Theories

What

is a theory?

Orderly set of ideas which describe, explain, and predict behavior.

Why are theories important?

To give meaning to what we observe. Finding ways to improve the lives and education of children.

 Frauds Psychoanalytical theory.

Eriksons Psychosocial theory.

Piagets Theory of Cognitive Developmental. Kohlbergs Theory of Moral Development .

Psychosexual Theory Sigmund Freuds (1856-1939)

Was based on his therapy with troubled adults. He emphasized that a child's personality is formed by the ways which his parents managed his sexual and aggressive drives.

children move through various stages, confronting conflicts between biological drives and social expectations

Freud's Psychosexual Stages of Development

Freud advanced a theory of personality development that centered on the effects of the sexual pleasure drive on the individual psyche. At particular points in the developmental process, he claimed, a single body part is particularly sensitive to sexual, erotic stimulation. These erogenous zones are the mouth, the anus, and the genital region. The child's libido centers on behavior affecting the primary erogenous zone of his age; he cannot focus on the primary erogenous zone of the next stage without resolving the developmental conflict of the immediate one.

Personality Development
According to Freud, personality develops in stages; everyone goes through same stages in same order. Majority of personality is formed before age 6 Erogenous Zone: Area on body capable of producing pleasure Fixation: Unresolved conflict or emotional hang-up caused by frustration

Freudian Stages
Birth to 1 yrs 1 to 3 yrs 3 to 6 years 6 yrs to puberty Puberty onward

Oral Stage Anal Stage

Infants Childs pleasure pleasure Childs centers on focuses on pleasure mouth anus focuses on genitals

Phallic Stage

Latency Stage

Genital Stage

Child A time of represses sexual sexual reawakening; interest source of and develops sexual social and pleasure intellectual becomes skills someone outside of the family

Oral Stage (Ages 0-1)

Infant gets pleasure from sucking and swallowing and it takes one picture from the following Oral receptive personality: when the child continues to seek the pleasure through the mouth by overeating & smoking Oral Dependent Personality: Gullible, passive, and need lots of attention Oral aggressive personality: oral pleasure frustrated he seeks aggressive pleasure through the mouth by being verbally hostile to others Oral-aggressive adults who like to argue and exploit others Primary need: Security; Major conflict: weaning

Nursing Implications Provide oral stimulation by giving pacifiers. Do not discourage thumb sucking. Breast feeding may provide more stimulation because it requires the infant to expend more energy.

Anal Stage (Ages 1-3)

Attention turns to process of elimination. Child can gain approval or express aggression by letting go or holding on. It takes one picture from the following: Anal Retentive: if the child has excessive punishment for failure during toilet training, the child gaining his satisfaction from holding feces & show stubborn, stingy, orderly, and compulsively clean Anal Expulsive: child gains pleasure from expelling the bodys waste products. If the child is over satisfied in this stage he will gives feces at in appropriate time & show disorderly, messy, destructive, or cruel Major conflict: toilet training Nursing Implication Help children achieve bowel and bladder control without undue emphasis on its importance.

Phallic Stage (Ages 3-6) Preschool

Child starts to develop a strong desire to know his own sex identity as well as the other sex identity. Satisfaction is focused on genital & child begins to enjoy touching his/her genitals & develop sexual attraction to the parent of the opposite sex Major conflict: Oedipus & Electra Complex Oedipus Conflict: For boys only. Boy feels rivalry with his father for his mothers affection. Boy may feel threatened by father . To resolve, boy must identify with his father Electra Conflict: Girl loves her father and competes with her mother. Girl identifies with her mother more slowly.

Nursing Implications
Accept child's sexual interest as a normal area of exploration. Help parents answer child's questions about birth or sexual differences. The nurse must provide privacy and clear explanations during any procedures involving the genital area.

Latency Stage (Ages 6-12) School

In this stage the sexual energy is sublimated & converted into socially valued activities in school work, riding bicycles and playing. The sexual interest is relatively inactive.

Nursing Implications

Provide gowns, covers, & underwares at hospital; knock the door before entering.

Genital Stage (Puberty-12+) Adolescent

Sexual desires & interests are directed toward ones pears. Adolescent boy girl friend Adolescent female boy friend This is the beginning of mature adult sexuality sublimation in this stage became more important as sexual & aggressive id motives become transformed into energy for marriage & occupation Nursing Implications Provide appropriate opportunities for the individual to relate with opposite sex Allow individual to verbalize feelings about new relationships.

Structural Model - Id
The id doesn't care about reality, about the needs of anyone else, only its own satisfaction. If you think about it, babies are not real considerate of their parents' wishes.

They have no care for time, whether their parents are sleeping, relaxing, eating dinner, or bathing. When the id wants something, nothing else is important. According to Freud, we are born with our Id. The id is an important part of our personality because as newborns, it allows us to get our basic needs met.

Structural Model - Ego

Within the next three years, as the child interacts more and more with the world, the second part of the personality begins to develop.

Freud called this part the Ego. The ego is based on the reality principle. The ego understands that other people have needs and desires and that sometimes being impulsive or selfish can hurt us in the long run.
Its the ego's job to meet the needs of the id, while taking into consideration the reality of the situation.

Structural Model Superego

By the age of five, or the end of the phallic stage of development, the Superego develops. The Superego is the moral part of us and develops due to the moral and ethical restraints placed on us by our caregivers. In a healthy person, according to Freud, the ego is the strongest so that it can satisfy the needs of the id, not upset the superego, and still take into consideration the reality of every situation. As long as the forces of the id, ego, & superego are fairly well balanced the personality function smoothly. But if the balance is lost between the three conflicting forces, psychological problems will develop

FREUDS EGO DEFENSE MECHANISM

Now the ego has a difficult time satisfying both the id and the superego, but it doesn't have to do so without help. The ego has some tools it can use in its job as the mediator, tools that help defend the ego. These are called Ego Defense Mechanisms or Defenses. When the ego has a difficult time making both the id and the superego happy, it will employ one or more of these defenses:

DEFENSE
denial displacement

DESCRIPTION
arguing against an anxiety provoking stimuli by stating it doesn't exist taking out impulses on a less threatening target

EXAMPLE
denying that your physician's diagnosis of cancer is correct and seeking a second opinion slamming a door instead of hitting as person, yelling at your spouse after an argument with your boss

intellectualization projection

avoiding unacceptable emotions by focusing on the intellectual aspects placing unacceptable impulses in yourself onto someone else

focusing on the details of a funeral as opposed to the sadness and grief

when losing an argument, you state "You're just Stupid;" homophobia

rationalization

stating that you were fired supplying a logical or because you didn't kiss up the rational reason as opposed to the real reason boss, when the real reason was your poor performance

DEFENSE
reaction formation

DESCRIPTION

EXAMPLE
race or culture to the extreme

taking the opposite belief having a bias against a particular race or culture because the true belief and then embracing that causes anxiety returning to a previous stage of development
sitting in a corner and crying after hearing bad news; throwing a temper tantrum when you don't get your way forgetting sexual abuse from your childhood due to the trauma and anxiety
sublimating your aggressive impulses toward a career as a boxer; becoming a surgeon because of your desire to cut; lifting weights to release 'pent up' energy

regression

repression sublimation

pulling into the unconscious

acting out unacceptable impulses in a socially acceptable way

suppression

pushing into the unconscious

trying to forget something that causes you anxiety

Evaluation of Psychoanalytic Theory

Freud overemphasized sexuality and placed little emphasis on other aspects of the childs experience. Freuds theory is largely untestable. Particularly, the concept of the unconscious is unprovable. According to Freud, the only way that people in psychological distress can get relief is to undergo length therapy, to identify unresolved conflicts from infancy and childhood. Freuds view of people is overly negative and pessimistic.

Psychosocial Theory Erik Erikson (1902-1994)

A student of Freud He placed psychoanalytical theory within social and cultural perspectives According to Erikson, the environment in which a child lived was crucial to providing growth, adjustment, a source of self awareness and identity.

ERIKSONS PSYCHOSOCIAL DEVELOPMENT STAGES

Each of Erikson's stages of psychosocial development are marked by a conflict, for which successful resolution will result in a favourable outcome and by an important event that this conflict resolves itself around.

Erikson's research suggests that each individual must learn how to hold both extremes of each specific life-stage challenge in tension with one another, not rejecting one end of the tension or the other

Eriksons Psychosocial Theory

Ages 65+ Ages 30 - 65 Ages 20 - 30 Integrity vs. Despair Generativity vs. Stagnation Intimacy vs. Isolation Identity vs. Role confusion Industry vs. Inferiority Initiative vs. Guilt Autonomy vs. Shame/Doubt Trust vs. Mistrust Ages 6 - 12

Ages 12 - 20

Ages 3 - 6 Ages 1 - 3

Ages 0 - 1

Psychosocial theory
stage infancy
toddler

crises Trust Mistrust Autonomy Shame & doubt Initiative guilt

Indicators(+) Learning to trust others

Self-control without loss of self-esteem Influence the environment with purpose

Indicators(-) Mistrust, withdrawl

compliance

Pre-school

Lack of selfconfidence

School-age Industry Inferiority

Create, develop and manipulate

Loss of hope

Psychosocial theory
stage Adolescence Young Adult. Middle adult. crises Indicators(+) Indicators(-) confusion Impersonal relationship Self-concern Identity Actualize self Role confusion plans Intimacy Isolation Generativity Stgnation Ego integrity despair Intimate relationship Productivity

Later Adult.

Acceptance of death

Sense of loss

Stage 1 (Birth1) Trust vs. Mistrust

Children are completely dependent on others Erikson proposes that our first major conflict is encountered in the first year Trust vs. Mistrust Consistent and dependable care giving and meeting infant needs leads to a sense of trust; safe; secure & attachment Infants who are not well cared for will develop mistrust & withdrawal

Nursing Implications:
Provide a primary caregiver. Provide experiences that add to security, such as soft sounds and touch. Provide visual stimulation for active child involvement

Stage 2 (13 years)

Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt

Children are discovering their own independence (doing things for themselves); The child explores the environment and seeks the independence to do so. Those given the opportunity to experience independence will gain a sense of autonomy Children that are overly restrained (protective) or punished will develop shame and doubt

Nursing Implications:

Provide opportunities for decision making, such as offering choices of clothes to wear or toys to play with.

Stage 3 (35 years) Initiative vs. Guilt

Children language gives the youngster ability to expand imagination Can the child plan or do things on his own, such as dress him or herself. If "guilty" about making his or her own choices, the child will not function well. Initiative: Parents reinforce via giving children freedom to play, use imagination, and ask questions Guilt: May occur if parents criticize, prevent play, or discourage a childs questions

Stage 4 (512 years) Industry vs. Inferiority

Child begins to differentiate between work ( especially school work) & play Industrious children build a sense of competence and self-confidence. When childrens caregiver do not appreciate their work, it will develop a sense of inferiority rather than pride.

Nursing Implications:

Provide opportunities such as allowing child to assemble and complete a short project so that child feels rewarded for accomplishment.

Stage 5 (Adolescence) Identity vs. Confusion

Questioning of self. Who am I, how do I fit in? Where am I going in life? Erikson believes that if the parents allow the child to explore, they will conclude their own identity. However, if the parents continually push him/her to conform to their views, the teen will face identity confusion . The adolescent is newly concerned with how they appear to others.

Nursing Implications:

Provide opportunities for an adolescent to discuss feelings about events important to him or her. Offer support and praise for decision making

Stage 6 (Young adulthood) Intimacy vs. Isolation

The young adult is concerned with establishing sexual intimacy, which is usually centered on marriage. Final career choices become important. If he failed to achieve that, he isolates from society.

Stage 7 (Middle adulthood) Generativity vs. Stagnation

Measure accomplishments/failures. Am I satisfied or not? The need to assist the younger generation. Stagnation is the feeling of not having done anything to help the next generation. Generativity is the concern in establishing and guiding the next generation. Stagnation: When one is only concerned with ones own needs and comforts

Stage 8 (Late adulthood to Death) Integrity vs. Despair

Some handle death well. Some can be bitter, unhappy, dissatisfied with what they accomplished or failed to accomplish within their life time. They reflect on the past, and either conclude at satisfaction or despair.
Despair is signified by a fear of one's own death, as well as the loss of self-sufficiency, and of loved partners and friends. Healthy children, Erikson tells us, won't fear life if their elders have integrity enough not to fear death.

Psychoanalytic Perspective
Comparing Erickson with Freud Children are active explorers, not passive slaves to biological urges Emphasis on cultural influences, less on sexual urges Eight Life Crises (Psychosocial Stages) Emerge at a time dictated by biological maturation and social demands Must be resolved successfully for satisfactory resolution at next stage Extend throughout life

Theoretical Approaches to
Childhood Development
Stages Age 0-12 months 1-3 years 3-6 years 6-12 years 12-18 years Erikson Psychosocial Trust vs. Mistrust Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt Initiative vs guilt Industry versus inferiority Intimacy vs. isolation role confusion Freud Psychosexual Oral Anal Phallic Latency Genital

Psychoanalytic Perspective
Contributions and Criticisms Rational, adaptive Social conflicts Vague about causes Descriptive