Literature Review on Job Satisfaction DEFINATION OF JOB SATISFACTION: Job satisfaction has been defined as a pleasurable emotional state

resulting from the appraisal of ones job; an affective reaction to ones job; and an attitude towards ones job. Weiss (2002) has argued that job satisfaction is an attitude but points out that researchers should clearly distinguish the objects of cognitive evaluation which are affect (emotion), beliefs and behaviors. This definition suggests that we form attitudes towards our jobs by taking into account our feelings, our beliefs, and our behaviors.
CONCEPT OF JOB SATISFACTION: Job satisfaction is a psychological aspect. It is an expression of feeling about the job. Job satisfaction is an attitude. It is a permanent impression formed about the job. Employees interact with people and other resources while working with the job. In the process, they experience positive or negative feelings about the job context and content. The concept of job satisfaction has gained importance ever since the human relations approach has become popular. Job satisfaction is an intangible variable. It consists of a complex number of variables, conditions, feelings and behavioral tendencies. Roberts Dictionary of Industrial Relations defined job satisfaction as those outward or inner manifestations which give the individual a sense of enjoyment or accomplishment in the performance of his work. According to Locke, job satisfaction is a pleasurable or positive emotional state resulting from the appraisal of ones job or job experience. Andrew Brin stated Job satisfaction as the amount of pleasure or contentment associated with a job. Further, he stated that if one likes a job intensely he will experience high job satisfaction and if he dislikes the job intensely he will experience job dissatisfaction. OBJECTIVES OF JOB SATISFACTION: 1. Define job satisfaction; 2. Describe the determinants of job satisfaction; 3. Examine various methods of job satisfaction; and 4. Examine the impact of job satisfaction on organizational and individual performance. CHARACTERISTICS OF JOB SATISFACTION: 1. Job satisfaction is an inner feeling. It can be inferred through the expression of behavior. 2. Job satisfaction is an attitude. 3. It influences the skill and energy of individual. 4. It can be positive or negative. 5. Job satisfaction is associated with the emotional state of human mind. MODELS OF JOB SATISFACTION: Affect Theory: Edwin A. Lockes Range of Affect Theory (1976) is arguably the most famous job satisfaction model. The main premise of this theory is that satisfaction is determined by a discrepancy between what one wants in a job and what one has in a job. Further, the theory states that how much one values a given facet of work (e.g. the degree of autonomy in a position) moderates how satisfied/dissatisfied one becomes when expectations are/arent met. When a person values a particular facet of a job, his satisfaction is more greatly impacted both positively (when expectations are met) and negatively (when expectations are not met), compared to one who doesnt value that facet. To illustrate, if Employee A values autonomy in the workplace and Employee B is indifferent about autonomy, then Employee A

would be more satisfied in a position that offers a high degree of autonomy and less satisfied in a position with little or no autonomy compared to Employee B. This theory also states that too much of a particular facet will produce stronger feelings of dissatisfaction the more a worker values that facet. Dispositional Theory: Another well-known job satisfaction theory is the Dispositional Theory Template: Jackson April 2007. It is a very general theory that suggests that people have innate dispositions that cause them to have tendencies toward a certain level of satisfaction, regardless of ones job. This approach became a notable explanation of job satisfaction in light of evidence that job satisfaction tends to be stable over time and across careers and jobs. Research also indicates that identical twins have similar levels of job satisfaction. A significant model that narrowed the scope of the Dispositional Theory was the Core Self-evaluations Model, proposed by Timothy A. Judge in 1998. Judge argued that there are four Core Self-evaluations that determine ones disposition towards job satisfaction: self-esteem, general self-efficacy, locus of control and neuroticism. This model states that higher levels of self-esteem (the value one places on his/her self) and general self-efficacy (the belief in ones own competence) lead to higher work satisfaction. Having an internal locus of control (believing one has control over her\his own life, as opposed to outside forces having control) leads to higher job satisfaction. Finally, lower levels of neuroticism lead to higher job satisfaction. Two-Factor Theory (Motivator-Hygiene Theory): Frederick Herzbergs Two Factor Theory (also known as Motivator Hygiene Theory) attempts to explain satisfaction and motivation in the workplace. This theory states that satisfaction and dissatisfaction are driven by different factors motivation and hygiene factors, respectively. An employees motivation to work is continually related to job satisfaction of a subordinate. Motivation can be seen as an inner force that drives individuals to attain personal and organizational goals (Hoskinson, Porter, & Wrench, p.133). Motivating factors are those aspects of the job that make people want to perform, and provide people with satisfaction, for example achievement in work, recognition, promotion opportunities. These motivating factors are considered to be intrinsic to the job, or the work carried out. Hygiene factors include aspects of the working environment such as pay, company policies, supervisory practices, and other working conditions. While Hertzberg's model has stimulated much research, researchers have been unable to reliably empirically prove the model, with Hackman & Oldham suggesting that Hertzberg's original formulation of the model may have been a methodological artifact. Furthermore, the theory does not consider individual differences, conversely predicting all employees will react in an identical manner to changes in motivating/hygiene factors. Finally, the model has been criticized in that it does not specify how motivating/hygiene factors are to be measured. Job Characteristics Model: Hackman & Oldham proposed the Job Characteristics Model, which is widely used as a framework to study how particular job characteristics impact on job outcomes, including job satisfaction. The model states that there are five core job characteristics (skill variety, task identity, task significance, autonomy, and feedback) which impact three critical psychological states (experienced meaningfulness, experienced responsibility for outcomes, and knowledge of the actual results), in turn influencing work outcomes (job satisfaction, absenteeism, work motivation, etc.). The five core job characteristics can be combined to form a motivating potential score (MPS) for a job, which can be used as an index of how likely a job is to affect an employee's attitudes and behaviors----. A meta-analysis of studies that assess the framework of the model provides some support for the validity of the JCM.

DETERMINATS OF JOB SATISFACTON: Job satisfaction is intangible and it is multi-variable. A number of factors influence job satisfaction of employees. They can be classified into two categories. They are organizational and personal variables. They are discussed below:

(A) Organizational Determinants:

Employees spend most of the time in organizations. Therefore, a number of organizational factors determine job satisfaction of the employees. Organizations can increase job satisfaction by organizing and managing the organizational factors. Let us learn the organization determinants of job satisfaction. (i) Wages: Wage is the amount of reward worker expects from the job. It is an instrument of fulfilling the needs. Everyone expects to get a commensurate reward. The wage should be fair, reasonable and equitable. A feeling of fair and equitable reward produces job satisfaction. (ii) Nature of Work: The nature of work has significant impact on the job satisfaction. Jobs involving intelligence, skills, abilities, challenges and scope for greater freedom make the employee satisfied on the job. A feeling of boredom, poor variety of tasks, frustration and failure leads to job dissatisfaction. (iii) Working Conditions: Good workings conditions are needed to motivate the employees. They provide a feeling of safety, comfort and motivation. Poor working conditions give a feeling that health is in danger. (iv) Job Content: Job content refers to the factors such as recognition, responsibility, advancement, achievement etc. Jobs involving variety of tasks and less repetitive result in greater job satisfaction. A job, having poor content produces job dissatisfaction. (v) Organizational Level: Higher level jobs are viewed as prestigious, esteemed and opportunity for self-control. Employees working at higher level jobs express greater job satisfaction than the lower level jobs. (vi) Opportunities for Promotion: Promotion is an achievement in the life. Promotion gives more pay, responsibility, authority, independence and status. Therefore, opportunities for promotion determine the degree of satisfaction to the employees. (vii) Work Group: Existence of groups in organisations is a common phenomenon. It is a natural desire of human beings to interact with others. This characteristic results in formation of work groups at the work place. Isolated workers dislike their jobs. The work group exerts a tremendous influence on the satisfaction of employees. Satisfaction of an individual depends largely on the relationship with the group members, group dynamics, group cohesiveness and his own need for affiliation. (viii) Leadership Styles: Leadership style also determines the satisfaction level on the job. Democratic leadership style enhances job satisfaction. Democratic leaders promote friendship, respect and warmth relationships among the employees. On the other hand, employees working under authoritarian leaders express low level of job satisfaction.

(B) Personal Determinants:

Job satisfaction relates to the psychological factors. Therefore, a number of personal factors determine the job satisfaction of the employees. They are mentioned below: (i) Personality: Individual psychological conditions determine the personality. Factors like perception, attitudes and learning determine the psychological conditions. Therefore, these factors determine the satisfaction of individuals. (ii) Age: Age is a significant determinant of job satisfaction. Younger age employees possessing higher energy levels are likely to feel more satisfied. As employees grow older, aspiration levels increase. If they are unable to find their aspiration fulfilled, they feel dissatisfied. (iii) Education: Education provides an opportunity for developing ones personality. It enhances individual wisdom and evaluation process. Highly educated employees possess persistence, rationality and thinking power. Therefore, they can understand the situation and appraise it positively. (iv) Gender Differences: The gender and race of the employees determine Job satisfaction. Women are

more likely to be satisfied than their counterpart even if they are employed in small jobs. Certain other factors that determine job satisfaction are learning, skill autonomy, job characteristics, unbiased attitude of management, social status etc. Managers should consider all these factors in assessing the satisfaction of the employees and increasing their level of job satisfaction.

MEASUREMENT OF JOB SATISFACTION:

Job satisfaction is an intangible and psychological concept. It is a qualitative aspect. It is not understood in strict quantitative terms. Therefore, job satisfaction should be measured through survey of employees attitudes. In most of the organizations, there is a practice of conducting surveys of employees intentions in a regular manner. Some of the techniques employed to measure job satisfaction are discussed below: (i) Rating Scales: Rating scales are the most commonly used method of measuring the job satisfaction. Rating scale consists of certain statements describing the attitude of the employees with respect to the job, organization and personal factors. For each statement, the employee is asked to express his opinion on a scale consisting of different expressions. (ii) Personal Interviews: Another important method of measuring job satisfaction is conducting personal interview with the employees. Experts conduct interviews with the employee in which they are asked to express their opinion on job satisfaction. These responses are analyzed to find out their levels of job satisfaction. However, this method is likely to have personal bias of the interviewer. (iii) Tendencies: Employees are asked to describe their tendency or inclination on several aspects. Employees tendency reveals their satisfaction or dissatisfaction. (iv) Critical Incidents: Herzberg developed this approach to measure job satisfaction. In this method, employees were asked to describe incidents on their job when they were particularly satisfied or Dissatisfied. These incidents were analysed to determine their positive and negative attitudes. HOW SATISFIED ARE PEOPLE IN THEIR JOB: Are most people satisfied with their jobs? The answer seems to be a qualified yes in the United States and in most developed countries. Independent studies, conducted among U.S. workers over the past 30 years, generally indicate that the majority of workers are satisfied with their jobs. Although the percentage range is pretty wide-from the low 50s to the high 70s-more people report that theyre satisfied than not. Moreover, these results are generally applicable to other developed countries. For instance, comparable studies among workers in Canada, Mexico, and Europe indicate more positive than negative results. In spite of the generally positive results, recent trends are not encouraging. The evidence indicates a marked decline in job satisfaction since the early 1990s. A conference Board study found that 58.6 percent of Americans were satisfied with their jobs in 1995. By 2002, that percentage was down to 50.4. The sharpest decline in satisfaction has occurred among workers in the 35 to 44 age group. In 1995, 61 percent of these workers said they were satisfied. By 2002, it had dropped to only 47 percent. What factors might explain this recent drop in job satisfaction? Experts suggest it might be due to employers efforts at trying to increase productivity through heavier employee workloads and tighter deadlines. Another contributing factor may be a feeling, increasingly reported by workers, that they have less control over their work. THE EFFECT OF JOB SATISFACTION ON EMPLOYEE PERFORMANCE: Managers interest in job satisfaction tends to center on its effect on employee performance. Researchers have recognized this interest, so we find a large number of studies that have been designed to assess the impact of job satisfaction on employee productivity, absenteeism, turnover, and citizenship behaviors. Lets look at the current state of our knowledge.

Satisfaction and Productivity: As the Myth or Science box concludes, happy workers arent necessary productive workers. At the individual level, the evidence suggests the reverse to be more accurate-that productivity is likely to lead to satisfaction. Interestingly, if we move from the individual level to that of the organization, there is renewed support for the original satisfaction-performance relationship. When satisfaction and productivity data are gathered for the organization as a whole, rather than at the individual level, we find that organizations with more satisfied employees tend to be more effective than organizations with fewer satisfied employees. It may well be that the reason we havent gotten strong support for the satisfaction-causesproductivity thesis is that studies have focused on individuals rather than on the organization and that individual-level measures of productivity dont take into consideration all the interactions and complexities in the work process. So although we might not be able to say that a happy worker is more productive, it might be true that happy organizations are more productive. Job Satisfaction and Performance: A study of the Indian situation confirmed the positive interrelationship between job satisfaction, job performance and job motivation. The review of 31 studies also indicates a systematic, positive relationship between satisfaction and performance. Job Satisfaction and Accident: Research bears witness to the fact that satisfied workers are less likely to face accidents as compared to dissatisfied ones. It was concluded that accidents are closely linked to job satisfaction of workers and organizations with a low accident toll are likely to have a satisfied workforce. Another study reveals that highly satisfied workers have a higher efficiency rating as well. Being well adjusted on job, the satisfied worker is sure to perform better. Satisfaction and Absenteeism: We find a consistent negative relationship between satisfaction and absenteeism, but the correlation is moderate-usually less than +0.40 and probably closer to +0.20. Although it certainly makes sense that dissatisfied employees are more likely to miss work, other factors have an impact on the relationship and reduce the correlation coefficient. Organizations that provide liberal sick leave benefits are encouraging all their employees-including those who are highly satisfied-to take days off. Assuming that you have a reasonable number of varied interests, you can find work satisfying and yet still take off work to enjoy a three-day weekend or tan yourself on a warm summer day if those days come free with no penalties. An excellent illustration of how satisfaction leads directly to attendance, when there is a minimum impact from other factors, is a study done at Sears, Roebuck. Satisfaction data were available on employees at Searss two headquarters in Chicago and New York. In addition, it is important to note that Searss policy was not to permit employees to be absent from work avoidable reasons without penalty. The occurrence of a freak April 2 snowstorm in Chicago created the opportunity to compare employee attendance at the Chicago office with attendance in New York, where the weather was quite nice. The interesting dimension in the study is that the snowstorm give the Chicago employees a built-in excuse not to come to work. The storm crippled the citys transportation, and individuals knew they could miss work this day with no penalty. This natural experiment permitted the comparison of attendance records for satisfied and dissatisfied employees at two locations-one where you were expected to be at work (with normal pressures for

attendance) and the other where you were free to choose with no penalty involved. If satisfaction leads to attendance, when there is an absence of outside factors, the more satisfied employees should have come to work in Chicago, while dissatisfied employees should have stayed home. The study found that on this particular April 2, absenteeism rates in New York were just as high for satisfied groups of workers as for dissatisfied groups. But in Chicago, the workers with high satisfaction scores had much higher attendance than did those with lower satisfaction levels. These findings are exactly what we would have expected if satisfaction is negatively correlated with absenteeism. Job Satisfaction and Absenteeism: Results of a study showed that the rate of absenteeism increased down the leader of hierarchy, with managers having the lowest absence rate, technical workers having the highest absence rate and supervisors occupying the intermediate positions. Managers were the most satisfied employees with their jobs, followed by the supervisors, and technical staff. Absenteeism was positively correlated to job satisfaction and to the feeling of insecurity. Also, absenteeism was negatively correlated with achievement motivation. A satisfied worker has a positive attitude towards his work and will try to avoid being absent from work. This does not mean that workers who are highly satisfied with their jobs would almost never be absent. However, absenteeism would be less among those who are satisfied than those who are dissatisfied with their jobs. Different research studies have also noticed the relationship between job satisfaction and absenteeism on the basis of gender and white or blue collared workers. The finding showed a significant relationship with respect to both males and females and also among the both white collared and blue collared workers. However, the relationship is slightly affected by the marital status of working women who sometimes remain absent or attend work late due to unavoidable domestic engagements. Satisfaction and Turnover: Satisfaction is also negatively related to turnover, but the correlation is stronger than what we found for absenteeism. Yet, again, other factors such as labor-market conditions, expectations about alternative job opportunities, and length of tenure with the organization are important constraints on the actual decision to leave ones current job. Evidence indicates that an important moderator of the satisfaction-turnover relationship is the employees level of performance. Specifically, level of satisfaction is less important in predicting turn over for superior performers. Why? The organization typically makes considerable efforts to keep these people. They get pay raises, praise, recognition, increased promotional opportunities, and so forth. Just the opposite tends to apply to poor performers. Few attempts are made by the organization to retain them. There may even be subtle pressures to encourage them to quit. We would expect, therefore, that job satisfaction is more important in influencing poor performers to stay than superior performers. Regardless of level of satisfaction, the latter are more likely to remain with the organization because the receipt of recognition, praise, and other rewards gives them more reasons for staying. JOB SATISFACATION AND OCB: It seems logical to assume that job satisfaction should be a major determination of employees organizational citizenship behavior (OCB). Satisfied employees would seem more likely to talk positively about the organization, help others, and go beyond the normal expectations in their job. Moreover, satisfied employees might be more prone to go beyond the call of duty because they want to reciprocate their positive experiences. Consistent with this thinking, early discussion of OCB assumed that it was closely linked with satisfaction. More recent evidence, however, suggests that satisfaction

influences OCB, but through perceptions of fairness. There is a modest overall relationship between job satisfaction and OCB. But satisfaction is unrelated to OCB when fairness is controlled for. What does this mean? Basically, job satisfaction comes down to conception of fair outcomes, treatment, and procedures. If you dont feel as through your supervisor, the organizations procedures, or pay policies are fair, your job satisfaction is likely to suffer significantly. However, when you perceive organizational processes and outcomes to be fair, trust is developed. And when you trust your employers, youre more willing to voluntarily engage in behaviors that go beyond your formal job requirements. JOB SATISFACTION AND CUSTOMER SATISFACTION: Employees in service jobs often interact with customers. Because the management of service organizations should be concerned with pleasing those customers, it is reasonable to ask: Is employees satisfaction related to positive customer outcomes? For frontline employees who have regular contact with customers, the answer is Yes. The evidence indicates that satisfied employees increase customer satisfaction and loyalty. Why? In service organizations, customer retention and defection are highly dependent on how frontline employees deal with customers. Satisfied employees are more likely to be friendly, upbeat and responsive-which customers appreciate. And because satisfied employees are less prone to turnover, customers are more likely to encounter familiar faces and receive experienced service. These qualities build customer satisfaction and loyalty. In addition, the relationship seems to apply in reverse: Dissatisfied customers can increase an employees job satisfaction. Employees who have regular contact with customers report that rude, thoughtless, or unreasonably demanding customers adversely effect the employees job satisfaction. A number of companies are acting on this evidence. Service-oriented businesses such as FedEx, Southwest Airlines, Four Seasons Hotels, American Express, and Office Depot obsess about pleasing their customers. Toward that end, they also focus on building employee satisfaction-recognizing that employee satisfaction will go a long way toward contributing to their goal of having happy customers. These firms seek to hire upbeat and friendly employees, they train employees in the importance of customer, they reward customer service, they provide positive employee work climates, and they regularly track employee satisfaction through attitude surveys. WHAT ABOUT EMPLOYEE DISSATISFACTION: Employee can express this dissatisfaction in a number of ways. For example, rather than quit, employees can complain, be insubordinate, steal organizational property, or shirk a part of their work responsibilities. Exhibit 3-5 offers four responses that differ from one another along two dimensions: constructive/destructive and active/passive. They are defined as follows: Exit: Behavior directed toward leaving the organization, including looking for a new position as well as resigning. Voice: Actively and constructively attempting to improve conditions, including suggesting improvements, discussing problems with superiors, and some forms of union activity. Loyalty: Passively but optimistically waiting for conditions to improve, including speaking up for the organization in the face of external criticism and trusting the organization and its management to do the right thing.

Neglect: Passively allowing conditions to worsen, including chronic absenteeism or lateness, reduced effort, and increased error rate.

Exit and neglect behaviors encompass our performance variables-productivity, absenteeism, and turnover. But this model expands employee response to include voice and loyalty-constructive behaviors that allow individuals to tolerate unpleasant situations or to revive satisfactory working conditions. It helps us to understand situations, such as those sometimes found among unionized workers, for whom low job satisfaction is coupled with low turnover. Union members often express dissatisfaction through the grievance procedure or through formal contract negations. These voice mechanisms allow union members to continue in their jobs while convincing themselves that they are acting to improve the situation. Responses to Job Dissatisfaction: Active Exit Destructive Neglect Passive Loyalty Voice Constructive

IMPORTANCE TO WORKER AND ORGANIZATION: Frequently, work underlies self-esteem and identity while unemployment lowers self-worth and produces anxiety. At the same time, monotonous jobs can erode a worker's initiative and enthusiasm and can lead to absenteeism and unnecessary turnover. Job satisfaction and occupational success are major factors in personal satisfaction, self-respect, self-esteem, and selfdevelopment. To the worker, job satisfaction brings a pleasurable emotional state that often leads to a positive work attitude. A satisfied worker is more likely to be creative, flexible, innovative, and loyal. For the organization, job satisfaction of its workers means a work force that is motivated and committed to high quality performance. Increased productivitythe quantity and quality of output per hour workedseems to be a byproduct of improved quality of working life. It is important to note that the literature on the relationship between job satisfaction and productivity is neither conclusive nor consistent. However, studies dating back to Herzberg's (1957) have shown at least low correlation between high morale and high productivity, and it does seem logical that more satisfied workers will tend to add more value to an organization. Unhappy employees, who are motivated by fear of job loss, will not give 100 percent of their effort for very long. Though fear is a powerful motivator, it is also a temporary one, and as soon as the threat is lifted performance will decline. Tangible ways in which job satisfaction benefits the organization include reduction in complaints and grievances, absenteeism, turnover, and termination; as well as improved punctuality and worker morale. Job satisfaction is also linked to a more healthy work force and has been found to be a good indicator of longevity. And although only little correlation has been found between job satisfaction and productivity, Brown (1996) notes that some employers have found that satisfying or delighting

employees is a prerequisite to satisfying or delighting customers, thus protecting the "bottom line." No wonder Andrew Carnegie is quoted as saying: "Take away my people, but leave my factories, and soon grass will grow on the factory floors. Take away my factories, but leave my people, and soon we will have a new and better factory" (quoted in Brown, 1996, p. 123). CREATING JOB SATISFACTION: So, how is job satisfaction created? What are the elements of a job that create job satisfaction? Organizations can help to create job satisfaction by putting systems in place that will ensure that workers are challenged and then rewarded for being successful. Organizations that aspire to creating a work environment that enhances job satisfaction need to incorporate the following:

Flexible work arrangements, possibly including telecommuting Training and other professional growth opportunities Interesting work that offers variety and challenge and allows the worker opportunities to "put his or her signature" on the finished product Opportunities to use one's talents and to be creative Opportunities to take responsibility and direct one's own work A stable, secure work environment that includes job security/continuity An environment in which workers are supported by an accessible supervisor who provides timely feedback as well as congenial team members Flexible benefits, such as child-care and exercise facilities Up-to-date technology Competitive salary and opportunities for promotion

Probably the most important point to bear in mind when considering job satisfaction is that there are many factors that affect job satisfaction and that what makes workers happy with their jobs varies from one worker to another and from day to day. Apart from the factors mentioned above, job satisfaction is also influenced by the employee's personal characteristics, the manager's personal characteristics and management style, and the nature of the work itself. Managers who want to maintain a high level of job satisfaction in the work force must try to understand the needs of each member of the work force. For example, when creating work teams, managers can enhance worker satisfaction by placing people with similar backgrounds, experiences, or needs in the same workgroup. Also, managers can enhance job satisfaction by carefully matching workers with the type of work. For example, a person who does not pay attention to detail would hardly make a good inspector, and a shy worker is unlikely to be a good salesperson. As much as possible, managers should match job tasks to employees' personalities. Managers who are serious about the job satisfaction of workers can also take other deliberate steps to create a stimulating work environment. One such step is job enrichment. Job enrichment is a deliberate upgrading of responsibility, scope, and challenge in the work itself. Job enrichment usually includes increased responsibility, recognition, and opportunities for growth, learning, and achievement. Large companies that have used job-enrichment programs to increase employee motivation and job satisfaction include AT&T, IBM, and General Motors (Daft, 1997). Good management has the potential for creating high morale, high productivity, and a sense of purpose and meaning for the organization and its employees. Empirical findings by Ting(1997)

show that job characteristics such as pay, promotional opportunity, task clarity and significance, and skills utilization, as well as organizational characteristics such as commitment and relationship with supervisors and co-workers, have significant effects on job satisfaction. These job characteristics can be carefully managed to enhance job satisfaction. Of course, a worker who takes some responsibility for his or her job satisfaction will probably find many more satisfying elements in the work environment. Everett (1995) suggests that employees ask themselves the following questions:

When have I come closest to expressing my full potential in a work situation? What did it look like? What aspects of the workplace were most supportive? What aspects of the work itself were most satisfying? What did I learn from that experience that could be applied to the present situation?

WORKERS' ROLES IN JOB SATISFACTION: If job satisfaction is a worker benefit, surely the worker must be able to contribute to his or her own satisfaction and well-being on the job. The following suggestions can help a worker find personal job satisfaction:

Seek opportunities to demonstrate skills and talents. This often leads to more challenging work and greater responsibilities, with attendant increases in pay and other recognition. Develop excellent communication skills. Employers value and reward excellent reading, listening, writing, and speaking skills. Know more. Acquire new job-related knowledge that helps you to perform tasks more efficiently and effectively. This will relieve boredom and often gets one noticed. Demonstrate creativity and initiative. Qualities like these are valued by most organizations and often result in recognition as well as in increased responsibilities and rewards. Develop teamwork and people skills. A large part of job success is the ability to work well with others to get the job done. Accept the diversity in people. Accept people with their differences and their imperfections and learn how to give and receive criticism constructively. See the value in your work. Appreciating the significance of what one does can lead to satisfaction with the work itself. This helps to give meaning to one's existence, thus playing a vital role in job satisfaction. Learn to de-stress. Plan to avoid burnout by developing healthy stress-management techniques.

ASSURING JOB SATISFACTION: Assuring job satisfaction, over the longterm, requires careful planning and effort both by management and by workers. Managers are encouraged to consider such theories as Herzberg's(1957) and Maslow's (1943) Creating a good blend of factors that contribute to a stimulating, challenging, supportive, and rewarding work environment is vital. Because of the relative prominence of pay in the reward system, it is very important that salaries be tied to job responsibilities and that pay increases be tied to performance rather than seniority. So, in essence, job satisfaction is a product of the events and conditions that people

experience on their jobs. Brief (1998) wrote: "If a person's work is interesting, her pay is fair, her promotional opportunities are good, her supervisor is supportive, and her coworkers are friendly, then a situational approach leads one to predict she is satisfied with her job" (p. 91). Very simply put, if the pleasures associated with one's job outweigh the pains, there is some level of job satisfaction.