it is important to construct the database including such parameters for practical applications of THz imaging to cultural heritage. Reflection imaging of specimens covered by plaster It is desired to detect hidden and plaster-covered paintings without causing damage to the paintings. A THz imaging system developed by ENEA with a compact-free electron laser (0.15 THz) and two WR6 directional couplers was used to demonstrate that THz can recognise different materials in the painting covered by a plaster. In this experiment, gypsum is used to cover the tempera model paintings. Figure 16(a) shows the visible image before and after the covering of a tempera model specimen, and Figure 16(b) shows a THz reflection image. Since gold is extremely reflective, the gold part was clearly observed under gypsum, even tiny pieces of a missione can be recognised. Not only metals but also reflective pigments such as cinnabar can be detected under gypsum. Figure 17 shows a tempera model specimen and a THz reflection image. The difference between the part painted with rose madder and that painted with cinnabar was clearly recognised. Further, in this example, a small piece of gold in the part painted with cinnabar stands out in the image. THz imaging analysis of the Polittico di Badia (Polyptych of Badia) We have used THz imaging for analysing Giottos masterpiece Polittico di Badia (c.a. 1300); this is the first application of THz imaging to a real
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Figure 16. THz reflection imaging of a tempera model painting covered by gypsum. (a) Specimen, before and after covering with gypsum. (b) THz reflection image after covering. Figure 17. THz reflection imaging using the FEL based THz imaging. (a) Visible image of tempera specimen, before and after covering with gypsum, (b) THz reflection image.

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tempera painting in a museum collection, which was under restoration in the Uffizi Gallery in Florence, Italy, until the end of February 2009. THz imaging was performed using Picometrix Tray 4000. The frequency range used in this work was from approximately 0.5 to 1.2 THz, and it takes a scanning time of approximately 10 min to observe an area of 150 mm x 150 mm. The detection unit was placed in front of the painting at a distance of approximately 20 mm. The strength of reflection is displayed in grey scale, highest as white and lowest as black in the following figures. Figure 18 shows one of the observation parts in the polyptych. THz reflection from the gold is strong, existence of gold foil under paints is clearly observed at the outline of the head and wings of the Angel. The white paint is lead white that has the strongest reflection of all white pigments in the operating frequency range as shown in Figure 18 (b). The non-destructive cross-section image shown in the figure was obtained in the same area. As shown in Figure 18 (c) the layered structure of the painting is clearly observed on the basis of the reflection waveform in the time domain. In the case of medieval and early renaissance polyptychs, a gypsum layer was made directly on a base wood to flatten the carved wood base. A cloth was placed on the gypsum layer; subsequently, another gypsum layer was made as a preparation layer for painting. This technique had been used in the medieval era. The information obtained here using THz imaging would never be obtained by conventional methods. Time domain tomography can also easily obtain a map of the layer of interest [31]. If necessary, it is possible to construct a full three-dimensional model of the internal structure. These experimental results prove that THz rays can reveal the internal structure clearly as well as conditions of gold and pigments on the surface without damage in a relatively short time.
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Figure 18. THz reflection imaging and tomography of a part of the Polittico di Badia. (a)Visible, THz reflection images and their superposition. (b) Internal structure of the tempera painting observed non-destructively.

Conclusions and prospectives We applied THz imaging to art analysis and confirmed that transmission and reflection imaging clearly identifies the difference in pigments; the images can provide information about the painting and the materials used for the original and subsequent restoration. The first ever THz imaging of the real tempera masterpiece of Giotto ensured that THz spectroscopy and imaging technique can provide useful information to conservators. The THz technology is still in its infancy, and discussion of metrology has begun recently [32, 33]. The meaning of peaks that appear in fingerprint spectra has not been theoretically explained, although a reference book introduces phonon absorptions of mineral substances which are often included in pigments [34]. However, we believe that the potential of being a non-destructive analysis tool is extremely high, judging from experimental results published so far around the world.
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Acknowledgments The author would like to thank Cristina Acidini (soprintendente per il Polo Museale Fiorentino), Antonio Natali and Angelo Tartuferi, Director and Curator of the Uffizi Gallery, respectively, who kindly gave permission for the analysis of the painting. The author expresses sincere thanks to the conservator Mr. S. Scarpelli and to Dr. M. Picollo of IFAC-CNR for useful discussions on art conservation. The author also thanks to Dr. I. N. Duling of Picometrix for the help of THz imaging with their T-Ray 4000, to Dr. G. P. Gallerano and his colleagues at ENEA for the use of images obtained by their FEL based system, and to Ms. M. Bokuda for specimen preparation and help during the experiment. Thanks are also due to Prof. Y. Ogawa of Tohoku University, Dr. S. Hayashi of Riken, Dr. N. Oda of NEC for discussions on THz spectroscopy and imaging, and to colleagues at NICT for everyday discussions and encouragement. References
[1] Ed. G. Gruner, Millimeter and Submillimeter Wave Spectroscopy of Solids, Springer, Berlin, 1998. [2] D. M. Mittleman, M. Gupta, R. Neelamani, R. G. Baraniuk, J. V. Rudd and M. Koch, "Recent Advances in Terahertz Imaging", Applied Physics B, Vol. 68, 1999, 1085-1094. [3] D. M. Mittleman, Sensing with terahertz radiation, Springer, Berlin, 2003. [4] M. Tonouchi, "Cutting edge terahertz technology", Nature Photonics, Vol. 1, 2007, pp. 97-105. [5] W. Khler, M. Panzer, U. Klotzach, S. Winner, M. Helm, F. Rutz, C. Jrdens, M. Koch, H. Leitner, "Non-destructive investigation of paintings with THz-radiation", Proceedings of European Conference of Non-Descructive Testing, No. P181, 2006. [6] K. Fukunaga, Y. Ogawa, S. Hayashi and I. Hosako, "Terahertz Spectroscopy for Art Conservation", IEICE Electronics Express, Vol. 4, No. 8, 2007, pp. 258-263. [7] I. Hosako, N. Sekine, M. Patrashin, S. Saito, K. Fukunaga, Y. Kasai, P. Baron, T. Seta, J. Mendrok, S. Ochiai, H. Yasuda, "At the Dawn of a New Era in Terahertz Technology", Proceedings of IEEE, Vol. 95, 2007, pp. 1611-1623. [8] J.-M. Manceau, A. Nevin, C. Fotakis, S. Tzortzakis, "Terahertz time domain spectroscopy for the analysis of cultural heritage related materials", Applied Physics B, Vol. 90, 2008, pp. 365-368. [9] J.B. Jackson, M. Mourou, J.F. Whitaker, I.N. Duling III, S.L. Williamson, M. Menu and G.A. Mourou, "Terahertz imaging for non-destructive evaluation of mural paintings," Optics Communications, Vol. 281, 2008, pp. 527-532. [10] N. Sunaguchi, Y. Sasaki, M. Kawai, T. Yuasa, C. Otani, "THz-wave tomographic imaging: An approach via CT reconstruction from limited projections", Proc. IRMMW-THz 2008, No. R5D14, 2008. [11] K. Fukunaga, Y. Ogawa, S. Hayashi and I. Hosako, "Application of terahertz spectroscopy for character recognition in a medieval manuscript", IEICE Electronics Express, Vol. 5, No. 7, 2008, pp. 223-228. [12] A. J. L. Adam, P. C. M. Planken, S. Meloni, J. Dik, "Terahertz imaging of hidden paint layers on canvas", Optics Express, Vol. 17, 2009, pp. 3407-3416. [13] http://www.thzdb.org/ [14] K. Kawase, "Terahertz Imaging", Optics and Photonics News, Oct. 2004, pp. 34-39. [15] B. B. Hu and M. C. Nuss, " Imaging with terahertz waves", Optics Letters, Vol. 20, No. 16, 1995, pp. 1716-1718. [16] C. C. Homes, G. L. Carr, R. P. S. M. Lobo, J. D. LaVeigne, D. B. Tanner, "Silicon beam splitter for far-infrared terahertz spectroscopy", Applied Optics, Vol. 46, 2007, pp. 7884-7888. [17] K. Abe, S. Hayashi, N. Doki, C. Otani, K. Kawase, T. Miyazawa and Y. Ogawa, "Measurement of Hydrated Water in D-Glucose Powder Using THz-Wave Spectroscopy", Bunseki Kagaku, Vol. 56, 2007, pp. 851-856, in Japanese with English abstract. [18] C. J. Strachan, P. F. Taday, D. A. Newnham, K. C. Gordon, J. A. Zeitler, M. Pepper, T. Rades, "Using terahertz pulsed spectroscopy to quantify pharmaceutical poly-

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morphism and crystallinity", Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Vol. 94, 2005, pp. 837-846. [19] Y. Shen, P. F. Taday, "Development and application of terahertz pulsed imaging for non destructive inspection of pharmaceutical tablet", IEEE Journal of Selected Topics in Quantum Electronics, Vol. 14, 2008, pp. 407-417. [20] H. Hirori, K. Yamashita, M. Nagai, K. Tanaka, "Attenuated Total Reflection Spectroscopy in Time Domain Using Terahertz Coherent Pulse', Japanese Journal of Applied Physics, Vol. 43, 2004, pp. L1287-L1289. [21] T. Arikawa, M. Nagai, K. Tanaka, "Characterizing hydrogen state in solution using terahertz timedomain attenuated total reflection spectroscopy", Chemical Physics Letters, Vol. 457, 2008, pp. 12-17. [22] D. A. Newnham and P. F. Taday, "Pulsed terahertz attenuated total reflection spectroscopy", Applied Spectroscopy, Vol. 62, 2008, pp. 96-112. [23] T. Yasui, T. Yasuda, K. Sawanaka, T. Araki, "Terahertz paintmeter for noncontact monitoring of thickness and drying progress in paint film", Applied Optics, Vol. 44, 2005, pp. 6849-6856. [24] D. Zimdars, J. S. White, G. Stuk , A. Chernovsky, G. Fichter and S. Williamson, "Security and Non Destructive Evaluation Application of High Speed Time Domain Terahertz Imaging", Proc. Lasers and ElectroOptics and 2006 Quantum Electronics and Laser Science Conference, No. CMLL1, 2006. [25] G.P. Gallerano, A. Doria, E. Giovenale, G. Messina, A. Petralia, I. Spassovsky, K. Fukunaga, I. Hosako, "THzARTE: non-invasive terahertz diagnostics for art conservation", Proc. IRMMW-THz, No. T2G2, 2008. [26] T. Yasui, K. Sawanaka, A, Ihara, E. Abraham, M. Hashimoto, T. Araki, "Real-time terahertz color scanner for moving objects", Optics Express, Vol. 16, 2008, pp. 1208-1221. [27] A. W. M. Lee, B. S. Williams, S. Kumar, Q. Hu, J. L. Reno, "Real-Time Imaging Using a 4.3-THz Quantum Cascade Laser and a 320 240 Microbolometer Focal-Plane Array", IEEE Photonics Technology Letters, Vol. 18, 2006, pp. 1415-1417. [28] N. Oda, H. Yoneyama, T. Sasaki, M. Sano, S. Kurashina, I. Hosako, N. Sekine, T. Sudoh, T. Irie, "Detection of terahertz radiation from quantum cascade laser, using

vanadium oxide microbolometer focal plane arrays", Proc. SPIE, Vol. 6940, No. 69402Y, 2008. [29] K. Fukunaga, N. Sekine, I. Hosako, N. Oda, H. Yoneyama, T. Sudoh, "Real-time terahertz imaging for art conservation science", Journal of European Optics Society, Vol. 3, No. 08027, 2008. [30] C. Karr Jr. and J. J.Kovach, "Far-Infrared Spectroscopy of Minerals and Inorganics", Applied Spectroscopy, Vol. 23, 1969, pp. 219-223. [31] K. Fukunaga, "Non-destructive THz imaging of a Giotto masterpiece", IIC News in Conservation, February issue, 2009, pp. 2. [32] T. Kleine-Ostmann, T. Schrader, M. Bieler, U. Siegner, C. Monte, B. Gutschwager, J. Hollandt, R. Mller, G. Ulm, I. Pupeza and M. Koch, "THz Metrology", Frequenz, Vol. 62, 2008, pp. 137-148. [33] Mira Naftaly and Richard Dudley, "Methodologies for determining the dynamic ranges and signal-to-noise ratios of terahertz time-domain spectrometers", Optics Letters, Vol. 34, No. 10677, 2009. [34] E. D. Palik, Handbook of Optical Constants of Solids, Academic Press, New York, 1997.

KAORI FUKUNAGA
Contact: kaori@nict.go.jp Kaori Fukunaga, PhD, is a research manager in the Applied Electromagnetic Research Center of the National Institute of Information and Communications Technology, Tokyo, Japan. Her current research fields include, deterioration analysis and test procedure development of polymer insulations, high frequency characteristics of dielectric materials, industrial applications of millimetre wave and terahertz technologies. She is a member of IEEE, International Institute for Conservation of Historic and Artistic Works, and Japan Institute of Electronics Packaging.

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e-conservation magazine offers the possibility to publish bilingual articles in the html version. Articles in English may also be published in French, Spanish, Portuguese, Italian and Romanian, at authors request.

SCOTTISH RENAISSANCE TIMBER PAINTED CEILINGS

By Ailsa Murray

SCOTTISH RENAISSANCE TIMBER PAINTED CEILINGS

During the reign of James VI (1567-1625) and for about a generation after there was a flourishing of creative activity in Scotland. This period of renaissance has left us with a unique collection of painted ceilings, mainly timber of beam and board construction, found throughout the country. This paper will briefly describe the background to their existence, the types of building in which they are found, their construction and iconography together with the materials used to create them. It will go onto explore the traditional conservation methods used by Historic Scotland in their care, through the exploration of two case studies. Many of the original timber ceilings were actually preserved unintentionally by being concealed beneath later plaster ceilings. Indeed, occasionally new discoveries are still being made. I shall also include as part of this paper the Stirling Head Project which is a collection of carved oak roundels, also dating from the Scottish renaissance period, being commissioned by King James V during the 16th century. These carvings were originally mounted on the ceiling of The Kings Presence Chamber at Stirling Castle. The roundels were originally polychromed however now only very little painted evidence remains. The conservation department has been undertaking an in depth condition study of the Heads and carrying out remedial conservation treatment where necessary. A major project to replicate each head, using traditional carving skills, is currently being undertaken by a professional wood carver.

Introduction At this current time of political renaissance north of the border it would seem fitting to be talking about a previous period of Renaissance in Scotland. This paper will provide a brief outline of the genre of Scottish Renaissance painted decoration and some of the approaches which have been used in its conservation throughout the past century. The paper has been divided into two parts. Part I will explore two examples of painted ceiling decoration at Crathes Castle and Huntingtower Castle and their respective conservation. Part II will focus on an examination of a collection of carved oak roundels, known as the Stirling Heads. The Renaissance fashion for decorative painting arose at the time of Protestant iconoclasm. Artists no longer having patronage from the church sought new secular outlets for their traditional skills. This period of flourish within the decorative arts, particularly ceiling painting, is generally accepted as stretching between 1550-1650. It is
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the sheer quantity of such painting and the social range for whom it was executed for that make this collection unique. To be seen in context it should be considered as part of a wider development in Scottish culture that includes the architectural revival of the late 16th and early 17th centuries. The decoration also forms part of a Europe wide tradition, with particular connections to the Scandinavia countries. Indeed, together with styles and ideas, much trading of timber took place between the Baltic regions and Scotland around this period. There are approximately 75 known surviving examples of painted ceilings (in whole or part) in Scotland. 9 being under the care of Historic Scotland (HS), the remaining are cared for by the National Trust for Scotland or are in private ownership. The following ceilings are under the care of HS: Newark Castle, Port Glasgow; Skelmorlie Aisle, Largs; Abbey Strand, Canongate; Edinburgh Castle, Queen Marys Room; Holyrood Palace, Queen Marys Outer Chamber, Queen Marys Bedroom; Aberdour Castle; St Marys, Grandtully; Huntingtower Castle, nr Perth; Innerpeffray Chapel, nr Crieff.
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Substantial clusters are concentrated in Aberdeenshire, Edinburgh and Fife, in general there being more decoration in the east of the country than west. This is probably related to the ease of access with trading routes to the continent. Interestingly the decoration can be found in a wide variety of different kinds of buildings ranging from Royal Palaces, Castles, Merchant Houses and private chapels. This tradition was to be supplanted in the second quarter of the 17th century by the arrival of plas-

terers from England, bringing their own form of ceiling enrichment with them. Strap work plaster ceilings became more fashionable (eg. Cragievar, Aberdeenshire) and with this tradition of plasterwork replacing tempera painting, colour gave way to whitewash. The influence of the renaissance tradition did not however end here and can be seen in future periods of decoration, such as in the North Aisle of the unique Phoebe Traquair mural scheme at Mansfield Place Church, Edinburgh. Part I Scottish Renaissance Painted Ceilings Construction and Iconography of Ceilings The type of painted ceilings found in Scotland fall broadly into two kinds: the board and beam ceiling (see Figure 2) and the barrel vaulted ceiling (see Figure 3). The Board and Beam The most common type is the open board and beam ceiling. The support beams are usually painted on all three sides and between them are the undersides of the floorboards of the room above. The kind of decoration found on these ceilings is somewhat dictated by the structure of the long

Figure 1 (above). Location of Scottish Renaissance painted decoration.

Figure 2 (below). Construction type of beam and board ceilings.

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Figure 3. Detail of painted timber barrel vaulted ceiling, Skelmorlie Aisle, Largs.

narrow compartments created by the beams. Designs within the board area generally tend to be repeating geometric patterns, fruit and flowers, grotesques, Celtic designs, arabesque design, and scrollwork. The beams often display writing, religious texts, or a more decorative design. In general, oak is selected for the beams and either pine or oak for the boards. Ceilings of the Scottish Renaissance genre were also popular forms of decoration in France, Germany and Scandinavia. Not surprising when the timber used in the construction of joists and floorboards came from the Baltic. The Barrel Vault The second type of ceiling, the barrel vault, consists of a series of closely fitted boards (tongue and groove jointed) suspended from the ceiling
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to create a continuous surface on which to paint. In order to create a manageable space the ceiling was usually divided into smaller compartments through the use of false architecture, such as imitation coffering, elaborate strapwork with cartouches. The coved ceiling design is also found (see Figure 4), the design layout was treated in a similar manner as the barrel vault. Religious imagery, historical scenes and heraldry were all subject matter for the wider areas of these more open ceilings, in many cases covering the walls too. Much of the imagery found in the decoration can be traced to engravings and prints from emblem books. Dr. Baths study Renaissance Decorative Painting in Scotland concentrates on this connection.
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Figure 4. Coved ceiling construction, The Painted Gallery, Provost Skene house, Aberdeen.

The artists There were no Painter-Stainer Guilds in Scotland, as there were in England, and the painters belonged to the same guild as the Wrights and Masons. Most of the work was done by local craftsmen established in Edinburgh and other towns. Contemporary records include only two outsiders, both from England. Occasionally, it is possible to glean from payment accounts the artist responsible for a particular decoration or scheme although this is quite rare. For example, records state that Valentine Jenkin carried out the work in The Chapel Royal, Stirling Castle 1628-9, also
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Falkland Palace and Kinneil House (Duke of Hamilton). It is also known that John Anderson (fl 15991649) carried out work at Falkland Palace and Edinburgh Castle in preparation for King Jamess return to Scotland in 1617. Only two known ceilings bear signatures of the artist, which are: Delgaty Castle, Aberdeenshire where the initials JM have been taken to be those of John Melville (or Mellin) who worked in Aberdeen, and at Skelmorlie Aisle where J Stalker fecit 1638 is inscribed in one of the compartments, generally accepted to be the James Stalker who was registered to John Sawers in Edinburgh in 1632.
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Painting Technique A water based glue tempera technique was the preferred medium for this type of painting. Artists usually worked on site painting overhead. Work began by preparing the timber surfaces with a white chalk ground. Often no attempt was made to fill in any rough discrepancies in the timber. The design was outlined onto this in black and afterwards filled in with colour. The black outlining remained as an integral part of the design. In many cases the white ground often formed the background colour. According to Schomberg Scott, [1] the drawing of the outline and the infilling of colour were not necessarily done by the same hand. Coloured grounds (black and red) have been found at three sites. Pigments were suspended in a glue based size. Natural pigments were used including lamp black, chalk, lead or iron-oxide for red, copper verdigris for green and a crushed azurite for blue. The decoration did not receive a protective covering by the original artists, their intention was to achieve an entirely matt surface finish. Oil in place of tempera has been found as the paint medium at Skelmorlie Aisle, Largs and more recently identified at Provost Skene House, Aberdeen, although it is normally reserved for external use. Case Study I - Crathes Castle, Aberdeenshire Crathes Castle in Aberdeenshire is owned by the National Trust for Scotland (NTS). Crathes is an appropriate starting point as it was as a result of problems encountered in the conservation of the painted ceilings at Crathes back in the 1950s that Historic Scotlands Conservation Centre was established by the Trust. Crathes was the home of the Burnett family for over 300 years. There are four painted distemper beam and board ceilings in the castle; The Nine Nobles room; The Green Ladys Room; the Muses Room (Figure 5)
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and The Stair Chamber, with small areas surviving elsewhere. The paintings are signed 1599 in the chamber of the Nine Muses. Lath and plaster ceilings covered over the original timber ceilings until 1877 when they were removed. The Stair Chamber decoration was not revealed until the 1960s. The 19th Century The first attempt at restoration of the ceilings was made in the Victorian era. Contemporary documentation mentions only that the painted ceilings were carefully restored. Chemical analysis of paint samples carried out by The National Gallery (research staff) in 1958 to some extent proved that all the paintings had been extensively repainted at that time. The range of colours visible would also not have been available to the Renaissance painter in the1600s. Paint analysis confirmed that the modern pigments were found distributed across all the ceilings. There was also found to be a consistency in the technique and palette used. This would suggest that the work was carried out throughout the ceilings by the same person or group of people. It was noted with interest that although Cadmium yellow, the earliest cadmium pigment was found extensively used in the restoration that the corresponding red pigment (introduced commercially in 1910) was not found. Since the application of this 19th century paint layer there has been a continual problem with flaking and proceeding interventions have focused on the consolidation of this unstable layer. 1950s/60s Since 1954 a succession of experts from Britain and abroad surveyed the ceilings and provided much useful information from a variety of technical backgrounds. This advice together with the study
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Figure 5. Detail of the painted beam and board ceiling, the Muses room, Crathes Castle.

of previous techniques and trials undertaken on various other contemporary timber boards provided the then Trust restorer, Ian Hodkinson, with the necessary knowledge and techniques to proceed with a sympathetic conservation of the ceilings. The true extent of the repaint was not fully discovered until the 1960s restoration campaign. The policy adopted in the 1963 restoration was to reveal and respect the original work. The work over all the ceilings took place over a 7 year period. During this campaign small areas of entirely original work on the ceilings, and fragments of plaster friezes on the walls were revealed behind lath and plaster. The date of this lath and plaster is uncertain, it could be either from the original covering of the decoration in the early 19th century and retained by the restorers of 1877 or from that later restoration. This lath and plaster was completely decorated with stencil decoration during the 1877 restoration in a manner thought to be in harmony with the original decoration by the Victorians. Despite the enthusiasm of the Victorians it was found that, in general, large areas of original
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paintwork survived untouched. It has also been established that although colour changes were made the Victorian restorer or repainter had faithfully followed the original pictorial design. The conservation campaign continued into the 1970s/1980s with treatment concentrating on the ongoing problem of flaking paint. 1970s/1980s Deterioration was noticed in 1974 and dealt with then. I can only assume due to lack of documentation that gelatine adhesive was again used here. A similar deterioration was found again in the 1980s and by the mid 1980s a decision had been taken to further investigate the causes of paintwork deterioration. In 1984 the Stenhouse Conservation Centre worked over the three main ceilings and stabilised the flaking areas (Figures 6 and 7). The cause of the deterioration was attributable to atmospheric changes in the temperature and relative humidity of the rooms. The minute expansion and contraction of the timber beams
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SCOTTISH RENAISSANCE TIMBER PAINTED CEILINGS

Figure 6. Conservators at work fixing ceiling boards. Figure 7. Details of flaking paint.

and floor boards upon which the distemper paintwork is applied had caused the bond between the paint ground and the timber substrate to weaken. 1991/92 A further conservation campaign took place in the early 1990s when Rab Snowden was senior conservator. Over the past three to four decades The National Trust for Scotland had attempted to consolidate the paintwork with the assistance of Historic Scotland through their ongoing programme of monitoring and conservation. From this study a number of issues which affected the stability of the paint layers were identified over the years.
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Paint - The internal decay of paint layer and its poor adhesion to the substrate and earlier paint layers. Environmental Conditions - The environmental stability of the air volume within the rooms is affected by: - Visitor numbers (breathing);
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- Season (open windows, wet visitors, doors); - Building fabric moisture levels (the castle has thick external walls covered with a cement based harl which is thought to entrap moisture); - Heating regime within the castle. Attempts were made in 1995 to have analysis of the paint layers undertaken to determine whether the Victorian layer is casein based; the composition of the original 17th century decoration together with the effects of the three decades of consolidation. The continual use of gelatine as a consolidant was questioned. It was suggested that other consolidants should be tested. Before this could take place, it was thought necessary to confirm the paint media of the original and the overpaint (Victorian). As far as records state no results were actually obtained. The use of gelatine impregnation, a material which does not alter the refractive index (or visual appearance) of the original and is not an alien material, being already present in the original paint, was considered. However, the adhesive may not be penetrating the paint strata sufficiently and even if it does, it is extremely susceptible to changes in RH because it is hygroscopic. It is brittle at low RH and softens at a very high RH so relies on good environmental conditions being maintained. This, allied with considerable vibration from people feet on the floor above, will quickly cause it to fail. By 1997, HS stated that they were unable to carry out priority works to the areas of flaking paint for the foreseeable future. The Trust was advised to source out suitable survey companies and conservators. In 1998, HS re-established links with the NTS and consolidation work was rescheduled to be undertaken as a repayment service by HS conservators.
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2002 onwards A condition report done by Fiona Allardyce, HS senior conservator, in July 1998 stated that urgent treatment was necessary. In 2002 a programme of work was scheduled to be undertaken by the joint Historic Scotland: National Trust for Scotland intern in Structural Paintings, Gillian Cook. At this time it was agreed that gelatine and isinglass should be used as the preferred consolidants rather than experimenting with modern synthetic materials. Gillians programme included - Photograph the boards and beams of about half of the ceiling in the Nine Nobles room; - Plot on the photographs all the damage and losses, and any other useful information; - Write a condition report or survey on the boards and beams plotted; - Carry out emergency consolidation to those bays that have been photographed, plotted and covered as time permits. It was decided that rather than pass the project onto the next HS/NTS intern, that Gillian continue with the work at on the ceilings and future interns would act as assistants. A 2004, report documents the treatment of the Muses Room following the same procedure as that used in the other two rooms (Nine Nobles and Green Lady). This is the final document on the most recent treatment programme. In summary, the consolidants used for treatment at Crathes did not change between 1960s and 2004. Despite various attempts to reassess the consolidation adhesive, gelatine continued to be used. Whether, in practice, this was due to time and financial restraints is not clear.
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SCOTTISH RENAISSANCE TIMBER PAINTED CEILINGS

Case Study II - Huntingtower Castle, Perthshire The painted ceiling at Huntingtower castle has been included as it is an instance where although more traditional methods were used at the outset, there was a move away from them during the 1900s and this change has directly influenced the choice of consolidant for the most recent conservation treatment. Huntingtower Castle is a Historic Scotland Property in Care situated on the outskirts of Perth, Central Scotland. The Castle was built by the Ruthven family in the 15th century. Originally consisting of two towers, these were joined around the 17th century to form a single manor home. The painted ceiling, found in the east tower, is regarded as one of the earliest of the Scottish Renaissance period dating from circa 1540. It is a beam and board construction divided into four bays by five principal beams. Each bay consists of alternate boards and minor beams (Figure 8). The boards
Figure 8. The construction of the ceiling. Image during conservation treatment.

are painted with a Celtic knotwork design in black and white. The beams are painted with bold arabesque works, grotesques and animal images.

Figure 9. The Hall, Huntingtower Castle, Perthshire, during discovery of the painted ceiling and walls, 1913.

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Conservation History The ceiling and wall decoration was discovered behind panelling and late (18th c.) plasterwork in 1913 (Figure 8). Three programmes of conservation treatment have taken place, the first in 1914, again in 1933 and most recently in 2002. In 1914 the boards were taken down and treated for beetle damage. A canvas backing was glued to the reverse as reinforcement and oak boards were screwed to the back. The paintwork was consolidated, by spraying, with gelatine and alcohol. The 1933 conservation involved again treatment of beetle infestation with Heppells Insecticide. Contemporary records documented that surfaces were coated with white shellac dissolved in methylated spirits and surfaces were brushed with a thin creamy liquid wax composed of benzole and a proportion of sun clarified linseed oil. 2002 Conservation The purpose of the 2002 conservation was to consolidate the powdery and flaking paint on the ceiling beams and boards, re-adhering any vulnerable paint back onto the wood substrate. Traditionally, leaf gelatine has been used as an adhesive on these distemper/size based paintings, however the presence of wax and other coatings prevented the adoption of this approach.

In order to establish the most successful method of consolidation several trials were carried out on the ceiling. Consolidation Trials 1. Regeneration of the existing wax layer using infrared lamps. 2. Application of warm 50% solution of Heat Seal 375 gel dissolved in white spirit. 3. Application of warm 70% solution of Heat Seal 375 gel dissolved in white spirit. The 50% Heat Seal solution was selected as it provided a good bond and penetrated the paint layer better than the stronger solution. Regeneration was not successful due to the insufficient amount of wax on the surface and the fragility of the paint flakes (we are also working against gravity here). The following procedure was used over the entire ceiling: 1. The warm Heat Seal solution was brushed through Eltoline tissue onto the paint surface. 2. The adhesive was left for 24 hours to allow the carrier solvents to evaporate. 3. The area was then heat-sealed with a warm spatula iron to secure the paint back onto the substrate. 4. The tissue was then removed with white spirit using cotton wool swabs. 5. The process was repeated in areas where necessary (see Figure 10). The outcome of the treatment was successful and having revisited the property recently (2007) the paintwork remains in good condition.
Figure 10. During conservation treatment, applying Heat Seal adhesive, 2002.

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It must be stressed that the Heat Seal adhesive was only used on account that the traditional, more sympathetic, adhesive could not work effectively. The heat seal operates in a similar way to the previous wax consolidant so it was in-keeping with that material. The inherent materials of the painting and possible future treatments had already been permanently altered prior to the 2002 treatment. Pigment analysis A number of samples were taken for identification from each colour present. Calcium carbonate was found as the ground pigment. Lamp black, red and yellow iron oxides and verdigris were found in the paint layer. There are several differences in comparing the two cases of Crathes and Huntingtower which influenced the conservation approach taken: - There has never been any wax applied to the ceilings at Crathes; - There are two schemes of painted decoration at Crathes and only one at Huntingtower. Part II - Stirling Head Project Background The Stirling Heads are a unique series of ornamental carved oak roundels that originally decorated the ceiling of the Kings Presence Chamber at Stirling Castle. The Heads were also created under the same period of Renaissance flourish that Crathes and Huntingtower form part of. Although now seen more as a collection of individual artefacts they originally comprised a complete polychrome ceiling. The Heads were commissioned by James V in the 1540s being carved in the Renaissance style. James
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was greatly influenced by the European court and the close links between Scotland and France led to the introduction of French craftsmen with their own ideas and mannerisms reflecting those of contemporary France. The Heads survived on the ceiling until it collapsed around 1777. The roof was pulled down and the heads dispersed among a variety of individuals. A number made their way to the Stirling jail. Presently thirty five roundels are in the care of Historic Scotland Conservation Centre (HSCC), a further three being owned by the National Museum of Scotland. It is thought that between a third and a quarter of the total number of heads have disappeared without record. In 2009 the heads are scheduled to return to Stirling Castle on the completion of a major refurbishment project. Each roundel will be displayed in a custom made environmental case. A study of the extant Heads suggested that stylistically the work could be divided into two main groups. The first group are high relief and better finish (1-4, 6, 9-11,16). The quality of the second group (22-38) varies considerably and few reach the standard of the first group. It is thought that at least two carvers worked upon the Heads, however the lack of building accounts from the Palace of Stirling makes it difficult to identify these men with any certainty. Several craftsmen were however known to have been employed by the Royal Works. Two Scots are mentioned, John Drummond, Master-carpenter to James V and Mary Queen of Scots, and Robert Robertson, carver who was appointed "principale ourseare and maister of all werkis concernyng his craft and utheris within the castell of Striveling". The third name is French, Andrew Mansioun, who is thought to have been a member of a group of French craftsmen that were sent to Scotland at the time of James Vs second marriage.
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Mansioun is more likely, than either of the two Scots, to have been a master of the Renaissance style so characteristic of the Stirling Heads. Iconography of the Heads

may have been grouped together or positioned in particular places according to the direction in which they face or whether they are part of a pair or not. This remains an unresolved mystery. Documentation of the Heads

The majority of the heads are human busts set within a circular frame. It has been assumed (since the 18th c.) that the heads depict either portraits of the Scottish Royal family and other members of the court of James V. A second group comprises mythological and historical figures or are merely picturesque. No. 7 may be a representation of Apollo. Although the roundels are referred to as the Stirling Heads a number actually depict full length figures, such as, No 33, Samson and the Lion. Unfortunately the original arrangement of the Heads on the ceiling is not known. Certain heads

During the time the roundels have been under the care of HSCC (since 1990s), conservators have taken the opportunity to undertake an extensive and thorough documentation of each head. This has made it possible to build up a comprehensive understanding of their construction and their material history. This survey has recorded both photographically and on computer generated illustrations; the previous treatments, current condition, construction technique and remedial treatment carried out. Treatment was limited to

Figure 11. John Donaldson in the process of carving.

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SCOTTISH RENAISSANCE TIMBER PAINTED CEILINGS

attached to the ceiling, a comprehensive study of the original beams in the castle may show comparative fixing holes. All splits and cracks are measured and mapped. These can be used as a reference point to monitor any movement or deterioration, particularly when the heads are moved to a new location and exposed to new environmental conditions. Infra-red: Examination of the rear of Head 29 using IR light highlighted a sketch in a carbon based material. The longer IR wavelength has also proved useful in clarifying certain details that are not so apparent in normal reflected light. Ultra-violet: UV examination made it possible to see various surface applications not visible in normal reflected light such as various types of adhesive, stains and surface finishes. Raking light: This technique, again used very much in easel painting conservation, was used to examine the reverse of the roundels, highlighting the original saw marks, various numbering systems, carpenters marks. It may not be possible to say conclusively that these marks are deliberate, although their acknowledgement and consideration are important for the interpretation of the heads. Dendrochronology Study An independent dendrochronology study was undertaken between 1995 and 2005 by AOC Archaeology Group. The purpose of the study was to built a comprehensive and coherent dendrochronological history of the timber used throughout Stirling Castle, including that used to make the Heads. A small amount of native grown oak was used in the earliest episodes of building, thereafter work was carried out with imported timber oak boards from Poland.
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Figure 12. Example of Stirling Head documentation.

essential stabilising of friable delaminating timber; removing old adhesive residues from the reverse. The following techniques were used during examination - Natural light with illuminated magnifier; - Ultra Violet examination; - Infra Red examination; - Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) and polarised light analysis of pigments; - Raking Light. Each head is constructed of three planks glued side by side with a forth glued on top of the central one (see Figure 12). The planks are butt jointed together with what appears to be a strong animal glue. The line of the 2 ply join is clearly indicated on the documentation and is remarkably tight in many of the pieces showing a great craft skill. Many of the heads are now composites of several heads joined together. Archaeological evidence, such as the type and positioning of fixings, is also mapped out. This helps to indicate how the heads were originally
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AILSA MURRAY

Radially split boards were used for the Stirling Heads. 24 boards from 10 Heads were sampled, 19 being successfully dated. It was discovered that the trees used to make them were Baltic oak being felled towards the middle of the 16th century (1539). From this it is assumed that the Heads were commissioned as part of the major building programme of 1539. Analysis of Pigments A number of minute paint samples were taken from several of the Heads and sent away for instrumental analysis of the paint and ground layers. Both the Scanning Electron Microscopy and Polarising Light Microscopy were used for analysis. At a glance the roundels appear unpainted. The extent of original paint is minimal only being found within such areas as the crevices in the hair and facial features. Nevertheless, several pigments have been positively identified. On all the heads that have been sampled to date, a mix of carbon black and indigo to make a dark blue has been found. Two tones of blue are often observed indicating tonality or pattern in the

painting (see Figure 13). Vermillion has been found around the mouth and in the flesh colour of various sitters. SEM analysis has established that the ground is lead white. Media analysis (GCMS) determined that the pigments are bound in oil. All of the pigments found to date were available for use in the 1540s, with the exception of those found in any non-original overpaint. An orange overpaint has been found on several of the heads. This contains barytes, and therefore, post dates 1782. A unique project to replicate each original head is currently being undertaken by a skilled woodcarver, John Donaldson. Each Head is being expertly carved from one solid disc of oak. These new Heads will be mounted on the ceiling in the Kings Presence Chamber where the originals were first displayed. It is also proposed to paint the replica Heads, based on the evidence found on the originals. Personally, I believe that although evidence has been found to establish that the heads were originally polychrome the original remains are so scant there is not sufficient evidence to accurately determine how each head was actually painted. Although it would be possible to undertake a hypothetical reconstruction with the information we now have in conjunction with reference to contemporary artefacts I feel it would be unethical to paint the replica heads. Furthermore, the carver has gone to much trouble in sourcing the timber and has achieved a very high quality finish on his pieces. However it should be remembered that these artefacts would have originally been polychromed and are now not presented in the way they would have been intended when created.
Figure 13. Paint cross-section from hat showing use of two tones of blue.

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Conclusion I hope this paper has helped to dispel the myth that Scotland was sometimes thought to be a dour place during the 16th century. Despite the loss of many of our uniquely decorated ceilings throughout the centuries a substantial collection survives that still requires continual care. This paper has provided a brief history, using representative examples, of the conservation traditions practised within Historic Scotland over the past 50 years by numerous conservators. At this juncture HSCC is in the process of reviewing certain procedures. A fellowship programme looking at methods and materials used in facing and consolidation techniques will help conservators to understand what the most appropriate approach to treatment may be and whether it is necessary to change the traditional methods.

Bibliography
[1] M. Bath, Renaissance Decorative Painting in Scotland, National Museums of Scotland Publishing, 2003 [2] M.R. Apted, Painted Ceilings of Scotland 1550-1650, Her Majestys Stationery Office, 1966 [3] Historic Scotland Conservation Centre, various unpublished conservation reports.

AILSA MURRAY
Paintings Conservator Contact: Ailsa.Murray@scotland.gsi.gov.uk Historic Scotland Conservation Centre 7 South Gyle Crescent, Edinburgh, EH12 9EB Ailsa Murray has a BA (Hons) degree in Fine Art (Drawing and Painting) from Grays School of Art, Aberdeen and an MA (with distinction) in Conservation of Fine Art (Easel Painting) from the University of Northumbria at Newcastle in 1998. She worked with Madeleine Katkov, wall paintings conservator, with whom she was introduced to the field of structural ceiling painting while working on the conservation of the timber ceilings of the Bodleian Library, Oxford. In 1999 she returned to Scotland to undertake a joint Historic Scotland/National Trust for Scotland internship in the conservation of structural paintings. Currently she works as a full-time Paintings Conservator at Historic Scotlands Conservation Centre, Edinburgh. She recently completed a two-year secondment from Historic Scotland on the conservation of the Phoebe Anna Traquair murals in Edinburgh.

Figure 14. Conjectural restoration of the Kings Presence Chamber, Stirling Castle, in the time of James V.

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art history

WOODEN CHURCHES IN SOUTHERN TRANSYLVANIA AND NORTHERN OLTENIA

Part I
by Ovidiu Danes
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WOODEN CHURCHES IN SOUTHERN TRANSYLVANIA AND NORTHERN OLTENIA

There is something that should get architects and urbanists to ponder over a bit: according to folk beliefs, in Heaven there is no house, whereas Hell is full of ovens, walls and adobes. Somewhere in-between rests human condition, with both the need and the liberty to build a home. In 2001 we shall be either closer to Hell or more near to a paradisiacal state of being. But why there is no home in Heaven, in folklore? Maybe that will help us bear better in mind the goals of houses and the responsibilities of those who build them. In heaven according to an ancient Romanian legend there will be no worries left, no sighing, no thoughts or death either, no passage of years or of hours just one endless day.
Constantin Noica, Plain Forewords to the Kindness of Our Times, Foreword to the Houses of 2001, a 1977 article for the UNESCO Conference 2001: Urban Life and Work Environment, published in the Steaua review under the title "Various Housings for the People of 2001", year XXVIII, no. 7, July 1997.

The destruction of the tangible or intangible Romanian rural heritage is occurring at a continuously increasing pace, while there are no strategies or policies to counter the phenomenon. The relationship of rural civil authorities and local communities with their own history is in its turn ambiguous in the current context where the feelings of local pride and of belonging to a certain well-rounded social group are strangely mixed with an increasing appetite for destroying or giving up elements of typical identity. The case of the wooden churches in southern Transylvania and northern Oltenia is a symptomatic one, illustrative in probably the best way possible of the latest trends in Romanian rural life. After a spanning of 20 years of non-stop looting or infelicitous and maiming remodelling, the wooden churches are now almost fully deserted. Ignored by the village communities and deemed as minor patrimony by the governmental authorities, just a few wooden churches were preserved in their intact initial condition in terms of architecture, paintings, icon collections, furniture, ceremonial objects, etc. But they have actually vanished from our own awareness. There are a few elements that led things to that state of affairs.

Figure 1. Map location of wooden churches inventoried by DALA Foundation.

First, the prominence of wooden churches within the community started to fade once the masonry ones emerged since the 1850s in southern Transylvania and significantly later in northern Oltenia, and fully prevailed after the 1980s. The masonry churches thus took over all liturgical and ceremonial functions. Since much larger and significantly updated in terms of architecture, they became the new identity epitomizing monuments of the village communities. In the beginning, wooden churches in southern Transylvania and northern Oltenia played a twofold role, both as parish centers and graveyard chapels, with specific funeral services. But both functions were taken over by masonry churches. A relevant aspect here is represented by the way in which locals use the
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OVIDIU DANES

Figure 2. Wooden church from Pojogeni, Gorj county.

ones in southern Transylvania, a proportion that stands roughly the same in all crafts. Therefore, the occurrence of harmful remodeling or monument abandonment is in direct proportion to the number of skilled hand in the area. Things are better managed, apparently, in southern Transylvania, but the lineage of craftsmen shall soon be interrupted there too. The age of craftsmen and scarcity of apprentices will start to show not after long. Other cultural phenomena such as the exodus of youth out of rural areas, the emigration of German ethnics from southern Transylvania and the Roma colonization in the early 1990s, the low birth

term 'graveyard church' to refer to the older wooden ones not in order to define an actual funeral destination but to just specify location. There is also another social phenomenon connected to wooden churches and which has evolved quite dramatically within rural communities - the demise of local traditional professions and crafts. In the related specialized bibliography it has already been emphasized while the present-day researchers also keep stressing that those monuments fall into a unitary heritage that mirrors folk creativity and imagination, that such collective projects always involved painters, carpenters, roof tile workmen, smiths, stonecutters, etc. Such co-authorship survived as long as the local craftsmen staid active, but the disappearance of the latter shortly resulted in the disappearance of the monuments in their original version. But since this is about collective and local work such trends are natural and predictable. In Oltenia, for instance, the number of crafts workshops has flopped to mere insignificant, while the standard of craftsmanship itself has also decreased in its turn. One of the latest consequences is replacement of the wooden roof tiles by tin roofs, a solution that gained ground on a large scale in the counties of Gorj and Vlcea. The number of blacksmith shops in northern Oltenia is of only 5 while there are 38 operating
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Figure 3. Wooden church from Pistesti, Gorj county. Figure 4. Wooden church from Frtesti, Gorj county.

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WOODEN CHURCHES IN SOUTHERN TRANSYLVANIA AND NORTHERN OLTENIA

rates or geographical isolation are in their turn relevant for the current state of affairs of the two rural regions. The research started in September 2007 has focused on two regions neighboring the Carpathian range, southern Transylvania and northern Oltenia with a repertory of 60 wooden churches that cover a period of time starting in mid 18th century - 1736, Vlari (Hunedoara) - until round mid 19th century - 1827, Copcioasa (Gorj): 9 in Sibiu County, 16 in Hunedoara, 26 in Gorj and 11 in Vlcea. The vagueness, paucity, and obsolescence of information, the village evolution, the almost complete absence of file photographic references or publication photos, the significant number and quality of the monuments were some of the aspects to start with. Field research allowed us to identify some mutual decay issues in certain monument groups, and thus put together the preliminary documentation

Figures 5 and 6. Wooden church from Lelesti, Gorj county. Figure 7. Wooden church from Colibasi, Gorj county.

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Figure 8. Wooden church from Stroesti, Gorj county.

Figures 9-10. Wooden church from Salciva, Hunedoara county.

needed for any future intervention projects. One third of them, for instance, present severely deteriorated roof cladding, the holes being in certain cases up to 1.5 m long. In two years of research we have put together a repertory of 60 churches, craft workshops and traditional occupations in the above mentioned regions that can be entered in a larger scale context of rural heritage and thus provide a wider perspective on present day culture. We also think that such exploration could show us more accurately where we stand in present history and help us grasp the variable outlines of future prospects for such regions, the types of code red intervention needed, the skilled human resources that should be involved in the restoration projects, the degree of local communities and authorities interest in development strategies that would make the most of their heritage. On the other hand, both in southern Transylva64

nia and northern Oltenia there are specific traits that come from different historical backgrounds and contemporary realities. The techniques employed in northern Oltenia as well as the style are closer to the post-Brancovean ones. Frescoes on wood or paintings with their paint layers laid directly on wood are typical of Oltenia, while the Transylvanian painters would prefer using interstitial canvas lining on the church walls or layers of gypsum or animal clay firstcoats. The iconographic programs are different from one region to the next, also. While in Transylvania iconographic discourse covers all religious service compartments narthex, nave, and altar - and is strongly narrative, in the other region painting resides mainly in the altar, on the iconostasis, which consists of an assemblage of wooden icons, and it also appears in the narthex where votive paintings cover impressive surfaces. Therefore, icons being not fixtures and
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WOODEN CHURCHES IN SOUTHERN TRANSYLVANIA AND NORTHERN OLTENIA

given their artistic standards, looting ensued as a mass phenomenon in the case of Oltenian churches. The villages in northern Oltenia are by far more underprivileged than those in southern Transylvania. Hence looting in Oltenia was more significant and more frequent, and the losses affected the local heritage in a far more dramatic way. Last but not least, each monument, village or local community played a significant role as they always turned out to be the essential elements in shaping the research projects and in opening new avenues to cultural assessment and effective involvement. One of the fortunate cases is that of the commune of Apoldul de Jos within which there are two wooden churches: Apoldul de Jos (St. John the Evangelists) and Sngtin (Holy Archangels Michael and Gabriel Church). In 2008 the local town-hall financed the replacement of the roof cover, and the works were carried out by roof tile craftsmen. That was the first case in which, after 15 years of abandonment, two

Figure 11. Wooden church from Vlari, Hunedoara county.

Figures 12 and 13. Wooden church from Apoldul de Jos, Sibiu county.

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Figure 14. Wall painting depicting the Baptism of Christ, from the church in Apoldul de Jos, Sibiu county.
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RESTORATION OF A 19th CENTURY PAINTING

Figures 15 and 16. Wooden church from Ilimbav, Sibiu county.

Figures 17 and 18. Wooden church from Ursi, Valcea county.

monuments were partly restored to religious life and integrated into the areas heritage tourist itineraries. Hopefully, the Apoldul de Jos case proved to us that by consistent efforts and lengthy focus, local memory and resources can be re-activated and involved in the restoration projects. We will have to see if the pattern set there works for other similar cases, but what remains certain is that in 2009 there is still an impressive rural heritage present on site in those two historical regions and that it requires immediate intervention. We shall come back with this topic in the next two issues and proceed to a detailed scrutiny of the wooden churches in northern Oltenia and southern Transylvania.
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Photos by Sorin Onisor English translation by Chris Tnsescu

OVIDIU DANES
Contact: ovidiudanes@yahoo.com Ovidiu Danes, art historian, is currently the president of DALA Cultural Foundation. Established in May 2006 in Romania, DALA promotes and support projects in the area of visual arts, curatorial activities and cultural management. Its objectives are to implement alternative educational projects on various components of contemporary arts, to support architecture projects with an effect on public spaces and research programmes in the areas of cultural heritage, monument conservation -restoration and research of old Romanian art.
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heritage in danger

TRGOVISTE, MONUMENTS AT RISK

The Holy Emperors Constantine and Helen Church
by Oliviu Boldura and Anca Din

THE HOLY EMPERORS CHURCH FROM TRGOVITE

In issue 9 of e-conservation magazine we called attention to the critical conservation state of an important monument from Trgovite, The Royal Church. In the same text we briefly mentioned another case from the same city - The Holy Emperors Constantine and Helen Church. The extent of damage in this monument makes us underline that the presentation below can only depict a small part of the actual situation, because nor a text or an image could describe the impression one has in situ1. At the threshold between survival and collapse is what could briefly describe the state of conservation of the church built in 1650 by voivode Matei Basarab and his wife Elena. Interventions conducted between 1731 and 1753 by Master Vasalache Frumusica and his son Dragomir established them as founders of the monument . But the 18th

century intervention made Constantin Brncoveanu proves that in fact at that time the church already presented some degradation problems. On the overall, what emerges from the archive documents study is that, although the monument has benefited from the support of some individuals or authorities, its survival has only been partially ensured. The severe degradation process has occurred due to long periods when the church was abandoned and often vandalized, but also because a complex restoration project to involve all components never existed, the interventions being performed only in case of emergency. A brief foray into history shows that most interventions were performed for the church roof (1731 -32, 1753, the beginning of the 18th century, 1922, 1933, 1954) which was replaced with different materials (shingle, slate). Among the degradation factors that had a direct influence were earthquakes (in 1802 - when it is assumed that the nave tower collapsed, in 1840 and 1977), vandalism (from the Ottoman invasion and popular revolution in 18214), the transformation into a Turkish mosque [1], maintenance works carried out at long time intervals, restoration works limited only to the most degraded areas and improper interventions. All these have been amplified by water infiltration through the damaged roof or entirely missing or from the ground level due to the lack of a drainage system. In 1911 the church was deserted, preserving "the door [...] as well as the windows, except

Figure 1. The Holy Emperors Church, south-west elevation.

1 The research was made on the occasion of the conserva-

3 In addition to the repairs, Constantin Brncoveanu

tion-restoration project coordinated by Prof. Oliviu Boldura, PhD, in colaboration with conservator-restorers Anca Din, Oana and Dumitru Gorea, and Geanina Rou. For the conservation of the architecture a project coordonated by Arh. Sorin Minghiac was made.
2 As shown by the inscription in the narthex, west wall.

changes the protector saint of the church from St. Nicolas into The Holy Emperors Constantine and Helen.
4 As shown by a lost inscription all churches were damaged

in the year 1821, June 3. The inscription is preserved in B.C.M.I. 1911, V. Drghiceanu, Ruina Sf. mprati din Trgoviste, Note Istorice.
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OLIVIU BOLDURA and ANCA DIN

Figure 2. A view of the nave to south-est, covering system.

two [...] that were built5, the access being made through one window, using a stairway. Unofficial sources report that in the last centurys 60s the church served as a warehouse for vegetables harvested from the garden improvised in the churchs yard.

Archive images from the 19th century show a roofless church, with different vegetation growing on top and drifts of the earth crowded near the walls. Church description The Holy Emperors Church from Trgoviste is built on a rectangular plan with narthex, nave with two apses and altar - semicircular on the inside and polygonal on the outside. The building is small, cca. 22.35 m length and a tower is attached to the church body at north-west. The walls are made entirely of brick, with a thickness of about 100cm. The painting was done in 17536 in fresco7 and originally decorated the entire interior walls. The iconostasis was constructed in the same time period, built in wall and covered with frescoes. The church was also decorated on the exterior with ornaments characteristic for the 17th century e_conser vation

5 Mentioned by Ghika Budesti in B.C.M.I. 1911, Note Arhi-

tectonice, pp.127-133. Note the built in entrance door in the archive image (figure 3).
6 Painting done by Ion Zugravul priest, his son Gheorghit

and Ioan Ieromonahul, commissioned by Dragomir Frumusica and his brothers (as showed by the inscription above the entrance door in the exonarthex, west wall).
7 Over the masonry structure several mortar layers were laid.

Arriccio is a mixture of lime and sand of about 15 mm thick. In some areas another layer of mortar applied on the bricks can be observed. Arriccio was over this mortar and was hammered before the application of the intonaco layer. Intonaco is a specific plaster to a fresco painting, here made of lime and hemp, with a thickness of 2-6 mm.
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THE HOLY EMPERORS CHURCH FROM TRGOVITE

Figure 3. Image of a painting from the 19th century, in N. Ghika Budesti, Evolutia picturii in n Muntenia si Otenia, 1932 (pl. XLIII, B.C.M.I.). The progressive degradation of the monument, covered by a temporary wood tower that was lost ulteriorly.

Figures 4 (above) and 5 (below). The narthex is separated from the nave by a wall divided by three octagonal columns with arches. Originally these and the vaulting were entirely covered by paintings.

simple elements made by engraving and coloring in red the surface, mimicking the order of the apparent brick levels and plaster panels. The median string-course was painted in red and black, with bevel white stripes, resembling a weaved ribbon. Currently, only a few traces of this decoration were preserved at the exterior.
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Analyzing the current state of conservation, an advanced state of degradation of the masonry is observed. Instead of the nave towers there is a large opening covered only by wood boards through which rainfall had penetrated into the interior while the roof was damaged or missing. Network of cracks are highly branched, crossing
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OLIVIU BOLDURA and ANCA DIN

Figures 6 and 7. Details of areas where the 18th century paintings were preserved better.

walls on vertical or oblique routes, marking in particular the openings of the walls. In some areas fissures meet displacements of up to several tens of centimeters in width. These are generally open but there are areas provisionally filled with different materials, some of which textiles. The displacement of the masonry has obviously contributed to the monuments loss of stability. Another important degradation is the grave loss of cohesion of construction elements (bricks or mortar) which, in powdering state, were easily scattered by the wind on surfaces that exceed the width of a brick in depth. We could notice that generally, the mortar has a greater resistance than the bricks. Materials decohesion or loss of adherence led to the appearance of empty spaces that give a honeycomb appearance to the surface. Humidity associated with freeze-thaw cycles and development of vegetation and biological agents on the monument or in its immediate proximity were decisive factors for the monument condition.
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Figure 8. Considerable cracks in the masonry structure cross the walls throughout their entire section. The provisional monument support with wooden struts located only in the severely damaged areas is insufficient to ensure the structural strength of the monument in the event of an earthquake.

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THE HOLY EMPERORS CHURCH FROM TRGOVITE

Currently there are shrubs growing on the east buttress of the southern facade and algae and mosses developed at an inferior level, on the socle. Particularly, dark lichens have grown massively on the north facade. Regarding the elements that should protect the monument, the church has now a temporary hipped roof made of sheet metal, partially rusted. The roof cornice is too narrow, the facades being insufficiently protected in the superior part, and is not continued with pipes or spouts to drain the water. The drainage system is also lacking at the ground level, favoring capillarity to rise to more than one meter in the masonry structure, causing visible effects such as the loss of socles profile on the exterior and degradation of the painting on the interior.
Figure 9. In the areas affected by cracks displacements of the masonry structure and of the mural painting can be observed.

Figure 10. Construction elements (bricks and mortar) had lost the cohesion and are in a powdering state. Scattered, they create gaps that exceed the width of a brick in depth.

The mural painting support presents major degradation undertaken from the masonry structure. In this context, we can see the above-mentioned networks of cracks affecting the overlayers as well. However, the most obvious degradation of the mural painting support is the loss of adherence between layers, which resulted in detachment and collapse of a significant part of the mural decoration8. The main factor that contributed to the current state of conservation is the abandonment of the monument for a long period. The separation of the layers can be easily recognized by the present gaps and surface deformations. The differential aging of the masonry and arriccio9 shows the evolution of the detaching and collapsing process.

8 For slowing down this process, after the 1977 earthquake

the Historic Monuments Direction authorized a team made of conservators Casian Labin and Oliviu Boldura to perform a short intervention that resumed to the treatment of the most affected areas. 9 A larger part of arriccio was preserved due to a better adhesion between masonry and arriccio than between arriccio and intonaco.
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OLIVIU BOLDURA and ANCA DIN

Figure 11. The roof of the church is partially degraded and has a different shape from the original one, changing the aspect of the monument. The cornice is too narrow, allowing the infiltration of water and the development of biological attack.
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THE HOLY EMPERORS CHURCH FROM TRGOVITE

Figures 12-14. Masonry structure is in an advanced state of deterioration, presenting cracks, displacement, loss of consistency and missing elements. In some areas, the loss of cohesion is so pronounced that the material is easily removed by the wind.

In addition, archive images show that during the last century a significant amount of mural painting was lost. It should be noted that loss of cohesion in the masonry structure has led to the opening of deep gaps, sometimes with continuity to the outer surface of the painting. From this reason, the painting on the wall that separates the nave from the narthex has a fragmented appearance, given by gaps formed by the loss of rectangular bricks, which formed large missing fields. The support is also marked by a series of degradation produced by negligence or deliberately. In this respect, the setting up of natural gas and electric system10 without taking into account the existence of the painting has led to the degradation and alteration of the aesthetic image.

10 Fixed to the wall through nails and dowels.

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OLIVIU BOLDURA and ANCA DIN

Figure 14 and 15. The lack of a drainage system; the church has no sidewalk, gutter, pipes or spouts, so that vegetation grows in the proximity of the monument. The shape of the socle was partially lost due to the degradation of the constituent materials.

Figure 16. The state of conservation of the masonry has a direct influence on the painting which undertakes its gaps, cracks and displacements. Decohesive bricks can be identified by the lack of painting on those routes, giving the area a fragmented aspect.

Vandalism practices have also induces damages, such as the loss of painting fragments as a result of deliberate detachments due to occult practices the removal of the eyes of some saints11. Other damages are scratches and incisions on the surface, present in the form of drawings.
Figure 17. Grazing light shows that the painting is detached on extensive areas, especially in superior areas. In the absence of an emergency intervention the degradation process will continue and the mural paintings will be lost.
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11 Fortunately, the fact that the church had the door blocked

in for a long period reduced the extent of vandalism.

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THE HOLY EMPERORS CHURCH FROM TRGOVITE

Figure 18 (left). Degradation was sometimes caused deliberately, due to occult practices the removal of the eyes, nose or mouth of some saints. Figures 19 and 20 (below). Loss of adherence of the color layer is often associated with loss of cohesion. Details of Saint Wolf representation, narthex, door jamb.

An important degradation factor is moisture that induced salts evolution and crystallization on the surface of the color layer, forming micro-gaps at the bottom of the walls. Persistent humidity also provoked the degradation of the aggregates of the support layer, which led to the appearance of small and dense networks of gaps that give an uneven aspect to the area. The color layer presents specific degradations in addition to those induced by the support: loss of cohesion12 and adhesion and pigments alteration13 or erosion caused by natural factors or inappropriate interventions. The patina of the painting surface is made up of light adherent and non-adherent deposits and

12 Loss of cohesion is accentuated in case of earth pigments,

being associated with lack of adhesion.

13 A chromatic alteration produced by pigment calcination

is present in the nave, north-east pendant.

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OLIVIU BOLDURA and ANCA DIN

Figure 21. Traces left by salt efflorescences on the painting surface.

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THE HOLY EMPERORS CHURCH FROM TRGOVITE

Figures 22 and 23. The presence of white veils and crusts due to the development and migration of the salts to the surface. Figures 24 and 25. On the overall, the successive loss of mural painting can be observed by a deferential degradation of the surface up to the time of collapse. Seen in detail, the painting shows the aggression it was subjected to, due to the action of environmental factors or unauthorized interventions.

other different types of accumulations. Here dust or smoke candles did not formed a consistent layer as the monument has lost its liturgical function for a long period but also because an unauthorized intervention had aggressively removed the patina and part of the sensitive color layer. The effects of this intervention are seen on the mural surface as traces of powdery pigment displaced in areas adjacent to the original14, by visible scratches as a result of rubbing with rigid objects and by blue pigment traces from the background present only in small depressions of the area. Saline efflorescences present on the painting were identified by chemical analysis and notable quantities of nitrates, sulphates and carbonates were found. These formed thin or more consistent white veils, crypto-florescences and routes on areas affected by leaking infiltrated water.

14 The area mostly affected by aggressive cleaning is the

iconostasis inferior registers painting.

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It is a miracle that the Holy Emperors Constantine and Helen Church from Trgovite, degraded by natural factors, human action and neglect, is still surviving. Yet, an earthquake would be fatal for this monument due to both the structural and mural painting degradation state. Even wind and rain slowly but continuously remove parts of the original materials now in a powdery state. We believe that this monument, dated 1650, is worth being saved and requires imperative emergency interventions according to the conservationrestoration projects approved by the Romanian Ministry of Culture and Cults.
Bibliography [1] V. Drghiceanu, "Ruina Sf. mprati din Trgoviste. Note istorice", Buletinul Comisiunii Monumentelor Istorice, 1911 [2] C. Moisescu, Trgoviste. Monumente istorice si de art, Ed. Meridiane, Bucharest, 1979 [3] V. Nicolae, Ctitoriile lui Matei Basarab, Ed. Sport-Turism, Bucharest, 1982

OLIVIU BOLDURA
Contact: oliviu_boldura@zappmobile.ro Oliviu Boldura is professor at the ConservationRestoration Department from the Art University in Bucharest and holds a PhD in Aesthetics of Visual Arts. Since more than 35 years he has been working in the field of conservation of mural paintings of important monuments in northern Romania, some of them being part of UNESCO World Heritage: Vorone, Arbore, Moldovia, Probota, Sucevia, "Sf. Gheorghe" from Suceava and Blineti. On the on-site conservation projects that he coordinates, he is the promoter of experimental applications of laser and nanotechnologies in mural painting conservation and documentation. Oliviu Boldura is member of the conservation speciality commission of the Ministry of Culture and Cults of Romania.

ANCA DIN
Contact: anca@zappmobile.ro Anca Din is a conservator-restorer specialised in mural paintings. She graduated in Conservation from the Art University in Bucharest where she also completed a Master in Visual Arts, with specialisation in Conservation. She works for the enterprise CERECS ART S.R.L., having coordinated several intervention areas from on-site conservation projects, such as St. George Church from the Sf. Ioan cel Nou Monastery in Suceava (2003), The Beheading of St. John the Baptist Church from Arbore (20042006) and the Church of Sucevita Monastery (2007). She has been working as assistant editor for e-conservation magazine from 2007.
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