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Name : Ahmed Abd Almagieed Bujbara Number: 211519205 Group : 1

Another variation of the standard frequency table is used when cumulative totals are desired. The cumulative frequency for a class is the sum of the frequencies for that class and all previous classes. Table 3 is an example of a cumulative frequency table, and it represents the same numbers of correct responses for twenty five students given above. A comparison of the frequency column of Table 1 and the cumulative frequency column of Table 3 reveals that the cumulative frequency values are obtained by starting with the frequency for the first class and adding successive frequencies for each class. For example, there is 1 value less than 16.5, there are 3 values (1 + 2) less than 18.5, and so on.

Table 3 - Cumulative Frequency Table of Correct Responses


Class i Class Interval (Boundaries ) Cumulati ve Frequenc y Cumulati ve Relative Frequenc y

1 2 3 4 5 6 7
8

14.5-16.5 16.5-18.5 18.5-20.5 20.5-22.5 22.5-24.5


24.5-26.5 26.5-28.5 28.5-30.5

1 3 6 9 16 20 23 25

1/25 3/25 6/25 9/25 16/25 20/25 23/25 25/25 = 1

In the next section we will explore various graphic ways to depict data so that they are easy to understand. Frequency tables are necessary for constructing some of the graphs, which in turn are often necessary for considering the important characteristic of the nature or shape of the distribution of the data.

(a)Explain what meant by Numerical Measures of Central Tendency. (b)Discuses briefly some of the different measures of Central Tendency. (c)Discuses the important advantages and disadvantages of the different measures of Central Tendency.

(a) A measure of central tendency (the center of the frequency distribution) is a value at the center or middle of a data set. (b) There are different criteria for determining the center, and so there are different definitions of measures of central tendency, including the mean, median, mode, and midrange.

a) In the preceding definition of the mean, every score is treated equally, but there are situations in which the scores vary in their degree of importance. b) In such cases, we can calculate the mean by applying different weights to different scores. c) A weight is a value corresponding to how much the score is counted. Given a list of scores x1, x2, x3,,xn and a corresponding list of weights w1, w2, w3, . , wn, the weighted mean is obtained by using weighted mean =

(w.x) , where w weight w

1. 2.

The harmonic mean is often used as a measure of central tendency for data sets consisting of rates of change, such as speeds. To obtain the harmonic mean of a set of scores, divide the number of scores n by the sum of the reciprocals of all scores.

1. The geometric mean is often used in business and economics for finding average rates of change, average rates of growth, or average ratios. 2. Given a collection of n scores (all of which are positive), the geometric mean is the nth root of their product.

1. Recall from Section 1-2 that quantitative data consist of numbers that are measures or counts, whereas qualitative data represent some nonnumeric characteristic. 2. A histogram is a bar graph in which the horizontal scale represents a quantitative variable, such as the body temperatures of people. In contrast, a Pareto chart is a bar graph for qualitative data, with the bars arranged in order according to frequencies. 3. As in histograms, in Pareto charts vertical scales can represent Frequency frequencies or relative frequencies. The tallest bar is at the left, and the smaller bars are farther to the right, as in Figure 3

12000

9000

6000
A B C D E

Figure 3. Pareto chart

1. Like Pareto charts, pie charts are used to depict qualitative data in a way that makes them much more understandable. Figure 4 shows an example of a pie chart, which graphically depicts qualitative data as slices of a pie.
D (1310) E (1099)

C (1510)

B (3957)

A (11381)

Figure 4 Pie Chart

2. Construction of such a pie chart involves slicing up the pie into the proper proportions. If the category (A) represents 59.1% of the total (19275), then the wedge representing (A) should be 59.1% of the total. (The central angle should be 0.591 x 360 = 213.) 3. The Pareto chart of Figure 3 and the pie chart of Figure 4 depict the same data in different ways. 4. If you compare the Pareto chart and the pie chart, you will probably see that the Pareto chart does a better job of showing the relative sizes of the different components.

1. The quadratic mean (or root mean square, or R.M.S.) is usually used in physical applications. 2. In power distribution systems, for example, voltages and currents are usually referred to in terms of their R.M.S. values. 3. The quadratic mean of a set of scores is obtained by squaring each score, adding the results, dividing by the number of scores n, and then taking the square root of that result.

(c) The Best Measure of central Tendency The selection of the most representative measure is not always easy. Some of the important advantages and disadvantages of the different measures are summarized in the following table.

Average

Definition

How Commo n?

Existenc e

Mean

x
n

Takes Every Score into Account ?


Yes

Affect ed by Extre me Scores ?


Yes

Advantages and Disadvantages

Most familiar average

Always exists

Median

Middle score

Common ly used

Always exists

No

No

Mode

Most frequent score

Sometim es used

Midrang e

high low 2

Rarely used

Might not exists; may be more than one mode Always exists

No

No

Used throughout this book; works well with many statistical methods Often a good choice if there are some extreme scores Appropriate for data at the nominal level

No

Yes

Very sensitive to extreme values

A comparison of the mean, median and mode can reveal information about the characteristic of skewness, as defined below and as illustrated in Figure 5. 1. A distribution of data is symmetric if the left half of its histogram is roughly a mirror image of its right half. 2. A distribution of data is skewed if it is not symmetric and extends more to one side than the other. 3. Data skewed to the left are said to be negatively skewed; the mean and median are to the left of the mode. Although not always predictable, negatively skewed data generally have the mean to the left of the median. (See Figure 5a). 4. Data skewed to the right are said to be positively skewed; the mean and median are to the right of the mode. Although not always predictable, positively skewed data generally have the mean to the right of the median.(See Figure 5c). 5. In reality, there are many such distributions of data that are symmetric and without skewness. Distributions skewed to the right are more common than those skewed to the left because its often easier to get exceptionally large values than values that are exceptionally small. With annual incomes, for example, its impossible to get values below the lower limit of zero, but there are a few people who earn millions of dollars in a year. Annual incomes therefore tend to be skewed to the right, as in Figure 5c. 6. The symmetric graph in Figure 5b is bell-shaped without skewness.

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