American History

A Survey

CHAPTERS 1-33 OUTLINES

Table of Contents

Chapter 1 Chapter 2 Chapter 3 Chapter 4 Chapter 5 Chapter 6 Chapter 7 Chapter 8 Chapter 9 Chapter 10 Chapter 11 Chapter 12 Chapter 13 Chapter 14 Chapter 15 Chapter 16

Chapter 17 Chapter 18 Chapter 19 Chapter 20 Chapter 21 Chapter 22 Chapter 23 Chapter 24 Chapter 26 Chapter 27 Chapter 28 Chapter 29 Chapter 30 Chapter 31 Chapter 32 Chapter 33

Chapter 1

The Meeting of Cultures o America Before Columbus People of the different regions of America Nomads Civilizations The Civilizations of the South Incas, Peru Mayas, Mexico Aztecs, Mexico City The Civilizations of the North Indians o Eskimos, Artic Circle o Northern Forests o Pacific Northwest o Far West o Southwest o Great Plains o Woodland Indians Agriculture o Exploit land o No settlement o Corn, beans, squash, pumpkins, etc. Algonquin Iroquois Confederation o Seneca o Cayuga o Onondaga o Oneida o Mohawk Muskogean o Chickasaws o Choctaws o Creeks o Seminoles Tribal Cultures Religion, nature Gender tasks o Women children, meals, gathering, (farming) o Men hunting, warfare, clearing land, (farming) Matrilineal tribes mothers line o Europe Looks Westward Europe did not know of peoples living in the New World Commerce and Nationalism Advanced shipbuilding and navigation Interest in o Building new markets o Finding new products o Opening new trade routes New governments o Ready to finance voyages Portuguese first to sail

Prince Henry the Navigator Christian Empire o Bartholomeu Dias Southern tip of Africa o Vasco da Game India o Pedro Cabral Brazil Christopher Columbus Christopher Columbus o Admiral of the Ocean Sea o Under service of Portuguese o Financing from Spain to sail o 1492 Nia, Pinta, Santa Maria o Landed in Bahamas Cuba Indians Thought he was in West Indies Hispaniola South America Amerigo Vespucci America o Vivid descriptions of New World Vasco de Balboa o Discovered Pacific Ocean Ferdinand Magellan o Circumnavigate World o Named ocean Pacific means peaceful The Conquistadors New World source of wealth Line of Demarcation Separates Spanish and Portuguese land Land in Caribbean Islands for o Slaves o Gold Hernando Corts o Killed Aztecs o Most brutal of the Spanish Conquistadores (conquerors) Francisco Pizarro o Killed Incas Hernando de Soto o Explored Florida Francisco Coronado o Explored New Mexico The Spanish Empire Needed licenses from crown to venture to New World o Encomiendas To extract labor and tribute from natives Colonists had to equip themselves o Risks of loss or profit Gold, God and Glory o Conquistadors Searching for gold and silver o Spanish settlers Agricultural economy o Missionaries Convert natives Northern Outposts

1565 o Spanish fort in St. Augustine, Florida o First permanent European settlement in New World Colonization o 1598 Don Juan de Oate Founding of Santa Fe in 1609 o Settlers and Pueblos living in good conditions together o Pueblo Revolt Spanish forced culture onto Pueblos Learned to live o Weak and isolated outpost of the Spanish Empire The Empire at High Tide Spanish Empire one of the largest in history o Caribbean Islands o Mexico o Parts of North America o Parts of South America Chile Argentina Peru Brazil Spanish civilizations in Atlantic o Azores o Cape Verde Islands o Etc. Good at getting gold and silver Bad at agriculture No population increase Biological and Cultural Exchanges Contact w/ natives Exchanges o Biological Disease - brought by Spanish Influenza Measles Chicken Pox Mumps Typhus Tuberculosis Small Pox o Cultural Religion - brought by Spanish Christianity Catholicism Crops - brought by Spanish Sugar, Bananas, Cattle, Pigs, Sheep, Horses Crops by Natives Pumpkins, Squash, Beans, Potatoes, Sweet potatoes, Peppers, Tomatoes New agricultural techniques learned Intermarriage o Mestizos mixed race o Racial hierarchy

o Form of labor recruitment Indians o Some slaves o Some had wages o Indentured servants o Could not meet the needs o Brought over slaves in 1502 Africa and America Forcibly taken from around Guinea Africans traded slaves o Criminals o People captured in war Great Empires o Ghana o Mali Matrilineal o Women Farmers Child care Meals Religion o Islam o Polytheistic Slavery spread all over the world by 1700s o Europe o South America o Caribbean o English colonies The Arrival of the English First documented contact w/ New World 1497 John Cabot The Commercial Incentive New World looked peaceful Perfect place for a New World Thomas Mores Utopia Enclosure movement o Little success o Inability to feed population Merchant class looking for new trade Chartered Companies o Muscovy Company (1555) o Levant Company (1581) o Barbary Company (1585) o Guinea Company (1588) o East India Company (1600) Mercantilism o Attractiveness of colonies as new sources of goods No longer be dependent on foreign rivals for: o Lumber o Naval stores o Silver o Gold The Religious Incentive Protestant Reformation o Protestants

o Puritans o Separatists Calvinists Church of England Places of refuge Discontent The English in Ireland First colonies Natives o The Irish Sir Humphrey Gilbert Sir Walter Raleigh Sir Richard Grenville o All used experiences in Ireland to try and tame American natives English realized that there must be a rigid ness to their colonies Transplantations of English society in a foreign land. The French and the Dutch in America French o French settlement in Quebec 1608 o Deep ties w/ the Indians o Coureurs de bois fur trappers and traders o Military Centers in Quebec and Montreal o Samuel de Champlain, attacked band of Mohawks Dutch o Henry Hudson o Dutch East India Company (1624) o New Netherland Dutch Colony New Amsterdam The First English Settlements Jamestown o Sir Humphrey Gilbert Roanoke Sir Walter Raleigh Virginia After virgin queen Sir Richard Grenville establishes colony Virginia Dare First American born child Croatoan Lost Colony

Chapter 2
The English Transplantations o Lures of New World Vast riches Abundant land Religious freedom o Characteristics of early English settlements Financed by private companies o Expected to produce a profit Few efforts to blend cultures Almost nothing worked out like they wanted o The Early Chesapeake London Companys Charter for Virginia 144 men Three ships Godspeed, Discovery, Susan Constant The Founding of Jamestown 1607 Jamestown after King James I Low and swampy Hot and Humid Prone to outbreaks of malaria o Great cause of death In Powhatan territory At first, an entirely male society John Smith o Imposed work and order o Organized raids of Indians o No work, No food. o Earn it! Reorganization 1609 600 people sent to Jamestown (Women and Children in there) 1 ship lost, 1 ship in Bermuda Starving Time o Ate dogs, cats, rats, snakes, toadstools, horsehides, corpses Left Jamestown Lord De Warr brought supplies, they had to go back Lord De Warr first governor o Imposed strict discipline on colonys work force Tobacco High demands 1612 John Rolfe grew high quality crops o Very profitable Territorial Expansion o Large areas needed o Tobacco exhausted land after a while Began isolating themselves from Jamestown Stepping on Indian territory Expansion Headright system o 50 acres per person o Lead to plantations Transportation of skilled craftsmen 1619 First boatload of women to Jamestown

Promised colonists the full rights of Englishmen 1619 House of Burgesses o First meeting of elected legislature 1619 First boatload of slaves 20 Negroes Expansion success because of suppression of Indians Sir Thomas Dale Unrelenting assaults on Powhatan tribe, kidnapped Pocahontas o Converted to Christianity and married John Rolfe Opechancanough Powhatans brother o Lead uprisings o Failed twice Colony came under control of crown until 1776 Maryland and the Calverts George Calvert, Lord Baltimore In hopes of a retreat for Catholics 1632 His son Cecilius, received a charter for Maryland o Sent his brother Leonard as governor and other brother to oversee the settlement of the province. 1634 Two ships let; Ark and Dove No Indian assaults Religious Strife o Protestants began to outnumber Catholics o Policy of Religious Toleration o Act Concerning Religion freedom of worship to all Christians o Protestants banned Catholics from voting o Repealed Tolerance Act Government o Two-house assembly and governor Headright system instituted Center of tobacco cultivation Turbulent Virginia Sir William Berkley o Agreed to prohibit white settlement west of a line he negotiated w/ the tribes Failure Each county in Virginia was to have two representatives o Backcountry counties were underrepresented Bacons Rebellion Nathaniel Bacon Berkley did nothing to stop attacks from the Indians on the backcountry counties Bacon lead an army to Jamestown o Burned the city down o Drove Berkley into exile Significant o Continuing struggle to define the boundary between Indian and English lands o Potential for instability o Revolting against authority East vs. West New World vs. England Caribbean Colonization More than half of English settled on the Caribbean Islands

The West Indies Substantial native populations o Arawaks o Caribs o Ciboney Substantial Spanish settlements on: o Cuba o Hispaniola o Puerto Rico English Settlements on: o Jamaica o St. Kitts o Antigua o Barbados Economy o Crops for export Tobacco Cotton Sugar cash crop Rum Heavy labor lead to dependence on slavery Masters and Slaves Masters did not pay much heed to the well-being of their slaves 7 major slave revolts on the islands Unstable Society o Planters just in it for money o Too many in poverty o Lacked church, family, community Islands important part of Atlantic trade o Exported sugar, rum and slaves The Growth of New England The first settlements in the New World were the results of religious discontent in Europe Puritan Separatists Searching for freedom of religion Plymouth Plantation Illegal to leave England w/out consent from king o Separatists began to leave quietly Holland o Began to leave Holland o Children were being sucked into Dutch culture Sailed across Atlantic William Bradford Leader of these Pilgrims o Mayflower 35 Saints and 67 strangers o Plymouth o Mayflower Compact Weak Indians o Squanto o Samoset Indians helped the new colonists City on a hill o Live lives in godly ways The Massachusetts Bay Experiment Puritans were being persecuted

King of England disbands and calls Parliament o Social and Political turmoil Puritan merchants took advantage of the new land in America Massachusetts Bay Company o John Winthrop as governor Brought along the charter w/ him No one in the colony would have to answer to British. Only themselves. Cities o Boston, Charlestown, Newton (Cambridge), Roxbury, Dorchester, Watertown, Ipswich, Concord, Sudbury, etc. Churches o Choose their own ministers and regulated their own affairs o Complete liberty to stand alone John Cotton o Congregational Church Work o Prosperous workers were doing good works and were holy in the eyes of God Theocracy Strong religious and political hierarchy = social stability The Expansion of New England Different types of people in new colony o Threat to community o Heresy o Conform to religion or leave Thomas Hooker o Defied colony o Lead his congregation to Connecticut Valley Hartford o Fundamental Orders of Connecticut government Roger Williams o Rhode Island o Complete separation of church and state o Only colony in which members of all faiths (including Jews) could worship w/out interference Anne Hutchinson o Openly challenged the power of the clergy o Challenged the norms of female behavior in a Puritan society John Mason o New Hampshire Settlers and Natives Indians o Praying Indians Converted to Christianity o Provided assistance to the settlers Commerce Agriculture Conflicts o 1637 Pequots English won o 1675 King Phillips War King Phillip = Metacomet The Restoration Colonies

By the end of the 1630s colonies: Virginia, Maryland, Massachusetts, Connecticut, Rhode Island, and New Hampshire The English Civil War Charles I o Calls for Parliament when he wanted something Disbands it when hes done o Conflict Cavaliers (supporters of the king) Roundheads (Parliament, mostly Puritans) Cromwell replaces Charles I after beheading Stuart Restoration o Charters for Carolina New York New Jersey Pennsylvania The Carolinas Religious Freedom to Christians Economic Colony Quitrents money from settlers for land use John Locke and Earl of Shaftesbury Fundamental Constitution for Carolina o Plan for a planned, well-ordered society FAILED Southern and Northern regions too different o North Backwoods farmers Depended on agriculture No slaves o South Aristocracy Flourishing economy Trade o Corn o Lumber o Cattle o Pork South Carolina had close ties w/ Barbados One of the most unstable colonies 1729 South and North Carolina Distinguished New Netherland, New York and New Jersey English beat Dutch in a naval and commercial battle o Gain control of New Netherland Rename it New York o Diverse place Religion Ethnic Berkeley and Carabet o New Jersey Diverse Place The Quaker Colonies Quakers o Equality of the sexes Pennsylvania

o Philadelphia Main Port o William Penn No other colony wanted them Delaware came from Pennsylvania The Founding of Georgia Oglethorpe o Wanted a retreat for the poor so that they could have a new chance at the world England o Wanted a buffer zone between their colonies and Spanish Florida Strict rules o 1750 prohibition lifted of rum and slavery o Began to grow when the laws were lifted The Development of Empire The Drive for Reorganization British government sought to monopolize trade w/ its colonies Colonists found it more profitable to trade w/ France, Spain and Holland Parliament passed three Navigation Acts o 1660 Colonies closed to all trade except w/ English ships Must export certain items to England o 1663 o All goods being shipped from Europe to colonies must go through England first o 1673 o Enforcement of customs officials o Laws caused colonists to begin shipbuilding industry o Also caused colonies to begin to produce iron, silk and lumber The Dominion of New England Massachusetts General Court o Used to try and enforce customs in America Dominion of New England o Governor Sir Edmund Andros The Glorious Revolution William and Mary take over the throne of England o Bostonians unseat Andros Abolish Dominion of New England o Many English governors driven out of colonies or killed o Maryland An Association in Arms for the Defense of the Protestant Religion, and for Asserting the Right of King William and Queen Mary to the Province of Maryland and All the English Dominions William and Mary make Church of England official religion in Maryland Catholics forbidden to hold office, vote, practice their religion

Chapter 3

Society and Culture in Provincial America o Distinctive ways of living Physical attributes of land Slaves Outnumbered the colonists Native Americans living among colonists o The Colonial Population Population Natural Increase Immigration The Early Population Upper class o Younger sons Middle Class o Businessmen (commercial, religion) Laborers (dominant) Indentured servants o Terms of servitude o was women o Released after about 4 7 years o Criminals o Orphans o Indentured servants popular because Indians would not be civilized o Labor shortage o Avoided the southern colonies Reason for African slavery Headright system Birth and Death Quarter of a million people o 25% were African Americans Natural increase increased Chesapeake colonists lived longer than those of the south o Possibly because of: Cool climate Relatively disease-free Clean water Absence of large population centers that might breed epidemics Average life expectancy: Men 40, Women slightly less o Death during child birth because they had between 6 8 children o One in four children died in infancy Steady balance of sex ratio Women and Families in the Chesapeake High sex ratio o Women didnt stay single long Indentured servants o Forbidden to marry during terms o Premarital pregnancies o Heavy fines

1/3 of marriages, bride was already pregnant Wife pregnant about every 2 years o Usually died in child birth o Had about 8 children Women had great choice in picking husbands Outlive their husbands o Left w/ a farm or plantation o Great economic power o Stayed unmarried for about 2 months Had to play peacemaker between two families Authority role w/in the family Women and Families in New England Women remained a minority o Less independent in choosing husbands Usually lived to see their grandchildren Men depended on fathers for land Women needed dowries o Parental restrictions Less pregnancies Womens places defined religiously o Equal but not allowed to be clergy o Women expected to be modest and submissive Crucial importance o Vital to the functioning of the farm Gardening, raising poultry, tending cattle, spinning, weaving, cooking, cleaning, children The Beginnings of Slavery in British America Labor shortage Demand for work African people sold their own people into slavery o Middle Passage Over half of the slaves died on the trip First slaves landed in 1620 o Royal African Company English monopoly of slave trade Majority of slaves in southern colonies o 1700 1760 ten fold increase of slaves to about a quarter of a million New England 16,000 slaves Middle 29,000 slaves South Majority of slaves Early slaves were treated like indentured servants 18th century slaves were treated more like slaves o Masters would let go white workers, but wouldnt let go of black workers o Children of slaves kept the white masters work force growing Racism validated the English thinking of slavery o Slave codes Ensuring the absolute authority of the master Subject to everyone of color Changing Sources of European Immigration Decline in immigration from England French, German, Swiss, Irish, Welsh, Scottish and Scandinavian immigration increased Huguenots and German Protestants

Germans became the Pennsylvania Dutch Scotch-Irish it was against the laws of God and nature that so much land should be idle while so many Christian s wanted it to labor on and to raise bread Immigration and Natural increase rapid population growth o 1700 250,000 people o 1775 2 million people The Colonial Economies Developed trade w/ natives, French and Spanish The Southern Economy Tobacco basis of economy South Carolina and Georgia Rice o Whites refused to plant it o Bigger demand for slaves South Carolina Indigo More commercial than industry The Northern Economy Dominantly agriculture No staple crop Middle colonies chief supplier of wheat German communities Women and men worked side by side Women spinning, waving, making soap and candles, etc. Men carpentry Craftsmen and artisans blacksmiths, cobblers, riflemakers, cabinetmakers, silversmiths, printers. Mills, lumber, shipbuilding Largest industrial enterprise o Peter Hasenclevers Ironworks Parliament passed restrictions on colonies so that they couldnt truly have their own economies o Iron Act of 1750 Barred the colonists from engaging in metal processing o Woolen Act of 1699 o Hat Act of 1732 Natural resources for a new economy o Furs o Mining Thriving Commercial Class The Rise of Colonial Commerce No commonly accepted exchange o Haggling o No true currency Paper currency outlawed by Parliament Uncertainty of finding an adequate market for products o Few channels of information Elaborate coastal trade o Triangular Trade From West Indies to Northern Colonies Sugar, molasses, slaves From Northern Colonies to West Indies Flour, fish, meat, lumber, manufactured goods Flour, fish, and meat all need markets outside of England

o o

o o

Sold to French, Spanish, and Dutch, made a bigger profit from it

Patterns of Society English class system did not recreate itself in America New forms of communities The Plantation Early plantations in VA and MD Masters lived in rough cabins or houses w/ slaves nearby Unsteady economies Self-contained communities Larger farmers could impose power on smaller farmers Majority of agrarian population was small farmers Plantation Slavery Slaves developed a social structure all their own o Elaborate family structures Family members could be sold at anytime Depended on the relatives great families o Developed their own languages Gullah English and African o Blended religion Christianity and African folklore Women subject of sexually advances o Mulatto children Stono Rebellion o South Carolina 1739 100 slaves rose Running away Larger plantations o Trades Blacksmithing, Carpentry, Shoemaking, Spinning, Weaving, Sewing, Midwifery, Others Sometimes able to buy their own freedom The Puritan Community Towns o Houses o Meetinghouse o Pasture Run its own affairs o Yearly meeting o Selectmen Membership in the church o Visible saints conversion experience Primogeniture did not take root in New England o Father divided up his land Patriarchal family Growing communities o Need for more towns o Younger residents broke off and made their own towns The Witchcraft Phenomenon Social strains on the community Western occupants rivaling their Eastern neighbors commercial businesses o Jealousy Many witches were the independent women Cities Two largest ports Philadelphia and New York

Substantial ports Newton and Charlestown o Centers for the farmers and marts for international trade. Great social distinctions o Homes of the greatest school and cultural Social problems o Crime, vice, pollution, epidemics, traffic Elaborate governments Fluctuations in trade Forums where people could talk Revolutionary crisis began to build in the cities

The Colonial Mind Tradition outlook and the spirit of the Enlightenment forces competing in America Old views stern moral code Enlightenment people have control over the own lives Tension The Pattern of Religions Brought their religions over Ecclesiastical patchwork Toleration of religion was limited Anglicanism official faith of VA, MD, NY, NC, SC, and GA New England Baptists, Calvinists, Dutch Reformed, Presbyterians Toleration Act of 1649 Rhode Island let every religion practice freely The Decline of Piety Many religions o People doubted if their way was the true one Colonial society more secular and materialistic as they began to expand o New scientific ideas o More rational of the world Decline in religious characters Saints o Baptism conversion experience needed People see no need for it Full and half members blended Decline of religion The Great Awakening New spirit of religious fervor Desire for intense religious experiences John and Charles Wesley Georgia George Whitefield atone for sins by admitting them to God Jonathan Edwards preached new Puritan ideas and denounced old doctrines Weakened the authority of the established clergy American religion more open and diverse than before The Enlightenment Reaction of the Great Awakening in America Great scientific and intelligent discoveries o Natural Laws o Reason Undermine power of tradition authority Emphasis on education o Heightened interest in politics and government

Ideas borrowed from Locke, Bacon, Spinoza, and Descartes. American Enlightenment thinkers Benjamin Franklin, James Madison, Thomas Jefferson, Thomas Paine Education High value on education 1647 Law requiring a public school in every town High literacy rate even women read o Almanacs o Bibles Colleges o Harvard, Columbia, William and Mary College, Cambridge, Princeton, Yale, University of Pennsylvania o Religious bases for colleges o Liberal education in some colleges o Logic, ethics, physics, geometry, astronomy, rhetoric, Latin, Hebrew, Greek, mechanics, chemistry, agriculture, government, commerce, modern languages, liberal arts The Allure of Science Increased influence of scientific study in America Copernican Astronomy Newtonian physics Inoculation against smallpox Concepts of Law and Politics Scarcity of English trained lawyers New way of law Simpler way of law Crimes redefined Transformation in legal philosophy Self-government Independency from Parliament 1763 Parliament began to exercise more control over colonies

Chapter 4

The Empire Under Strain o Few Americans found reasons for objection to British rule Imperial System had benefits Opportunities for trade and commerce, military protection, political stability. British basically left the colonies alone o A Loosening of Ties British made no serious attempts to control colonies A Tradition of Neglect Parliament established a growing supremacy over the king o Depended on the merchants and landholders o Robert Walpole strayed away from strict acts, believing that it would help to stimulate commerce No colonial office in London for commerce o Board of Trade and Plantations advisory body o Real power in Privy Council o Great confusion of authority between departments Custom collectors and naval officers were corrupt o Accepted bribes o Many stayed in England and hired substitutes in America Resistance to imperial authority o American assemblies claimed right to levy taxes, make appropriations, approve appointments, and pass laws for their colonies o Governor of Privy Council could veto their decisions Assemblies had leverage over governor they held control of colonial budget = governors salary The Colonies Divided Colonist continued to think of themselves as loyal English subjects throughout their resistance to authority Felt stronger ties to England than to each other Colonial postage service increase in communication o 1691 Massachusetts to New York and Pennsylvania o 1711 added New Hampshire o 1732 added Virginia, and ultimately Georgia Conference of colonial leaders met in Albany to negotiate treaty w/ Iroquois o From Pennsylvania, Maryland, New York, and New England o Discussed a plan for one general government for all colonies o Would have a president general to run it appointed by king o The Struggle for the Continent War causing a balance of power w/in continent and between it and the rest of the world Large part of the Seven Years War between France and England Final stage in a long battle between England, France and Iroquois French and Indian War brought to the surface some tensions between the colonists and the British New France and the Iroquois Nation Conflicts grew as French truly began to expand in North America French laid claim to the whole interior of the continent

Forts in Louisbourg on Cape Brenton Island, Quebec, Montreal, Sault Sainte Marie, Detroit, New Orleans, Mobile, Biloxi Shared the interior w/ Indians o Indians concerned w/ keeping their independence o Formed alliances w/ French and English played off of their animosities o English could offer better products but the French offered tolerance Iroquois Confederacy o Mohawk, Seneca, Cayuga, Onondaga, Oneida Area of conflict Ohio Valley French claimed it Indians lived there English expanding there Anglo-French Conflicts King Williams War (1689-1697) Queen Annes War (1701-1713) o Effects in America o Border fighting w/ Spanish in South, and French and Iroquois in the North o Treaty of Utrecht brought the conflict to a close Lead to England and France taking opposite sides in the conflict between Prussia and Austria o Colonists brought into conflict King Georges War (1744-1748) Relations between England, French and Iroquois deteriorated o Iroquois grant trading concessions to English o French begin to build fortresses in Ohio Valley o English begin to build their own o 1754 Militia sent into Ohio Valley by governor of Virginia George Washington leader Built Fort Necessity French attack Fort Necessity, trapping Washington and troupes inside Surrendered after a third of them died o Beginning of the French and Indian War The Great War for the Empire The French and Indian War lasted for about nine years o Three distinct phases of it Primarily local conflict to begin w/ British provided modest assistance General Edward Braddock Failed in effort to retake site at the forks of the Ohio Valley Later killed in battle Colonies were preoccupied w/ defending themselves against raids from the Indians

Iroquois very passive in war not wanting to antagonize the French Second phase begin w/ the opening of the Seven Years War o Fighting spread from Europe to Americas o William Pitt English secretary of state, future prime minister Planning military strategies, appointing military commanders, issuing orders to the colonists Impressment forcing people into the military Officers began to seize supplies and equipment from local farmers and tradesmen and compelled colonists to offer shelter to British troops Colonists resented imposititions and often reacted violently Third phase o Relaxing of policies the colonists hated o French outnumbered by the British o British began seizing French strongholds one after another Jeffrey Amherst and James Wolfe Captured fortress at Louisbourg in 1758 Fort Duquesne fell next Quebec fell next to Wolfe The next year Montreal was taken by Amherst British dispersed the French people o Louisiana Offered rewards for the scalps of Iroquois Peace came after George III came to power o Peace of Paris 1763 French lands given to British except New Orleans and lands west of Mississippi o Greatly expanded the British empire o Enlarged British debt Britain wanted colonists to start to pay for some of the debts Colonists saw their service as voluntary British and Iroquois alliance quickly unraveled The New Imperialism England was in desperate need of new revenues Could no longer avoid expanding its involvement in its colonies Burdens of Empire English had primarily viewed the colonies in terms of trade o British leaders began to argue that the land itself was of value to the empire Because of the population it could support, the taxes it could produce, and the imperial splendor it would confer Mercantilists wanted England to return Canada to the French in return for Guadeloupe o Most valuable sugar islands British empire doubled in size o Governing problems o Many conflicting ideas about how the new land should be used London needing new ways to fix debt o England could not rely on colonists to help them in their search for money

Only a system of taxation administered by London could effectively meet Englands needs George Grenville o Prime Minister 1763 o Believed that colonists had been too long indulged, should help to pay Britains debt The British and the Tribes After the French left the Ohio Valley Region English began to move in rapidly o Indians objected to this Proclamation of 1763 forbidding settlers to advance beyond a line drawn along the Appalachian Mountains o Allowed London to control westward movement of the white population Movement would go in an orderly fashion Limited conflicts w/ the tribes Slowed population exodus from the coast where Englands most important markets and investments were. Reserve opportunities for land speculation and fur trading for English instead of colonial entrepreneurs o Relations between tribes and British improved o John Stuart in charge of Indian affairs in the southern colonies o Sir William Johnson in charge of Indian affairs in the northern colonies Johnson married a native woman, Mary Brent Proclamation of 1763 failed to meet the expectations of the Indians o Line of settlement kept being pushed farther and farther west The Colonial Response Mutiny Act of 1765 colonists were required to assist in provisioning and maintaining the army of England that patrolled the colonies o Colonial manufacturing was to be actually controlled so as to not compete w/ Great Britain Sugar Act of 1764 eliminate the illegal sugar trade between the continental colonies and the French and Spanish West Indies, raised duty on sugar o New vice admiralty courts in America to try accused smugglers Currency Act of 1764 colonies had to stop issuing paper currency Stamp Act of 1765 a tax on most printed documents in the colonies Tensions were higher between each other than w/ England because of these new taxes o Backcountry They felt isolated and underrepresented in their colonies Paxton Boys in Pennsylvania o 1771 small scale civil war Regulatory Movement in North Carolina Revolting against taxes Governor William Tryon suppressed the revolt Northern merchants believed that they would suffer from restraints on their commerce, from the closing of opportunities for manufacturing and from the taxes Southern planters feared having to pay additional taxes

By putting lots of money into the colonies, England then pulled lots out, causing an economic depression o A growing sense of unease growing in the cities most affected by taxes Boston suffering the worst economic problems Colonies believed that the keys to self-government were the provincial assemblies. o Control over public finance Stirrings of Revolt A victorious war had given colonists a heightened sense of their own importance Renewed commitment to protecting their political autonomy Britain had a stronger desire to control the colonies and use them as revenue The Stamp Act Crisis Stamp Act effected everyone in the colonies o Colonists viewed the Stamp Act as a direct attempt by England to raise revenue in the colonies w/out the colonial assemblies consent o They felt that if this new tax went on w/out opposition then more heavier taxes would have the same thing happen Patrick Henry o Introduced set of resolutions declaring that Americans possessed the same rights as the English, especially the right to be taxed only by their own representatives o Anyone advocating the right of Parliament to tax should be deemed an enemy of the colony Printed in Virginia Resolves by the House of Burgesses, who voted on them James Otis Massachusetts o Intercolonial congress for action on the new tax Sons of Liberty terrorized stamp agents and burned the stamps o Mobs revolts against the new tax o Lead to boycotts of English goods Parliament repealed the Stamp Act o Marquis of Rockingham (Grenvilles successor) convinced king to kill Stamp Act Parliament passed the Declaratory Act Parliament had authority over the colonies in all cases whatsoever o In rejoicing over the repeal of the Stamp Act, not many Americans paid much attention to the Declaratory Act The Townshend Program England did not like Rockinghams government policy o King finally dismissed Rockingham King replaced him w/ William Pitt (now Lord Chatham) o William Pitt could not do the job so King got Charles Townshend The colonists felt that the acts were an assault on their liberties Townshend called for the disbandment of the New York Assembly until the Mutiny Act was followed He also called for Townshend duties taxes on various goods lead, paint, paper and tea o Townshend called them external taxes o Colonists disagreed and called them a way to raise revenue from their colonies w/out their consent

The Massachusetts Assembly took the lead in opposing the new measures by circulating a letter to all of the colonies tell them to boycott Lord Hillsborough, secretary of state for the colonies, in London, issued a letter warning for colonies not to boycott Ninety-two 92 to 17 vote in Assembly Townshend established a new board of customs commissioners in America Bostonians lead another boycott o 1768 Philadelphia and New York joined in the boycott English luxuries fell from favor After Townshends death, Lord North took over o He repealed all of the Townshend duties, except for the tax on tea The Boston Massacre March 5, 1770 o Some colonists began throwing rocks at British soldiers o Captain Thomas Preston of the British ordered the soldiers to keep protecting the building they were in front of o There was a scuffle One of the soldiers fell The British opened fire Killed 5 people Crispus Attucks The victims became martyrs o Innocent Blood Crying to God from the Streets of Boston by Paul Revere Samuel Adams England had become a morass of sin and corruption; only in America did public virtue survive The Philosophy of Revolt The radical ideas of those in Great Britain who opposed their government helped to encourage the American fight Used ideas of John Locke o Because humans were inherently corrupt and selfish, government was necessary to protect individuals from the evil in one another. But corruptible people ran government and so government too needed safeguards against abuses of power The English Constitution was not a written document o Nor was it a fixed set of unchangeable rules Americans thought of a constitution to be written out on paper, like their charters Americans also believed that their right to be taxed only w/ their own consent o No taxation w/out representation. This made no sense to the British o Americans believed in actual representation, not virtual Americans had no representative in Parliament, therefore they were not represented there o Much anger vented at Parliament, not king Americans fighting for sovereignty Colonists justified resistance w/ Bible quotes and quotes of John Locke Conspiracy against liberty The Tea Excitement Men gathered in taverns to discuss the workings of the day Acts of rebellion

Colonists seized a British ship Gaspee set it aflame and sank it o British sent those men back to Britain to be tried Tea Act of 1733 gave the British East India Company the right to export its merchandise directly to the colonies w/out paying any of the regular taxes that were imposed on the colonial merchants. Would lead a monopoly of tea industry Revived Americans passion of taxation w/out representation Boycotts Daughters of Liberty o Women gave up tea December 16, 1773 o Boston Tea Party Boston was the chief center of resistance to Parliaments acts King passed four acts o Coercive Acts Closed the port of Boston Drastically reduced the powers of self-government in the colony Permitted royal officers to be tried in other colonies or in England when accused of crimes Provided for the quartering of troops in the colonists barns and empty houses Americans called them the Intolerable Acts Made Massachusetts a martyr to the other colonies Cooperation and War New Sources of Authority The Sons of Liberty began to spread to other places Continental Congress o Carpenters Hall in Philadelphia 5 major decisions o Colonial union under British authority o Endorsed statement of grievances o Approved a series of resolutions colonists make military preparations for defense o Agreed to nonimportation o Agreed to meet again in May Edmund Burke called for the repeal of the Coercive Acts Parliament decided that colonies would tax themselves at the demand of Parliament Did not reach American until after the first shots of the war were fired Lexington and Concord People of Massachusetts military training, minutemen General Thomas Gage commanded British garrison Knew about the preparations Sent his troops to both Lexington and Concord Before the British got there Paul Revere and William Dawes warned that the British were coming British went after the stores of gunpowder The shots heard round the world fired First battles of the war

Chapter 5
The American Revolution o Two struggles happening during the seven years of war in America Military conflict w/ Great Britain Revolutionary war for liberation Political struggle w/in the colonies Demand independence from Britain? How to structure the new nation they had proclaimed? o Thomas Paine The American War for Independence contributed more to enlighten the world, and diffuse a spirit of freedom and liberality among mankind, than any human eventthat ever preceded it. o The States United Colonies were unprepared for a conflict w/ Britain Faced the task of defending themselves against the worlds greatest armed power Faced the deeply divided about what they were fighting for Defining American War Aims Second Continental Congress met three weeks after Lexington and Concord in Philadelphia o One side was for complete independence from Great Britain Lead by Samuel Adams, John Adams, Richard Henry Lee, etc. o Other side hoped for modest reforms in the imperial relationship, early reconciliation w/ Great Britain Lead by John Dickinson, etc. o Everyone else tried to find ground between the two sides Finally agreed to the Olive Branch Petition Declaration of the Causes and Necessity of Taking Up Arms July 6, 1775 o Proclaimed that the British government had left the American people w/ only two alternatives, unconditional submission to the tyranny of irritated ministers or resistance by force. Americans first believed that they were fighting for a redress of grievances w/in British Empire o Began to change their minds as the first year of the war went on Costs of war human and financial were so high that original war aims seemed too modest to justify them Any affection that Patriots had toward British was quickly dispersed when British tried recruiting the Indians, slaves, and foreign mercenaries to fight the Americans Colonist came to believe that the British government was forcing them toward independence by rejecting the Olive Branch Petition and instead enacting the Prohibitory Act Prohibitory Act closed the colonies to all overseas trade enforced by a British naval blockade Common Sense Thomas Paine o It was the king to blame, not the Parliament, and the system that allowed him to rule that was the root of Americas problems

The island kingdom of England was no more fit to rule the American continent, than a satellite was fit to rule the sun The Decision for Independence Continental Congress still in Philly moved more slowly for a break w/ Britain o Declared that all American ports open to every country, EXCEPT for Great Britain July 2, 1776 o Congress adopted a resolution o That these United Colonies are, and, of right, ought to be, free and independent states; that they are absolved from all allegiance to the British crown, and that all political connection between them and the state of Great Britain is, and ought to be, totally dissolved July 4, 1776 o Congress adopted this Declaration of Independence Life, Liberty and the Pursuit of Happiness All men are created equal Now claimed themselves as the United States of America Responses to Independence News of Declaration of Independence lead to rejoicing in many places o Loyalists those who did not want to fight in the war for independence called Tories by American Patriots Colonies began to call themselves states after the Declaration of Independence was signed o Created new government in their states by 1781 republican ones A need for central government November 1777 o Articles of Confederation Continental Congress would survive as the chief coordinating agency of the war effort Mobilizing for War Congress created an arsenal in Springfield, Massachusetts in 1777 o Relied heavily on the equipment that they could capture or steal from the British o Got most of their war supplies from European countries, France Government had problems raising money to fund the war o Ended up having to issue paper money Inflation o Able to finance the war only by borrowing heavily from European nations Had problems recruiting for the war o Spring of 1775 Continental Army lead by George Washington Conspirators against Washington Conway Cabal Aid from Marquis de Lafayette from France and Baron von Steuben from Prussia Washington provided the army w/ a symbol of stability The War for Independence It seemed that all of the military advantages went to Britain in the war

However, Americans had their advantages o Fighting on their own land, w/ their own resources o Patriots fully committed to fight, while British half-heartedly cared o Substantial aid from aboard Britain made too many mistakes and misjudgments The First Phase: New England 1775-1776 o Americans besieged the army of General Thomas Gage in Boston 1775 Battle of Bunker Hill June 17, 1775 Actually fought on Breeds Hill o Britain found that Boston was not the best place to fight Center of the most fervently anti-British region of colonies Tactically indefensible o March 17, 1776 Evacuation Day British left Boston for Nova Scotia Departure of the British marked a shift in strategy more than an admission of defeat o Moores Creek Bridge in North Carolina Band of Patriots crushed Loyalist uprising February 27, 1776 o Benedict Arnold threatened Quebec Richard Montgomery helped him Canada was not to become part of the new nation The Second Phase: The Mid-Atlantic Regions 1776-1778 o New York City William Howe British Sent w/ 32,000 troops Washington mustered 19,000 o British decided to try and split the colonies in two William Howe would take the northern part of the colonies John Burgoyne helped him o Howe decided to quit his northern campaign Instead went head-to-head w/ Washington at the Battle of Brandywine Creek on September 11, 1777 o Washington won a battle on October 4 in Germantown, PA o Continental Congress met again, this time in York, PA o Howe left Burgoyne on his own Burgoyne sent for Colonel Barry St. Leger Burgoyne seized Fort Ticonderoga Congress couldnt believe what happened Replace General Philip Schuyler from command of American forces in the North Replaced him w/ Horatio Gates o Burgoyne August 6 Patriots lead by Nicholas Herkimer held off Indians and Tories. Gave Benedict Arnold time to go to the relief of Fort Stanwix August 16 Bennington, Vermont John Stark and militia mauled British

October 17, 1777 ordered a surrender of his men to the Americans o New York victory in American helped to spur an alliance w/ France The Iroquois and the British American victory in New York not just bad for British, but also for the Indians Some Indians worked to play a role for Native Americans in the war o Joseph and Mary Brant brother and sister Persuaded their own tribes to contribute to the British cause Growing divisions in Iroquois Confederacy o Only 3 of 6 nations supported the British o 2 supported Americans o 1 did their own thing Confederacy began to unravel Securing Aid from Abroad Saratoga o Turning point in War French aided the Americans Militia diplomats people from the United States sent to European countries to try and form treaties News of Saratoga reached England on December 2, 1777 Reached France December 4, 1777 On February 6, 1778 France recognized the United States as a nation The Final Phase: The South British needed more support o Thought that the majority of the Loyalists resided in the South away from the New England colonies where all of the antiBritish sentiments were British spent three years trying to find Loyalists that would help them FAILED Many were too scared Patriot forces would not let them join Could blend into civilian population, could move at will throughout the region, could live off the resources of the countryside This stage of the war was truly revolutionary o War expanded into new communities Sir Henry Clinton replaced William Howe in 1778 George Rogers Clark captured settlements in the Illinois country from the British and their Indian Allies General Benedict Arnold became a traitor o Thought that the British would win December 29, 1778 British captured Savannah, GA May 12, 1780 British took over Charleston, SC o British constantly harassed by the Patriots Thomas Sumter, Andrew Pickens, Francis Marion, etc. Lord Cornwallis Clintons choice as British commander in the South o Crushed Patriots lead by Horatio Gates on August 16, 1780 Congress fired Gates and replaced him w/ Nathanael Greene Kings Mountain - October 7, 1780 Patriots defeated British

George Washington, Baptiste de Rochambeau French (1), Joseph Paul de Grasse French (2) 1) Land operations 2) Naval operations Winning the Peace Lord North resigned as prime minister Lord Shelburne took over England sent diplomats to talk w/ Americans in France Benjamin Franklin, John Adams, John Jay o Americans signed preliminary treaty w/ Great Britain on November 30, 1782 Treaty of Paris of 1783 o United States had clear recognition of its independence War and Society Loyalists and Minorities Some Loyalists were office holders of imperial offices Some Loyalists were merchants engaged in trade tied to the imperial system Others were just isolated from the Patriots and had not heard news of the war o Many of these loyalists and minorities were sent out of the United States o This left positions open for the Patriots to fill Anglicans suffered greatly people associated it w/ England Quakers also weakened because they would not fight in the war Improving the position of the Roman Catholic Church o John Carroll of Carrollton o Vatican provided the United States w/ its own Catholic hierarchy o John Carroll was named the head of Catholic missions in America in 1784 o Became the first American bishop in 1789 o Became archbishop of Baltimore in 1808 African-Americans had increased exposure to the war o Thoughts of freedoms and liberties Native Americans and the Revolution Many tribes chose to stay out of the war Some Indians chose to join the British cause Many used this chance to launch attacks of their own o Chief Dragging Canoe 1776 Revolutionary War weakened the position of Native Americans in several ways o Increased demand for western lands for whites o Americans resented the fact that many Indians helped the British Lord Dunmores War Shawnee uprising Failed Womens Rights and Womens Roles Some women followed their men into war o Nurses, Soldiers o Women increased army morale, cooking, laundry, nursing Molly Pitcher Some Women questioned their place in society after the war o Judith Sargent Murray womens minds were as good as mens and that girls as well as boys therefore deserved access to education Defender of Mary Wollstonecraft Unmarried women had some rights

o Could own property, enter contracts and others Married women had virtually no rights o Everything she owned belonged to her husband After Revolution in New Jersey gave women the right to vote o Repealed after 1807 Women not yet equal partners The War Economy Disrupted traditional economic patterns Strengthened American economies New areas of trade opened Substantial increase of trade in American states No great industrial expansion result Americans began to make their own cloth o Patriotic and fashionable The Creation of State Governments Struggling to create new governments to run the new country Federal Constitution of 1789 Formation of state governments began in 1776 Two phases in creation of national government The Assumptions of Republicanism Americans agreed that new governments would be republican o Ideal of small freeholder became basic to American political theology o Crucial part of ideology concept of equality What you do, not who you are American society more open than other nations o However, Native Americans, Blacks and Women still repressed Americans were adopting a powerful, even revolutionary new ideology, one that would enable them to create a form of government never before seen in the world The First State Constitutions Two states saw no need for a national Constitution o Rhode Island and Connecticut Accepted their charters as their governments Other 11 states chose to accept new governments Change from Britains regulations o MAJOR DECISION Must be written down on paper Permanent laws o MAJOR DECISION Power of executive branch must be limited o Universal suffrage not accepted by all Americans Ten states completed the process of Constitution writing by 1776 o Georgia, New York, Massachusetts delayed Massachusetts did not finally adopt its version until 1780 Revising State Governments Growing concern about the instability of the new state governments o Governors unable to demonstrate real leadership States revised constitutions to cope w/ what they considered to be their problems o MAJOR CHANGE Constitutional convention to meet only for the purpose of writing the constitution

MAJOR CHANGE Significant strengthening of the executive Toleration and Slavery Freedom of Religion in all states o 1786 Virginia Statue of Religious Freedom complete separation of Church and State Slavery o Pennsylvania emancipation act in 1780 o Massachusetts 1783 ownership of slaves was impermissible under the stats bill of rights o Slavery survived in all southern states Racist assumptions about the natural inferiority of African Americas Enormous economic investments Inability of most southerners The Search for a National Government Most believed that central government should remain relatively weak and unimportant Each state a sovereign nation Articles of Confederation emerged The Confederation Articles of Confederation in 1777 o Created government similar to the one already functioning o Exceptions Authority to conduct wars and foreign relations, to appropriate, borrow and issue money. Could not regulate trade, draft troops, or levy taxes directly on the people No separate executive Each state would have a single vote in Congress Nine must approve for anything to pass All 13 would have to approve the Articles before they could be ratified or amended o Small states wanted equal representation o Large states wanted representation based on population Articles went into effect in 1781 Confederation lasted from 1781-1789 o Complete failure Diplomatic Failures British continued to occupy Great Lakes territory Boundary disputes w/ the Spanish o Treaty w/ Spain 1786 Weakness seen by the British and Spanish The Confederation and the Northwest Resolution of conflicts over the northwest 1790 120,000 whites in western lands By 1784 states had ceded enough land to Congress to be able to begin making policy for the national domain Ordinance of 1784 divided the western territory into ten selfgoverning districts Ordinance of 1785 congress created a system for surveying and selling the western lands.

Territory North of the Ohio River would be surveyed and marked off into neat rectangular townships Grids Every township would be divided into 36 sections Four reserved for government One for schools Each section 640 acres Dollar an acre to buy land o A population of 60,000 was needed to be able to apply for statehood Guaranteed freedom of religion, right to trial by jury, prohibition of slavery in new territories Brought order and stability to the process of white settlement Indians and the Western Lands Indian problems tried to be resolved in 1784, 1785, 1786 o Iroquois, Choctaw, Chickasaw, Cherokee Arthur St. Clair tried and failed in 1789 to force an agreement on the Miami, Shawnee and Delaware Little Turtle defeated Americans in two battles near the western border of Ohio o November 4, 1791 630 white Americans died Greatest military victory Indians had ever achieved 1794 General Anthony Wayne moving troops toward the Maumee River o Battle of Fallen Timbers Americans won Miami Indians sign Treaty of Greenville o New lands to United States o Acknowledgement of Indian territory First recognition by the United States government of the sovereignty of Indian nations Debts, Taxes, and Daniel Shays Postwar Depression 1784 1787 o Congress had a great debt o Robert Morris, Alexander Hamilton, James Madison lobbying for a continental impost 5% duty on imported goods to fund the debt First effort to secure the impost 1781 approved by 12 states Second effort 1783 failed Farmers demanded paper currency Mobs and riots began o Daniel Shays Demanded paper money, tax relief, moratorium on debt, the relocation of the state capital from Boston to the interior, abolition of imprisonment for debt o Samuel Adams denounced Shays and his men as rebels and traitors 1787 Shays army beaten Attack on distant authority Movement to produce a new national constitution

Chapter 6
The Constitution and the New Republic o Many Americans upset by the Confederation Inability to deal w/ factiousness and instability Failure to handle economic problems effectively Powerlessness it had displayed in the face of Shays Rebellion o 1787 Constitution of the United States written One of the stablest and most successful governments in the world o Defined the terms in which debate over the future of government would continues o

Framing a New Government Confederation Congress became so unpopular that they had to move from place to place, finally settling in New York in 1785 Advocates of Centralization Society of Cincinnati o Newburgh Conspiracy o Direct challenge to Congress American merchants wanted to replace state tariffs w/ a nationally accepted high duty Land speculators wanted the Indians off of the western lands 1786 demands had grown so powerful that the issue was no longer whether the confederation should be changed buy how drastic the changes should be Alexander Hamilton o Called for a national convention to overhaul the entire document o Only five states approved the proposal drafted by Hamilton In May, George Washington left his home for the Constitutional Convention A Divided Convention 55 men attended one or more session of the convention from May to September 1787 o Founding Fathers Convention chose Washington to preside over its sessions Each state would have one vote James Madison devised a plan for a new national government Edmund Randolph a national government ought to be established, consisting of a supreme Legislative, Executive, and Judiciary o Virginia Plan two houses William Patterson of NJ federal government o New Jersey Plan one house, equal representation Compromise July 2nd Great Compromise 3/5 rule for slaves 3/5 of a person Equal representation July 16, 1787 convention voted to accept the compromise Slavery o Convention agreed that the new legislature would not be permitted to tax exports o Congress would also be forbidden to impose a duty of more than $10 a head on imported slaves

Congress had no authority to stop the slave trade for twenty years Constitution gave no definition of citizenship o Absence of a list of individual rights The Constitution of 1787 James Madison most creative political thinker of his generation o Helped resolve two major problems in the creation of an effective national government Sovereignty o All power at all levels of government flowed from the people Concentrated authority o A large republic would be less, not more, likely to produce tyranny, because it would contain so many different factions that no single group would ever be able to dominate it September 17, 1787 39 delegates signed the Constitution Federalists and Antifederalists Delegates produced a plan for a completely new government Delegates recommended to Congress that special state conventions, not state legislatures, consider the document Those in support of the Constitution were on the side of Franklin and Washington o Federalists The Federalist Papers Alexander Hamilton, John Jay, James Madison explaining the meaning and virtues of the Constitution Antifederalists those against the Constitution o A basic mistrust of human nature and of the capacity of human beings to wield power o Demanded a bill of rights Federalists afraid of disorder, anarchy, chaos, unchecked power of the masses Antifederalists much more concerned about the dangers of concentrated power than about the danger of popular will By 1788 nine states had ratified the Constitution now able to go into effect Completing the Structure First elections under the Constitution 1789 o First President George Washington o First Vice President John Adams Inaugurated in New York April 30, 1789 12 amendments passed by September 25, 1789 o Placed limitations on Congress by forbidding it to infringe on certain basic rights Freedom of religion, speech, and the press Immunity from arbitrary arrest, trial by jury, etc. Tenth Amendment reserved to the states all powers except those specifically w/held from them or delegated to the federal government Judiciary Act of 1789 Congress provided for a Supreme court of six members w/ a chief justice and five associate justices, thirteen district courts w/ one judge apiece, three circuit courts of appeal each to have one district judge w/ two Supreme Court justices Executive Departments o State Thomas Jefferson o Treasury Alexander Hamilton o War Henry Knox o Attorney General Edmund Randolph

Federalists and Republicans One group believed that America needed a strong national government w/ centralized authority, a complex commercial economy, and a proud standing in world affairs Federalists Alexander Hamilton One group believed of a far more modest central government, would leave power in the hand of the states and the people Republicans James Madison, Thomas Jefferson Hamilton and the Federalist For 12 years the government was in the hands of the Federalists o George Washington always envisioned a strong central government Dominant figure in Washingtons administration - Alexander Hamilton o Believed that a stable and effective government required an enlightened ruling class o The new government needed the support of the wealthy and powerful Hamilton proposed that the new government take responsibility for the existing public debt o Funding the debt o Also recommended that the government assume the debts the states had accumulated during the Revolution o Wanted a large and permanent national debt o Wanted to create a National Bank o Proposed two kinds of taxes Whiskey Tax Tariff on imports Would protect American manufacturing from foreign competition Federalists offered not only a vision of how to stabilize the new government, but also how America should become o A nation w/ a wealthy, enlightened ruling class, a vigorous, independent commercial economy, and a thriving industrial sector A nation able to play a prominent role in world economic affairs Enacting the Federalist Program Many members of Congress believed that if the federal government was to assume responsibility for these bonds, that were sold during the war to raise revenue, some of them should be returned to the original purchasers o Many did not agree Did not pass Congress passed Hamiltons funding bill Hamiltons idea that the federal government assume the state debts encountered greater difficulty o Opponents said that if the federal government took over state debts that those states who had already paid off their debts would have to pay for the other states Hamilton struck a bargain w/ Virginians to win this passage of the bill o Relocation of the capital from Philadelphia to the banks of the Potomac River The Bank of the United States began operations in 1791 o Speculators, Manufacturers, and Merchants profited Small farmers

o Couldnt bear the tax burden Americans began to believed that the Federalist program served the interest not of the people but of those wealthy elites The Republican Opposition Madison and his followers became convinced that Hamilton and his followers had become just such an interested and overbearing majority o Believed that Hamilton had worked to establish a national network of influence that embodied all the worst features of a party o Did many of the things that the corrupt British governments of the early eighteenth century had done These people called themselves Republicans o Claimed that they and they alone represented the true interests of the nation that they were fighting to defend the people against a corrupt conspiracy by the Federalists Republicans Thomas Jefferson, James Madison During the French Revolution o Federalists were horrified o Republicans were all for the freedom of the French Federalists were more populous in the commercial parts of the country Republicans were more populous in the rural parts of the country Establishing National Sovereignty Federalists helped stabilize the nations western lands Strengthened Americas international position Securing the Frontier 1794 Farmers rose a major challenge to federal authority when they refused to pay a whiskey excise tax o Whiskey Rebellion Washington called out 15,000 troops = the rebellion collapsed The last of the thirteen colonies joined the Confederation when the Bill of Rights went into effect in 1790 Native Americans and the New Nation Border conflicts w/ Indians The Constitution had done little to resolve the place of the Indian nations w/in the new federal structure o No precise legal standing of Indians or Indian nations w/in the United States o Constitution seemed to recognize the existence of the tribes as legal entities o They were not foreign Nations thought o Not citizens of the United States Constitution did not address the biggest problem between Indians and Whites o Land Maintaining Neutrality Americans threatened to place special trade restrictions on British ships o Britain sent over first minister to U.S. in 1791 During the revolution of 1789 in France, America took steps to establish American neutrality in that conflict o France sent diplomat to America Genet Encouraged American ship owners to serve as French privateers, and commissioned the aging George

Rogers Clark to lead a military expedition against Spanish lands to the south Genet was violating the Neutrality Act Washington was infuriated w/ Genet o Neutrality act survived its first test 1794 Royal Navy of Britain began to seize American ships o Governor general of Canada had delivered a warlike speech to the Indians on the western frontier Jays Treaty and Pinckneys Treaty John Jay special commissioner to England o Instructed to secure compensation for the recent British assaults on American shipping, to demand w/drawl of British forced from the frontier posts, and to negotiate a new commercial treaty o Treaty that Jay put together failed But did settle the conflict w/ Britain and helped prevent what had seemed likely to become a war the two nations It established undisputed American sovereignty over the entire Northwest Produced a reasonably satisfactory commercial relationship w/ Britain o Senate ratified what was by then know as Jays Treaty Treaty made it possible for Americans to settle dispute w/ Spanish o Thomas Pinckney sent to Spain Pinckneys Treaty Spain recognized the right of Americans to navigate the Mississippi to its mouth and to deposit goods at New Orleans for reloading on oceangoing ships, agreed to fix the northern boundary of Florida, Spanish authorities prevented the Indians in Florida from launching raids across the border The Downfall of the Federalists Choosing between respecting individual liberties and preserving stability, Federalists chose stability Federalists never one another election The Election of 1796 George Washington decided not to run for a third term o Warned of foreign entanglements, warned that political parties will tear the country apart New candidates for the presidency o Republicans Jefferson o Federalists Adams o Adams won the majority of the vote o Jefferson had the second highest vote Adams is president, Jefferson is vice president The Quasi War w/ France In an effort to stabilize conditions with France, John Adams sent Charles Cotesworth Pinckney, John Marshall, and Elbridge Gerry to France o French wanted a bribe XYZ Affair Adams persuaded Congress to cut off all trade with France o France chose to conciliate the United States before the conflict grew

New French government in 1800 agreed to a treaty with the United States that canceled the old agreement of 1778 and established new commercial arrangements Repression and Protest Alien Act o New obstacles in the way of foreigners who wised to become American citizens o Helped discourage immigration and encouraged some foreigners already in the country to leave Sedition Act o Allowed the government to prosecute those who engaged in sedition against the government Republicans interpreted the new laws as part of a Federalist campaign to destroy them and fought back o Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions o Argued that the federal government had been formed by a compact or contract among the states and possessed only certain delegated powers. Whenever it exercised any undelegated power, its acts were unauthoritative, void, and of no force. If the parties to the contract, the states, decided that they central government had exceeded those powers, the Kentucky Resolution claimed, they had the right to nullify the appropriate laws The Revolution of 1800 Election of 1800 Federalists accused Jefferson of being a dangerous radical and his followers of being while men who, if they should come to power, would bring on a reign of terror comparable to that of the French Revolution Republicans portrayed Adam as a tyrant conspiring to become eking, and they accused the Federalist o plotting to subvert human liberty and impose slavery on the people Jefferson was elected Only a cast for two people Two parties now After election only branch of government left in the hands of the Federalists was the judiciary Judiciary Act of 1801 Federalist reduced the number of Supreme Court justiceships by one Greatly increase the number of federal judgeships as a whole

Chapter 7
The Jeffersonian Era o Thomas Jefferson in power in 1801 Wanted a society of sturdy, independent farmers A system of universal education Promoted a cultural outlook that emphasized localism and republican simplicity Federal government of sharply limited power o The Rise of Cultural Nationalism Opportunities for education increased The nations literary and artistic life began to free itself from European influences American religion began to confront and adjust to the spread of Enlightenment rationalism Patterns of Education Call for a national crusade against ignorance o All male citizens should receive free education 1789 Massachusetts law each town was obligated to support a school little enforcement o 1815 not a single state had a comprehensive public school system In the South and in the mid-Atlantic states religious groups ran most of the schools New England private academies o Phillips family at Andover, MA in 1778 o Exeter, NH 1781 Over 70 private academies in New England by 1815 o Only male students Women o If mothers remained ignorant, how could they raise their children to be enlightened? Female academies 1789 MA public schools for both boys and girls together Men felt that women had no need for college o 1784 Judith Sargent Murray published an essay defending womens rights to education Women and men are equal should have equal opportunities in everything Growing interest in Indian education o Hoped that schooling Indians would help to civilize them White society felt no need to educate African-Americans o In some northern states, some black children attended segregated schools UVA Jefferson founded 22 universities by 1800 o Clergy was the only profession for which college training was generally a prerequisite o College of William and Mary in VA, University of Pennsylvania, Columbia College in NY all created law schools before 1800 The Practice of Medicine University of Pennsylvania created the first American medical school in the early nineteenth century Benjamin Rush

The medical profession also used its newfound commitment to the scientific method to justify expanding its own control to kinds of cart that had traditionally been outside its domain Cultural Aspirations in the New Nation Americans believed that their happy land was destined to become the seat of empire and the final stage of civilization, w/ glorious works of high invention and of wondrous art As soon as he opens his lips, he should rehearse the history of his own country: he should lisp the praise of liberty, and of those illustrious heroes and statesmen who have wrought a revolution in her favor o Webster honor not honour 1828 An American Dictionary of the English Language Large amount of people who wanted to read o American authors had few opportunities to get their work before the public Printers favored British writers o Columbiad 1807 epic poem to convey the special character of American civilization Charles Brockden Brown - tried to use his novels to give voice to distinctively American themes, to convey the soaring passions and intellectual energy Washington Irving one of the few writers of that era whose works would continue to be read by later generations Most influential works were those glorifying the history of America o Mercy Otis Warren o Mason Weems Washington cutting down the cherry tree Religious Skepticism By 1790s only a few percent of Americans were part of a formal church Religious skepticism produced o Deism God created the world and then just disappeared o Universalism and Unitarianism Salvation was available to all, Jesus was a great teacher but not the son of God James Murray founded the Universalist Church in 1779 Unitarian church was established three years later In 1801 traditional religion staged a dramatic comeback The Second Great Awakening Efforts of conservative theologians of the 1790s to fight the spread of religious rationalism o New Light dissenters people who had altered their religious views to make them more compatible w/ the world of scientific rationalism Methodism became the fastest-growing denomination in America Individuals must readmit God and Christ into their daily lives, must embrace a fervent, active piety and must reject the skeptical rationalism that threatened traditional beliefs Accelerated the growth of different sects and denominations and helped create a broad popular acceptance of the idea that men and women could belong to different Protestant churches and still be committed to essentially the same Christian family Many blacks were allowed to go to camp meetings o Gabriel Prosser a black preacher devised an elaborate plan for a slave rebellion and attack on Richmond

Indians o Neolin Vision of a personal God combining Christianity and Native religion o Handsome Lake Called for a revival of old Indian ways Stirrings of Industrialism The Industrial Revolution in England Power-driven machines were taking the place of hand-operated tools and were permitting manufacturing to become more rapid and extensive o New devices called for new and better devices in other places o Water, wind and animal power very important James Watts steam engine Englands textile industry quickly became the most profitable in the world Urbanization o Growing schism between classes o Middle class taking over Technology in America A series of technological advance were welcomed that would ultimately help ensure that the United States too would be transformed Samuel Slater built a spinning mill for the Quaker merchant Moses Brown in 1790 o First modern factory in America Oliver Evans o Automated flour mill, card-making machine, etc o Published America's first textbook of mechanical engineering the Young Mill-Wrights and Millers Guide Eli Whitney o Cotton gin Changed the economy of the South Helped to transform the North o Helped to develop an assembly line in America Trade and Transportation Two tariff bills giving preference to American ships in American ports o Helped to stimulate an expansion of domestic shipping The United States had more ships and international than any other country in the world River transportation the steamboat o Robert Fulton o Robert R. Livingston Turnpike Era Country and City Of non-Indian population 3% lived in cities 10% lived west of Appalachian Mountains Societies in different parts of living were very diverse American society becoming more and more urban Jefferson the President We are all republicans, we are all federalists Thomas Jefferson The Federal City New national capital Washington o Washington was to become Americas Paris Population did not grow fast enough

Climate Government allowed city to remain a raw, inhospitable community President and Party Leader Thomas Jefferson was, acted like, and dressed like a very simple man o One of the nations most intelligent men Politician, active architect, educator, inventor, scientific farmer, philosopher-scientist His secretary of state was James Madison Secretary of treasury was Albert Gallatin Believed that federal offices should be filled w/ men loyal to the principles and policies of the administration Dollars and Ships Hamilton increased public debt and created an extensive system of internal taxation Jefferson persuaded Congress to stop internal taxation o Cut the national debt in half o Cut both the navy and army in half Barbary pirates declared war on the United States o 1805 Americans had to pay $60,000 for captives taken and never had to pay tribute to the pirates again Conflict w/ the Courts Republicans repealed the Judiciary Act of 1801 getting rid of the judgments made by Adams midnight appointments 1803 Marbury v. Madison o One of Adams midnight appointments o Marbury had been named a justice of the peace in the District of Columbia Never got to have his commission handed over by Adams o Supreme Court decided that Marbury had a right to his commission but that the Court had no authority to order Madison to deliver it Court decided that part of the original Judiciary Act of 1789 was void They had the power to nullify an act of Congress John Marshall established the judiciary as a branch of government coequal w/ the executive and the legislature Congress could properly impeach a judge for political reasons for obstructing the other branches of the government and disregarding the will of the people Doubling the National Domain Jefferson and Napoleon Napoleon began to dream of restoring French power in the New World o Secret treaty of San Ildefonso of 1800 Spain gave the French Louisiana o Sugar islands still belonged to the French Slave revolts going on Toussaint LOuverture American minister to France was Robert R. Livingston Mr. Livingston If France should seize New Orleans Jefferson felt that America must join British forces The Mississippi River was now closed to Americans

o o

Jefferson sent Livingston to go buy Louisiana from the French o Livingston told French that America wanted Louisiana and the vast western part of Louisiana as well Napoleon agreed The Louisiana Purchase Livingston and Monroe signed agreement w/ Barbe-Marbois for the Louisiana purchase on April 30, 1803 o $15 million Louisiana became a state in 1812 Lewis and Clark Explore the West Meriwether Lewis William Clark o 1804 Lewis and Clark set out w/ a company of four dozen men up the Missouri River from St. Louis Sacajawea o 1805 reached the Pacific ocean o 1806 got back to St. Louis w/ records of geography and Indian civilizations Zebulon Montgomery Pike led an expedition in the summer of 1806 to Colorado Pikes Peak The Burr Conspiracy Essex Junto o New England Federalists Decided that for the federalist to keep power that New England much secede from the Union and form a separate northern confederacy o Alexander Hamilton would not support them Hamilton accused Aaron Burr of plotting treason and made numerous remarks o Burr killed Hamilton in July 1804 at Weehawken, New Jersey Burr became a political outcast Jefferson ordered that Burr and his men be arrested as traitors o Burr brought to Richmond for trial Not enough evidence to convict him Set free Expansion and War Continuing tension in Europe Napoleonic Wars Both Britain and France trying to take measures to make sure that the Americans would not trade w/ the other nation Western expansion led to more Indian conflicts Conflict on the Seas Britain very concerned w/ trade between itself and Asia o America took over the void that was left by the British Developed one of the most important merchant marines in the world Controlled a large proportion of the trade between Europe and the West Indies After the Battle of Trafalgar o Napoleon instituted the Continental System Barring British ships and neutral ships that had called at British ports from landing their cargoes at any European port controlled by France or its allies o British introduced a series of orders in council A blockade that required that any goods being shipped to Napoleons Europe be carried either in

British vessels or in neutral vessels stopping at British ports Both of the warring nations violated Americas rights as a neutral nation o Victims of impressment Impressment British claimed right to stop and search American ships and impress people Chesapeake-Leopard incident o American ship would not let a British ship search them Jefferson sent James Monroe to Britain to demand that the British government renounce impressment o Gave back compensation for those killed or wounded o Britain would not renounce impressment Peaceable Coercion Embargo o Prohibited American ships from leaving the United States for any foreign port anywhere in the world o Caused a nation-wide depression James Madison won the next election Before Jefferson left office he approved a bill ending the Embargo; Peaceable Coercion Congress then passed the Non-Intercourse Act barring American ships from trade w/ Great Britain and France A year later they replaced it w/ Macons Bill No. 2 which opened up ALL foreign trade again France announced that it would no longer interfere w/ American shipping o Madison announced that an embargo against Great Britain alone would automatically go into effect early in 1811 unless Britain renounced its restrictions on American shipping Great Britain repealed its blockade because this hurt their economy Conflicts in the West Conflicts w/ the Indians once again o William Henry Harrison o Tecumseh o Jefferson gave the Indians two choices Become like white farmers Move west of the Mississippi River o By playing the tribes off of each other in 1807 the United States had extracted from the tribal leaders treaty rights to eastern Michigan, southern Indiana, and most of Illinois Tecumseh and the Prophet Tenskwatawa o The Prophet o Inspired a religious revival in the tribes Tecumseh o The Shooting Star o Only through united action could the tribes hope to resist the advance of white civilization Battle of Tippecanoe o Harrison drove off many Indians Only one way to make American safe drive British out of Canada and annex the land

A Fever for War Southerners wanted to acquire Spanish Florida o 1810 American settlers seized Spanish fort in Baton Rouge Federal government annexed that part of Florida Desire for Florida was another reason to go to war w/ Britain o Great Britains restrictions on American commerce was threatening to cut off American farmers from access to world markets By 1812 fever for war was growing throughout all of the United States o Henry Clay o John C. Calhoun War hawks June 18, 1812 Madison declared war on Great Britain The War of 1812 Battles w/ the Tribes Americans invaded Canada o Had to surrender many forts and retreat many times Americans very good on the sea o In 1813 British no longer had to deal w/ Napoleon Fought back greater against the Americans Americans took command of Lake Ontario Then took control of Lake Erie o Easier to invade Canada now October 5, 1813 won a victory notable for the death of Tecumseh o Battle of the Thames Andrew Jackson o The Battle of Horseshoe Bend Slaughtered Creeks Tribe had to cede most of its lands to U.S. o November 7, 1814 Seized the Spanish fort at Pensacola Battles w/ the British England prepared to invade the United States in 1814 o August 24, 1814 British troops marched on Washington and sent government to flight Set the White House on fire British then went up to Baltimore o Protected by Fort McHenry British were forced to bombard the fort from a distance September 13, 1814 o Francis Scott Keys Star-Spangled Banner 1931 Star Spangled Banner became U.S. national anthem Battle of Plattsburgh September 11, 1814 o New York Americans defeated the British January 8, 1815 British taken down by Jackson o Battle of New Orleans Several weeks later Britain and America signed a peace treaty The Revolt of New England Opposition to both war and to the Republican government that was waging it was so extreme that some Federalists celebrated British victories

Talk of secession began again in the winter between 1814 1815 Hartford Convention delegates from New York came to discuss their grievances December 15, 1814 Hartford Convention and the Federalist party came to seem futile, irrelevant, even treasonable o The failure of the secession effort was a virtual death blow to the Federalist Party The Peace Settlement Americans and British met in Ghent, Belgium to discuss peace o John Quincy Adams, Henry Clay, Albert Gallatin were the Americans Treaty signed on Christmas Eve 1814 British exhausted in debt Americans saw that with Napoleon gone, the British would have no reason to interfere with American commerce o 1815 impressment had all but ceded Treaty of Ghent Commercial treaty in 1815 gave America the right to trade freely with England and much of the British Empire Rush-Bagot agreement of 1817 provided mutual disarmament on the Great Lakes The war was another disastrous blow to the capacity of Native Americans to resist white expansion o

Chapter 8
Varieties of American Nationalism o Issue of slavery was the only true thing that would threaten unity of the United States o Would the new western territories become part of the North or South? o A Growing Economy A vigorous post-war boom lead to a disastrous bust in 1819 Banking, Currency, and Protection War of 1812 o Stimulated the growth of manufacturing o Produced chaos in shipping and banking Reestablishment of the Bank of the United States A variety of currency around the United States o Differing values o Mass confusion and possible counterfeiting National bank could not forbid state banks from issuing currency but its size and power enabled it to dominate the state banks Francis Cabot Lowell developed a power loom that was better than the English loom o 1813 Boston Manufacturing Company Founded first mill in America to carry on the processes of spinning and weaving under one roof 1816 protectionists in Congress won passage of a tariff law that effectively limited competition from abroad on a wide range of items Transportation Without a better transportation network, manufacturers would not have access to the raw materials they needed and would not be able to send their finished goods to markets within the United States When Ohio entered the Union the federal government agreed that part of the proceeds from the governments sale of public lands there should finance road construction o Revenues from the Ohio land sales should help finance a National road from the Potomac River to the Ohio River National Road finally began construction in 1811 o Cumberland, MD to Wheeling, VA Steamboats more readily available to haul cargo o Stimulated the agricultural economy of the West and the South, by providing much readier access to markets at greatly reduced cost They enabled eastern manufacturers to send their finished goods west much more readily 1815 President Madison called the attention of Congress to the great importance of establishing throughout our country the roads and canals which can be best executed under the national authority o John C. Calhoun introduced a bill that would have used the funds owed the government by the Bank of the U.S. to finance internal improvements Congress passed Calhouns internal improvements bill Madison vetoed it o He believed in the bill, just not Congress o Expanding Westward The Great Migrations

Westward movement brought vast new regions into the emerging capitalist system It thrust peoples of different cultures and traditions into intimate association with one another Important reasons for expansion o Population pressures o Economic pressures Drove them from the East o Availability of new lands o Decline of Indian resistance Pulled them West Ohio and Monongahela Rivers were the main routes westward, until the completion of the Erie Canal in 1825 White Settlers in the Old Northwest Rough existence, plagued by loneliness, poverty, dirt, and disease Men, women, and children worked side by side o Virtually no contact for weeks or months at a time with anyone outside their own families Formed new communities o Built schools, churches, stores, etc. Labor shortage in the interior led neighbors to develop systems of mutual aid, gathering periodically to raise a barn, clear land, harvest crops, or make quilts Nomads The Plantation System in the Southwest Cotton was the principle attraction o Broad zone in which cotton could thrive Black Belt of central Alabama and Mississippi, a vast prairie with a dark, productive soil of rotted limestone Rapid growth of Northwest and Southwest resulted in the admission of four new states to the Union o Indiana in 1816 o Mississippi in 1817 o Illinois in 1818 o Alabama in 1819 Trade and Trapping in the Far West Mexico opened its northern territories to trade with the United States o Americans poured into the region Americans took over positions once dominated by the Spanish Fur traders did most of their business trading with the Indians o White trappers entered the region and began to hunt beaver on their own Two-thirds of white trappers married Indian or Hispanic women 1822 William Ashley founded the Rocky Mountain Fur Company It was through Eastern merchants that many fur traders were dependent on for the bulk of their profit Jedediah S. Smith founded his own fur company in 1826 o Battles with Mexicans and Indians Eastern Images of the West Trappers did not often draw maps of the lands they explored 1819 and 1820 War Department sent off men with instructions to find the sources of the Red River

Men were unable to find the source Found the Great Plains The Era of Good Feelings Party competition virtually disappeared The End of the First Party System All of the presidents had been from Virginia o Virginia Dynasty James Monroe elected president o Secretary of State John Quincy Adams Jefferson, Madison, Monroe had all served as secretary of state before becoming president; Adams therefore immediately became the heir apparent, suggesting that the Virginia Dynasty would soon come to an end o Secretary of War John C. Calhoun The Federalist Party ceased to exist o The first party system had come to an end John Quincy Adams and Florida John Quincy Adams one of the greatest diplomats in American history U.S. already annexed West Florida, most Americans believed the nation should gain possession of the entire peninsula o Adams began negotiations with Spanish minister, Luis de Onis, in hopes of resolving the dispute and gaining the entire colony for the United States Andrew Jackson had orders from Secretary of War to adopt the necessary measures to put a stop to the continuing raids on American territory by the Seminole Indians south of the Florida border o Jackson used this as an excuse to invade Florida in 1818 Seized Spanish forts at St. Marks and Pensacola Adams told the Spanish that the United States had the right under international law to defend itself against threats from across its borders Implied that the nation might consider even more drastic action in the future Raid had demonstrated to the Spanish that Americans could easily take Florida by force o Adams-Onis Treaty of 1819 United States gave up its claims to Texas, but Spain gave up all of Florida and all of its possessions in the Pacific Northwest The Panic of 1819 Nation falling victim to a serious economic crisis High foreign demand for American farm goods o Rising prices for farm goods stimulated a land boom in the western United States Land prices soared as well o $2 an acre o Some went for $100 an acre or more Bank of the United States o Fueled the land boom o Began tightening credit, calling in loans, and foreclosing mortgages o Collected state bank notes and demanded payment in cash from the banks Bank failures Financial panic o Six years of depression followed

Land law of 1820 and relief act of 1821 lowered the price of land ad reduced existing debts while extending their payment schedules Sectionalism and Nationalism The Missouri Compromise Slavery already established in Missouri when it applied for statehood James Tallmadge Jr. o Proposed an amendment to the Missouri statehood bill to prohibit the further introduction of slaves into Missouri and to provide for the gradual emancipation oft those already there CONTROVERSY 1819 11 free states, 11 slave states Many of those who were against slavery in the North were Federalists o To them this was the chance that they were waiting for: to revive and reinvigorate their party Economic reasons o Plantation system of the South o Free-labor system of the North The futures of those systems seemed to depend in part on which of them prevailed in the West Maine applied for state ship Maine would be a free state Missouri would be a slave state o Thomas amendment no states north of the southern boundary of Missouri could be slave states Marshall and the Court John Marshall strengthened the judicial branch at the expense of the executive and legislative branches; increasing the power of the federal government at the expense of the states; and advancing the interest of the propertied and commercial classes Fletcher v. Peck (1810) o Congress decided that a land grant was a valid contract and could not be repealed even if corruption was involved Dartmouth College v. Woodward (1819) o A grant of corporate powers and privileges is as much a contract as a grant of land o The legislature had unconstitutionally violated the colleges contract o Placed important restrictions on the ability of state governments to control corporations o Supreme Court had the right to override the decisions of state courts Cohens v. Virginia (1821) o The states had given up part of their sovereignty in ratifying the Constitution, and their courts must submit to federal jurisdiction McCulloch v. Maryland (1819) o Could Congress charter a bank? o Could individual states ban it or tax it? o Establishing such an institution came within the necessary and proper clause of the Constitution and added that power to tax involved a power to destroy Gibbons v. Ogden (1824) o The Court strengthened Congresss power to regulate interstate commerce

Did commerce as defined by the Constitutions commerce clause, include navigation? o Did Congress alone or Congress and the states together have the authority to regulate interstate commerce? Gibbons v. Ogden helped to pave the way for unfettered capitalist growth The decisions of the Marshall Court established the primacy of the federal government over the states in regulating the economy and opened the way for and increased federal role in promoting economic growth The Court and the Tribes Marshall Court carved out a distinctive position for Native Americans within the constitutional structure Johnson v. McIntosh (1823) o Indians had a basic right to their tribal lands o Only federal government could buy land from the tribes Cherokee Nation v. Georgia o Tribes were not foreign nations Worcester v. Georgia (1832) o The tribes were sovereign entities in much the same way Georgia was a sovereign entity, distinct political communities, having territorial boundaries within which their authority is exclusive The Latin American Revolution and the Monroe Doctrine 1815 United States proclaimed neutrality between Spain and its rebel colonies 1822 Monroe established diplomatic relations with five new nations o La Plata, Chile, Peru, Colombia, Mexico Making U.S. the first country to recognize them 1823 Monroe Doctrine o The American continents are henceforth not to be considered as subjects for further colonization by any European powers Hoped that the message would rally the people of Latin America to resist foreign intervention o Important for several reasons An expression of the growing spirit of nationalism in the United States Expression of concern about the forces that were already gathering to threaten that spirit Established the idea of American hegemony in the Western Hemisphere that later U.S. governments would invoke at will to justify policies in Latin America The Revival of Opposition The Corrupt Bargain 1824 Crawford, Adams, Clay, Jackson for presidency o Adams won Adams named Clay his secretary of state Basically said that Clay would be his successor o A corrupt bargain o Clay gave his support to Adams so that he would become president The Second President Adams Jacksonians hated Adams o

Adams appointed delegates to an international conference that the Venezuelan liberator, Simon Bolivar had called in Panama in 1826 o Congress delayed approving the Panama mission so long that the American delegation did not arrive until after the conference was over Georgians wanted the rest of Creeks gone o In 1825 drew up a new treaty with McIntosh for new land o Adams voided it because he felt that McIntosh clearly did not represent the wishes of the tribe Governor of GA defied the president Many things went awry in Adams presidency Jackson Triumphant 1828 election o Supporters of Adams National Republicans supported the economic nationalism of the preceding years o Supporters of Jackson Democratic Republicans called for an assault on privilege and a widening of opportunity o Jackson won the election America had entered a new era of democracy, the era of the common man

Chapter 8
Varieties of American Nationalism o Issue of slavery was the only true thing that would threaten unity of the United States o Would the new western territories become part of the North or South? o A Growing Economy A vigorous post-war boom lead to a disastrous bust in 1819 Banking, Currency, and Protection War of 1812 o Stimulated the growth of manufacturing o Produced chaos in shipping and banking Reestablishment of the Bank of the United States A variety of currency around the United States o Differing values o Mass confusion and possible counterfeiting National bank could not forbid state banks from issuing currency but its size and power enabled it to dominate the state banks Francis Cabot Lowell developed a power loom that was better than the English loom o 1813 Boston Manufacturing Company Founded first mill in America to carry on the processes of spinning and weaving under one roof 1816 protectionists in Congress won passage of a tariff law that effectively limited competition from abroad on a wide range of items Transportation Without a better transportation network, manufacturers would not have access to the raw materials they needed and would not be able to send their finished goods to markets within the United States When Ohio entered the Union the federal government agreed that part of the proceeds from the governments sale of public lands there should finance road construction o Revenues from the Ohio land sales should help finance a National road from the Potomac River to the Ohio River National Road finally began construction in 1811 o Cumberland, MD to Wheeling, VA Steamboats more readily available to haul cargo o Stimulated the agricultural economy of the West and the South, by providing much readier access to markets at greatly reduced cost They enabled eastern manufacturers to send their finished goods west much more readily 1815 President Madison called the attention of Congress to the great importance of establishing throughout our country the roads and canals which can be best executed under the national authority o John C. Calhoun introduced a bill that would have used the funds owed the government by the Bank of the U.S. to finance internal improvements Congress passed Calhouns internal improvements bill Madison vetoed it o He believed in the bill, just not Congress o Expanding Westward The Great Migrations

Westward movement brought vast new regions into the emerging capitalist system It thrust peoples of different cultures and traditions into intimate association with one another Important reasons for expansion o Population pressures o Economic pressures Drove them from the East o Availability of new lands o Decline of Indian resistance Pulled them West Ohio and Monongahela Rivers were the main routes westward, until the completion of the Erie Canal in 1825 White Settlers in the Old Northwest Rough existence, plagued by loneliness, poverty, dirt, and disease Men, women, and children worked side by side o Virtually no contact for weeks or months at a time with anyone outside their own families Formed new communities o Built schools, churches, stores, etc. Labor shortage in the interior led neighbors to develop systems of mutual aid, gathering periodically to raise a barn, clear land, harvest crops, or make quilts Nomads The Plantation System in the Southwest Cotton was the principle attraction o Broad zone in which cotton could thrive Black Belt of central Alabama and Mississippi, a vast prairie with a dark, productive soil of rotted limestone Rapid growth of Northwest and Southwest resulted in the admission of four new states to the Union o Indiana in 1816 o Mississippi in 1817 o Illinois in 1818 o Alabama in 1819 Trade and Trapping in the Far West Mexico opened its northern territories to trade with the United States o Americans poured into the region Americans took over positions once dominated by the Spanish Fur traders did most of their business trading with the Indians o White trappers entered the region and began to hunt beaver on their own Two-thirds of white trappers married Indian or Hispanic women 1822 William Ashley founded the Rocky Mountain Fur Company It was through Eastern merchants that many fur traders were dependent on for the bulk of their profit Jedediah S. Smith founded his own fur company in 1826 o Battles with Mexicans and Indians Eastern Images of the West Trappers did not often draw maps of the lands they explored 1819 and 1820 War Department sent off men with instructions to find the sources of the Red River

Men were unable to find the source Found the Great Plains The Era of Good Feelings Party competition virtually disappeared The End of the First Party System All of the presidents had been from Virginia o Virginia Dynasty James Monroe elected president o Secretary of State John Quincy Adams Jefferson, Madison, Monroe had all served as secretary of state before becoming president; Adams therefore immediately became the heir apparent, suggesting that the Virginia Dynasty would soon come to an end o Secretary of War John C. Calhoun The Federalist Party ceased to exist o The first party system had come to an end John Quincy Adams and Florida John Quincy Adams one of the greatest diplomats in American history U.S. already annexed West Florida, most Americans believed the nation should gain possession of the entire peninsula o Adams began negotiations with Spanish minister, Luis de Onis, in hopes of resolving the dispute and gaining the entire colony for the United States Andrew Jackson had orders from Secretary of War to adopt the necessary measures to put a stop to the continuing raids on American territory by the Seminole Indians south of the Florida border o Jackson used this as an excuse to invade Florida in 1818 Seized Spanish forts at St. Marks and Pensacola Adams told the Spanish that the United States had the right under international law to defend itself against threats from across its borders Implied that the nation might consider even more drastic action in the future Raid had demonstrated to the Spanish that Americans could easily take Florida by force o Adams-Onis Treaty of 1819 United States gave up its claims to Texas, but Spain gave up all of Florida and all of its possessions in the Pacific Northwest The Panic of 1819 Nation falling victim to a serious economic crisis High foreign demand for American farm goods o Rising prices for farm goods stimulated a land boom in the western United States Land prices soared as well o $2 an acre o Some went for $100 an acre or more Bank of the United States o Fueled the land boom o Began tightening credit, calling in loans, and foreclosing mortgages o Collected state bank notes and demanded payment in cash from the banks Bank failures Financial panic o Six years of depression followed

Land law of 1820 and relief act of 1821 lowered the price of land ad reduced existing debts while extending their payment schedules Sectionalism and Nationalism The Missouri Compromise Slavery already established in Missouri when it applied for statehood James Tallmadge Jr. o Proposed an amendment to the Missouri statehood bill to prohibit the further introduction of slaves into Missouri and to provide for the gradual emancipation oft those already there CONTROVERSY 1819 11 free states, 11 slave states Many of those who were against slavery in the North were Federalists o To them this was the chance that they were waiting for: to revive and reinvigorate their party Economic reasons o Plantation system of the South o Free-labor system of the North The futures of those systems seemed to depend in part on which of them prevailed in the West Maine applied for state ship Maine would be a free state Missouri would be a slave state o Thomas amendment no states north of the southern boundary of Missouri could be slave states Marshall and the Court John Marshall strengthened the judicial branch at the expense of the executive and legislative branches; increasing the power of the federal government at the expense of the states; and advancing the interest of the propertied and commercial classes Fletcher v. Peck (1810) o Congress decided that a land grant was a valid contract and could not be repealed even if corruption was involved Dartmouth College v. Woodward (1819) o A grant of corporate powers and privileges is as much a contract as a grant of land o The legislature had unconstitutionally violated the colleges contract o Placed important restrictions on the ability of state governments to control corporations o Supreme Court had the right to override the decisions of state courts Cohens v. Virginia (1821) o The states had given up part of their sovereignty in ratifying the Constitution, and their courts must submit to federal jurisdiction McCulloch v. Maryland (1819) o Could Congress charter a bank? o Could individual states ban it or tax it? o Establishing such an institution came within the necessary and proper clause of the Constitution and added that power to tax involved a power to destroy Gibbons v. Ogden (1824) o The Court strengthened Congresss power to regulate interstate commerce

Did commerce as defined by the Constitutions commerce clause, include navigation? o Did Congress alone or Congress and the states together have the authority to regulate interstate commerce? Gibbons v. Ogden helped to pave the way for unfettered capitalist growth The decisions of the Marshall Court established the primacy of the federal government over the states in regulating the economy and opened the way for and increased federal role in promoting economic growth The Court and the Tribes Marshall Court carved out a distinctive position for Native Americans within the constitutional structure Johnson v. McIntosh (1823) o Indians had a basic right to their tribal lands o Only federal government could buy land from the tribes Cherokee Nation v. Georgia o Tribes were not foreign nations Worcester v. Georgia (1832) o The tribes were sovereign entities in much the same way Georgia was a sovereign entity, distinct political communities, having territorial boundaries within which their authority is exclusive The Latin American Revolution and the Monroe Doctrine 1815 United States proclaimed neutrality between Spain and its rebel colonies 1822 Monroe established diplomatic relations with five new nations o La Plata, Chile, Peru, Colombia, Mexico Making U.S. the first country to recognize them 1823 Monroe Doctrine o The American continents are henceforth not to be considered as subjects for further colonization by any European powers Hoped that the message would rally the people of Latin America to resist foreign intervention o Important for several reasons An expression of the growing spirit of nationalism in the United States Expression of concern about the forces that were already gathering to threaten that spirit Established the idea of American hegemony in the Western Hemisphere that later U.S. governments would invoke at will to justify policies in Latin America The Revival of Opposition The Corrupt Bargain 1824 Crawford, Adams, Clay, Jackson for presidency o Adams won Adams named Clay his secretary of state Basically said that Clay would be his successor o A corrupt bargain o Clay gave his support to Adams so that he would become president The Second President Adams Jacksonians hated Adams o

Adams appointed delegates to an international conference that the Venezuelan liberator, Simon Bolivar had called in Panama in 1826 o Congress delayed approving the Panama mission so long that the American delegation did not arrive until after the conference was over Georgians wanted the rest of Creeks gone o In 1825 drew up a new treaty with McIntosh for new land o Adams voided it because he felt that McIntosh clearly did not represent the wishes of the tribe Governor of GA defied the president Many things went awry in Adams presidency Jackson Triumphant 1828 election o Supporters of Adams National Republicans supported the economic nationalism of the preceding years o Supporters of Jackson Democratic Republicans called for an assault on privilege and a widening of opportunity o Jackson won the election America had entered a new era of democracy, the era of the common man

Chapter 9
Jacksonian America o The government of democracy brings the notions political rights to the level of the humblest citizens, just as the dissemination of wealth brings the notion of property within the reach of all the members of the community. America had no rigid distinctions of rank o Industrialization At the very moment at which the science of manufactures lowers the class of workmen, it raises the class of masters o Some Americans feared that the nations rapid growth would produce social chaos Insisted that the countrys first priority must be to establish order and a clear system of authority o Some Americans feared that the greatest danger facing the nation was privilege Societys goal should be to eliminate the favored status of powerful elites and make opportunity more widely available o The Rise of Mass Politics The Expanding Electorate A Transformation of American politics that extended the right to vote widely to new groups o White male suffrage in the new Western states Massachusettss constitutional convention of 1820 Daniel Webster power naturally and necessarily follows property, property as such should have its weight and influence in political arrangement. New York constitutional convention of 1821 James Kent society is an association for the protection of property as well as of life, the individual who contributes only one cent to the common stock ought not to have the same power and influence in directing the property concerns of the partnership as he who contributes his thousands. o Life, Liberty, and the pursuit of Happiness, not property were the main concerns of society and government Property qualifications for voting dropped Rhode Island 1840 Thomas L. Dorr a Peoples party held a convention, drafted a new constitution and submitted it to the popular vote. o Constitution overrun by the government of RI o Dorr Rebellion 1842 two governments in RI Helped pressure the old guard to draft a new constitution which greatly expanded the suffrage Pennsylvania 1838 amended constitution to striped blacks of their right to vote, which they had once enjoyed No women voting Spoken vote, not secret ballot Rise in the number of voting males The Legitimization of Party A growing interest in politics and a strengthening of party organization Party competition was part of American politics almost from the beginning of the republic, acceptance on the idea of party was not 1820s and 1830s that permanent, institutionalized parties were a desirable part of the political process, that indeed they were essential to democracy Martin Van Buren Bucktails or Albany Regency a dissident political faction

Challenged the established political leadership of De Witt Clinton o They argued that only an institutionalized party, based in the populace at large, could ensure genuine democracy o Bucktails proposed ideological commitments would be less important than loyalty to the party itself. Preservation of the party as an institution through the use of favors, rewards, and patronage would be the principal goal of the leadership For a party to survive it must have a permanent opposition Competing parties would give each political fact a sense of purpose They would force politicians to remain continually attuned to the will of the people They would check and balance each other in much the same way that the different branches of government checked and balanced one another 1830s a fully formed two-party system o Whigs o Democrats President of the Common Man Jackson felt that the government should offer equal protection and equal benefits to all its white male citizens and favor no region or class over another o That only by keeping these dangerous elements, slaves, Indians, and women, from the body politic could the whitemale democracy they valued be preserved Federal government positions o Jackson said that offices belonged to the people not to the entrenched officeholders who saw government as a means of promotion individual interest than as an instrument created solely for the service of the people o To the victor belong the spoils Our Federal Union A concentration of power in Washington would restrict opportunity to the favored few with political connections Jacksons belief Strongly committed to the preservation of the Union John C. Calhoun - Nullification Calhoun and Nullification The Tariff of Abominations o Raided the prices that they had to pay for the manufactured goods they could not produce for themselves South Carolina ready to secede Developed the theory of nullification o Calhoun argued that since the federal government was a creation of the states, the states themselves not the courts or the Congress were the final arbiters of the constitutionality of federal laws. o Said that states had to then choose between accepting the law or seceding o Just like the VA and KY resolutions o The South Carolina Exposition and Protest The Rise of Van Buren Van Buren secretary of state for Jackson

Kitchen Cabinet o Unofficial circle of allies John H. Eaton secretary of war Van Buren supported Jackson through many decisions o Van Buren would succeed him in the White House Calhoun would never become president The Webster-Hayne Debate Robert Y. Hayne SC the south and the West were both victims of the tyranny of the Northeast and hinted that the two regions might combine to defend themselves against that tyranny Daniel Webster Liberty and Union, now and forever, one and inseparable! o No state could reject the union Jackson agreed with Websters standpoint o The Union next to our liberty most dear. The Nullification Crisis A state convention in SC decided to nullify the tariffs of 1828 and 1832 and to forbid the collection of duties within the state Jackson insisted that nullification was treason and than its adherents were traitors 1833 Force Bill authorizing the president to use the military to enforce acts of Congress Calhoun devised a compromise to the tariffs that lowered the tariff gradually Jackson signed both on March 1, 1833 SC convention decided to repeal nullification of the tariffs Nullified the force bill SC and Calhoun saw that no state alone could defy the federal government alone The Removal of Indians Jackson wanted the Indians to move west of the Mississippi and out of the way of white expansion White Attitudes Toward the Tribes Many Americans saw the Indians as noble savages o Peoples without real civilization but with an inherent dignity that made civilization possible among them Many people felt more still that the Native Americans were just savages o Not only uncivilized, but uncivilizable savage o A belief that whites should not be expected to live in close proximity to the Indians, that Indian cultures and societies were unworthy of respect Favoring removal of Indians because o Westerners felt that Indians would provide constant conflict o Desire for new territory Tribes were often weak and divided o The Marshall Court had seemed to acknowledge this in declaring the tribes not only sovereign nations, but also dependent ones, for whom the federal government must take considerable responsibility The Black Hawk War Black Hawk was an Indian leader An earlier treaty had ceded tribal lands in Illinois to the United States

Black Hawk and his followers refused to recognize the legality of the agreement, which a rival tribal faction had signed White leaders in western Illinois vowed to exterminate the bandit collection of Indians Indians were defeated and moved across the river in Iowa The Five Civilized Tribes In Georgia, Florida, Alabama, and Mississippi lived what were known as the Five Civilized Tribes o Cherokee, Creek, Seminole, Chickasaw, Choctaw Whites argued that the Cherokees should be allowed to retain their eastern land, since they had become such a civilized society had their own culture, written language and a formal constitution and had under pressure from missionaries and government agents, given up many of their tradition ways George, Alabama and Mississippi began passing laws to regulate tribes in their states 1830 Removal Act o Appropriated money to finance federal negotiations with the southern tribes aimed at relocating them to the West Many tribes ceded their lands Some however, did not o Georgia Cherokees tried to stop the white encroachments by appealing to the Supreme Court Cherokee Nation v. Georgia 1831 Worcester v. Georgia 1832 1835 Cherokees ceded land for $5 million dollars and a reservation west of the Mississippi o The majority of the Cherokee did not recognize the treaty and refused to leave Jackson finally drove them away westward Trail of Tears About 1,000 Cherokee fled into North Carolina where a reservation was set up in the Smokey Mountains o Many were forced on a trek into Indian Territory Oklahoma in the beginning of the winter of 1838 o The Trail Where They Cried Jackson claimed that the remnant of that ill-fated race was now beyond the reach of injury or oppression Between 1830 and 1838 all of the five civilized tribes were pushed out of their homeland o The government thought the Indian Territory was safely disband from existing white settlements and consisted of land that most whites considered undesirable o It seemed unlikely that whites would ever want to settle in the Great American Desert where the tribes were being moved to Only the Seminoles in Florida were able to overcome the government o 1832 1833 Treaties of Paynes Landing they ceded their land to the government and agreed to move to Indian Territory within three years Some refused to leave and stage an uprising in 1835 to defined their lands o Seminole War o 1842 government abandoned the war effort The Meaning of Removal

By the end of the 1830s virtually of all of the major tribes east of the Mississippi had been moved westward, out of the way of expansion o Tribes had ceded over 100 million acres of eastern land to the federal government o They had received about $68 million and 32 million acres in the far less hospitable lands There was probably never any realistic possibility that the government could stop white expansion westward o Several alternatives to the brutal removal policy Co-habitation New Mexico, Pacific Northwest, Texas, California settlers from Mexico, Canada and the United Stated had created societies in which Indians and whites were in intimated contact with each other Native Americans, they believed, could not be partners either equal or subordinated in the creation of new societies in the West o They were obstacles to be removed By dismissing Native American cultures in that way, white Americans justified to themselves a series of harsh policies that they believed would make the West theirs alone Jackson and the Bank War Biddles Institution The National Bank had branches in thirty cities, making it the most powerful and far-flung financial institution in the nation The Bank provided credit to growing enterprises, it issued bank notes, exercised a restraining effect on the less well-managed state banks Nicholas Biddle the president of the Bank Opposition to the bank came from two groups o The soft-money faction People who wanted more currency in circulation and believed that issuing bank notes unsupported by gold and silver was the best way to circulate more currency state bankers and their allies Objected to the Bank because it restrained the state banks from issuing notes freely Believers in rapid economy growth and speculation o The hard-money faction Believed that gold and silver were the only basis for money Condemned all banks that issued bank notes Embraced older ideas of public virtue and looked with suspicion on expansion and speculation Jackson hard-money faction o He made it clear that he would not favor renewing the charter of the Bank of the United States, which was due to expire in 1836 Biddle began granting financial favors to influential men who he thought might help him preserve the bank in efforts to save the bank o Men like Daniel Webster Webster named the Banks legal counsel and director of its Boston branch The presidency campaign of 1832 centered on the future of the National Bank The Monster Destroyed

Jackson was determined to destroy the Bank o Could not stop it before the charter was up so he tried to weaken it o He decided to remove the governments deposits from the Bank Attorney General Roger B. Taney began placing the governments deposits not in the Bank of the United States, but in a number of state banks Nicholas Biddle This worthy President thinks that because he has scalped Indians and imprisoned Judges, he is to have his way with the Bank. He is mistaken. o Biddle called in loans and raised interest rates, explaining that without the government deposits the Banks resources were strecthed too thing Supporters of the Bank blamed Jacksons policies for the recession in 1833 1834 Jacksonians blamed the recession on Biddle A group of New York and Boston merchants protested that the business community ought not and would not sustain him in further pressure, which he very well knew was no necessary for the safety of the bank, and in which his whole object was to coerce a charter When the Bank was cut down in 1836 the country was left with an unstable banking system The Taney Court When John Marshall died in 1835, Jackson appointed his friend Roger B. Taney as the new chief justice of the Supreme Court Charles River Bridge v. Warren Bridge o 1837 o A dispute between two Massachusetts companies over the right to build a bridge across the Charles River between Boston and Cambridge o Used the Dartmouth College case to show that the states had no right to abrogate contracts o Taney supported the right of Massachusetts to award the second charter Taney the object of the government was to promote the general happiness, an object that took precedence over the rights of contract and property o The decision reflected one of the cornerstones of the Jacksonian ideal: that the key to democracy was an expansion of economic opportunity, which would not occur if older corporations could maintain monopolies and choke off competition from new companies The Changing Face of American Politics Some people were against many of Jacksons decisions Whigs Two political parties again Democrats and Whigs Democrats o Envisioned a future of steadily expanding economic and political opportunities for white males o The role of government should be limited, but it should include efforts to remove obstacles to opportunity and to avoid creating new ones o Drew support from the smaller merchants and the workingmen of the Northeast, from southern planters suspicious of

o Whigs o o o o o

industrial growth, westerners who favored a predominantly agrarian economy and opposed the development of powerful economic institutions Irish and German-Catholic immigrants supported the Democrats

Favored expanding the power of the federal government Encouraged industrial and commercial development Embraced material progress They were cautious about westward expansion Strongest among the more substantial merchants and manufactures of the Northeast, the wealthier planters of the south, and the ambitious farmers and rising commercial class of the West o Anti-Masonry A response to the widespread resentment against the secret, exclusive, Society of Freemasons Used this to launch harsh attacks on Jackson and Van Buren implying that the Democrats were part of the antidemocratic conspiracy o Evangelical Protestants supported the Whigs o Whigs tended to divide their loyalties among three figures the Great Triumvirate Henry Clay, Daniel Webster, John Calhoun Van Buren won the next election Van Buren and the Panic of 1837 Prices were rising, money was plentiful, and credit was easy as banks increased their loans and notes with little regard to their reserves of cash Between 1835 and 1837 the government sol nearly 40 million acres of public land, nearly three-fourths of it to speculators, who purchased large tracts in hopes of selling them at a profit From 1835 to 1837 the government was out of debt for the first time 1836 Congress passed a distribution act requiring the federal government to pay its surplus funds to the states each year in four quarterly installments as interest-free, unsecured loans Gave further stimulus to the economic boom 1836 specie circular provided that in payment for public lands the government would only accept gold or silver coins or currency securely backed by gold or silver Produced a financial panic that began in the first months of Van Burens presidency The distribution of the Treasury surplus, which had weakened the state banks, helped cause the crash The Panic of 1837 occurred during a Democratic administration and the Democrats paid the political price for it Creation of a new financial system to replace the Bank of the United States The government would place its funds in an independent treasury at Washington an din subtreasuries in other cities The Log Cabin Campaign Whigs held their first national nominating convention in Harrisburg, Pennsylvania in December 1839 o Chose William Henry Harrison for president and John Tyler for vice president

Democrats chose Van Buren again Penny press carried new of the candidates to a large audience of worker and trades people Harrison won the next election The Frustration of the Whigs William Henry Harrison died one month after being in office o John Tyler took over John Tyler was a reformed Democrat and there were still signs of his Democratic past in his approach to public policy Whig Diplomacy Some incidents in the 1830s almost brought America and Britain to war again Residents in Canada rebelled against the British colonial government in 1837 Some rebels chartered an American ship the Caroline British authorities in Canada seized the Caroline and burned it The British refused to provide compensation for it At the same time tensions flared between Canada and Maine Aroostook War 1841 American ship, Creole with more than 100 slaves aboard Slaves mutinied and took over the ship and took it to the Bahamas British officials declared the slaves free Webster-Ashburton Treaty of 1842 A firm northern boundary between the United States and Canada along the Main-New Brunswick border During Tylers administration, the U.S. established its first diplomatic relations with China 1842 Treaty of Wang Hya 1844 securing most-favored-nation provisions giving Americans the same privileges at the English Americans won the right of extraterritoriality Whigs lost the White House in the next election Won it back only once more before the Union shattered

Chapter 10
Americas Economic Revolution o The United States had developed a major manufacturing sector and was beginning to challenge the industrial nations of Europe for supremacy o North Rapidly developing a complex, modern economy and society, increasingly dominated by large cities, important manufacturing, and profitable commercial farming Unequal society Ideal of free labor o South Agriculture flourished as never before in response to the growing demand from textile mills in New England and elsewhere Remained much less economically developed than North Slavery o Isolating the residents of one of its regions o The Changing American Population The American Population 1820 1840 Dramatic population increase The majority of it in the Northeast and the Northwest Provided a labor force for the growing factory system Population Stats o 1790 4 million people in America o 1820 10 million o 1830 13 million o 1840 17 million Reasons for population growth o Improvements in public health o Increased birth rate o Immigration By 1810 New York City was the largest city in the United States o Erie Canal gave the city unrivaled access to the interior Immigration and Urban Growth, 1840 1860 By 1860 26% of the population of the free states was living in towns or cities Between 1820 and 1840, communities that had once been small western villages or trading posts became major cities: St. Louis, Pittsburgh, Cincinnati, Louisville o Had strategic positions on the Mississippi New urban centers gradually superseded the river ports in 1830 o Buffalo, Detroit, Milwaukee, Cleveland, Chicago Enlarged urban population was a result of the growth of the national population Urban growth was also a result of the continuing flow of people into cities from the farms of the Northeast Immigrants came from England, France, Italy, Scandinavia, Poland, and Holland The majority of the immigrants came from Ireland and Germany o Germans Economic dislocations of the industrial revolution had caused widespread poverty Collapse of the liberal revolution persuaded many to emigrate Settled in the Northwest

 o Irish

Germans brought money with them Many Germans were single young men or part of a family coming over Oppressiveness and unpopularity of English rule drove many people to emigrate Potato Famine of 1845 1849 Settled in the eastern cities Didnt bring much money with them Many of the Irish were young single women

The Rise of Nativism Some Americans saw in the new immigration a source of great opportunity o Industrialists and other employers welcomed the arrival of a large supply of cheap labor Believed that it would keep their wage rates low o Land speculators and others hoped that many of the immigrants would move into he region and help expand the population, and thus the market for land and goods, there o Political leaders hoped the immigrants would increase the political influence of the region Other Americans viewed the growing foreign-born population with alarm o Nativism a defense of native-born people and a hostility to the foreign born o A desire to stop immigration o Racism o Prejudice o Newcomers were socially unfit to live alongside people of older stock, that they did not bring with them sufficient standards of civilization o Foreigners were willing to work for low wages, they were stealing jobs from the native labor force o Protestants warned that the church of Rome was gaining a foothold in American government through the success of the Irish Catholics o Whig politicians were outraged because so many of the newcomers voted Democratic o Complained that the immigrants corrupted politics by selling their votes o Parties feared that immigrants would bring new, radical ideas into national life 1845 nativists held a convention in Philadelphia and formed the Native American Party Many of the nativist groups combined in 1850 to form the supreme Order of the Star-Spangled Banner Endorsed a list of demands that include banning Catholics or the foreign-born from holding public office, more restrictive naturalization laws, and literacy tests for voting Adopted a strict code of secrecy, which included the secret password, I know nothing. Became known as the Know-Nothings.

American Party created by the KnowNothings after the election of 1852 After 1854 their power decline Transportation, Communications, and Technology Industrial revolution needed not only an efficient population, but a system of transportation and communications Without a system like this o Merchants and manufacturers would be unable to ship their goods to distant markets or communicate effectively with trading partners in other regions o The industrial work force would not have access to the food supplies it needed to sustain itself The Canal Age River trade was the most effective way of commerce Many farmers of the west nor the merchants of the East were wholly satisfied with this pattern of trade New highways across the mountains provided a partial solution to the problem o The costs of hauling goods overland, were still too high for anything except the most compact and valuable merchandise Merchants and entrepreneurs began to turn to an alternative: canals o By the 1820s the economic advantages of canals had generated a booming interest in expanding the water routes to the West Canal building was too expensive for private enterprise o Job of digging canals went to the states New York was the first to act o De Witt Clinton encouraged the digging o Began digging on July 4, 1817 o The Erie Canal o Basically a ditch forty feet wide and four feet deep, with towpaths along the banks for the horses or mules that were to draw the canal boats o Opened in October 1825 o Within about seven years, tolls had repaid the entire cost of construction o The canal gave New York direct access to Chicago Indiana and Ohio built water connections between Lake Erie and the Ohio River New transportation routes caused increased white settlement in the Northwest o Canals made it easier for migrants to make the westward journey The Early Railroads Railroads emerged from a combination of technological and entrepreneurial innovations o Invention of tracks, the creation of steam-powered locomotives, development of railroad cars that could serve as public carriers of passengers and freight First railroad was the Baltimore and Ohio o Opened in 1830 In New York, the Mohawk and Hudson began running trains along the route between Schenectady and Albany in 1831 By 1836, more than a thousand miles of track had been laid in eleven states

Most railroads served simply to connect water routes, not to link one railroad to another Improvements o The introduction of heavier iron rails improved the roadbeds o Steam locomotives became more flexible o Redesigned passenger cars became more stable, more comfortable, and larger The Triumph of the Rails After 1840, railroads supplanted canals and all other modes of transport 1840 2,818 miles of railroad tracks in the United States 1850 9,021 miles Important change Trunk lines o Short lines becoming longer lines By 1853, four major railroad trunk lines had cross the Appalachian barrier to connect the Northeast with the Northwest o By lessening the dependence of the West on the Mississippi, the railroads helped weaken further the connection between he Northwest and the South Funding for the railroads came from many places o Private American investors, abroad, local governments, loans, stock subscriptions, subsidies, donations of land for rights-ofway, federal government public land grants By 1860, Congress had allotted over 30 million acres to eleven states to assist railroad construction Innovations in Communications and Journalism Facilitating the operation of the railroads was an important innovation in communications: the magnetic telegraph o It permitted instant communications between distant cities o Tying the nation together as never before o It helped reinforce the schism between the North and South Far more extensive lines in the North 1860 50,000 miles of wire connected most parts of the country Pacific telegraph 1861 3,595 miles between New York City and San Francisco One organization for telegraphs, the Western Union Telegraph Company 1846 Richard Hoe invented the steam cylinder rotary press able to print newspapers rapidly and cheaply 1846 newspaper publishers from around the nation formed the Associated Press to promote cooperative new gathering by wire Journalism would become an important unifying factor in American life Most of the major magazines and newspapers were in the North o The news revolution contributed to a growing awareness within each section of how the other sections lived and of the deep differences that had grown up between the North and the South Commerce and Industry The Expansion of Business, 1820 1840 One important change came in the retail distribution of goods specialization Many small family owned or entrepreneurs owned businesses were turning to corporations to help their businesses

Corporations had the advantage of combining the resources of a large number of shareholders, and they began to develop particularly rapidly in the 1830s New laws permitted a system of limited liability o Individual stockholder risked losing only the value of their own investment if a corporation should fail, and that they were not liable for the corporations larger losses The difficultly of obtaining credit for business investment remained an impediment to economic growth The Emergence of the Factory The most profound economic development in mid-nineteenth century America was the rise of the factory Improved technology and increasing demand produced a fundamental change New England used water power to run their textile operations By the 1830s factory production was spreading from textiles an shoes into other industries Machine technology advanced more rapidly in the United States in the mid-nineteenth century than in any other country in the world By the end of the 1830s American technology had become so advanced that industrialists in Britain and Europe were beginning to travel to the United States to lean new techniques, instead of the other way around The Expansion of Industry and Technology, 1840 1860 In 1840 the total value of manufactured goods was $483 million In 1860 the total value of manufactured goods was $2 billion o For the first time, the value of manufactured goods was approximately equal to that agricultural products 74,00 of manufacturing establishments in the Northeast o The region produced more than two-thirds of the nations manufactured goods Cotton and woolen manufacturers could not make things of fine quality and suffered from a limited supply of domestic raw wool By the 1840s the machine tools used in the factories of the Northeast were already better than those in European factories Coal generating power was replacing water power Clippers boats the fastest sailing ships afloat There was a declining profitability of the export trade Great opportunities for profit was in manufacturing than in trade Merchants reduced their mercantile investments and invested instead in factories Ownership of American enterprise was moving away from individuals and families and toward its highly dispersed modern form The discovery of new and more flexible forms of financing was a crucial factor in the advancement of industrialization Industrial capitalists soon became the new ruling class Men and Women at Work Recruiting a Native Work Force 90% of people in American in the 1820s still lived on farms The available unskilled workers were not numerous enough to form a reservoir from which the new industries could draw New farming techniques made jobs easier on a farm, causing the number of people needed for a job to decrease

Farmers and families began to abandon some of the relatively unprofitable farming areas of the East o Rural people began leaving the land to work in the factories Two forms of work recruitment o Whole families o Young women Lowell or Waltham System Many women suffered from severe loneliness and disorientation from being moved from their home lives 1834 mill workers in Lowell organized a union to strike a protest o The Factory Girls Association Sarah Bagley, created the Female Labor Reform Association Work force began to change over The Immigrant Work Force The rapidly increasing supply of immigrant workers after 1840 gave manufactures access to a source of labor that was both large and inexpensive Immigrants often encountered worse conditions then women Irish workers began to predominate in the New England textile mills Managers would pay piece salaries to the Irish wages dictated by how much a person produced In almost all industrial areas, factories were becoming large, noisy, unsanitary, and often dangerous places to work Average work day was between 12 and 14 hours Wages skilled workers received $4 to $10 dollars a week, while unskilled workers received $1 to $6 dollars a week The Factory System and the Artisan Tradition Artisans saw themselves as the embodiments of the American ideal o They clung to a vision of economic life that was in some ways very different from that the new capitalist class was promoting Skilled artisans valued their independence o The factory system threatened that world Artisans produced the first American labor unions to protect their endangered positions and to resist the new economic order in which they sensed they would have no role o The development of mass-production methods threatened their livelihoods; it also threatened their independence and their status in their communities Skilled workers of each craft formed societies for mutual aid and began to combine them on a citywide basis and set up central organizations known as trade unions o 1834 delegates from six cities founded the National Trades Union The Panic of 1837 weakened the movement Fighting for Control New Hampshire in 1847 and Pennsylvania in 1848 passed ten hour laws, limiting the workday unless the workers agreed to an express contract calling for more time on the job Massachusetts, New Hampshire, and Pennsylvania passed laws regulating child labor 1842 Massachusetts supreme court of the state Commonwealth v. Hunt declared that unions were lawful organizations and that the strike was a lawful weapon

Skilled workers created the national Typographical Union in 1852, the Stone Cutters in 1853, the Hat Finishers in 1854, and the Molders and the Machinists in 1859 Women began establishing their own protective unions by the 1850s Manufacturers had little difficulty replacing disgruntled or striking workers with eager immigrants would were usually willing to work for lower wages than native workers Patterns of Society The Industrial Revolution made society more unequal The Rich and the Poor The commercial and industrial growth of the United States greatly elevated the verge income of the American people o This increasing wealth was being distributed highly unequally In 1860 5% of the families possess more than 50% of the wealth Merchants and industrialists were accumulating enormous fortunes; and because there was now a significant number of rich people living in cities, a distinctive culture of wealth began to emerge o People looked increasingly for ways to display their wealth o New York had more wealthy families than anywhere else There was also a significant population of genuinely destitute people emerging in the growing urban centers of the nation o Many of these poor people were immigrants who had just come to America The worse victims were the free blacks Social Mobility There was a significant amount of mobility within the working class, which helped to limit discontent Opportunities for social mobility, for working ones way up the economic ladder were limited, but did exist Many people did not go from rags to riches, rather up one notch in the ladder possibly More common than social mobility was geographical mobility Some workers saved money, bought land, and moved west to farm it o Western lands were a safety valve for discontent But few urban workers could afford to make such a move or had the expertise to know how to work land even if they could have bought it Many workers moved from town to town looking for better opportunities elsewhere Another safety valve for the working-class discontent was politics Many white male working people had access to the ballot It seemed to offer a way to help guide their society an to feel like a significant part of their communities Middle-Class Life The fastest growing group in American was the middle class Economic development opened many more opportunities for people to own or work in businesses, to own shops, to engage in trade, to engage professions, and to administer organization Many people could become prosperous without owning land, but by providing valuable services to the new economy Middle class owned their own homes The women tended to stay home and take care of the children Inventions in the home greatly improved the character of life in middleclass homes

Cast-iron stoves became the principle vehicle for cooking and heating Families had access to a greater variety of meats, grains, and dairy products than they had had in the past Some families even had iceboxes Diets were generally much heavier and starchier than they are today Some urban middle-class homes had indoor plumbing and indoor toilets by the 1850s The Changing Family When families moved from rural areas into urban ones jobs, not land, were the most valued commodities Sons and daughters were much more likely to leave the family in search of work than they had been in the rural world Shift of income-earning work out of the home and into the shop, mill, or factory Agricultural work became more commercialized o Farm owners in need of labor hired farmhands Farm women began to work increasingly at domestic tasks cooking, sewing, gardening, and dairying The urban household itself became less important as a center of production Most income earners left home each day to work elsewhere The world of the family was now dominated not by production, but by housekeeping, child rearing, and other primarily domestic concerns o A world dominated by women Decline in birth rate o Mid-nineteenth century Americans had access to some birth control devices o A significant rise in abortions o Changes in sexual behavior including increasing abstinence Women and the Cult of Domesticity Emerging distinction between the public and private worlds accompanied increasingly sharp distinctions between the social roles of men and women Women were expected to do what men said to give into every wish and desire Little education was given to women o Oberlin in Ohio was the first college in America to accept female students o Mount Holyoke Massachusetts Mary Lyon 1837 womens college Unequal positions of men and women were in the pre-industrial era There was an important shift in the middle-class concept of the womans place within the family and of the familys place within the larger society o A widespread view of women as guardians of domestic virtues Women began to form their own social networks Distinctive feminine literature began to emerge to meet the demands of middle-class women Many middle-class women and men considered the new female sphere a vehicle for expressing special qualities that made women in some ways superior to men

Now that production had moved outside the household, women who needed to earn money had to move outside their own households to do so Leisure Activities Leisure time was scared for all but the wealthiest Americans in the mid-nineteenth century There was no Saturday or vacations Sunday was the only respite from work Men gravitated towards bars to get relief from the strenuous work Women would gather together and talk Reading became popular o Women were avid readers Theaters were becoming more popular Boxing, horse racing, cockfighting also became more popular Baseball began to get its beginnings and attracted big crowds when played in the parks The circus was also very popular when it came around People wanted to see new and bizarre things to entertain themselves o P.T. Barnums Freak Show

The Agricultural North Northeastern Agriculture Farmers of the Northeast could no longer compete wit the new and richer soil of the Northwest o A decline and transformation followed Major growers of wheat, corn, and cattle were being pushed westward Some eastern farmers responded by moving themselves west Still others moved to mill towns and became laborers Some farmers remained on the land and managed to hold their own against the Northwest in certain areas of agriculture The rise of cities also stimulated rise of profitable dairy farming Agriculture was steadily becoming less important relative both to the agriculture of the Northwest and to the industrial growth of the Northeast itself Population in many parts of the Northeast continued to decline The Old Northwest In the Northwest there was more industry than in the South Most of the major industrial activities of the West either served agriculture or relied on agricultural products The Northwest was primarily an agricultural region Industrialization provided the greatest boot to agriculture With the growth of factories and cities in the Northeast, the domestic market for farm goods increased dramatically The Northwest increased production not only by expanding the area of settlement, but also by adopting new agricultural techniques that greatly reduced the labor necessary for producing a crop The new methods were less destructive than earlier ones and slowed the exhaustion of the regions rich soil During the 1840s more efficient grain drills, harrows, mowers, and hay rakes came into wide use The cast-iron plow remained popular because when its parts broke they could be replaced 1847 John Deere established a factory to manufacture steel plows

Automatic reaper Cyrus H. McCormick 1834 Threshers Jerome I. Case factory manufacture most of the threshers Rural Life Religion drew farm communities together more than any other force People frequently gathered together to share tasks that a single family would have difficulty performing on its own o Barn raisings o Harvests One reason many rural Americans looked back nostalgically on country life once they moved to the city was that they sensed that in the urban world they did not have as much control over the patterns of their daily lives as they had once known

Chapter 11

Cotton, Slavery, and The Old South o The South, like the North, experienced dramatic growth in the middle years of the midnineteenth century o The Southern agricultural economy grew increasingly productive and increasingly prosperous o Trade made the South a major force in international commerce o Traded sugar, rice, tobacco, COTTON o The South in the 1850s was a very different place from the South of the first years of the century o In 1800, a plantation system dependent on slave labor had dominated the southern economy; by 1860, that system had only strengthened its grip on the region o The South grew, but it did not develop o As a result, it became increasingly unlike the North and increasingly sensitive to what it considered to be threats to it distinctive way of life o The Cotton Economy The most important economic development in the mid-nineteenth century South was the shift of economic power from the upper South to the lower South That shift reflected above all the growing dominance of cotton in the southern economy The Rise of King Cotton By the 1830s many farmers in the old tobacco-growing regions of Virginia, Maryland, and North Carolina were shifting to other crops while the center of tobacco cultivation was moving westward, into the Piedmont area South Carolina, Georgia and Florida were dependent on rice The decline in tobacco and the limitations on other crops would have changed the Southern economy had it not been for a new crop o Short-staple cotton A hardier and coarser strain of cotton that could grow successfully in a variety of climates and in a variety of soil In the 1800s there was sudden booming demand for cotton o Existing cotton lands could not satisfy the demand o Ambitious men and women rapidly moved into previously uncultivated land to establish new cotton-growing regions By the 1850s cotton had become the linchpin of the southern economy In 1820, the South had produced about 500,000 bales of cotton By 1850 it was production nearly 3 million bales a year By 1860 nearly 5 million By the time of the Civil War, cotton constituted nearly two-thirds of the total export trade of the United States o Brought in nearly $200 million a year Cotton is king! The sale of slaves to the southwest became an important economic activity in the upper South and helped the troubled planters of that region compensate for the declining value of their crops Southern Trade and Industry Industry remained an insignificant force in comparison with the agricultural economy Many merchants were the brokers who marketed the planters' crops

They worked to find buyers for cotton and other crops They purchased goods for the planters they served They were closely tied and dependent on the plantation economy Southern merchants were much less important than Northern ones who the Southern planters were coming to depend on In the South there were no investments made for internal improvements o Most of the South remained unconnected to the national railroad system The principle means of transportation was water De Bows Review magazine advocating southern commercial and agricultural expansion o Journal was made into a tireless advocate of southern economic independence from the north o Warning constantly of the dangers of the colonial relationship between the sections Sources of Southern Differences The South made few serious efforts to build an economy that might challenge their dependency on the North Why did the region do so little to develop a larger industrial and commercial economy of its own? o The great profitability of the regions agricultural system o Wealthy southerners had so much capital invested in their land and their slaves that they had little left for other investments o A set of values distinctive to the South that discouraged the growth of cities and industry White southerners liked to think of themselves as representatives of a special way of life One based on traditional values of chivalry, leisure, and elegance Southerners were the cavaliers Northerners were the Yankees White Society in the South The Planter Class A society dominated by great plantations and wealthy landowning planters The planter aristocracy exercised power and influence far in excess of their numbers They determined the political, economic, and even social life of their region As late as the 1850s many of the great landowners in the lower South were still first-generation settlers, who had arrived with only modest resources, struggled for many years to clear land and develop a plantation in what was at first a rugged wilderness, and only relatively recently had started to live in the comfort and luxury for which they became famous Planters had to supervise their operations carefully if they hoped to make a profit o Growing staple crops was a business that was in its own way just as competitive and just as risky as the industrial enterprises of the North Many affluent planters lived rather modestly, their wealth so heavily invested in land and slaves that there was little left for personal comfort Wealthy southern whites sustained their image of themselves as aristocrats in many way

o o o

o o

They avoided occupations as trade and commerce Those who did not become planters went toward the military

Honor White males adopted an elaborate code of chivalry Obligated them to defend their honor through dueling The idea of honor in the South was only partly connected to the idea of ethical behavior and bravery It was also tied to the importance among white males of the public appearance of dignity and authority of saving face Avenging insults was a social necessity in may parts of southern society and avenging insults to white southern women was perhaps the most important obligation of a white southern gentleman The Southern Lady Stayed at home and did domestic things around the house The cult of honor in the region meant in theory that southern white men gave particular important to the defense of women o White women more subordinate in southern culture than they were in the North o Women have but one right, at that is the right to protection. The right to protection involves the obligation to obey Women had few opportunities to look beyond their roles as wives and mothers White women on plantations engaged in spinning, waving, and other production; they participated in agricultural tasks; they helped supervise the slave work force Southern white women had less access to education than their northern counterparts o The few females academies in the South trained women primarily to be suitable wives A few southern white women rebelled against their roles and against the prevailing assumptions of their region Some became outspoken abolitionists and joined northerners in the crusade to abolish slavery Some wanted reforms to society Most white women found few outlets for whatever discontent they may have felt with their lives The Plain Folk The typical white southerner was a yeoman o Most owned no slaves at all Most yeoman knew that they had little prospect of substantially bettering their lot o One reason was the southern education system Poor whites had few chances for education and therefore had few opportunities to advance By 1860 there were 260 southern colleges Universities were only within the reach of the upper class The South had more than 500,000 illiterate whites Why did the plain folk have so little power in the public world of the Old South? They did not oppose the aristocratic social system in which they shared so little? Why did they not resent the system of slavery, from which they generally did not benefit?

Some non-slave owning whites did oppose the planter elite, but for the most part in limited way and in a relatively few, isolated areas o These were southern highlanders, the hill people To such men and women, slavery was unattractive for many of the same reason sit was unappealing to the workers and small farmers in he North: because it threaten their sense of their own independence The mountain region was the only part of the South to defy the trend toward sectional conformity Small farmers in the plantation systems depended on the local plantation aristocracy for many things o Access to cotton gins, markets for their modest crops and their livestock, credit or other financial assistance in time of need For white men the South was an unusually democratic society As the northern attack on slavery increased in the 1840s and 1850s, it was easy for southerners to believe that an assault on one hierarchical system (slavery) would open the way to an assault on another such system (patriarchy) Poor White Trash occupied the infertile lands of the pine barrens and supported themselves by foraging or hunting o In some aspects their plight was worse than that of AfricanAmerican slaves o There was no real opposition to the plantation system or slavery However poor and miserable white southerners might have been, they could still consider themselves members of a ruling race o They could still look down on the black population of the region and feel a bond with their fellow whites born of a determination to maintain their racial supremacy The Peculiar Institution Slavery was the peculiar institution Meaning it was distinctive and special The South in the mid-nineteenth century was the only area in the Western world except for Brazil, Cuba and Puerto Rico where slavery still existed Slavery, more than any other single factor insolated the South from the rest of American society As that isolation increased, so did the commitment of southerners to defend the institution Slavery one hand isolated blacks from whites, drawing a sharp and inviolable racial line Slavery on the other hand created a unique bond between black and whites in the South Varieties of Slavery Slave codes of the southern states forbade slaves to hold property, to leave their masters premises without permission, to be out after dark, to congregate with other slaves except at church, to carry firearms, or to strike a white person even in self-defense The codes prohibited whites from teach slaves to read or write and denied to slaves the right to testify in court against white people Anyone with even a trace of African ancestry was defined as black Enforcement of these laws was spotty and uneven despite the rigid provision of law, there was in reality considerable variety within the slave system White farmers with few slaves generally supervised their workers directly and often worked closely alongside them

African-Americans themselves preferred to live on large plantations where they had more privacy On larger plantations head drivers were hired to oversee the slaves Larger planters generally used one of two methods of assigning slave labor o The task system slaves were assigned a particular task in the morning and then they were free for the rest of the day once it was finished o The other was the gang system slaves were simply divided into groups and compelled to work for as many hours as the overseer considered a reasonable workday Life Under Slavery Slaves workdays were longest at harvest time o Slave women worked particularly hard o They worked in the fields and in the house Black women often found themselves acting in effect as single parents o In a slave family women had special burdens but also a special authority African-Americans were much less healthy than whites o The actual material conditions of slavery may have been better than those of many northern factory works o Growing cotton, the principal activity for most slaves in the United States, was much less debilitating than growing sugar Planters had strong economic incentives to maintain a healthy slave population America become the only country where a slave population actually increased through natural reproduction Masters believed that protecting slave children from hard work until early adolescence would make young slaves more loyal and would also ensure better health as adults Household servants had a somewhat easier physical life than died the field hands o House servants resented their isolation from heir fellow slaves and the lack of privacy that came with living in such close proximity to the maters family o Female household servants were especially vulnerable to sexual abuse by their masters Unwanted sexual attention from white men led to female slaves often receiving vindictive treatment from white women Slavery in the Cities On isolated plantations slaves had little contact with free blacks and lower-class withes o Masters maintained fairly direct and effective control In the city a master often could not supervise his slaves closely and at the same time use them profitably o Slaves on contract worked in mining and lumbering o Others worked on the docks and on construction sites, drove wagons, and performed other unskilled jobs in cities and towns o Slave women and children worked in the regions few textile mills Urban slaves gained numerous opportunities to mingle with free blacks and with whites

In the cities, the line between slavery and freedom became increasingly indistinct Fearing conspiracies and insurrections, urban slave owners sold off much of their male property to the country side Segregation was a means of social control intended to make up for the loosening of the discipline of slavery itself in urban areas Free African Americans There were about 250,000 free African Americans in the slaveholding states by the start of the Civil War Some slaves had bought their own freedom It was usually urban blacks who could take that route Some slaves were set free by a master who had moral qualms about slavery or by a masters will after his death Some white southerners feared that free blacks, removed from close supervision by whites, might generate more violence and rebellion than slaves The rise of abolitionist agitation in the North and the fear that it would inspire slaves to rebel also persuaded southern whites to tighten their system To set fee a slave manumit Law or custom closed many occupations to them, forbade them to assemble without white supervision and placed numerous other restrains on them They were only quasi-free Yet they had all the burden of freedom The necessity to support themselves, to find housing, to pay taxes Blacks usually preferred this life to slavery The Slave Trade Slaves sometimes moved into new lands with their masters More over they were sold by slave traders Slaves were transported by train or river steamers on long journeys On shorter journeys slaves were transported on foot At slave auctions bidder checked the slaves like livestock Some traders tried to deceive bidders by darkening gray hairs, oiling withered skin, and concealing physical defeats in other ways The trade dehumanized all who were involved in it Although the foreign slave trade was banned in 1808, slaves were still being smuggled in Slave Resistance The vast majority of blacks were not content with being slaves They yearned for freedom even though most realized there was little they could do to secure it The dominant response of blacks to slavery was a combination of adaptation and resistance Slavery produced two very different reactions Sambo the shuffling, grinning, head-scratching, deferential slave who acted out the role that he recognized the white world expected of him The other extreme was slave rebel the African American who could not bring himself of herself to either acceptance or accommodation but remained forever rebellious 1831 Nat Turner, a slave preacher, led a band of African Americans who armed themselves with guns and axes They killed about sixty white men, women, and children

More than a hundred blacks were executed in the aftermath Some blacks attempted slavery to resist by running away The underground railroad Blacks needed traveling permits to travel or else they were considered run aways Another form of resistance was defiance of slave masters Refusal to work had Some performed isolated acts of sabotage Losing or breaking tool or performing tasks improperly Some blacks might make themselves useless by cutting off their fingers or even committing suicide A few turned on their masters and killed them The Culture of Slavery Language and Music In many places slaves retained a language of their own They learned a simple, common language pidgin Music was especially important in slave society Most important to music were voices and song Field workers often used songs to pass the time in the fields In their religious services the tradition of the spiritual emerged in the early nineteenth century African-American Religion Almost all African-Americans were Christians by the early nineteenth century In the 1840s and 1850s, as slavery expanded in the South, missionary efforts increased Blacks throughout the South developed their own version of Christianity, at times incorporating into it such practices as voodoo or other polytheistic religious traditions of Africa Slave prayer meeting routinely involved fervent chanting, spontaneous exclamations from the congregation and ecstatic experiences Black religion emphasized the dream of freedom and deliverance They held their own services secretly at night The Slave Family Black women generally bean bearing children at younger ages than most whites Fourteen or fifteen Clack couples would often begin living together before marrying Up to a third of all black families were broken apart by the slave trade Extended kinship networks were strong and important and often helped compensate for the breakup of nuclear families Slaves adapted themselves to slavery by forming complex relationships with their masters Not only were they dependent on whites for the material means of existence they often derived from their masters a sense of security and protection That paternalism became a vital instrument of white control By creating a sense of mutual dependence, whites helped reduced resistance to an institution that served only the interests of the ruling class

Chapter 12
Antebellum Culture and Reform o The nation began to change again On the one hand, many were excited by the new possibilities that economic growth was providing On the other hand, many were painfully aware of the dislocations that it was creating o The challenges to traditional values and institutions, the social instability, the increasing inequality, the uncertainty about the future Movements to adapt society began to emerge reform movements Many of these movements rested on an optimistic faith in human nature and a desire for order and control o One group of reformers became most visible Abolitionists o The Romantic Impulse Nationalism and Romanticism in American Painting European artists stood at the center of the world of art Americans believed that they Americans were creating important new artistic traditions of their own Americans sought to capture the undiluted power of nature by portraying some of the nations wildest and most spectacular areas The first great school of American painters emerged in New York o Frederic Church, Thomas Cole, Thomas Doughty, and Asher Durand They considered nature the best source of wisdom and spiritual fulfillment They seemed top announce that in American wild nature still existed and that America, therefore, was a nation of greater promise that the played out lands of the Old World Literature and the Quest for Liberation James Fenimore Cooper the first great American novelist o The Last of the Mohicans o The Deerslayer Through his stories could be seen not only a celebration of the American spirit and landscape but an evocation, through the central character of Natty Bumppo, of the ideal of the independent individual w/ a natural inner goodness Another impulse that would motivate American reform o The fear of disorder More writers began to appear in America o Walt Whitman Leaves of Grass Whitman not only helped liberate verse from traditional, restrictive conventions but also helped express the soaring spirit of individualism that characterized his age o Herman Melville Moby Dick o Edgar Allen Poe Tamerlane and Other Poems The Raven Literature in the Antebellum South

White southerners tended to produce very different images of what that society was and should be Southern novelist of the 1830s Beverly Tucker, William Alexander Caruthers, and John Pendleton Kennedy produced historical romance or romantic eulogies of the plantation system of the upper South There were some writers who did not depict the glories of the South and chose to write about the rural parts Augustus B. Longstreet, Joseph G. Baldwin, Johnson J. Hooper, etc The Transcendentalists Transcendentalists embraced a theory of the individual that rested on a distinction between what they called reason and understanding o Reason had little to do w/ rationality o It was the individuals innate capacity to grasp beauty and truth through giving full expression to the instincts and emotions It was the highest human faculty o Understanding was the used of intellect in the narrow artificial ways imposed by society o It invoked the repression if instinct and the victory of externally imposed learns Every persons goal should be liberation from the confines of the understanding and the cultivation of reason Each individual should strive to transcend the limits of the intellect and allow the emotions, the soul, to create and original relation to the Universe Leader Ralph Waldo Emerson o The most important intellectual of his age o Emerson wrote that in the quest for self-fulfillment, individuals should work for a communion w/ the natural world o Artistic and intellectual achievements need not rely on tradition and history; it could come from the instinctive creative genius of individuals Leader Henry David Thoreau o Individuals should work for self-realization by resisting pressures to conform to societys expectations and responding instead to their own instincts o The individuals person morality had the first claim on his or her actions, that a government which required violation of that morality had no legitimate authority o Civil disobedience a public refusal to obey unjust laws Visions of Utopia Brook Farm o Experimental community o There individuals would gather to create a new form of social organization, one that would permit every member of the community full opportunity for self-realization o Individualism gave way to a form of socialism Residents o Nathaniel Hawthorne The Blithedale Romance portrayed the disastrous consequences of the experiment on the individuals who submitted to it and describing the great fire that

destroyed the community as a kind of liberation from oppression Egotism was the serpent that lay at the heart of human misery Many more experiments like these began to take place across the nation Redefining Gender Roles Margaret Fuller o Suggested the important relationship between the discovery the self that was so central to antebellum reform and the questioning of gender roles o Woman in the Nineteenth Century Oneida Community o The residents of the community rejected traditional notions of family and marriage All residents were married to all other residents o Liberation of women from the demands of male lust and from the traditional bonds of family The Shakers o Members would shake themselves free of sin o A commitment to complete celibacy o Shakers openly endorsed the idea of sexual equality o Embraced the idea of a God who was not clearly male or female o Women exercised the most power o They were trying as well to create a society separated and protected from the chaos and disorder that they believed had come to characterize American life as a whole The Mormons Joseph Smith o Wrote the Book of Mormon o A translation of golden tablets he had found The Book of Mormon told the story of an ancient and successful civilization in America Its members waited patiently for the appearance of the Messiah, and they were rewarded when Jesus actually came to America after his resurrection Those who ended up straying from God had their skin darkened Smith believed that these were the Indians o Smith was arrested and killed in Illinois Brigham Young took the Mormons to Salt Lake City Mormonism reflected a belief in human perfectibility o The original Mormons were men and women who felt displaced in their rapidly changing society o In the new religion they found genuine faith Remaking Society The new reform movements did work on behalf of a wide range of goals Temperance, education, peace, the care of the poor, the handicapped and the mentally ill, the treatment of criminals. The rights of women, etc. Revivalism, Morality, and Order The philosophy of reform arose from two distinct sources o One was optimistic vision of those who rejected Calvinist doctrines and preached the divinity of the individual

The other was Protestant revivalism The Second Great Awakening Charles Grandison Finney the most influential revival leader of the 1820s and 1830s o Said that traditional Calvinist doctrines of predestination and individual human helplessness were both obsolete and destructive o Each person contained w/in himself or herself the capacity to experience spiritual rebirth and achieve salvation The Burned-Over District o Where the fires of the revivals made it look like the whole country side was one fire o New York by the Erie Canal Finneys doctrine of personal regeneration appealed strongly to those who felt threatened by change o For them, revivalism became not only a means of personal salvation but a mandate for reform f the larger society A call for a crusade against personal immorality The Temperance Crusade No social vice was more responsible for crime, disorder, and poverty than the excessive use of alcohol o Women claimed that alcoholism placed a special burned on wives Men spent the families money Drunken men abused their wives The average male in the 1830s drank nearly three times as much alcohol as the average person drinks today Among the many supporters of the temperance movement were people who saw it as a way to overcome their own problems w/ alcoholism 1826 the American Society for the Promotion of Temperance emerged as a coordinating agency among various groups 1840 Washington Temperance Society began to draw large crowds to hear their impassioned and intriguing confession of past sins Some temperance advocates now urged that abstinence include not only liquor but beer and wine Some began to demand state legislation to restrict the sale and consumption of alcohol Health, Science and Phrenology Threats to public health were critical to the sense of insecurity that underlay many reform movements o Many municipalities, pressured by reformers, established city health boards to try to find solutions to the problems of epidemics Many Americans turned to nonscientific theories for improving health o Hydrotherapy o New dietary theories Eating more fruits, vegetable, and bread the Graham cracker Phrenology o The shape of an individuals skull was an important indicator of his or her character and intelligence o Different parts of their brain controlled a specific kind of intelligence or behavior Reforming Education

Public education was a reflection of the new belief in the innate capacity of every person and of societys obligation to tap that capacity; but it was a reflection, too, of the desire to expose students to stable social values as a way to resist instability Horace Mann o Education was the only way to counterwork this tendency to the domination of capital and the servility of labor o The only way to protect democracy Mann lengthened the academic year, doubled teachers salaries, enriched the curriculum, introduced new methods of professional training for teachers By the 1850s the principle of tax-supported elementary school had been accepted in all the states The interest in education was visible too in the growing movement to educate American Indians o Many people believed that Indians could be civilized if only they could be taught the ways of the white world By the beginning of the Civil War, the United States had one of the highest literacy rates of any nation in the world o 94% in the North o 83% in the South A similar emphasis on the potential of the individual sparked the creation of new institutions to help the handicapped, institutions that formed part of a great network of charitable activities known as the Benevolent Empire o Perkins School for the Blind The blind and otherwise handicapped could be helped to discover inner strength and wisdom Efforts to used schools to impose set of social values on children o These values included thrift, order, discipline, punctuality, and respect for authority Rehabilitabltion The creation of asylums for criminals and for the mentally ill Americans were reacting to on e of societys most glaring ills It was an attempt to reform and rehabilitate the inmates The idea was that a properly secured institution could prevent moral failure and despair The Indian Reservation The principle motive behind relocation had always been a simple one getting the tribes out of the way of white civilization Another motive was to move the Indians to a place where they would be protected from whites and allowed to develop to a point where assimilation might be possible Reservations might provide a way to undertake what one official called the great work of regenerating the Indian race Native Americans on reservations would learn the ways of civilization in a protected setting and would progress toward a point at which they will be able to compete with a white population, and to sustain themselves under and probable circumstances of contact or connexion with it The Rise of Feminism American women played a large part in reform movements for temperance and abolitionism They expressed their awareness of the problems that women themselves faced in a male-dominated society

Men and Women were CREATED EQUALthey are both moral and accountable beings, and whatever is right for man to do, is right women to do Declaration of Sentiments and Resolutions All men and women are created equal Feminists benefited greatly from their association with other reform movements For the demands of women were usually assigned a secondary position to what many considered the far greater issue of the rights of slaves The Crusade Against Slavery Early Opposition Slavery In 1817 a group of white Virginians organized the American Colonization Society, which worked carefully to challenge slavery without challenging property rights or southern sensibilities o Proposed a gradual manumission of slaves, with masters receiving compensations through funds raised by private charity or appropriated by state legislatures Some slaves were shipped back to Africa o Liberia Monrovia There were far too many black men and women in America in the nineteenth century to be transported to Africa by any conceivable program By 1830 the early antislavery movement was rapidly losing strength Garrison and Abolitionism William Lloyd Garrison o 1831 made his own newspaper the Liberator Opponents of slavery should view the institution from the point of view of the black man, not the white slave owner They should not talk about the evil influence of slavery on white society; they should talk about the damage the system did to blacks Said that those who were advocates of colonization were not emancipationists, their real aim was to strengthen slavery by ridding the country of those African Americans who were already free The true aim of foes of slavery must be to extend to African Americans all the rights of American citizenship o Founded the New England Antislavery Society in 1832 o In 1833 he founded the American Antislavery Society Black Abolitionists Northern blacks were often victimized by mob violence; they had virtually no access to education; they could vote in only a few states; and they were barred from all but the most menial of occupations David Walker a free black Walkers Appealto the Colored Citizens o America is more out country than it is the whites we have enriched it with our blood and tears o The whites want slaves and want us for their slave, but some of them will curse the day they ever saw us o Kill or be killed! Frederick Douglass the greatest African American abolitionist of all Published his own newspaper the North Star

Douglass demanded for African Americans not only freedom by full social and economic equality Anti-Abolitionism To its critics, the abolitionist crusade was a dangerous and frightening threat to the existing social system Another threat to stability and order Many abolitionists were attacked for their views Abolitionists were not people who made their political commitments lightly or casually They were strong-willed, passionate crusaders, displaying enormous courage and moral strength Abolitionism Divided Prigg v. Pennsylvania 1842 states need not aid in enforcing the 1793 law requiring the return of fugitive slaves to their owners New laws that forbade state officials to assist in the capture and return of runaway slaves The antislavery societies petitioned Congress to abolish slavery in places where the federal government had jurisdiction and to prohibit the interstate slave trade The frustrations of political abolitionism drove some critics of slavery to embrace more drastic measures Violence Propaganda Uncle Toms Cabin the most powerful document of abolitionist propaganda The novel succeed in bringing the message of abolitionism to an enormous new audience In both regions, her novel helped to inflame sectional tensions to a new level of passion

Chapter 13 The Impending Crisis o New conflicts arose in the U.S. over slavery North the strident and increasingly powerful abolitionist movement, which kept the issue alive in the public mind and increased sectional animosities South increasingly belligerent defense of slavery and a rising insistence on its expansion o As more territory became part of the states the question arose what would be the status of slavery in the territories? o Looking Westward By the end of 1850 America owned all the territory of the United States, except for Alaska and Hawaii Advocates of expansion justified their goals with a carefully articulated set of ideas an ideology known as Manifest Destiny Manifest Destiny Manifest Destiny rested on the idea that America was destined to expand its boundaries over a vast area, an area that included, but was not necessarily restricted to, the continent of North America Advocates insisted it was an altruistic attempt to extend American liberty to new realms Many Americans defended the idea of westward expansion by citing the superiority of the American race white people of northern European origins o The Indians, the Mexicans, and others in the western regions were racially unfit to be part of an American community Westward expansion was a movement to spread both a political system and a racially-defined society Some believed that the expansion should be limited, while others believed that they should take Canada, Mexico, the Caribbean, parts of the Pacific Ocean, and ultimately the whole world Some believed that it should be taken by force while others believed that it could be done peacefully Americans in Texas The Mexican government began to encourage American immigration in the 1820s o They saw Americans as a way to improve the economy, be a buffer between the expansion of America, and be cannon fodder for the local Indians They believed that the new Americans would soon become loyal to the Mexican government Thousands of Americans took advantage of Mexicos welcome o By 1830 there were about 7,000 Americans living in Texas Twice the number of Mexicans Stephen F. Austin established the first legal American settlement in Texas in 1822 In 1826 an American intermediaries led a revolt to establish Texas as an independent nation Mexicans put in a new law banning American immigration By 1835 there were over 30,000 Americans in Texas Mexican-American Tensions Friction between the settlers and the Mexican government continued to grow o Cultural and economic differences

Settlers wanted to legalize slavery, which the Mexican government had made illegal in Texas in 1830 Some wanted a peaceful settlement while others wanted to fight for their independence The instability in Mexico caused General Antonio Lopez de Santa Anna to seize power as a dictator Sporadic fighting between Americans and Mexicans in Texas began in 1835 and escalated as the Mexican government sent more troops into the territory In 1836 the American settlers defiantly proclaimed their independence from Mexico Santa Anna led a large army into Texas where Americans were so divided that they did not know who they were fighting under o The Mexicans slaughtered the Americans at the Alamo mission in San Antonio o Another garrison at Goliad suffered the same fate when the Mexicans executed most of the force after it had surrendered Americans began fleeing from Santa Annas army after these events General Sam Houston kept a small force together April 23, 1836, at the Battle of San Jacinto, he defeated the Mexican army and took Santa Anna prisoner Santa Anna signed a treaty giving Texas independence One of the first acts that Sam Houston did after the treaty was to send a delegation to Washington with an offer to join the Union There were those who supported the idea of the annexation of Texas because of manifest destiny There were those who did not see it as a good idea because it would upset the balance of slave and free states, and also because it would give the south a greater number of votes in the electoral college Jackson, Van Buren, Harrison, and Tyler all did not annex Texas The Texas question quickly became a central issue in the election of 1844

Oregon Control of what was known as Oregon country was another major political issue in the 1840s o Both Britain and the United States claimed sovereignty in the region They were not able to resolve their conflicting claims diplomatically o They agreed in an 1818 treaty to allow citizens of each country equal access to the territory American interest in Oregon grew substantially in the 1820s and 1830s Missionaries said that by repudiating Christianity, the Indians had abdicated their right to the land By the mid-1840s, American settlements had spread up and down the Pacific coast o The new settlers were urging the United States government to take possession of the disputed Oregon territory The Westward Migration People began to flock to these new regions The character of the migrations varied according to the destination of the migrants o Those heading for mining or lumbering were mostly me o Those heading for farming were mainly families Some hoped for quick riches from the California Gold Rush

Others hoped for farm land Others wants to establish themselves as merchants Some were on religious missions Some were attempting to escape the epidemic diseases that were plaguing many cities in the East The vast majority were looking for economic opportunities Life on the Trail The major route west was the Oregon Trail From that point they could go north to Oregon or South to California on the California Trail or they could go south into New Mexico along the Santa Fe Trail Death was great on these migrations Not many migrants had problems with Indians o Some Indians helped to serve as guides along the trails Expansion and War Advocates of manifest destiny kept on propagandizing on behalf of annexing Texas, Oregon, and other lands Others feared that annexation would cause sectional conflicts The Democrats and Expansion In the 1844 election Clay and Van Buren both stated that they favored the annexation of Texas, but only with the consent of Mexico Democrats nominated a stronger supporter of annexation, James K. Polk o The first dark horse to win the presidential nomination of his party Polk won the election because of his belief that the reoccupation of Oregon and the re-annexation of Texas at the earliest practicable period are great American measures Polk got Congress to approve an annexation treaty for Texas Polk got Britain to draw the American-Canadian border at the 49th parallel The Southwest and California As soon as the United States admitted Texas to statehood in 1845, the Mexican government broke diplomatic relations with Washington o A dispute developed over the boundary between Texas and Mexico Texans claimed the Rio Grande as both their western and southern border Mexicans said that the border was at the Nueces River o Polk recognized Texas claim and sent General Zachary Taylor to the Nueces River to guard against a possible Mexican attack Americans began to show increased interest in New Mexico territory Americans were also increasing their interest in an even more distant province of Mexico California o By 1845 there were 700 Americans in California Some of these new settlers began to dream of bringing California into the United States o Annexationists supported their demands for acquiring these western lands by citing the racial differences between white Americans and their Mexican rivals o They argued that Mexicans represented a different and inferior race

Polk committed himself to acquiring both New Mexico and California for the United States The Mexican War Polk sent off a minister to the Mexicans to try and buy off the land o John Slidell o The Mexicans refused the proposal January 13, 1846 Polk ordered Taylors army in Texas to move across the Nueces to the Rio Grande o On May 13, 1846 Congress declared war Polk ordered Taylor to capture Mexico City In the meantime, Polk ordered other offensives against New Mexico and California o Organizing the Americans in California was John C. Fremont Bear Flag Revolution By the autumn of 1846 the conquest of California was completed o The united states now owned the two territories that it had fought for After several battles against General Winfield Scott in Tampico and Vera Cruz to Mexico City, a new Mexican government took power sand announced its willingness to negotiate a peace treaty Polk was eager to end the war quickly o He sent a delegate Nicholas Trist to negotiate a settlement 1848 Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo Mexico agreed to cede California and New Mexico to the United States and acknowledge the Rio Grande as the boundary of Texas o The United States paid the Mexican government $15 million Many northerners saw the idea of annexing all of Mexico as a way to spread slavery into new realms The Sectional Debate Slavery and the Territories In 1846 Polk asked Congress for $2 million to buy peace with Mexico o David Wilmot introduced an amendment to the appropriation bill that would have prohibited slavery in any territory acquired from Mexico Wilmot Proviso Southern militants claimed that since the territories belonged to the entire nation, all Americans had equal rights in them President Polk supported a proposal to extend the Missouri Compromise line through the new territories to the Pacific coast Others supported a plan known as popular sovereignty o Would allow the people of each territory to decide the status of slavery there In the next election Zachary Taylor of the Whig party won A Free-Soil Party arose o No slaves in the new territories, no blacks in the new territories The emergence of the Free-Soil Party as an important political force signaled the inability of the existing parties to contain the political passions slavery was creating The California Gold Rush In 1846 there was a gold rush in California o People began to flock there in droves

The gold rush attracted some of the first Chinese migrants to the western United States The gold rush created a serious labor shortage in California o This shortage created many positions for those who needed work The gold rush was of crucial importance to California o Conflicts over gold intersected with racial and ethnic tensions to make the territory an unusually turbulent place o Pressure grew to create a more stable and effective government The gold rush became another factor putting pressure on the United States to resolve the status of the territories and of slavery within them Rising Sectional Tensions There was a particular pressure to establish a new government in California Taylor believed that statehood could become the solution to the issue of slavery in the territories California adopted a constitution that prohibited slavery o Congress was weary on this idea because of several controversies The abolishment of slavery in D.C. Personal Liberty Laws Fugitive Slave Laws Border disputes between Texas and New Mexico The biggest reason that Congress did not vote right away was that the South was afraid that the two new free states would tip the balance of national politics further against them Southern leaders were beginning to talk about secession from the Union The Compromise of 1850 Henry Clay believed that no compromise could work unless it settled all the issues in dispute between the sections o A compromise was brought forth It said That California be admitted as a free state That in the rest of the lands acquired from Mexico, territorial government be formed without restrictions on slavery That Texas yield in its boundary dispute with New Mexico and that the federal government compensate it by taking over its public debt That the slave trade, but not slavery itself, be abolished in D.C. That a new and more effective fugitive slave law be passed o FAILED New leaders took over positions in Congress o They were able to produce a compromise in 1850 Zachary Taylor died on July 9, 1850 o Millard Fillmore takes his place as president Fillmore supported the compromise

Stephan Douglas broke up the bill into 5 bills so that they could be voted on separately o ALL PASSED The Crises of the 1850s The Uneasy Truce In the 1952 election the democrats chose Franklin Pierce, the Whigs chose General Winfield Scott Divisions among the Whigs helped produce a victory for the Democrats in 1852 Northern hostilities arose when Southerners started having trials in the North over the Fugitive Slave Law o Said that slaves accused of having escaped from slavery had no right to a trial by jury and could not testify on their own behalf o A federal judge or commissioner could turn alleged runaways over to slave owners simply on the basis of affidavits from slave owners Some Northern states passed liberty laws to use state authority to interfere wit the deportation of fugitive slaves Ableman v. Booth (1857) declared the Fugitive Slave Law void White southerners saw that one element of the Compromise of 1850 grew virtually meaningless because of mob action and unconstitutional legalisms in the North Young America The liberal and nationalist revolutions of 1848 in Europe stirred America to dream of a republican Europe with governments based on the model of the United States Pierce had been unsuccessfully attempting through diplomacy to buy Cuba from the Spanish Empire when he received a document from Ostend, Belgium, making the case for seizing Cuba by force o Ostend Manifesto o Enraged many antislavery northerners Charged the administration with conspiring to bring a new slave state into the Union Hawaii agreed to join the United States in 1854 o The treaty died because they prohibited slavery Slavery, Railroads, and the West Slavery in the territories fully revived the sectional crisis In the Old Northwest settlers urged the government to open the area to them o Provide territorial governments and dislodge the tribes so as to make room fro white settlers The interest in further settlement raised two issues o Railroads and slavery Broad support for building a transcontinental railroad began to emerge o The problem was where the eastern terminus would be located Jefferson David Pierces secretary of war tried for a southern route west o A railroad would have to pass through a region in question from Mexico 1853 Gadsden Purchase Gadsden persuaded the Mexican government to accept $10 million in exchange for a strip of land The Kansas-Nebraska Controversy Stephen Douglas wanted the transcontinental railroad to be in the north There was the problem of the Indians in the Northwest territory

Douglas attempted to improve his regions chances by removing the obstacle o 1854 he introduced a bill to organize a huge new territory west of Iowa and Missouri. Nebraska Douglas said that in Nebraska the position of slavery would be voted on by the territory through a territorial legislature o Popular sovereignty When southern democrats wanted more Douglas made two revisions to the bill o A clause specifically repealing the antislavery provision of the Missouri Compromise o The division of the area into two territories Nebraska and Kansas Because law in May 1854 Kansas-Nebraska Act o Destroyed the Whig Party o Divided northern Democrats o Spurred the creation of a new party Republican Bleeding Kansas After the passage of the Kansas-Nebraska Act white settlers began moving into the territory In 1855 after an election pro-slavery forces elected a majority to the legislature Outraged free-staters chose delegates to a constitutional convention at Topeka and adopted a constitution excluding slavery President Pierce denounced the free-staters as traitors and threw the full support of the federal government behind the pro-slavery territorial legislature John Brown o Pottawatomie Massacre John Brown and others massacred those in favor of slavery for retribution Left their bodies out to discourage others from being pro-slavery Bleeding Kansas became a powerful symbol of the sectional hostility Charles Sumner gave a speech about the inhumanity of the ideal of slavery was later attacked and became a martyr in the North a martyr to the barbarism of the South The Free-Soil Ideology Tensions were a reflection of the two sections differing economic and territorial interests A reflection of a hardening of ideas in both North and South o In the North, proper structure of society came to center on the belief in free soil and free labor o Northerners began to believe that the existence of slavery was dangerous not because of what it did to blacks, but because of what it threatened to do to whites o They believed in the right of all citizens to own property, to control their won labor, to have access to opportunities for advancement o The South, then, was the antithesis of democracy o The South was a backwards society

The South was engaged in a conspiracy to extend slavery throughout the nation and thus to destroy the openness of northern capitalism and replace it with the closed system of the South o The only solution was to fight the spread of slavery and work for the day when the nations democratic ideals extended to all sections of the country Freedom National o This ideology was largely Republican The Pro-Slavery Argument In the south a different ideology was emerging By the mid-1830s a militant defensiveness regarding the system was beginning to replace this ambivalence With the expansion of the cotton economy into the Deep South, slavery now became lucrative once again In response to abolitionist attacks a growing number of white southerners began to elaborate an intellectual defense of slavery o The Pro-Slavery Argument Professor Thomas R. Dew of the College of William and Mary outlined the case for slavery o Southerners should stop apologizing for slavery as a necessary evil and defend it as a good a positive good o Blacks needed the guidance of white masters o Slavery was good for southern society because it was the only way the two races could live together in peace Many of the southern Protestant clergy supported slavery o Because African Americas were inferior it was the responsibility of the white race to nurture them, to teach them morality and efficiency, and to protect them from the evils of the world Southerners believed that northerners were abandoning traditional American values and replacing them with a spirit of greed, debauchery, and destructiveness o The South, however, was a stable, orderly society, operating at a slow and human pace Southern representatives managed to impose a gag rule o All antislavery petitions would be tabled without being read Buchanan and Depression In the 1856 presidential election Democrats choose James Buchanan Republicans choose John C. Fremont (Bear Flag Revolution) Buchanan won the election When Buchanan took over a financial panic struck the country, followed by a depression The Dred Scott Decision Dred Scott v. Sandford Dred Scott had been a slave who traveled with this master into Illinois, where slavery was forbidden o In 1846, after his masters death Scott sued for his freedom on the grounds that his residence in free territory had made him a free man In 1850 Scott was declared free by a circuit court o The decision was the appealed and Scott was given to Sanfords brother Chief Justice Roger Taney declared that Scott was not a citizen of Missouri or of the United States and hence could not bring a suit in the federal courts

No person of African descent could be a citizen Slavers were property Therefore the Missouri Compromise had always been unconstitutional Frederick Douglass this very attempt to blot out forever the hopes of an enslaved people may be one necessary link in the chain of events preparatory to the complete overthrow of the whole slave system Deadlock over Kansas Buchanan wanted to admit Kansas to the Union as a slave state Buchanans proposal passed the Senate, but western Democrats helped block it in the House In 1858 Congress approved a compromise o The Lecompton constitution would be resubmitted to the voters of Kansas o If the document was approved Kansas would e admitted, if rejected, statehood would be postponed It was rejected In 1861 Kansas finally entered the Union as a free state The Emergence of Lincoln In the Congressional elections of 1858 Stephen A. Douglas was pitted against Abraham Lincoln Lincoln sought to increase his visibility by engaging Douglas in a series of debates o The Lincoln-Douglas debates By their end Lincoln became nationally prominent Douglas accused the Republicans of promoting a war of sections, of wishing to interfere with slavery in the South, and of advocating social equality of the race Lincoln accused the Democrats of conspiring to extend slavery into the territories and possibly into the free states as well o The nations future rested on the spread of free labor o The Republicans would challenge slavery in the new territories, but would leave it alone where it already existed o A house divided against itself cannot stand Douglas said that people of a territory could legally exclude slavery before forming a state constitution simply by refusing to pass laws recognizing the right of slave ownership The Freeport Doctrine John Browns Raid October 16, 1859 John Brown and some eastern abolitionists (the Secret Six) attacked and seized control of a United States arsenal in Harpers Ferry o After ten of his men were killed, Brown surrendered o He was tried in a Virginia court for treason against the state, sentenced to death December 2, 1859 John Brown was hung The raid convinced the Southerners that they could not live safely in the Union Brown became a martyr to the abolitionist cause The Election of Lincoln In the presidential election of 1860 battles between southerners and westerners had torn apart the Democratic Party The Democrats chose Stephan Douglas and John C. Breckinridge The Republicans chose Abraham Lincoln Lincoln won

o o o

The election of Lincoln became the final signal to many white southerners that their position in the Union was hopeless Two weeks after Lincolns election South Carolina seceded from the Union

Chapter 14
The Civil War o The Secession Crisis The Withdrawal of the South South Carolina seceded first o Voted unanimously on December 20, 1860 to withdraw the state from the Union Many others followed o Mississippi January 9, 1861 o Florida January 10, 1861 o Alabama January 11, 1861 o Georgia January 19, 1861 o Louisiana January 26, 1861 o Texas February 1, 1861 They formed themselves into the Confederate States of America President James Buchanan told Congress that no state had the right to secede from the Union, but that the federal government could not stop them if they did The South did not have enough military power to seize Fort Sumter in South Carolina or Fort Pickens in Florida The Failure of Compromise In Washington forces came together to form a compromise early on Compromise forces gathered behind a proposal first submitted by Senator John J. Crittenden of Kentucky o Known as the Crittenden Compromise Called for constitutional amendments, which would guarantee the permanent existence of slavery in the slave states and would satisfy Southern demands on such issues as fugitive laves and slavery in D.C. A proposal to reestablish the Missouri Compromise line in all present and future territory of the United States This went against the Republican ideal slavery not expand Compromise efforts failed Fort Sumter Conditions at Fort Sumter were deteriorating o Lincoln believed that if he surrendered Sumter, his commitment to maintaining the Union would no longer be credible Lincoln sent supplies to the fort, telling South Carolina that no shots would be fired unless the supplies met resistance o The new Confederate government saw that permitting the expedition to land would seem to be a tame submission to federal authority South ordered General P. G. T. Beauregard to take the island by force if necessary When Major Robert Anderson, leader of a small force at Sumter, refused to surrender, the South bombed the fort for two days

April 12 13, 1861 On the 14th, Anderson surrendered The Civil War had begun Four more slave states seceded from the Union and joined the Confederacy o Virginia April 17, 1861 o Arkansas May 6, 1861 o Tennessee June 8, 1861 o North Carolina May 20, 1861 Maryland, Delaware, Kentucky, and Missouri all chose to go with the Union People in both the North and South believed that two distinct and incompatible civilizations had developed in the United States and that those civilizations were incapable of living together in peace The Opposing Sides At the wars beginning all the important material advantages lay with the North o Greater population in the North o An advanced industrial system By 1862, the North was able to manufacture almost all its own war materials o The North had a better transportation system than the South More and better railroads The South had the advantage of local support and familiarity with the territory of the fighting grounds The Mobilization of the North Economic Measures With the Republican Party taking over Congress the enacted an aggressively nationalist program to promote economic development o The Homestead Act of 1862 Permitted any citizen or prospective citizen to claim 160 acres of public land and to purchase it for a small fee after living on it for five years o The Morrill Land Grant of 1862 Transferred substantial public acreage to the state governments, which were to sell the land and use the proceeds to finance public education Congress instituted the Union Pacific Railroad Company and the Central Pacific to build the transcontinental railroad The National Bank Acts of 1863 1864 created a new national banking system o Existing or newly formed banks could join the system if they had enough capital and were willing to invest one-third of it in government securities In return, they could issue U. S. Treasury notes as currency New systems eliminated much chaos and uncertainty in the nations currency and created a uniform system of national bank notes The government tried to finance the war in three ways o Levying taxes o o

In 1861 the government levied an income tax for the first time o Issuing paper currency The new currency was not backed by gold and silver, but by good faith and credit of the government o Borrowing The Treasury persuaded ordinary citizens to buy over $400 million worth of bonds Raising the Union Armies March 1863, Congress was forced to pass a national draft law o Virtually all young adult males were eligible to be drafted o Could escape by hiring someone to go in his place or by paying $300 to the government People accustomed to a remote and inactive national government saw conscription as strange and ominous o Opposition to the law was widespread Riots erupted Wartime Politics The new president moved quickly to establish his own authority o He assembled a cabinet representing every faction of the Republican Party and every segment of Northern opinion o He issued troops without asking Congress Insisted on calling the conflict a domestic insurrection, which required no formal declaration of war; to ask for a declaration would constitute implicit recognition of the Confederacy as an independent nation Lincolns greatest political problem was the widespread popular opposition to the war, mobilized by factions in the Democratic Party o Lincoln ordered military arrests of civilian dissenters and suspended the right of habeas corpus the right of an arrested person to a speedy trial 1862 - Lincoln proclaimed that all persons who discoursed enlistments or engaged in disloyal practices were subject to martial law In the presidential election of 1864 the Republicans tried to create a broad coalition of all the groups that supported the war o The Union Party They chose Lincoln o The Democrats chose George B. McClellan Lincoln won The Politics of Emancipation In the beginning there were two points of views of slavery between the Republicans o Radicals wanted to use the war to abolish slavery immediately and completely o Conservatives wanted a slower, more gradual and less disruptive process for ending slavery In 1861, Congress passed the Confiscation Act, which declared that all slaves used for insurrectionary purposes (slaves in support of the Confederate military effort) would be considered free 1862 laws were passed to end slavery in D.C. July 1862, the Radicals pushed through Congress the second Confiscation Act, which declared free the slaves of persons aiding and supporting the insurrection and authorized the president to employ African Americans, including freed slaves, as soldiers

September 22, 1862, Union victory at the Battle of Antietam January 1, 1863 Lincoln signed the Emancipation Proclamation o Declared forever free slaves in all areas of the Confederacy except those already under Union Control Tennessee, western Virginia, and southern Louisiana o The document declared that the war was being fought not only to preserve the Union but also to eliminate slavery o Led directly to the freeing of thousands of slaves By the end of the war, slavery had been abolished in two Union slave states Maryland and Missouri And in three Confederate states Tennessee, Arkansas, and Louisiana 1865 Congress approved the 13th amendment, abolishing slavery as an institution in all parts of the United States African Americans and the Union Cause Once Lincoln ordered the Emancipation Proclamation, black enlistment increased rapidly o Some men were organized into fighting units Fifty-fourth Massachusetts infantry o Most blacks were assigned menial tasks behind the lines Digging trenches and transporting water African-American soldiers were paid a third less than were white soldiers In 1864, Confede4rate soldiers killed over 260 African Americans after capturing them in Tennessee The War and Economic Development The war sped the economic development of the North Coal production increased by nearly 20% during the war Railroad facilities improved Prices in the war went up more than 70% while wages rose only about 40% A substantial increase in union membership in many industries and the created of several national unions Women, Nursing, and the War Women took over positions as teachers, retail sales clerks, office workers, and mill and factory hands during the war Above all, women entered nursing The U.S. Sanitary commission mobilized large numbers of female nurses to serve in field hospitals Male doctors considered women too weak for medical work and found the sight of women taking care of strange men inappropriate Women as nurses were to play the same maternal, nurturing, instructive role they played as wives and mothers Some women who had been committed to feminist causes earlier, came to see the war as an opportunity to win support for their own goals The U.S. Sanitary Commission funneled medicine and supplies to badly overtaxed field hospitals The commission also helped spread ideas about the importance of sanitary conditions in hospitals and clinics The Mobilization of the South The Confederate Government The Confederate constitution was almost identical to the Constitution of the United States

Although, it explicitly acknowledged the sovereignty of the individual states and it specifically sanctioned slavery and made its abolition practically impossible The Confederate provisional president and vice president were Jefferson Davis and Alexander H. Stephens Money and Manpower Financing the Confederate war effort would take creating a national revenue system in a society unaccustomed to significant tax burdens o In 1863, the congress enacted an income tax o Borrowing money did not work also o The South started issuing paper currency in 18861 A disastrous inflation followed In 1862 the South enacted a Conscription Act o Repealed in 1863 Did not work at all States Rights Versus Centralization The greatest source of division in the South was the doctrine of states rights Stats rights enthusiasts obstructed the conduct of the war in many ways o Restricted Daviss ability to impose martial law and suspend habeas corpus The Southern government tried to centralize, but the states rights sentiment was a significant handicap Economic and Social Effects of the War During the war the Souths economy faced a sharp decline o Because most of the fighting was done in the South, the Souths railroad system was nearly destroyed, much of its most valuable farmland was ruined by Union troops The South did not grow enough food to meet its needs The war changed womens roles o Many took over the farm work, plowing and harvesting, watching the slaves o Some became schoolteachers or nurses o Some worked in government agencies o Led women to question the prevailing Southern assumption that females were unsuited for certain activities, that they were not fit to participate actively in the public sphere The slaves were particularly resistant to authority during the war o They found it easier to resist the authority of the women and boys left behind to manage the farms Strategy and Diplomacy The Commanders The most important Union military commander was Abraham Lincoln o He had a good grasp on strategy From 1861 1864 Lincoln searched for a chief of staff capable of orchestrating the Union war effort o General Winfield Scott Retired o George B. McClellan Returned to the field o General Henry W. Halleck Ineffective o Ulysses S. Grant Lincoln had found his chief of staff

December 1861 The Committee on the Conduct of War is established o Complained constantly of he insufficient ruthlessness of Northern generals Southern command arrangements centered on President Davis Davis appointed General Robert E. Lee to help strategize with o Lee left for the field 1864 Davis named General Braxton Bragg as a military advisor Many of the professional officers in the Civil War on both sides were graduates of the United States Military Academy at West Point and the United States Naval Academy at Annapolis The Role of Sea Power The Union gave its navy two important roles in the war o Enforcing a blockade of the Southern coast ordered on April 19, 1861 o Assisting the Union armies in field operations The blockade never really worked o They seized ports instead The Confederates made bold attempts to break the blockade with new weapons o The Merrimac March 8, 1862 Remained the Virginia, left to attack a blockading squadron of wooden ships The Unions iron frigate, the Monitor, met the Virginia The Monitor preserved the blockade The South never managed to overcome the Unions naval advantages With no significant navy of its own, the South could defend only with fixed land fortifications, which proceed no match for the mobile landand-water forces of the Union Europe and the Disunited States At the beginning of the war, England and France were most sympathetic to the Confederacy o Imported much Southern cotton for their textile industries o Were eager to weaken the United States, an increasingly powerful commercial rival o Some admired the supposedly aristocratic social order of the South France would not take a side until England did England was for the Northern cause o Southern leaders hoped to counter the strength of the British antislavery forces by arguing that access to Southern cotton was vital to the England and French textile industries English manufacturers could withstand a temporary loss of access to American cotton No European nation offered diplomatic recognition to the Confederacy or intervened in the war o All other countries called neutrality Trent Affair in 1861 o Two Confederate diplomats, James M Mason and John Slidell, had slipped through the Union blockade to Havana, Cuba o Boarded an English steamer, the Trent, for England o Charles Wilkes, commander of the Unions San Jacinto stopped the Trent and captured the two diplomats o The British demanded the release of the prisoners o Union released the prisoners The Confederacy bought six naval ships from England

The United States said that this sale of military equipment violated the laws of neutrality The American West and the War Except for Texas, all the western states and territories remained loyal to the Union o Southerners and Southern sympathizers were active throughout the West encouraging secession and attempting to enlist both white settlers and Indians to support the Confederacy There was vicious fighting in Kansas and Missouri, William C. Quantrill and a band of guerrilla fighters terrorized the areas around the Kansas-Missouri border Union sympathizers organized bands known as Jayhawkers Indian regiments fought for both the Union and the Confederacy during the war Campaigns and Battles The Opening Clashes Union forces General Irvin McDowell Confederate forces P.G. T. Beauregard July 21, 1861 the First Battle of Bull Run/First Battle of Manassas o The Confederates won o The battle was a severe blow to Union morale and to the presidents confident in his officers The war would not be a quick one August 10, 1861 Battle of Wilsons Creek o Rebel forces gathered behind Governor Claiborne Jackson who wanted to secede from the Union o Defeated and killed 1863 West Virginia was admitted into the Union The Western Theater 1862 o Union forces were trying to seize control of the Southern part of the Mississippi River o Would divide the Confederacy and give the North easy transportation into the heart of the South o A Union squadron of ironclads attacked New Orleans The city surrendered on April 25 The first major Union victory and an important turning point in the war 1862, Ulysses S. Grant attacked Fort Henry o Surrendered the fort on February 6th Fort Donelson o Attacked and surrendered on February 16th o Grant gained control of river communications and forced Confederate forces out of Kentucky and half of Tennessee April 6 7, The Battle of Shiloh o Grant v. Johnston and Beauregard Union victory The Battle of Murfreesboro December 31 January 2 o Union army sent to capture Chattanooga, Tennessee o Braxton Bragg fought Forced to withdraw to the south o Union victory The Virginia Front, 1862 Union operations were being directed in 1862 by George B. McClellan

Peninsular campaign McClellans campaign to capture Richmond by having the navy carry his troops down the Potomac to a peninsula east of Richmond and his army would approach the city from there Thomas J. Stonewall Jackson and an army came towards Washington while the troops were gone o Lincoln ordered that they attack Jackson first Valley campaign May 4 June 9, 1862, Jackson defeated two separate Union forces and slipped away before McDowell could catch him Battle of Fair Oaks/Seven Pines May 31 June 1 o Union forces were winning o Stonewall Jackson called in Battle of the Seven Days June 25 July 1 o Union won o The Army of the Potomac left the peninsula to join another army Second Battle of Bull Run/Second Battle of Manassas August 29 30 o Stonewall Jackson v. Pope and McClellan o Confederate victory Antietam Creek o September 17 o The bloodiest single-day engagement of the war o Union victory McClellan replaced by Ambrose E. Burnside o Later relieved of his position 1863: Year of Decision Battle of Chancellorsville May 1 5 o Stonewall Jackson v. Hooker o Jackson fatally wounded in battle Grant attacked Vicksburg, Mississippi o July 4, Vicksburg surrendered o One of the great turning points o Union now had control of the whole length of the Mississippi o The Confederacy was split in two Lee thought that a victory in the North by the Confederacy might make England and France come to the Confederacys aid o The Battle of Gettysburg July 1 3, 1863 o The most celebrated battle of the war o July 4, Lee withdrew from Gettysburg o Major turning point in the war The Battle of Chickamauga September 19 20 o Confederate win o Bragg cut off supplies to the Union forces Battle of Chattanooga November 23 25 o Union win o They had control of the Tennessee River The Last Stage, 1864 1865 The Battle of the Wilderness May 4 5 o Lee turned Grant back Battle of Spotsylvania Court House o Grant v. Lee again Cold Harbor June 1 3 o Richmond still had not fallen Kennesaw Mountain June 27

o o

o Confederate victory Battle of Nashville December 15 16, 1864 o Union win War is hell Sherman Lee arranged to meet Grant at a private home in the small town of Appomattox Courthouse, Virginia o April 9 There Lee surrendered what was left of his

forces

Chapter 15
Reconstruction and The New South o Era of Reconstruction o To many white Southerners it was vicious and destructive experience o Northern defenders argued that their policies were the only way to keep unrepentant Confederates from restoring Southern society as it had been before the war o To those of other races it was a small but important first step in the effort by former slaves to secure civil rights and economic power o The Problems of Peacemaking The Aftermath of War and Emancipation What happened to the South in the Civil War was a catastrophe with no parallel in Americas experience as a nation o Almost all surviving white Southerners had lost people close to them in the fighting White Southerners began to romanticize the Lost Cause and its leaders o Communities throughout the South built elaborate monuments to their war dead in town squares As soon as the war ended hundreds of thousands of slaves left their plantations o Most had nowhere to go In 1865 Southern society was in disarray Reconstruction became a struggle to define the meaning of freedom Competing Notions of Freedom For African Americans, freedom meant above all an end to slavery an to all the injustices and humiliations they associated with it o Also meant the acquisition of rights and protections that would allow them to live as free men and women in the same way that whites did o Some demanded a redistribution of economic resources o Others asked simply for legal equality For most white Southerners, freedom meant something very different o The ability to control their own destinies without interference from the North or the federal government o Many white planters wanted to continue slavery in a altered form by keeping black workers legally tied to the plantations March 1865, Congress established the Freemens Bureau, an agency of the army o Distributed food to millions of former slaves o Established schools o It had authority to operate for only one year Issues of Reconstruction Readmitting the South would reunite the Democrats and weaken the Republicans, many believed While the Republicans were in power they instituted a number of economic programs Should the Democratic Party regain power, those programs could be in danger Many northerners believed that the South should be punished in some way for the suffering and sacrifice its rebellion had caused Many Northerners believed, too, that the South should be transformed into the image of the North

Conservatives in Congress insisted that the South accept the abolition of slavery, but proposed few other conditions for the readmission of the seceded states Radicals in Congress urged that the civil and military leaders of the Confederacy be punished, that large numbers of Southern whites be disenfranchised, that the legal rights of blacks be protected, and that the property of wealthy white Southerners who had aide the Confederacy be confiscated and distributed among the freedmen Plans for Reconstruction President Lincolns sympathies lay with the Moderates and Conservatives of his party December 1863 Lincolns Reconstruction Plan o Offered a general amnesty to white southerners who would pledge loyalty to the government and accept the elimination of slavery Louisiana, Arkansas, and Tennessee reestablished loyal government under the Lincoln formula in 1864 Wade-Davis Bill July 1864 o Authorized the president to appoint a provisional government for each conquered state o When a majority of the white males of the state pledged the allegiance to the Union, the governor could summon a state constitutional convention o The new state constitutions had to abolish slavery, disfranchise Confederate civil and military leaders, and repudiate debts accumulated by the state governments during the war o Once this was done Congress would readmit them to the Union The Death of Lincoln April 14, 1865 Lincoln assassinated by John Wilkes Booth Lincolns death earned him immediate martyrdom April 26 Booth cornered and shot by Union forces Johnson and Restoration Andrew Johnson takes over after Lincolns death Johnson came up with his own plan for Restoration o He offered amnesty to those Southerners who would take an oath of allegiance o His plan resembled the Wade-Davis Bill By the end of 1865, all the seceded states had formed new governments and were prepared to rejoin the Union as soon as Congress recognized them Radical Reconstruction The Black Codes Events in the South were driving Northern opinion even more toward the Radicals o In 1865 and 1866 state legislatures were enacting sets of laws known as the Black Codes Were designed to reestablish planter control over black workers All the codes authorized local officials to apprehend unemployed blacks, fine them for vagrancy, and hire them out to private employers to satisfy the fine To most of the North, and to most African Americans, the codes represented a return to slavery in all but name

April 1866, Congress passed the First Civil Rights Act o Declared blacks to be citizens of the United States and empowered the federal government to intervene in state affairs when necessary to protect the rights of citizens The Fourteenth Amendment April 1866, Congress passed the fourteenth amendment o Offered the first constitutional definition of American citizenship o Everyone born in the United States and everyone naturalized, was automatically a citizen and entitled to equal protection of the laws by both state and national governments The Congressional Plan The Radicals passed three Reconstruction bills early in 1867 Under the congressional plan, Tennessee readmitted in 1866, which had ratified the 14th amendment was permitted to remain in the Union By 1868 seven more of the former Confederate states were readmitted to the Union Arkansas, North Carolina, South Carolina, Louisiana, Alabama, Georgia, Florida Virginia and Texas were readmitted in 1869 Mississippi in 1870 The Fifteenth Amendment The Fifteenth Amendment Forbade the states and the federal government to deny suffrage to any citizen on account of race, color or previous condition of servitude The amendment made no reference to women 1869, Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Susan B. Anthony opposed the 15 th Amendment because of its failure to include women in its provisions and because it elevated black men over white women Impeaching the President, Assaulting the Courts To stop the president from interfering with their designs, Radicals in Congress passed two laws in 1867 o The Tenure of Office Act Forbade the president to remove civil officials, including members of his cabinet, without the consent of the Senate o The Command of the Army Act Prohibited the president from issuing military orders except through the commanding general of the army The Radicals believed that Johnson was a serious impediment to their plans o 1867 they began looking for a way to remove him o Johnson deliberately violated the Tenure of Office Act The House of Representatives impeached the president o The impeachment effort failed 1866 Ex parte Milligan o Declared that military tribunals were unconstitutional in places where civil courts were functioning The South in Reconstruction The Reconstruction Governments Critics called Southern white Republicans scalawags Critics of Reconstruction called the white men from the North that served as Republican leaders in the South carpetbaggers The most numerous Republicans in the South were the black freedmen

Between 1869 and 1901, twenty blacks served in the U.S. House of Representatives, two in the Senate o Blacks never controlled any of the state legislatures The state expenditures represented an effort to provide the South with needed services o Public education, public works programs, poor relief, and other costly new commitments Education A dramatic improvement in southern education Many southern whites feared that education would give blacks false notions of equality In the 1870s reconstruction governments began to build a comprehensive public school system in the South Southern education was becoming divided into two separate systems o One black and one white Landownership and Tenancy By June 1865, the Freedmens Bureau had settled nearly 10,000 black families on their own land o The Bureau eventually returned most of the confiscated land Among whites, there was a striking decline in landownership Among blacks, landownership rose Many blacks worked as tenants on land Worked their own plots of land and paid their landlords either a fixed rent or a share of their crop Incomes and Credit The blacks share of profits was increasing o Did not pull many out of poverty though Farmers were dependent on small stores for credit for buying food Blacks who had acquired land during the Reconstruction period often lost it falling into debt Southern farmers became almost wholly dependent on cash crops to get out of debt

The African-American Family in Freedom Within the black family the definition of male and female roles quickly came to resemble that within white families Women had the domestic tasks Economic necessity required many black women to engage in incomeproducing activities, including activities that they and their husbands resisted because they reminded them of slavery The Grant Administration The Soldier President Presidential Election of 1868 o Republicans Ulysses S. Grant o Democrats Horatio Seymour The first election in which Northern capitalists united behind the Republicans o The Stalwarts establish themselves within the Republican Party and work within to shirt the partys concerns away from issues related to the South and the freedmen and toward industrialization Grant won the election Grant attracted the hostilities of many Republicans

The Liberal Republicans Liberal Republicans began to oppose what they called Grantism o Distaste for the way he used the patronage system to reward political cronies Grant agreed to establish a civil service commission in 1871 to devise a system of hiring based on merit Debate over civil service reform ensued o Some reformers said that only educated, middle-class people should be permitted access to government office o Civil service reform would help limit the power of democracy to debase public life In the presidential election of 1872 Liberal Republicans chose Horace Greenley o Grant won anyway The Grant Scandals In 1872 Grant had to deal with political scandal The Credit Mobilier o French and Railroad Whiskey Ring o Indian Ring o Bribes The Greenback Question Panic of 1873 o Panics before in 1819, 1837, 1857 o This was the worst one yet o Debtors pressured the government to inflate the currency They urged the government to redeem its war bonds with greenbacks Paper currency issued during the Civil War Grant would not do it Knox v. Lee 1873 o Supreme Court ruled that greenbacks were legal 1875 the Specie Resumption Act o Provided that after January 1, 1879, the greenback dollars would be redeemed by the government and replaced with new certificates 1875 the greenbackers formed their own party o The National Greenback Party Republican Diplomacy The Johnson and Grant administrations achieved their greatest successes in foreign affairs o William H. Seward o Hamilton Fish Seward agreed to a Russian offer to sell Alaska to the United States for $7.2 million dollars o Critics called the frozen wasteland Sewards Folly 1867, Seward engineered the American annexation of the Midway Islands Many Americans believed that the British government had violated the neutrality laws during the Civil War buy permitting English shipyards to build ships for the Confederacy o Alabama Claims 1871 the Treaty of Washington Fish provided for international arbitration of the claims and in which Britain expressed regret for the escape of the Alabama from England

The Abandonment of Reconstruction The Southern States Redeemed The KKK, the Knights of the White Camellia and others used terrorism to frighten or physically bar blacks from voting or otherwise exercising citizenship The Red Shirts and White Leagues armed themselves to police elections and worked to force all white males to join the Democratic Party and to exclude all black from meaningful political activity The KKK was the largest and most effective of these terror organizations Many white Southerners considered the Klan and the other secret societies and paramilitary groups proud, patriotic societies The Ku Klux Klan Acts In 1870 and 1871 Congress passed two Enforcement Acts o Also known as the Ku Klux Klan Acts o Prohibited the states from discriminating against voters on the basis of race and gave the federal government power to supersede the state courts and prosecute violations of the law o The new laws authorized the president to use the military to protect civil rights and to suspend the right of habeas corpus By 1872 Klan violence against blacks was in decline throughout the region Waning Northern Commitment After the adoption of the 15th amendment, some reformers convinced themselves that their long campaign on behalf of black people was no over o Blacks ought to be able to take care of themselves The Panic of 1873 o Northern industrialist and their allies sought to find an explanation for the poverty and instability around them Social Darwinism Individuals who failed did so because of their own weakness and unfitness o People came to see unemployed vagrants in the North and poor blacks in the South as irredeemable misfits In the congressional elections of 1874, the Democrats won control of the Houser of Representatives for the first time since 1861 The Compromise of 1877 Presidential Election of 1876 o Republicans choose Rutherford B. Hayes o Democrats choose Samuel J. Tilden o Mixed election results led to no clear winner January 1877 Congress tried to break the deadlock by creating a special electoral commission to judge the disputed votes Hayes won When a Democratic filibuster threatened to derail the commissions report Republicans met with Southern Democratic leaders o In return for a Republican pledge that Hayes would withdraw the last federal troops from the South the Southerners agreed to abandon the filibuster Democrat also enacted more pledges from the Republicans

The appointment of at least one Southerner o the Hayes cabinet, control of federal patronage in their areas, generous internal improvements, and federal aid for the Texas and Pacific Railroad The Legacy of Reconstruction In the reconstruction years the United States failed in its first serious effort to resolve its oldest and deepest social problem o The problem of race Reasons that it failed o The weaknesses and errors of the people who directed it o Attempts to produce solutions ran up against conservative obstacle so deeply embedded in the nations life that they could not be dislodged The New South The Redeemers By the end of 1877 in every southern state political power had been restored to white democrats In a few places, this post-Reconstruction ruling class was much the same as the ruling class of the antebellum period In most areas, these Redeemers constituted a genuinely new ruling class Virtually all the new Democratic regimes lowered taxes, reduced spending, and drastically diminished state services Industrialization and the New South New South enthusiasts did help southern industry expand dramatically Growth in textile manufacturing Textile factories appeared in the South itself The tobacco-processing industry established an important foothold in the region The iron and steel industry grew rapidly Railroad development increased A high percentage of factory workers were women Tenants and Sharecroppers The 1870s and 1880s saw an acceleration of the trends that had begun in the immediate postwar years o The imposition of systems of tenantry and debt peonage on much of the region, the reliance on a few cash crops rather than on a diversified agricultural system o Increasing absentee ownership of valuable farmlands Tenants on farms would either pay rent or share crops with landlords The backcountry began to change o Fence laws said that no free range animals were allowed African Americans and the New South Some blacks succeeded in elevating themselves into a distinct middle class o These were former slaves and their children who managed to acquire property, establish small businesses, or enter professions 1903 Maggie Lena a black woman who became the first female bank president in the United States when she founded the St. Luke Penny Savings Bank in Richmond Blacks believed that education was vital to the future of their race The chief spokesman for this commitment to education was Booker T. Washington

African Americans should attend school, learn skills, and establish a solid footing in agriculture and the trades o Industrial education should be their goal 1895 Atlanta Compromise Washington gave a speech that outlined a philosophy of race relations He helped awaken the interest of a new generation to the possibilities for self-advancement through self-improvement The Birth of Jim Crow In the civil rights cases of 1883, the Court ruled that the 14 th amendment prohibited state governments from discriminating against people because of race but did not restrict private organizations or individuals from doing so o Thus places could legally practice segregation Plessy v. Ferguson (1986) o A case involving a Louisiana law that required separate seating arrangements for the races on railroads o The Court said that the separate accommodations did not deprive blacks of equal rights if the accommodations were equal Cumming v. Country Board of Education (1899) o The Court ruled that laws establishing separate schools for whites were valid even if there were no schools for blacks comparable to the white schools from which they were excluded Southern states sought to find a way to block black male voting rights o Two things were needed to vote The poll tax or some form of property qualification A literacy or understanding test Williams v. Mississippi (1898) o The Court validated the literacy test Laws restricting the franchise and segregating schools were only part of a network of state statures know as the Jim Crow Laws o They served as a means for whites to retain control of social relations between the races in the newly growing cities and towns of the South o Served to inhibit black agitation for equal rights o Lynching A means by which whites controlled the black population through terror and intimidation

Chapter 16
The Conquest of the Far West o By the end of the Civil War, the West had already become legendary in the eastern states o The English-speaking migrants of the late nineteenth century did not find an empty, desolate land o They found Indians, Mexicans, French and British Canadians, Asians and others o English-speaking Americans transformed the West by connecting it with the growing capitalist economy of the East o The Societies of the War West The Western Tribes The largest and most important western population group before the great American migration was the Indian tribes Some Indians lived within the Hispanic society the Spanish and Mexican settlers had created, many still lived within their own tribal communities The Pueblos were Indians that had been there for a long time o Farmers Interaction between Spanish and Indians produced an elaborate caste system in the Southwest o At the top were the Spanish and Mexicans, then the Pueblos, and then the Indians without tribes/genizaros The most widespread Indian groups in the West were the Plains Indians o Some formed alliances, while others were in constant conflict o Some were farmers and some were hunters o Tribes were divided into bands that would govern themselves Women would do domestic and artistic tasks Men acted as hunters and traders and supervised the religious and military life Many Plains tribes subsisted largely through hunting buffalo o The buffalos flesh was their principal source of food o Its skin supplied materials for clothing, shoes, tepees, blankets, robes and utensils o Buffalo chips dried manure provided fuel o Bones became knives and arrow tips o Buffalo tendons formed the strings of bows The male members of each tribe were a warrior class o The Sioux became the most powerful tribe in the Missouri River valley The Plains Indians proved to be the most formidable foes white settlers encountered o However, they had weaknesses that proved they would never win The inability of the various tribes to unite against white aggression Some were able to unite though the Sioux, Arapaho, and Cheyenne forged a powerful alliance that dominated the northern Plains Ecological and economic weaknesses Indians were vulnerable to new diseases At a disadvantage in any long-term battle with an economically and industrially advanced people Outmanned and outgunned Hispanic New Mexico

The Spanish-speaking cultures of the Southwest were transformed in varying degrees by the arrival of Anglo-American migrants and by the expansion of the American capitalist economy into the region In New Mexico, the centers of Spanish-speaking society were the farming and trading communities There was a small aristocracy of great landowners When the United States acquired title to New Mexico in the aftermath of the Mexican War they tried to establish a territorial government that excluded the established Mexican ruling class o In 1847, Taos Indians rebelled o The Indians were subdued by the United States Army New Mexico remained under military rule for tree years, until the United States finally organized a territorial government there in 1850 By the 1870s, the government of New Mexico was dominated by one of the most notorious of the many territorial rings that sprang up in the West in the years before statehood o The old Hispanic elite in New Mexico had lost much of its political and economic authority Hispanic society in New Mexico survived and even grew in the face of the expansion of Anglo-American settlement in the Southwest The U.S. Army broke the power of the Navajo, Apache, and other tribes that had so often harassed the resident of New Mexico and prevented them from expanding their society and commerce Hispanic societies survived in the Southwest in part because they were so far from the centers of English-speaking society that AngloAmerican migrants were slow to get there The Anglo-American presence in the Southwest grew rapidly once the railroads established lines into the region in the 1880s and 1890s With the railroads came new ranching, farming and mining Hispanic California and Texas Spanish settlement began through a string of missions The Spanish forced many Indians into a state of servitude little different from slavery In the 1830s the new Mexican government began reducing the power of the church o A secular Mexican aristocracy emerged So vast were the numbers of English-speaking immigrants that the californios had little power to resist the onslaught With the new migrants, the Hispanic aristocracy in California had largely ceased to exist In Texas and California a pattern of dispossession and exploitation occurred where many Mexican landowners lost their land after the territory joined the United States The Chinese Migration Many Chinese came to the Western world in search of a better life o After 1848 the flow of Chinese into California was immense By 1880, more than 200,000 Chinese had settled in the United States Americans first welcomed the Chinese with open arms, then turned hostile o This was because the Chinese were so industrious and successful that some white Americans began considering them rivals, even threats 1852 the California legislature began trying to exclude the Chinese from gold mining by enacting a foreign miners tax which also helped exclude Mexicans

As mining declined as a source of wealth and jobs for the Chinese, railroad employment grew o Chinese workers formed 90 percent of the labor force of the Central Pacific o They worked hard, made few demands, accepted relatively low wages o Chinese workers sometimes would go on strike These strikes usually failed 1869 transcontinental railroad completed Chinese migrants began to flock to the cities o The largest singe Chinese community was in San Francisco Chinatowns Organizations known as the Six Companies often worked together to advance their interests in the larger community of the city and state Other Chinese organizations were secret societies know as tongs gangs Some Chinese established businesses of laundry o Not because of experience, but because they were excluded from so many other areas of employment Nearly half the Chinese women in California were prostitutes

Anti-Chinese Sentiments Anti-Chinese sentiment among white residents became increasingly virulent Anti-collie clubs emerged in the 1860s and 1870s seeking a ban on employing Chinese and organizing boycotts of products made with Chinese labor The denunciations of the Chinese did not rest o economic grounds alone They rested on cultural and racial arguments as well 1882 Congress passed the Chinese Exclusion Act o Banned Chinese immigration into the United States for ten years and barred Chinese already in the country from becoming naturalized citizens o Reflected the growing fear of unemployment and labor unrest throughout the nation Congress renewed the act for another ten years in 1892 and made it permanent in 1902 Migration from the East New settlers from the eastern United States came in millions Settlers were attracted by gold and silver deposits, by the shortgrass pastures for cattle and sheep, and ultimately by the sod of the plains and the meadowlands of the mountains The Homestead of Act 1862 o Permitted settlers to buy plots of 160 acres for a small fee if they occupied the land they purchased for five years and improved it In response to the demands of the beleaguered westerners, Congress increased the homestead allotments The Timber Culture Act of 1873 o Permitted homesteaders to received grants of 160 additional acres if they planted 40 acres of trees on them The Desert Land Act of 1877

Provided that claimants could buy 640 acres at $1.25 an acre provided they irrigated part of their holdings within three years The Timber and Stone Act of 1878 o Authorized sales at $2.50 an acre By the close of the 1860s, territorial governments were in operation in the new provinces of Nevada, Colorado, Dakota, Arizona, Idaho, Montana, and Wyoming o Statehood rapidly followed The Changing Western Economy Labor in the West There was a labor shortage in the West While geographical mobility was enormous in western society, actually social mobility was limited The working class in the West was highly multiracial o Whites had the upper tiers of employment o The lower tiers consisted overwhelmingly of nonwhites Employers said that they were genetically or culturally suited to manual labor Because they were small they could work better in deep mines Because they were accustomed to heat they could work better in the fields Because they were unambitious and unconcerned about material comfort they would accept low wages The West produced three major industries o Mining, ranching, commercial farming The Arrival of the Miners The first economic boom of the West came in mining o Booms would occur for a time, until surface resources faded and corporations took over form the miners The first great mineral strikes occurred just before the Civil War o 1858 Gold was discovered in the Pikes Peak district of Colorado 1859 Colorado rush Gold, ore, and silver were found in Nevada The next important mineral discoveries came in 1874 o Gold was found in the Black Hills of southwestern Dakota Territory The great Anaconda copper mine marked the beginning of an industry that would remain important to Montana for many decades Other areas had significant success with lead, tin, quartz, and zinc The rushes attracted bad men and criminals Those in order began enforcing their own laws through vigilante committees made up of these men The thousands of people who flocked to the mining towns in search of quick wealth and who failed to find it often remained as wage laborers in corporate mines after the boom period o Many workers became disabled or was killed working in the mines The Cattle Kingdom The vast grasslands of the public domain provided a huge area on the Great Plains where cattle raisers could graze their herds free of charge and unrestricted by the boundaries of private farms

Mexican ranchers had developed the techniques and equipment that the cattlemen and cowboys of the Great Plains later used At the end of the Civil War, it was estimated that 5 million cattle roamed the Texas ranges Early in 1866, some Texas cattle ranchers began driving their combined herds Every cattleman had to have a permanent base from which to operate, and so the ranch emerged o Consisted of the employers dwelling, quarters for employees, and a tract of grazing land Sheep ranching competed with cattle ranching o A series of range wars between sheep men and cattle men, between ranchers and farmers erupted out of the tensions between these competing groups By 1890 more than 250,000 women owned ranches or farms in the western states Wyoming was the first state in the Union to guarantee woman suffrage The Romance of the West The Western Landscape Rocky Mountain School of Painting o Albert Bierstadt o Thomas Moran Celebrated the new West in grandiose canvases o Such paintings emphasized the ruggedness and dramatic variety of the region The interest in paintings of the West inspired a growing wave of tourism among people eager actually to see the natural wonders of the region The Cowboy Culture The cowboy was transformed quickly from the low-paid worker he actually was into a powerful and enduring figure of myth The aspects of a real cowboys life were the tedium, the loneliness, the physical discomforts, the relatively few opportunities for advancement Society romanticized his freedom from traditional social constraints, his affinity with nature, even his supposed propensity for violence The cowboy had become perhaps the most widely admired popular hero in America A powerful and enduring symbol of what had long been an important ideal in the American mind o The ideal of the natural man The Idea of The Frontier Many Americans considered the West the last frontier o The image of uncharted territory to the west had always comforted and inspired those who dreamed of starting life anew Mark Twain used his literature to give voice to the romantic vision of the frontiers o The yearning for freedom reflected a larger vision of the West as the last refuge from the constraints of civilization Painter Frederic Remington o Captured the romance of the West and its image as an alternative to the settled civilization of the East Theodore Roosevelt published a four volume history about the west All these works contributed to the publics fascination with the frontier

Frederick Jackson Turner Historian He said o That the unsettled area of the West had been so broken into by isolated bodies of settlement that continuous frontier line could no longer be drawn o The passing that line ended an era in the nations history o This experience of expansion into the frontier had stimulated individualism, nationalism, and democracy o It had kept opportunities for advancement alive The Loss of Utopia In accepting the idea of the passing of the frontier many Americans were acknowledging the end of one of their most cherished myths As long as it had been possible for them to consider the West an empty, open land, it was possible to believe that there were constantly revitalizing opportunities in American life o That belief was gone now The West seemed to be vanishing The Dispersal of the Tribes White Tribal Policies The traditional policy of the federal government was to regard the tribes simultaneously as independent nations and as wards of the president, and to negotiate treaties with them that were solemnly ratified by the Senate In 1851, each tribe was assigned its own defined reservation, confirmed by separate treaties Divided the tribes from one another and made them easier to control In 1867, Congress established an Indian Peace Commission to recommend a new and presumably permanent Indian policy o They recommended that the government would move all the Plains Indians into two large reservations The government finally had the tribes agree to this settlement This solution worked littler Part of the problem was the way in which the government administered the reservations it had established White management of Indian matters was entrusted to the Bureau of Indian Affairs, a branch of the Department of the Interior o Responsible for distributing land, making payments, and supervising the shipment of supplies Another problem was the relentless slaughtering of the buffalo herds that supported the tribes way of life, by the whites o The reduction of the open plains helped to decimate the buffalo population o By destroying the buffalo herds, whites were destroying the Indians source of food and supplies and their ability to resist the white advance

They were also contributing to a climate in which Indian warriors felt the need to fight to preserve their way of life The Indian Wars Indian warriors attacked wagon trains, stagecoaches, and isolated ranches in retaliations for earlier attacks on them by whites At times small-scale fighting escalated into something close to a war Fighting flared in Minnesota with the Sioux, in Colorado with the Arapaho and Cheyenne In response to these attacks, whites called up a large territorial militia the most serious conflict of the Indians wars was in Montana o Red Cloud a Sioux burned forts It was not just the U.S. military that threatened the tribes Unofficial violence Indian hunting Many whites were committed to the goal of literal elimination of the tribes In the early 1870s settlers began living on land designated for the tribes At the same time the federal government decided that it would no longer recognize the tribes as independent entities and would no longer negotiate with tribal chiefs A reservation of Sioux Indians abandoned their reservation o Sioux Indians united under two great leaders Sitting Bull and Crazy Horse Military officials set out to round up the Indians o Colonel George A. Custer The Battle of Little Bighorn 1876 most famous of all conflict between whites and Indians o Tribal warriors surprised Custer and 264 members of this regiment, surrounded them, and killed every man The Indians broke into bands to find food o The power of the Sioux soon broke One of the most dramatic episodes in Indian history occurred in Idaho in 1877 o Nez Perce Indians o Signed a treaty and forced to move to a reservation o On the trip there four young Indians killed white settlers o The leader Chief Joseph persuaded his follower to flee o The Nez Perce scattered in several directions and became part of a remarkable chase Finally caught just short of the Canadian border o The Nez Perce were shipped from one place to another for several years The last Indians to maintain organized resistance against the whites were the Chiricahua Apaches o Chiefs Manga Colorados and Cochise o Cochise agreed to a treaty in 1872 to move to a reservation He died in 1874 Geronimo his successor was unwilling to bow to white pressures to assimilate The Apache wars were the most violent of all the Indian conflicts 1890 The Sioux not were aware that their culture and their glories were irrevocably fading, many of these Indians turned to a prophet who led them into a religious revival o Wovoka

December 29, 1890 the Seventh Cavalry tried to round up a group of about 350 Sioux at Wounded Knee o Fighting broke out The soldiers turned their machine guns on the Indians and mowed them down in the snow The Dawes Act The federal government had moved to destroy forever the tribal structure that had always been the cornerstone of Indian culture The Dawes Severalty Act of 1887 o Provided for the gradual elimination of tribal ownership of land and the allotment of tracts to individual owners In applying the Dawes Act, the Bureau of Indian Affairs relentlessly promoted the idea of assimilation that lay behind it Congress attempted to speed the transition with the Burke Act of 1906 Indians continued to resist forced assimilation Neither then nor later could legislation provide a satisfactory solution to the problem of the Indians The Rise and Decline of the Western Farmer Farming on the Plains New railroads made huge new areas of settlement accessible State governments encouraged railroad development by offering direct financial aid, favorable loans, and more than 50 million acres of land Railroads helped spur agricultural settlement there Farming on the plains presented special problems o Fencing Wood and stone was too expensive 1873, Joseph H. Glidden and I. L. Ellwood developed barbed wire o Water The growth of the West depended heavily on irrigation The 1880s brought about a drought o Crop prices fell o Many farmers went into debt and had to abandon their farms Commercial Agriculture Independent farmers began being replaced by commercial farmers o They specialized in cash crops o Made them dependent on bankers and interest rates, railroads and freight rates, national and European markets, world supply and demand Between 1865 farm output increased dramatically Commercial farming made some people fabulously wealthy The Farmers Grievances The farmers first and most burning grievance was against the railroads o The railroads charged higher freight rates for farm goods than for other goods Farmers also resented the institutions controlling credit o Banks, loan companies, insurance corporations o Interest rates were from 10 to 25 percent and they often had to pay back loans in bad years Both the prices farmers received for their products and the prices they paid for goods o Farmers fortunes rose and fell in response to unpredictable forces The Agrarian Malaise

Farm families in some parts of the country were virtually cut off from the outside world and human companionship o They felt the humiliation of begin ridiculed as hayseeds by the new urban culture that was coming to dominate American life The result of this sense of isolation and obsolescence was a growing malaise among many farmers o A discontent that would help create a great national political movement in the 1890s Once sturdy yeoman farmers had view themselves as the backbone of American life o Now they were becoming painfully aware that their position was declining relation to the rising urban industrial society to the east

Chapter 17

Industrial Supremacy o Sources of Industrial Growth Many factors contributed to the growth of American industry Abundant raw materials, a large and growing labor supply, a surge in technological innovation, the emergence of a talented, ambitious, and often ruthless group of entrepreneurs, a federal government eager to assist the growth of business, a great and expanding domestic market for the products of manufacturing New Technologies Some of the most important innovations came in communications o Cyrus W. Field transatlantic telegraph cable to Europe o Alexander Graham Bell telephone 1868 Christopher Sholes typewriter 1879 James Ritty cash register 1891 William Burroughs Calculating or adding machine One of the most revolutionary innovations o Electricity as a source of light and power Charles Brush, arc lamp for street illumination Thomas Edison Light bulb o A process by which iron could be transformed into steel Henry Bessemer and William Kelly 1850s New Industries Steel industry o Pennsylvania and Ohio o Pittsburgh became the center of the steel world Oil industry o Need for lubrication for its machines o Pennsylvania o By the 1870s oil had advanced to fourth place among the nations exports Wildcatters those in search of oil wells New oil companies in Texas, Oklahoma, and California 1890s Guglielmo Marconi was taking the first steps toward the development of radio 1903 Wright Brothers launched the first airplane flight at Kitty Hawk, NC 1870s internal combustion engine first automobiles 1903 Charles and Frank Duryea built the first gasoline-driven motor vehicle in America The Science of Production Scientific management o Taylorism o Scientific management was a way to mage human labor to make it compatible with the demands of the machine age o A way to increase the employers control of the workplace, to make working people less independent Manufacturers began placing greater emphasis on industrial research The most important change in production technology o Emergence of mass production o The moving assembly line Railroad Expansion

The principal agent of industrial development was the expansion of the railroads o Promoted economic growth o Nations main method of transportation o Gave industrialists access to distant markets and distant sources of raw materials o Americas biggest investors Equally important was the emergence of great railroad combinations that brought most of the nations rails under the control of a very few men o Cornelius Vanderbilt, James J. Hill, Collis P. Huntington The Corporation Under the laws of incorporation passed in many states in the 1830s and 1840s, business organizations could raise money by selling stock to members of the public The ability to sell stock to a broad public made it possible for entrepreneurs to gather vast sums of capital and undertake great projects Andrew Carnegie o Dominated the steel business o 1901 sold out to J. P. Morgan Gustavus Swift developed a relatively small meatpacking company into a great national corporation Isaac Singer patented a sewing machine in 1851 and created I. M. Singer and Company A new breed of business executive was born o The middle manager Consolidating Corporate America Businessmen created large, consolidated organizations primarily through two methods o Horizontal integration the combing of a number of firms engaged in the same enterprise into a single corporation o Vertical integration the taking over of all the different businesses on which a company relied for its primary function John D. Rockefeller o Controlled access to 90% of the refined oil in the United States Consolidation was a way to cope with what they believed was the greatest curse of the modern economy o Cutthroat competition Pool arrangements o Informal agreements among various companies to stabilize rates and divide markets The Trust and the Holding Company The failure of the pools led to new techniques of consolidation The creation of the trust o A term for any great economic combination o Under a trust agreement, stockholders in individual corporations transferred their stocks to a small group of trustees in exchange for shares in the trust itself Laws changed in 1889 to permit companies to actually buy up other companies A system of economic organization was emerging that lodged enormous power in the hands of a very few men Capitalism and Its Critics

The Self-Made Man Defenders of the new industrial economy said that it was providing every individual with a chance to succeed and attain great wealth Most of the new business tycoons had begun their careers from positions of wealth and privilege Industrialists gave large financial contributions to politicians, political parties, and government officials Erie War of 1868 Jay Gould and Jim Fisk battled for control of the Erie Railroad The average industrialist of the late nineteenth century was a more modest entrepreneur engaged in highly risky ventures in an unstable economy Survival of the Fittest Social Darwinism o Those who succeeded deserved their success riches were a reward for worthiness o Those who failed had earned their failure through their own laziness, stupidity, or carelessness o Just as only the fittest survived in the process of evolution, so in human society only the fittest individuals survived and flourished in the marketplace Herbert Spencer o Society benefited from the elimination of the unfit and the survival of the strong and talented William Graham Sumner Folkways Social Darwinism appealed to businessmen because it seemed to legitimize their success and confirm their virtues Social Darwinists insisted that all attempts by labor to raise wages by forming unions and all endeavors by government to regulate economic activities would fail, because economic life was controlled by a natural law, the law of competition Social Darwinism coincided with another law o The law of supply and demand Supply and demand worked because human beings were essentially economic creatures who understood and pursued their own interests, and because they operated in a great market regulated only by competition The Gospel of Wealth Some businessmen attempted to temper the harsh philosophy of Social Darwinism with a more gentle self-serving idea o The gospel of wealth People of great wealth had not only great power but great responsibilities The notion of private wealth as a public blessing existed alongside another popular concept o The notion of great wealth as something available to all Russell Conwell Acres of Diamonds Horatio Agler o Ragged Dick o Rags to riches stories Alternative Visions Lester Frank Ward o Dynamic Sociology

Civilization was not governed by natural selection but by human intelligence, which was capable of shaping society as it wished o The people, through their government, could intervene in the economy and adjust it to serve their needs Henry George o Progress and Poverty o Tried to explain why poverty existed amidst the wealth created by modern industry o A single tax to replace all other taxes Edward Bellamy o Looking Backward The Problems of Monopoly A growing number of people were becoming concerned with monopolies They blamed monopolies for creating artificially high prices and for producing a highly unstable economy The standard of living was increasing The gap between rich and poor was increasing Industrial Workers in the New Economy The Immigrant Work Force Immigration into cities came in two forms o The continuing flow of rural Americans into factory towns and cities o The great wave of immigration from Mexico, Asia, and Canada, and above all Europe The new immigrants were coming to America in art to escape poverty and oppression in their homelands Lured to the United States by the expectation of new opportunities Labor Contract Law 1885 permitted employers to pay for the passage of workers in advance and deduct the amount later from their wages Wages and Working Conditions All workers were vulnerable tot eh boom-and-bust cycle of the industrial economy Few workers were ever very far from poverty To skilled artisans whose once valued takes were now performed by machines, the new system was impersonal and demeaning Ten hour days, six days a week Unsafe and unhealthy factories As the corporate form of organization spread, employers set out to make the factory more efficient Women and Children at Work Children and women were paid less then men Women industrial workers were overwhelmingly white and mostly young o The vast majority were immigrants or daughters of immigrants Thirty-eight states passed child labor laws in the late nineteenth century o Minimum age of twelve o Ten hour working day The Struggle to Unionize Labor attempted to fight against the bad conditions Creating large combinations, or unions 1866 William Sylvis National Labor Union

Excluded women During the recession years unions faced special difficulties Widespread unemployment Widespread middleclass hostility toward the unions The Great Railroad Strike Railroad strike of 1877 o Railroads announced a 10% wage cut o Strikers disrupted rail service, destroyed equipment, rioted in the streets o State militias were called out o Strike finally collapsed The great railroad strike was Americas first major, national labor conflict Illustrated how disputes between workers and employers could no longer be localized in the increasingly national economy The failure of strike greatly damaged the railroad unions The Knights of Labor 1869 the Noble Order of the Knights of Labor o Uriah S. Stephens All were welcome o Except lawyers, bankers, professional gamblers, liquor dealers They hoped to replace the wage system with a new cooperative system The AFL The American Federation of Labor o Became the most important and enduring labor group in the country o Hostile ideas about unskilled workers and women workers o Supported the immediate objectives of most workers Better wages, ours, and working conditions o Demanded a national eight-hour work day and called for a general strike if workers did not achieve the goal by May 1, 1886 Many strikes took place McCormick Harvester Company o Strike o Police called in o Someone threw a bomb that killed seven officers and injury sixty-seven strikers The Haymarket bombing was an alarming symbol of social chaos and radicalism The Homestead Strike The Amalgamated Association of Iron and Steel Workers o Most powerful trade union in the country Companies began reducing dependence on skilled labor o Called for a strike because of cut wages Owner, Frick, shut down the plant and called in guards to enable the company to hire nonunion workers Heated battle between guards and strikers Strikers win Army called in Strike over The AFL unions were often powerless in the face of these changes The Pullman Strike

1894 Cut wages led to a strike Eugene V. Debs Leaders opposing the strikers called in the federal army on the pretext that the strike was preventing the movement of mail on the trains Army troops sent in A federal court issued an injunction forbidding the union to continue the strike Strikers defied it Debs put in jail The strike quickly ended Sources of Labor Weakness Labor made few real gains and suffered many important losses Won a few legislative victories o Abolition by Congress in 1885 of the Contract Labor Law o The establishment by Congress in 1868 of an eight-hour work day on public works and projects o And in 1892 of an eight-hour day for government employees Workers failed to make gains for many reasons o The principal labor organizations represented only a small percentage of the industrial work force 1903 Womens Trade Union League o Tensions between different ethnic and racial groups kept laborers divided o The shifting nature of the work force o Other workers were in constant motion o Workers who stayed put often did not remain in the same job for long o Strength of the forces against them In the battle for power within the emerging industrial economy, almost all the advantages seemed to be with capital

Chapter 18
The Age of the City The Urbanization of America o The Lure of the City Cities began to grow seven-fold after the years following the Civil War Urban families experienced a high rate of infant mortality, a declining, fertility rate, and a high death rate from disease It attracted people from the countryside because it offered more and betterpaying jobs than were available in rural America or in the foreign economies many immigrants were fleeing New forms of transportation made it easier to get there Railroads Steam-powered ocean liners o Migrations Young rural women left for the big cities Southern blacks began to move too Their withdrawal was a testament to the poverty, debt, violence, and oppression African Americans encountered in the late nineteenthcentury rural South, because the opportunities they found in cities were limited The most important source of urban population was from immigrants Most of the new immigrants lacked the capital to buy farmland and lacked the education to establish themselves in professions o The Ethnic City By 1890, most of the population of some major urban areas consisted of foreignborn immigrants and their children In the United States, no single national group dominated the immigration influx Most of the new immigrants were rural people To help ease the transition many national groups formed close-knit ethnic communities within the cities Some ethnic groups advanced economically more rapidly than others By huddling together in ethnic neighborhoods, immigrant groups tended to reinforce the cultural values of their previous societies Ethnic identification may have helped members of a group to improve their lots Immigrants who aroused strong racial prejudice among native-born whites found it very difficult to advance whatever their talents o Assimilation In virtually all communities of foreign-born immigrants, the strength of ethnic ties had to compete against another powerful force The desire for assimilation The urge to assimilate put a particular strain on relations between men and women in immigrant communities There were important adjustments to the new and more fluid life of the American city, and often considerable tension in the process Native-born Americans encourages assimilation Public schools taught children in English Employers often insisted that workers speak English on the job o Exclusion Some people reacted against the immigrants out of generalized fears and prejudices Native laborers were often incensed by the willingness of the immigrants to accept lower wages and to take over the jobs of strikers

1887 Henry Bowers founded the American Protective Association a group committed to stopping the immigrant tide Immigration Restriction League, founded in Boston Dedicated to the belief that immigrants should be screened, through literacy tests and other standards designed to separate the desirable from the undesirable 1882 Congress denied entry to undesirables convicts, paupers, the mentally incompetent and placed a tax of 50 cents on each person admitted Congress passed a literacy requirement for immigrants in 1897 Grover Cleveland vetoed it The Urban Landscape o The Creation of Public Space Public authorities basically responded to private decisions and did little to affect the shape of municipalities Reformers, planners, architects, and others began to call for a more ordered vision of the city Great urban parks o Reflected the desire of a growing number of urban leaders to provide an antidote to the congestion of the city landscape o Parks would allow city residents a healthy, restorative escape from the strains of urban life by reacquainting them with the natural world Frederick Law Olmsted Calvert Vaux Designed Central Park Cities began creating large public buildings Libraries, art galleries, art museums, concert halls 1893 Columbian Exposition A worlds fair constructed to honor the 400th anniversary of Columbuss first voyage to America City Beautiful movement Daniel Burnham Aimed to impose a similar order and symmetry on the disordered life of cities around the country o Housing the Well-to-Do One of the greatest problems of this precipitous growth was finding housing for the thousands of new residents who were pouring into the cities every day Many of the richest urban residents lived in palatial mansions in the heart of the city and created lavish fashionable districts Also took advantage of the less expensive land on the edges of the city and settle din new suburbs Real estate developers worked to create and promote suburban communities that would appeal to the nostalgia for the countryside that many city dwellers felt Even more modest communities strove to emphasized the opportunities suburbs provided for owning land o Housing Workers and the Poor Most urban residents could not afford either to own a house in the city or to move to the suburbs Landlords were reluctant to invest much in immigrant housing Tenement Referred simply to a multiple-family rental building o New York state law of 1870 required a window in every bedroom of tenements built after that date Jacob Riis How the Other Half Lives

Slum dwellings were almost universally sunless, practically airless, and poisoned by summer stenches Perhaps half the population of the city lived in homes with boarders in the late nineteenth century o Urban Transportation In the last decades of the century, more and more streets were paved Streetcars drawn on tracks by horses had been introduced into some cities even before the Civil War 1870, New York opened its first elevated railway Cable cars Electric trolley lines Subways New techniques of road and bridge building techniques Brooklyn Bridge o John A. Roebling o The Skyscraper 1850s successful experiments with machine-powered passenger elevators 1870s new methods of construction using cast iron and steel beams made it easier to build tall buildings Equitable Building in New York The modern skyscraper was made possible above all by steel girder construction Expansion outward was difficult Instead, the city expanded upward Louis Sullivan Introduced large windows, sheer lines, limited ornamentation Strains of Urban Life o Fire and Disease Fires destroyed large downtown areas Chicago and Boston suffered great fires in 1871 Important events in the development of the cities involved Encouraged the construction of fireproof buildings and the development of professional fire departments Forced cities to rebuild at a time when new technological and architectural innovations were available Few municipal officials recognized the relationship of improper sewage disposal and water contamination to such epidemic diseases as typhoid fever and cholera Many cities lacked adequate systems for disposing of human waste o Urban Poverty The expansion of the cities spawned widespread and often desperate poverty Public agencies and private philanthropic organizations offered very limited relief Other charitable societies concentrated more on religious revivalism than on the relief of the homeless and hungry o Crime and Violence Poverty and crowding naturally bred crime and violence That reflected in part a very high level of violence in some nonurban areas o South and West Native-born Americans liked to believe that crime was a result of the violent proclivities of immigrant groups The rising crime rates encouraged many cities to develop larger and more professional police forces o Fear of the City The city was a place of strong allure and great excitement

Yet it was also a place of alienating impersonality, of a new feeling of anonymity, of a different kind of work with which the individual could feel only limited identification Theodore Dreiser Sister Carrie Living in conditions of extreme poverty and hardship, some women moved into prostitution o The Machine and the Boss Newly arrived immigrants needed help in adjusting to American urban life For many residents of the inner cities, the principal source of assistance was the political machine Political Machine Owed its existence to the power vacuum that the chaotic growth of cities had created Product of the potential voting power of large immigrant communities Political boss Principal function was simple o To win votes for his organization o To do so he had to win the loyalty of his constituents Machines were vehicles for making money William M. Tweed Boss Tweed Tammany Hall in the 1860s and 70s Several factors made boss rule possible The power of immigrant voters The link between political organizations and wealthy, prominent citizens Structural weakness of city governments The Rise of Mass Consumption o Patterns of Income and Consumption The growth of demand occurred at almost all levels of society Incomes in the industrial era were rising for almost everyone The most conspicuous result of the new economy was the creation of vast fortunes, more important for society as a whole was the growth and increasing prosperity of the middle class Also important to the new mass market was the development of affordable products and the creation of new merchandising techniques, which made many consumer goods available to a broad market for the first time Ready-made clothing Much larger numbers of people became concerned with personal style People in remote rural areas could develop more stylish wardrobes by ordering from the new mail-order houses Another example of the rise of the mass market was the way American bought and prepared food Tin cans o A large new industry devoted to packaging and selling canned food Gail Borden o Condensed milk Refrigerated railroad cars Artificially frozen ice Improved diets and better health o Chain Stores and Mail-Order Houses Small local stores faced competition from new chain stores F.W. Woolworth opened his first Five and Ten Cent Store in 1879 Chain stores were able to sell manufactured goods at lower prices than the local, independent stores

Most customers found it difficult to resist the greater variety and lower prices the chains provided them Chain stores were slow to reach remote, rural areas Rural people gradually gained access to the new consumer world through the great mail-order houses 1872 Montgomery Ward catalog Faced competition from Sears Roebuck in 1887 The catalogs from Ward and Sears changed the lives of many isolated people Introducing them to new trends of fashion and home dcor, as well as making available new tools, machinery, and technologies for the home o Department Stores The emergence of great department stores helped transform buying habits and turn shopping into a more alluring and glamorous activity Department stores transformed the concept of shopping in several ways They brought t together under one roof an enormous array of products of all kinds They strove to create an atmosphere of wonder and excitement Department stores took advantage of economies of scale to sell merchandise at lower prices than many of the individual shops o Women as Consumers Womens clothing styles changed much more than mens, which encouraged more frequent purchases The consumer economy produced new employment opportunities for women as sales clerks in department stores The consumer protection movement The National Consumers League Attempted to mobilize the power of women as consumers to force retailers and manufacturers to improve wages and working conditions Leisure in the Consumer Society o Redefining Leisure It also produced a redefinition of the idea of leisure With the rapid expansion of the economy and the increasing number of hours workers had away from work, it became possible to imagine leisure time as a normal part of the lives of many people Simon Patten The new economies could create enough wealth to satisfy not just the needs, but also the desires, of all One of the most distinctive characteristics of late-nineteenth- and earlytwentieth-century urban leisure was its intensely public character Coney Island o Spectator Sports Among the responses to the search for public forms of leisure was the rise of organized spectator sports Baseball As the game grew in popularity, it became a source of profit 1903 first modern World Series played Football Became known for a high level of violence on the field Basketball Boxing Horse racing Spectator sports was closely associated with gambling The major spectator sports of the era were activities open almost exclusively to men Golf and tennis

Rapid increase in participation among men and women Bicycling and croquet Women o Track, crew, swimming, basketball o Music and Theater Urban theaters introduced one of the most distinctively American entertainment forms The musical comedy o George M. Cohan o Irving Berlin Vaudeville was the most popular urban entertainment o The Movies The most important of mass entertainment, and the one that reached most widely across the nation, was the movies D. W. Griffith o Working-Class Leisure Leisure had a particular importance to working-class men and women Meeting places Streets Saloons o The Fourth of July Fourth of July celebrations were one of the highlights of the year Not just a celebration of the nations independence, but of the cultures of immigrant communities o Private Pursuits Many Americans amused themselves privately by reading novels and poetry Music was a popular form of private leisure o Mass Communications Urban industrial society created a vast market for new vehicles for transmitting news and information American journalism began to develop the beginnings of a professional identity Emergence of national press services Important newspaper chains William Randolph Hearst Joseph Pulitzer o Yellow journalism A deliberately sensational style of reporting High Culture in the Age of the City o The Literature of Urban America Critics claimed that American life, despite its glittering surface, was essentially acquisitive and corrupt, with little cultural depth One of the strongest impulses in late-nineteenth and early-twentieth-century American literature was the effort to re-create urban social reality Realism Stephen Crane Theodore Dreiser Frank Norris Upton Sinclair Kate Chopin William Dean Howells Other critics of American society responded to the new civilization not by attacking it but by withdrawing from it o Art in the Age of the City Winslow Homer James McNeil Whistler

Some American artists were turning decisively away from the traditional academic style Ashcan School Produced work starling in its naturalism and stark in its portrayal of the social realities of the era John Sloan George Bellows Edward Hopper Some of the first Americans to appreciate expressionism and abstraction Modernism Seemed to promise an escape from rigid, formal traditions and an unleashing of individual creativity The Impact of Darwinism The single most profound intellectual development in the late nineteenth century was the widespread acceptance of the theory of evolution History was not the working out of a divine plan It was a random process dominated by the fiercest of luckiest competitors The theory of evolution met widespread resistance at first Later though, virtually no serious scientist any longer questioned its basic validity The rise of Darwinism was contributing to a deep schism between the culture of the city and rural areas Pragmatism Modern society should rely for guidance not on inherited ideals and moral principles but on the test of scientific inquiry Promoted the growth of anthropology and encouraged some scholars to begin examining other cultures Toward Universal Schooling The late nineteenth century was a time of rapid expansion and reform of American schools and universities The spread of free public primary and secondary education Educational reformers sought to provide educational opportunities as well Education for Women An important expansion of educational opportunities for women Most high schools accepted female students Proponents of womens colleges saw the institutions as places where female students would not be treated as second-class citizens The mergence of a distinctive womens community The life of the college produced a spirit of sorority and commitment among educated women that had important effects in later years

Chapter 19
From Stalemate to Crisis o The Politics of Equilibrium The Party System The most striking feature of the late-nineteenth-century party system was its remarkable stability Between 1875 and 1895 republicans generally controlled the Senate and the Democrats generally controlled the House Intensity of public loyalty o Americans adhered to their party affiliations with a passion and enthusiasm that are difficult for later generations to understand Party politics in the late nineteenth century occupied a central position in American culture, comparable in some ways to the role that spectator sports and mass popular entertainment play today Why this loyalty? o Both parties were solidly committed to the growth of the corporate industrial economy o Both were hostile to all forms of economic and social radicalism o Both were committed to a sound currency and the existing structure of the financial system Region determined loyalties Religion and ethnic differences also shaped party loyalties For many Americans party identification was usually more a reflection of vague cultural inclinations than a calculation of economic interest The National Government One reason the two parties managed to avoid substantive issues was that the federal government did relatively little The government in Washington was responsible for delivering the mails, for maintaining a national military, for conducting foreign policy, and for collecting tariffs and taxes The most powerful national political institutions were the two political parties and the federal courts Presidents and Patronage A new president had to make almost 100,000 appointments Even in making appointments, presidents had limited latitude, since they had to avoid offending the various factions within their own parties Stalwarts o Roscoe Conkling o Favored traditional, professional machine politics Half-Breeds o James G. Blaine o Favored reform Hayess effort to create a civil service system attracted no support from either party Election of 1880 o James A. Garfield Republicans o Winfield Scott Hancock Democrats o Garfield wins July 2, 1881 Garfield shot

Dies three months later Chester A. Arthur takes over the presidency 1883 Congress passed the first national civil service measure o Pendleton Act Identified a limited number of federal jobs to be filled by competitive written examinations rather than by patronage The Return of the Democrats Election of 1884 o Republicans James G. Blaine o An independent reform faction, Mugwumps, announced they would bolt the party and support an honest Democrat o Democrats Grover Cleveland o What may have decided the election was the last-minute introduction of a religious controversy Blaine at a dinner with a priest Dr. Samuel Burchard Priest Democrats are the party of rum, Romanism, and rebellion o Cleveland wins the election Cleveland grappled with one major economic issue Always doubted the wisdom of protective tariffs December 1887, he asked Congress to reduced the tariff rates Election of 1888 o Democrats Cleveland o Republicans Benjamin Harrison o Harrison won Tariffs, Trusts, and Railroads During Harrisons administration public opinion was beginning to force the government to confront some of the pressing social and economic issues of the day o To curb the power of trusts o If antitrust legislation was to be effective, it would have to come from the national government Sherman Antitrust Act July 1890 o The law declared illegal every contract, combination in the form of trust or otherwise, or conspiracy in restraint of trade or commerce among the several states, or with foreign nations. o Gave the Justice Department authority to take legal action against such combinations in federal court of the purpose of breaking them up Antitrust Division to enforce the law Law had the failure to specify clearly enough precisely what kinds of combinations it was forbidding United States v. E. C. Knight Co. (1895) The government charged that a single trust controlled 98% of refined sugar manufacturing in the country o The Supreme Court rejected the governments case o The sugar trust was engaged in manufacturing, not in interstate commerce McKinley Tariff o The highest protective measure ever proposed to Congress o Passed 1890 o

Election of 1892 o Republicans Benjamin Harrison o Democrats Grover Cleveland o Peoples Party James B. Weaver o Cleveland Won Supported a tariff reduction Wilson-Gorman Tariff o A small federal income tax Did not pass Only after approval of the Sixteenth Amendment in 1913 was the federal government able to tax incomes The courts later limited the powers of the states to regulate commerce even within their own boundaries Railroad legislation could only come from the federal government 1887 Interstate Commerce Act The government still lacked institutions adequate to perform any significant role in American economic life The Agrarian Revolt Populism The Grangers Farmers had been making efforts to organize for many decades The first major farm organization appeared in the 1860s o The Grange Oliver H. Kelley They attempted to bring farmers together to learn new scientific agricultural techniques As membership grew, the lodges in the Midwest began to focus less on the social benefits of organization and more on the economic possibilities A dramatic decline in the power of the association in the 1870s The Farmers Alliances 1880 Southern Alliance and Northwestern Alliance The Alliances were principally concerned with local problems Some Alliance members saw the movement as an effort to build a society in which economic competition might give way to cooperation Women were full voting members in most local Alliances Mary E. Lease Their cooperatives did not always work well 1892 the Peoples Party created The Populist Constituency Populism always appealed principally to farmers Most Populists had at least one thing in common, they were engaged in a type of farming that was becoming less visible in the face of new, mechanized, diversified and consolidated commercial agriculture On the whole, Populism never attracted significant labor support in part because the economic interests of labor and the interests of farmers were often at odds Most white Populists were willing to accept the assistance of African Americans only as long as it was clear that white would remain indisputably in control Most of the Populist leaders were members of the rural middle class

Sincere idealism combined with crassness and opportunism Populist Ideas Reform program of the Populists o Proposed a system of subtreasuries, which would replace and strengthen the cooperatives with which both the Grangers and Alliances had been experimenting for years o The government would establish a network of warehouses, where farmers could deposit their crops o Using those crops as collateral, growers could then borrow money from the government at low rates of interest and wait for the price of their goods to go up before selling them o Called for the abolition of national banks o The end of absentee ownership of land o The direct election of United States senators o Called for regulation and government ownership of railroads, telephones, and telegraphs o Demanded a system of government-operated postal savings banks o A graduated income tax and inflation of the currency o Remonetization of sliver They raised one of the most overt and powerful challenges of the era to the direction in which American industrial capitalism was moving o Progress and growth should continue, but should be more strictly defined by the needs of individuals and communities The Crisis of the 1890s The Panic of 1893 The Panic of 1893 precipitated the most severe depression the nation had yet experienced Began when the Philadelphia and Reading Railroad declared bankruptcy Two months later, the National Cordage Company failed Together the two corporate failures triggered a collapse of the stock market A wave of bank failures soon began That caused a contraction of credit Causing many businesses to go bankrupt Depressed prices in agriculture since 1887 had weakened the purchasing power of farmers The depression reflected the degree to which the American economy was now interconnected, the degree to which failures in one area affected all other areas The depression showed how dependent the economy was on the health of the railroads Coxeys Army o Unemployed people who advocated a massive public works program to create jobs for the unemployed and an inflation of the currency The Silver Question The financial panic weakened the governments monetary system The money question became the basis for some of the most dramatic political conflicts of the era The heart of the debate was over what would form the basis of the dollar Currency was assumed worthless if there was not something concrete behind it

Bimetallism using two metals to back up currency 1873, Congress passed a law that seemed simply to recognize the existing situation by officially discontinuing silver coinage Two groups of Americans were especially determined to undo the Crime of 73 o Silver-mine owners o Discontented farmers Congress made no more than a token response to their demands At the same time the nations gold reserves were steadily dropping Sherman Silver Purchase Act of 1890 o Required the government to purchase silver, and to pay for I in gold The issue aroused passions rarely seen in American politics A Cross of Gold The Emergence of Bryan Election of 1896 o Republicans William McKinley o Silver question was a major issue in this election o William Jennings Bryan One of the most famous political speeches in American history in support of free silver You shall not press down upon the brow of labor this crown of thorns; you shall not crucify mankind upon a cross of gold Cross of Gold speech o Democrats William Bryan The Conservative Victory Bryan helped establish the modern form of presidential politics McKinley won The Peoples Party began to dissolve Never again would American farmers unite so militantly to demand economic reform McKinley and Recovery When McKinley took office, the labor unrest that had so frightened many middle-class people had subsided McKinley and his allies committed themselves fully to only one issue o The need for higher tariff rates Dingley Tariff o Raising duties to the highest point in American history Currency, or Gold Standard, Act of 1900 o Confirmed that nation's commitment to the gold standard by assigning a specific gold value to the dollar and required all currency issued by the United States to hew to that value

Chapter 20 The Imperial Republic o Stirrings of Imperialism The New Manifest Destiny Several developments helped shift American attention to lands across the seas o Experience with the Indians had established a precedent for exerting colonial control over dependent peoples o The concept of the closing of the frontier produced fears that natural resources would soon dwindle ad that alternative sources must be found abroad o The depression that began in 1893 encouraged some businessmen to look overseas for new markets o Some politicians urged a more aggressive foreign policy as an outlet for frustrations that would otherwise destabilize domestic life Foreign trade was becoming increasing important Many Americans began to consider the possibility of acquiring colonies that might expand such markets further Some Americans feared that their nation would soon be left out of the expansion Scholars and others found a philosophic justification for expansionism in Charles Darwins theories John Fiske o Predicted that the English-speaking peoples would eventually control every land that was not already the seat of an established civilization o Supported by Josiah Strong Clergyman Declared that the Anglo-Saxon race and especially its American branch, represented the great ideas of civil liberty and pure Christianity and was divinely commissioned to spread its institutions over the earth Alfred Thayer Mahan o Countries with sea power were the great nations of history Hemispheric Hegemony James G. Blaine o 1889 helped organize the first Pan-American Congress Delegates agreed to create the Pan-American Union 1895 United States supported Venezuela in a dispute with Great Britain over the Boundary between Venezuela and British Guiana o United States claimed that Britain was violating the Monroe Doctrine o The British government finally realized that it had stumbled into a genuine diplomatic crisis and agreed to arbitration Hawaii and Samoa Hawaii o Had been an important way station for American ships in the China trade o Pearl Harbor as a possible permanent base for United States ships

o o o o o o o o

o o Samoa o Had also long served as a way station for American ships in the Pacific trade o American navy began eyeing the Samoan harbor at Pago Pago o Great Britain and Germany were also interested in the islands o For the next ten years the three powers jockeyed for dominance in Samoa o Agreed to share power over Samoa o In 1899 the United States and Germany divided the islands between them, compensating Britain with territories elsewhere in the Pacific

A growing number of Americans who had settled on the islands had gradually come to dominate Hawaiis economy and political life William Hooper one of the first Americans to buy land in Hawaii G. P. Judd had become prime minister of Hawaii under King Kamehameha III, who had agreed to establish a constitutional monarchy 1887 United States negotiated a treaty with Hawaii, that permitted it to open a naval base at Pearl Harbor An 1875 agreement allowing Hawaiian sugar to enter the United States duty-free Native Hawaiians did not accept their subordination without protest 1891 Queen Liliuokalani Set out to challenge the growing American control of the islands In 1893 the planters staged a revolution in Hawaii and called on the United States for protection The queen yielded her authority Hawaii was not annexed until 1898

War with Spain The war transformed Americas relationship to the rest of the world, and left the nation with a far-flung overseas empire Controversy over Cuba Cubans had been resisting Spanish rule since at least 1868, when they began a fight for independence Many Americans had sympathized with the Cubans during the ten-year struggle, but the United States did not intervene In 1895, the Cubans rose up again The islands problems were now in part a result of the Wilson-Gorman Tariff of 1894, whose high duties on sugar had devastated Cubas important sugar economy The Cubans devastated the island to get rid of the Spanish Spanish commanded by General Valeriano Weyler o Butcher Weyler o Put Cubans in concentration camps Joseph Pulitzer and William Randolph Hearst were revolutionizing American journalism Yellow Journalism o Fused the sensationalism of the old penny press with a much more aggressive style and broader ambitions Cuban Revolutionary leader Jose Marti President Cleveland proclaimed American neutrality

President McKinley formally protested Spains uncivilized and inhuman conduct, causing the Spanish government to recall Weyler, modify the concentration policy, and great the island a qualified autonomy Whatever chances there were for a peaceful settlement vanished as a result of two dramatic incidents in February 1898 o The first occurred when a Cuban agent in Havana stole a private letter written by Dupuy de Lome, the Spanish minister in Washington, and turned it over to the American press o The letter described McKinley as a weak man and a bidder for the admiration of the crowd o Coming from a foreigner it created intense popular anger o While excitement over the de Lome letter was still high, the American battleship Maine blew up in Havana harbor o Many am3eicans assumed that the Spanish had sunk the ship o War hysteria swept the country, and Congress unanimously appropriated $50 million for military preparations Remember the Maine o In March 1898, the president asked Spain to agree to an armistice, negotiations for a permanent peace, and an end to the concentration camps o Spain agreed to stop the fighting and eliminate the concentration camps but refused to negotiate with the rebels and reserved the right to resume hostilities at its discretions April 25th, McKinley received a congressional declaration of war against the Spanish A Splendid Little War Declared in April, it was over in August The Cuban rebels had already greatly weakened the Spanish resistance, which made the American intervention in may respects little more than a mopping up exercise Yet the American war effort was not without difficulties United States soldiers faced serious supply problems The United States had to rely heavily on National Guard units The entire mobilization process was conducted with remarkable inefficiency There were also racial conflicts o Blacks and whites fought constantly in the United States army Racial tensions continued in Cuba itself, where American blacks played crucial roles in some of the important battles of the war and won many medals The sight of black Cuban soldiers fighting alongside whites as equals gave American blacks a stronger sense of the injustice of their own position Seizing the Philippines Only the navy had worked out an objective in the war o Its objective had little to do with freeing Cuba Roosevelt, Assistant Secretary of the Navy strengthened the navys Pacific squadron and instructed it commander, Commodore George Dewey, to attack Spanish naval forces in the Philippines, a colony of Spain, in the event of war Immediately after war was declared, Dewey sailed for Manila May 1st, 1898, he steamed into Manila Bay and completely destroyed the aging Spanish fleet stationed there

The Spanish later surrendered the city of Manila itself What had begun as a war to free Cuba was becoming a war to strip Spain of its colonies The Battle for Cuba But Cuba remained the principal focus of American military efforts Americans were to be trained before going to Cuba A Spanish fleet under Admiral Pascual Cervera slipped past the American navy into Santiago harbor Nelson A. Miles, U.S., left the United States soon after the Spanish arrived General William R. Shafter, American, moved toward Santiago, which he planned to capture He met and defeated Spanish forces at Las Guasimos, El Caney, and San Juan Hill At the center of the fighting during most of these engagements was a cavalry unit known as the Rough Riders Its real leader was Teddy Roosevelt Roosevelt rapidly emerged as a hero of the conflict His fame rested in large part on his role in leading a bold charge up Kettle Hill, part of the San Juan Hill battle, directly into the face of Spanish guns Unknown to the Americans, the Spanish government had by now decided that Santiago was lost and had ordered Cervera to evacuate On August 12, an armistice ended the war o Under the terms of the armistice, Spain recognized the independence of Cuba o It ceded Puerto Rico and the Pacific island of Guam to the United States o It accepted continued American occupation of Manila pending the final disposition of the Philippines Puerto Rico and the United States The annexation of Puerto Rico produced relatively little controversy in the United States o Puerto Rico would be the most important to the nations future As Puerto Rican society became increasingly distinctive, resistance to Spanish rule began to emerge, just as it had emerged in Cuba Uprisings began to take place beginning in the 1820s Lares Rebellion Effectively crushed by the Spanish in 1868 The resistance did prompt some reforms o The abolition of slavery in 1873 o Representation in the Spanish parliament o Etc. In 1898, Spain granted the island a degree of independence Before the changes had a chance to take effect, control of Puerto Rico shifted to the united States In 1900, the Foraker Act ended military rule and established a formal colonial government In 1917, under pressure to clarify the relationship between Puerto Rico and America, Congress assed the Jones Act, which declared Puerto Rico to be United States territory and made all Puerto Ricans American citizens Puerto Ricans became increasingly dependent on imported food and hence increasingly a part of the international commercial economy

Unhappy with the instability of the island, the poverty among natives, and the American threat to Hispanic culture, many Puerto Ricans continued to agitate for independence The Debate over the Philippines The annexation of Puerto Rico produced relatively little controversy The annexation of the Philippines occasioned a long and impassioned debate McKinley saw the annexation of the Philippines as a good thing o Giving the islands back to Spain would be cowardly and dishonorable o Turning them over to another imperialist power would be bad business and discreditable o Granting the island independence would be irresponsible o The only solution was to take them all and to educate the Filipinos and uplift and Christianize them, and by Gods grace do the very best we could by them The Treaty of Paris of 1898 bought a formal end to the war It confirmed the terms of the armistice concerning Cuba, Puerto Rice, and Guam The Americans bought the Philippines for $20 million During debate over ratification of the treaty, a powerful anti-imperialist movement arose around the country to oppose acquisition of the Philippines o Some believed that imperialism was immoral, a repudiation of Americas commitment to human freedom The Anti-Imperialist League was established to fight against annexation o Waged a vigorous campaign against ratification of the Paris Treaty Favoring ratification was an equally varied group Same saw the acquisition of empire as a way to reinvigorate the nation and keep alive what they considered the healthy, restorative influence of the war The Senate ratified it finally on February 6th, 1899 In the next election McKinley won again against Jennings o Vice President Teddy Roosevelt The Republic as Empire Governing the Colonies Cuba became a problem American military forces remained there until 1902 to prepare the island for independence o They rebuilt it, but the United States also laid the basis for years of American economic domination of the island Platt Amendment in 1901 o Pressuring Cuba into incorporating its terms into its constitution o Barred Cuba from making treaties with other nations; gave the United States the right to intervene in Cuba to preserve independence, life, and property o Required Cuba to permit American naval stations on its territory American troops occupied the island from 1906 to 1909 after rebellions happened in Cuba They returned again in 1912, to suppress a revolt by black plantation workers

The Philippine War Americans learned that subjugating another people required more than ideals; it also required strength and brutality In the Philippines American forces soon became engaged in a long and bloody war with insurgent forces fighting for independence o It lasted from 1898 to 192 The American occupiers faced guerrilla tactics in the Philippines very similar to those the Spanish occupiers had faced prior to 1898 in Cuba They were lead by Emilio Aguinaldo Gradually the American military effort became more systematically vicious and brutal A spirit of savagery grew among some American soldiers By 1902 the rebellion had largely exhausted itself o The key to the American victory was the March 1901 capture of Aguinaldo In the summer of 1901 the military transferred authority over the islands to William Howard Taft Not until July 4th, 1946, did the islands finally gain their independence The Open Door Eager for a way to protect American interests in China without risking war, McKinley issued a statement in September 1898 saying the United States wanted access to China, but no special advantages there o The Open Door Notes Secretary of State John Hay asked England, Germany, Russia, France, Japan, and Italy to approve three principles Each nation with a sphere of influence in China was to respect the rights and privileges of other nations in its sphere Chinese officials were to continue to collect tariff duties in all spheres And nations were not to discriminate against other nations in levying port dues and railroad rates within their own spheres Europe and Japan received the coolly, Russia rejected them The Boxer Rebellion soon started in China o A revolt against foreigners in China o The United States helped to put a stop to it A Modern Military System After the Spanish-American war McKinley appointed Elcho Root as secretary of war to supervise a major overhaul of the armed forces Between 1900 and 1903, Root created a new military system The Root reforms enlarged the regular army from 25,000 to a maximum of 100,000 They established federal army standards for the National Guard They sparked the creation of a system of officer training schools In 1903 a general staff was established to act as military advisers to the secretary of war o The Joint Chiefs of Staff They were to supervise and coordinate the entire army establishment They were to establish an office that would plan for possible war An Army and Navy Board was to foster interservice cooperation

Chapter 21
The Rise of Progressivism o The Progressive Impulse Progressivism was an optimistic vision Believed in the idea of progress Believed that society was capable of improvement and that continued growth and advancement were the nations destiny Varieties of Progressivism One powerful reform impulse was the spirit of antimonopoly o The fear of concentrated power and the urge to limit and disperse authority and wealth o Helped empower government to regulate or break up trusts at both the state and national level Another progressive impulse was a belief in the importance of social cohesion o The belief that individuals are not autonomous but part of a great web of social relationships, that the welfare of any single person is dependent on the welfare of society as a whole Still another impulse was a deep faith in knowledge o In the possibilities of applying to society the principles of natural and social sciences Most progressives believed that a modernized government could and must play an important role in the process of improving and stabilizing society The Muckrakers Among the first people to articulate the new spirit of reform were crusading journalists who began in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries to direct public attention toward social, economic, and political injustices o Muckrakers Committed to exposing scandal, corruption, and injustice to public view Major targets the trusts and particularly the railroads o Charles Francis Adams, Jr. uncovered corruption among the railroad barons o Ida Tarbells enormous and influential study of the Standard Oil trust Later on targets government and urban political machines o Lincoln Steffens His tone of studied moral outrage all helped arouse sentiment for urban political reform o The alternative to leaving government in the hands of corrupt party leaders was for the people themselves to take a greater interest in public life By presenting social problems to the public with indignation and moral fervor, they helped inspire other Americans to take action The Social Gospel The moralistic tone of the muckrakers exposes reflected one important aspect of emerging progressive sentiment o A sense of outrage at social and economic injustice A clear expression of that concern was the rise of what became known as the Social Gospel It was chiefly concerned with redeeming the nations cities

The Salvation Army was one example of the fusion of religion with reform Charles Sheldons In His Steps most successful novel of the era Walter Rauschenbusch, published a series of influential discourses on the possibilities for human salvation through Christian reform The Social Gospel was never the dominant element in the movement for urban reform The Settlement House Movement One of the strongest elements of much progressive thought was the belief in the influence of the environment on individual development Many progressive theorists felt that ignorance, poverty, even criminality were not the result of inherent moral or genetic failings or of the workings of providence; they were rather, the effects of an unhealthy environment o To elevate the distressed required an improvement of the conditions in which they lived The settlement house was a response to this problem The most famous, and one of the first, was Hull House o Opened in 1889 in Chicago o Jane Addams Settlement houses sought to help immigrant families adapt to the language and customs of their new country Central to the settlement houses were the efforts of college women The settlement houses provided these women with an environment and a role that society considered appropriate for unmarried women The settlement houses also helped spawn another important institution of reform o The profession of social worker The new profession produced elaborate surveys and reports, collected statistics, and published scholarly tracts on the need for urban reform The Allure of Expertise Many reformers came to believe that only enlightened experts and well-designed bureaucracies could create the stability and order America needed Among the most influential writer on this subject was social scientist Thorstein Veblen o A Theory of the Leisure Class In practical terms, the impulse toward expertise and organization helped produce the idea of scientific management o It encouraged the development of modern mass-production techniques and the assembly line o Inspired a revolution in American education and the creation of a new area of inquiry o Produced a generation of bureaucratic reformers concerned with the structure of organizations and committed to building new political and economic institutions capable of managing a modern society o Helped create a movement toward organization among the expanding new group of middle-class professionals The Professions The late nineteenth century saw a dramatic expansion in the number of Americans engaged in administrative and professional tasks By the turn of the century, those performing these new services had come to constitute a distinct social group

o What some have called a new middle class As their principle vehicle, they created the modern organized professions As the demand for professional services increased Among the first to respond was the medical profession o In 1901, they reorganized the American Medical Association into a national professional society The AMA quickly called for strict, scientific standards for admission to the practice of medicine, with doctors themselves serving as protectors of the standards Accompanying the emphasis on strict regulation of the profession came a concern for rigorous scientific training and research o Doctors at John Hopkins revolutionized the teaching of medicine by moving students out of the classrooms and into laboratories and clinics There was similar movement in other professions o Lawyers, businessmen, farmers Among the purposes of the new professionalism was guarding entry into the professions o This was only partly an effort to defend the professions from the untrained and incompetent Women and the Professions American women found themselves excluded from most of the emerging professions But a substantial number of middle-class women entered professional careers nevertheless In 1900 about 5% of all American physicians were female In the late nineteenth century more than two-thirds of all grammar school teachers were women Nursing had become primarily a womens field during and after the Civil War Women also found opportunities as librarians The womens professions had much in common with other professions o The value they placed on training and expertise o The creation of professional organizations and a personal identity o The monitoring of admission to professional work Helping professions Women and Reform The New Woman The phenomenon of the new woman was a product of social and economic changes that affected the private world as much as the public one It was not surprising that more and more women were looking for activities outside the home Declining family size also changed the lives of many women many women now spent fewer years with young children in the home and lived more years after their children were grown There were also many more women who lived outside traditional families altogether Single women were among the most prominent female reformers of the time

Jane Addams and Lillian Wald in the Settlement House movement o Frances Willard in the temperance movement o Anna Howard Shaw in the suffrage movement Others lived with other women o Some of them secretly romantic Boston Marriages Higher levels of education also contributed to the prominence of women in reform activities The new colleges also helped create female communities, within which women could find support for their ambitions and companionship for their activities The Clubwomen Among the most visible signs of the increasing public roles of women in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries were the womens clubs o A large network of womens associations that proliferated rapidly beginning in the 1880s and 1890s and that became the vanguard of many important reforms By the early twentieth century, the clubs were becoming less concerned with cultural activities and more concerned with contributing to social betterment Black women occasionally joined clubs dominated by whites The womens club movement raised few overt challenges to prevailing assumptions about the proper role of women in society o The club movement allowed women to define a space for themselves in the public world without openly challenging the existing, male-dominated order But the importance of the club movement did not lie simply in what it did for middle class women o It lay also in what those women accomplished for the working-class people they attempted to help They were an important force in winning passage of state laws that regulated the conditions of woman and child labor, that established government inspection of workplaces, that regulated the food and drug industries, that reformed politics toward the Indian tribes, that applied new standards to urban housing, and perhaps most notably outlawed the manufacture and sale of alcohol Mothers Pensions In 1912, they pressured Congress into establishing the Childrens Bureau in the Labor Department In campaigning for measures to protect women and children workers and to assist the most powerless members of society, womens clubs emphasized the nurturing and protective features of their work and fought for moral uplift o In doing so, they were reflecting contemporary ideas about the natural inclinations of women Woman Suffrage Perhaps the largest single reform movement of the progressive era, indeed one of the largest in American history, was the fight for woman suffrage o A movement that attracted support from both women and men but whose most important leaders were women At the time, suffrage seemed to many of its critics a very radical demand

Throughout the late nineteenth century, many suffrage advocates presented their views in terms of natural rights o Arguing that women deserved the same rights as men A powerful antisuffrage movement emerged, dominated by men but with the active support of many women, which challenged this apparent threat to the existing social order o They linked suffrage with divorce, promiscuity, looseness, and neglect of children In the first years of the twentieth century, the suffrage movement began to overcome this opposition and win some substantial victories The suffrage movement also gained strength because many of its most prominent leaders began to justify suffrage in safer less threatening ways Many suffragists argued that enfranchising women would help the temperance movement Many middle-class people found persuasive the argument that if blacks, immigrants, and other base groups had access to the franchise, then it was not only a matter of justice but of common sense to allow educated well-born women to vote Not all suffragists abandoned the more radical rationales The principal triumphs of the suffrage movement began in 1910 o That year, Washington became the first state in fourteen years to extend suffrage to women o California followed a year later, and four other states in 1912 o In 1913, Illinois became the first state east of the Mississippi to embrace woman suffrage o And in 1917 and 1918, New York and Michigan gave women the vote o In 1919, thirty-nine states had granted women right to vote o In 1920, suffragists won ratification of the Nineteenth Amendment, which granted political rights to women throughout the nation The Assault on the Parties Early Attacks Attacks on party dominance had been frequent in the late nineteenth century Greenbackism and populism had been efforts to break the hammerlock with which the Republicans and Democrats controlled public life The early assaults enjoyed some success o Secret ballots o Helped chip away at the power of the parties over the voters By the late 1890s, critics of the parties were expanding their goals o Party rule could be broken in one of two ways Broken by increasing the power of the people, by permitting them to circumvent partisan institutions and express their will directly at the polls Broken by placing more power in the hands of nonpartisan, nonelective officials, insulated from political Municipal Reform Many progressives believed the impact of party rule was most damaging in the cities Municipal government therefore became the first target of those working for political reform

By the end of the century a new generation of activists were taking a growing interest in government In addition to challenging the powerful city bosses and their entrenched political organizations, they were attacking a large group of special interests o Saloon owners, brothel keepers and perhaps most significantly, those businessmen who had established lucrative relationships with the urban machines and who viewed reform as a threat to their profits Gradually the reformers gained in political strength In the first years of the twentieth century they began to score some important victories New Forms of Governance One of the first major successes came in Galveston, Texas, where the old city government proved completely unable to deal with the effects of a destructive tidal wave in 1900 o The mayor and council were replaced by an elected, nonpartisan commission In1907, Des Moines, Iowa, adopted its own version of the commission plan, and other cities soon followed Another approach to municipal reform was the city-manager plan o By which elected officials hired an outside expert to take charge of the government In most urban areas, and in larger cities in particular, the enemies of party had to settle for less absolute victories o Some cities made the election of mayors nonpartisan or moved them to years when no presidential or congressional races were in progress o Reformers tried to make city councilors run at large, to limit the influence of ward leaders and district bosses o They tried to strengthen the power of the mayor at the expense of the city council, on the assumption that reformers were more likely to succeed in getting a sympathetic mayor elected than they were to win control of the entire council Some mayors effectively challenged local party bosses to bring the spirit of reform into city government Statehouse Progressivism The assault on boss rule in the cities did not, however, always produce results satisfying to reformers As a result, many progressives turned to state government as an agent for reform Many reformers began looking for ways to circumvent the legislatures by increasing the power of the electorate Two of the most important changes were innovations first proposed by Populists in the 1890s o The initiative and the referendum The initiative allowed reformers to circumvent state legislatures altogether by submitting new legislation directly to the voters in general elections The referendum provided a method by which actions of the legislature could be returned to the electorate for approval The direct primary and the recall were efforts to limit the power of party and improve the quality of elected officials

The primary election was an attempt to take the selection of candidates away from the bosses and give it to the people o The recall gave voters to the right to remove a public official from office at a special election, which could be called after a sufficient number of citizens had signed a petition Other reform measures attempted to clean up the legislatures themselves by limiting the influence of corporations on their activities and on the behavior of the parties Reform efforts proved most effective in states that elevated vigorous and committed politicians to positions of leadership But the most celebrated state-level reformer was Robert M. La Follette of Wisconsin o He helped turn his state into what reformers across the nation described as a laboratory of progressivism o Reform was not simply the responsibility of politicians, he argued, but of newspapers, citizens groups, educational institutions, and business and professional organizations Parties and Interest Groups The reformers did not, of course, eliminate parties from American political life o But they did contribute to a decline in party influence At the same time that parties were declining, other power centers were beginning to replace them o Interest groups New organizations emerged outside the party system, designed to pressure government to do their members bidding Professional organizations, trade associations representing particular businesses and industries, labor organizations, farm lobbies, and many others A new pattern of politics, in which many individual interests organized to influence government directly rather than through party structures, was emerging Sources of Progressive Reform Labor, the Machine, and Reform Some unions played important roles in reform battles In San Francisco, workers in the Building Trades Council spearheaded the formation of the new Union Labor Party, committed to a program of reform almost indistinguishable from that of middle-class and elite progressives in the city o Between 1911 and 1913, California passed a child labor law, a workmens compensation law, and a limitation on working hours for women One result of the assault on the parties was a change in the party organizations themselves, which attempted to adapt to the new realities so as to preserve their influence Some political bosses recognized that they must change in order to survive o New Yorks Tammany Hall Began in the early years of the century to fuse the techniques of boss rule with some of the concerns of social reformers

In 1911, a terrible fire swept through the factory of the Triangle Shirtwaist Company in New York o 146 workers died o Many of them had been trapped inside the burning building because management had locked the emergency exits to prevent malingering o By 1914, the commission investigating the fire had issued a series of reports calling for major reforms in the conditions of modern labor With the support of Charles Francis Murphy, leader of Tammany Hall, and the backing of other Tammany legislators, they steered through a series of pioneering labor laws that imposed strict regulations on factory owners and established effective mechanisms for enforcement Western Progressives The American West produced some of the most notable progressive leaders of the time For western states, the most important target of reform energies was not state or local governments, which had relatively little power, but the federal government, which exercised a kind of authority in the West that it had never possessed in the East That was in part because some of the most important issues to the future of the West required action above the state level More significant the federal government exercised enormous power over the lands and resources of the western states and provided substantial subsidies to the region in the form of land grants and support for railroad and water projects Because so much authority in the region rested in federal bureaucracies that state and local governments could not control, political parties in most of the West were relatively weak That was one reason why western states could move so quickly and decisively to embrace reforms that parties did not like o The initiative, the referendum, the recall, direct primaries African Americans and Reform One social question that received relatively little attention from white progressives was race African Americans faced greater obstacles than any other group in challenging their own oppressed status and seeking reform By the turn of the century a powerful challenge was emerging o W. E. B. Du Bois The Souls of Black Folk Rather than content themselves with education at the trade and agricultural schools, Du Bois advocated, talented blacks should accept nothing less than a full university education They should aspire to the professions They should fight for the immediate restoration of their civil rights Niagara Movement o 1905 o Du Bois and a group of his supporters met at Niagara Falls NAACP 1909 National Association for the Advancement of Colored People Guinn v. United States (1915)

The Supreme court supported their position that the grandfather clause in an Oklahoma law was unconstitutional Buchanan v. Worley (1917) o The Court stuck down a Louisville, Kentucky, law requiring residential segregation Crusades for Order and Reform The Temperance Crusade Many progressives considered the elimination of alcohol from American life a necessary step in restoring order to society Workers in settlement houses and social agencies abhorred the effects of drinking on working-class families Scarce wages vanished as workers spent hours in the saloons Drunkenness spawned violence, and occasionally murder, within urban families Women, in particular, saw alcohol as a source of some of the greatest problems of working-class wives and mothers Employers too regarded alcohol as an impediment to industrial efficiency Critics of economic privilege denounced the liquor industry as one of the nations most sinister trusts Temperance had been a major reform movement before the Civil War A demand grew pass a specific legislative solution o The legal abolition of saloons o Gradually, that demand grew to include the complete prohibition of the sale and manufacture of alcoholic beverages By 1916, nineteen state has passed prohibition laws In 1917, with the support of rural fundamentalists who opposed alcohol on moral and religious grounds, progressive advocates of prohibition steered through Congress a constitutional amendment embodying their demands o Two years later, after ratification by every state in the nation except for Connecticut and Rhode Island, the Eighteenth Amendment became law, to take effect in January 1920 Immigration Restriction Virtually all reformers agreed that the growing immigrant population had created social problems, but there was wide disagreement on how to best respond In the first decades of the century pressure grew to close the nations gates Some argued that the introduction of immigrants into American society was polluting the nations racial stock Eugenics o The science of altering the reproductive processes of plants and animals to produce new hybrids or breeds There was an effort to put this science to human as well Eugenicists advocated the forced sterilization of the mentally retarded, criminals, and others The Dillingham Report argued that the newer immigrant groups had proven themselves less assimilable then earlier immigrants o Immigration should be restricted by nationality The combination of these concerns gradually won for the nativist the support of some of the nations leading progressives o Theodore Roosevelt, Henry Cabot Logde, and others The Dream of Socialism

At no time in the history of the United States to that point, and seldom after, did radical critiques of the capitalist system attract more support than in the period between 1900 and 1914 The Socialist Party of America grew during the progressive era into a force of considerable strength Virtually all socialists agreed on the need for basic structural changes in the economy, but they differed widely on the extent of those changes and the tactics necessary to achieve them Most conspicuous among the militants was the radical labor union the Industrial Workers of the World o Advocated a single union for all workers and abolition of the wage slave system o One of the few labor organizations of the time to champion the cause of unskilled workers o In 1917, a strike by IWW timber workers in Washington and Idaho virtually shut down production in the industry That brought down upon the union the wrath of the federal government Federal authorities imprisoned the leaders of the union, and state governments between 1917 and 1919 passed a series of laws that effectively outlawed the IWW More moderate socialists who advocated peaceful change through political struggle dominated the party Decentralization and Regulation Many reformers agreed with the socialists that the greatest threat to the nations economy was excessive corporate centralization and consolidation, but most progressives retained a faith in the possibilities of reform within a capitalist system Brandeis, a socialist leader, and his supporters opposed bigness in part because they considered it inefficient o Bigness was a threat not just to efficiency but to freedom o It limited the ability of individuals to control their own destinies o Bigness = consolidation of enterprises Other progressives were concerned with efficiency One who came to endorse the position that the solution was for government to play a more active role in regulating and planning economic life was Theodore Roosevelt Roosevelt became for a time the most powerful symbol of the reform impulse at the national level

Chapter 22 The Battle for National Reform o The National government seemed poorly suited to serve as an agent of reform o Seventeenth Amendment in 1912, a direct popular election o If the federal government was truly to fulfill its mission, most reformers agreed, it would require leadership from the one office capable of providing it The presidency o Theodore Roosevelt and the Modern Presidency The Accidental President McKinley was assassinated o Theodore Roosevelt takes over the presidency Party leaders sensed his independence and despaired of controlling him Roosevelts reputation as a wild man was a result less of the substance of his early political career than of its style But Roosevelt as president never openly rebelled against the leaders of his party He became a champion of cautious, moderate change o Reform, he believed, was less a vehicle for remaking American society than for protecting it against more radical changes Government, Capital, and Labor Roosevelt envisioned the federal government not as the agent of any particular interest but as a mediator of the public good, with the president at its center Roosevelt was not opposed to the principle of economic concentration, but he acknowledged that consolidation produced dangerous abuses of power At the heart of Roosevelts policy was his desire to win for government the power to investigate the activities of corporations and publicize the results Although Roosevelt was not a trustbuster at heart, he made a few highly publicized efforts to break up combinations In 1902, he ordered the Justice Department to invoke the Sherman Antitrust Act against a great new railroad monopoly in the Northwest, the Northern Securities Company o In 1904, the Supreme Court ruled that the Northern Securities Company must be dissolved Although he filed more than forty additional antitrust suits during the remainder of his presidency, Roosevelt had no serious

commitment to reverse the prevailing trend toward economic concentration A similar commitment to establishing the government as an impartial regulatory mechanism shaped Roosevelts policy toward labor When a bitter 1902 strike by the United Mine Workers against the anthracic coal industry dragged on long enough to endanger coal supplies for the coming winter, Roosevelt asked both the operators and the miners to accept impartial federal arbitration o Arbitrators awarded the strikers a 10% wage increase and a nine-hour day Despite such episodes, Roosevelt viewed himself as no more the champion of labor than of management The Square Deal Reform was not Roosevelts top priority during his first years as president o He was principally concerned with winning reelection, which required that he not antagonize the conservative Republican Old Guard In the general election in 1904, he won with 57% o Now he was free to display the extent of his commitment to reform During the 1904 campaign, Roosevelt boasted that he had worked in the anthracite coal strike to provide everyone with a square deal In his second term he tried to extend his square deal further Roosevelt asked Congress for legislation to increase the governments power to oversee railroad rates The Hepburn Railroad Regulation Act of 1906 sought to restore some regulatory authority to the government, although the bill was so cautious that it satisfied few progressives Roosevelt also pressured Congress to enact the Pure Food and Drug Act, which, despite weaknesses in its enforcement mechanisms, restricted the sale of dangerous or ineffective medicines Meat Inspection Act which ultimately helped eliminate many diseases once transmitted in impure meat Starting in 1907, he proposed even more stringent measures o An eight-hour work day for workers, broader compensation for victims of industrial accidents, inheritance and income taxes, regulation of the stock market, and others Conservation

Roosevelts aggressive policies on behalf of conservation contributed to that gulf between the president and the conservative wing of his party o Using executive powers, he restricted private development on millions of acres of undeveloped government land by adding them to the previously modest national forest system Roosevelt was the first president to take an active interest in the new and struggling American conservation movement o More than most public figures, he was sympathetic to the concerns of the naturalists Roosevelts policies actual policies tended to favor another faction within the conservation movement o Those who believed in carefully managed development The president did side with the preservationists on certain issues, but the more important legacy of his conservation policy was to establish to governments role as manager of the continuing development of the wilderness The Old Guard may have opposed Roosevelts efforts to extend government control over vast new lands, but they eagerly supported another important aspect of Roosevelts natural resource policy o Public reclamation and irrigation projects In 1902, the president backed the National Reclamation Act o Newlands Act o It was the culmination of years of lobbying by businessmen and others from the West o Provided federal funds for the construction of dams, reservoirs, and canals in the West The Panic of 1907 Despite the flurry of reforms Roosevelt was able to enact, the government still had relatively little control over the industrial economy That became clear in 1907, when a serious panic and recession began Conservatives blamed Roosevelts mad economic policies for the disaster Morgan Plan o J.P. Morgan helped construct a pool of the assets of several important New York banks to prop up shaky financial institutions The panic soon subsided

The Panic of 1907, combined with Roosevelts growing radicalism during his second term, so alienated conservatives in his own party that he might have had difficulty winning the Republican nomination for another term o The Troubled Succession Taft and the Progressives Tafts first problem arose in the opening months of the new administration, when he called Congress into special session to lower protective tariff rates, an old progressive demand The result was the feeble Payne-Aldrich Tariff o Which reduce tariff rate scarcely at all and in some areas actually raised them With Tafts standing among Republican progressives deteriorating and with the party growing more and more deeply divided, a sensational controversy broke out late in 1909 that helped destroy Tafts popularity with reformers for good o Tafts secretary of the interior, Richard A. Ballinger, removed nearly 1 million acres of forests and mineral reserves from the public lands, making the available for private development Louis Glavis charged the new secretary with having once connived to turn over valuable public coal lands in Alaska to a private syndicate for personal profit Taft ordered his attorney general to investigate the charges and eventually decided they were groundless The controversy around as much public passion as any dispute of its time When it was over, Taft had alienated the supporters of Roosevelt completely and irrevocably To many reformers as the time, the Pinchot-Ballinger controversy was a simple morality tale The Return of Roosevelt During most of these controversies, Theodore Roosevelt was far away o His return to New York in the spring of 1910 was a major public event Roosevelt insisted that he had no plans to return to active politics, but his resolve lasted less than a week

Furious with Taft, he was becoming convinced that he alone was capable of reuniting the Republican Party The real signal of Roosevelts decision to assume leadership of Republican reformers was a speech on September 1, 1910 in Osawatomie, Kansas o Where he outlined a set of principles that he labeled the New Nationalism o That made clear he had moved a considerable way from the cautious conservatism of the first years of his presidency Social justice, he argued, was possible only through the vigorous efforts of a strong federal government whose executive acted as the steward of the public welfare o He supported graduated income and inheritance taxes, workers compensation for industrial accidents, regulation of the labor of women and children, tariff revision, and firmer regulation of corporations Spreading Insurgency The congressional elections of 1910 provided further evidence of how far the progressive revolt had spread Reform sentiments seemed clearly on the rise Roosevelt still denied any presidential ambitions and claimed that his real purpose was to pressure Taft to return to progressive policies Two events, however changed Roosevelts mind o The first was a 1911 antitrust decision by the Taft administration Taft had en more active than Roosevelt in enforcing the provisions of the Sherman Antitrust Act On October 27, 1911, the administration announced a suit against U.S. Steel, charging that the 1907 acquisition of the Tennessee Coal and Iron Company had been illegal La Follette tried to run for the presidency o His daughter became sick, couldnt run Roosevelt announced his candidacy on February 22 The Republican Schism La Follette retained some diehard support But now the Republican battle was now between Taft and Roosevelt Taft was nominated o Woodrow Wilson and the New Freedom

The Rise of Wilson Reform sentiment had been gaining strength within the Democratic as well as the Republican Party in the first years of the century Woodrow Wilson was the Democratic nominee for the presidency As a presidential candidate in 1912, Wilson presented a brand of progressivism different from Theodore Roosevelts New Nationalism, a program that came to be called the New Freedom Wilson won the election The Scholar as President Wilson exerted firm control over his cabinet and he delegated real authority only to those whose loyalty to him was beyond question In legislative matters, Wilson skillfully used his position as party leader and his appointive powers to weld together a coalition of conservatives and progressives who would, he believed, support his program Wilsons first triumph as president was a substantial lowering of the protective tariff o The Underwood-Simmons Tariff Provided cuts substantial enough to introduce real competition into American markets and thus to help break the power of trusts Congress approved a graduated income tax The Federal Reserve Act passed both houses of Congress and was signed o It was the most important piece of domestic legislation of Wilsons administration o Created twelve regional banks, each to be owned and controlled by the individual banks of its district o The regional Federal Reserve banks would hold a certain percentage of the use of those reserves to support loans to private banks at an interest rate that the Federal Reserve system would set o They would issue a new type of paper currency which would become the nations basic medium of trade and would be backed by the government They would serve as central institutions able to shift funds quickly to troubled areas o Supervising and regulating the entire system was a national Federal Reserve Board The Problem of the Trusts

The cornerstone of Wilsons campaign for the presidency had been his promise to attack economic concentration By the beginning of his second year in office his approach to the trusts appeared to have changed In 1914, he proposed two measures to deal with the problem of monopoly o There was a proposal to create a federal agency through which the government would help business police itself o There were proposals to strengthen the governments power to prosecute and dismantle the trusts The two measures took shape as the Federal Trade Commission Act and the Clayton Antitrust Act The Federal Trade Commission Act o Created a regulatory agency of the same name that would help businesses determine in advance whether their actions would be acceptable to the government o It would also have the authority to launch prosecutions against unfair trade practices o Increased the governments regulatory authority significantly Retreat and Advance By the fall of 1914, Wilson believed that the program of the New Freedom was essentially complete and that agitation for reform should now subside Citing the doctrine of states rights, he refused to support the movement for national woman suffrage The congressional elections of 1914 shattered the presidents complacency Much of the renewed effort at reform revealed that Wilson had moved even closer to the New Nationalism In 1916, Keating-Owen Act, the first federal act regulating child labor The measure prohibited the shipment, across state lines, of goods produced by underage children The Smith-Lever Act of 1914 had used federal spending to change public behavior by offering matching federal grants to states that agreed to support agricultural extension education o The Big Stick: America and the World, 1901 1917 Roosevelt and Civilization Theodore Roosevelt believed in the value and importance of using American power in the world

He believed that an important distinction existed between the civilized and uncivilized nations of the world o Civilized nations, as he defined them, were predominantly white and Anglo-Saxon or Teutonic o Uncivilized nations, were generally nonwhite Civilized nations were producers of industrial goods Uncivilized nations were sources of raw materials and markets A civilized society had the right and duty to intervene in the affairs of a backward nation to preserve order and stability Protecting the Open Door in Asia Roosevelt considered the Open Door vital for maintaining American trade in the Pacific and for preventing any single nation from establishing dominance there In 1904 the Japanese attacked the Russian fleet at Port Arthur in southern Manchuria o Roosevelt, hoping to prevent their nation form becoming dominant ether, agreed in 1905 to a Japanese request to mediate an end to the conflict Russia had no choice but to agree At a peace conference in Portsmouth, New Hampshire, Roosevelt extracted from the embattled Russians a recognition of Japans territorial gains and from the Japanese an agreement to cease the fighting and expand no further o At the same time, he negotiated a secret agreement with the Japanese to ensure that the United States could continue to trade freely in the region Roosevelt won the Nobel Peace Prize in 1906 for his work in ending the Russo-Japanese War A domestic controversy in California soon threatened Japanese-American relations again White workers in San Francisco added a demand for the legal exclusion of Japanese immigrants He sent sixteen battleships of the new American navy on an unprecedented voyage around the world that included a call on Japan o To remind the Japanese of the potential might of the United States o The Great White Fleet The Iron-Fisted Neighbor Theodore Roosevelt took a special interest in events in what he considered the nations principal sphere of interest o Latin America

Crucial to Roosevelts thinking was an incident early in his administration o When the government of Venezuela began in 1902 to renege on debts to European banks, naval forces of Britain, Italy, and Germany blockaded the Venezuelan coast The incident helped persuade Roosevelt that European intrusions into Latin America could result not only from aggression but also from instability or irresponsibly within the Latin American nations themselves In 1904, he added a new Roosevelt corollary to the Monroe Doctrine o The United States had the right not only to oppose European intervention in the Western Hemisphere but also to intervene itself in the domestic affairs of its neighbors if they proved unable to maintain order on their own The immediate motivation for the Roosevelt corollary was a crisis in the Dominican Republic o $22 million dollars in debts o Using the Roosevelt corollary as a rationale, Roosevelt established, in effect, an American receivership, assuming control of Dominican customs and distributing 45% of the revenues to the Dominicans and the rest to foreign creditors In 1902, the United States had granted political independence to Cuba o Only after it agreed to the Platt Amendment Giving the United States the right to prevent any foreign power from intruding in the new nation The Panama Canal The most celebrated accomplishment of Roosevelts presidency was the construction of the Panama Canal The first step was the 1901 Hay-Pauncefote Treaty between America and Britain o Cancelled an 1850 pact by which the two nations had agreed to construct any canal together The United States was now free to act alone They chose Panama to build in Roosevelt dispatched John Hay to negotiate an agreement with Colombian diplomats in Washington that would allow construction to begin without delay o The treaty signed produced outrage in the Colombian Senate which refused to sign it

Roosevelt began to look for ways to circumvent the Colombian government o In 1903, he helped organize and finance a revolution in Panama Roosevelt landed troops from the U.S.S. Nashville in Panama to maintain order o Roosevelt later recognized Panama as an independent nation The new Panamanian government quickly agreed to a new treaty o It granted America a canal zone ten miles wide The United States would pay Panama the $10 million fee and the $250,000 annual rental that the Colombian Senate had rejected It opened in 1914 Taft and Dollar Diplomacy William Howard Taft worked to advance the nations economic interests overseas He showed little interest in Roosevelts larger vision of world stability The Taft-Knox foreign policy faced its severest test, and encountered its greatest failure, in the Far East The new administration responded to pressure from American banks and moved aggressively to increase Americas economic influence in the region In the Caribbean, the new administration continued and even expanded upon Roosevelts polices of limiting European and expanding American influence o Replacing the investments of European nations with investments from the United States When a revolution broke out in Nicaragua in 1909, the administration quickly sided with the insurgents and sent American troops into the country to seize the customs houses o When the new pro-American government faced an insurrection less than two years later, Taft again landed American troops in Nicaragua, this time to protect the existing regime Diplomacy and Morality Woodrow Wilson entered office with little experience or interest in diplomacy Wilson faced international challenges of a scope and gravity unmatched by any president before him Having already seized control of the finances of the Dominican Republic in 1905, the United States established

a military government there in 1916, when the Dominicans refused to accept a treaty that would have made the country a virtual American protectorate In Haiti Wilson landed the marines in 1915 to quell a revolution in the course of which a mob had murdered an unpopular president When Wilson began to fear that the Danish West Indies might fall into the hands of Germany, he bought the colony from Denmark and renamed it the Virgin Islands Concerned about the possibility of European influence in Nicaragua, he signed a treaty with that countrys government ensuring that no other nation would build a canal there and winning for the United States the right to intervene in Nicaraguas internal affairs to protect American interests In Mexico a revolution had left Victoriano Huerta in power in 1913 The Taft administration prepared to recognize the new Huerta regime and welcome back a receptive environment for American investments in Mexico Wilson took office before this could happen o The new president instantly announced that he would never recognize Huertas government of butchers In April 1914, a minor naval incidents provided the president with an excuse for more open intervention An officer in Huertas army briefly arrested several American sailors from the U.S.S. Dolphin who had gone ashore Wilson seized on the trivial incident as a pretext for seizing the Mexican port of Veracruz o Huerta fled the city after fighting broke out At last, it seemed, the crisis might be over The new leader of the government, Villa Carranza refused to accept American guidelines for the creation of a new government o He led terrorist actions throughout New Mexico Wilson ordered General John J. Pershing to lead an American expeditionary force across the Mexican border in pursuit of Villa o The American troops never found Villa o Wilson withdrew his troops in 1917 By now, Wilsons attention was turning elsewhere o To the far greater international crisis engulfing the European continent and ultimately much of the world

Chapter 23
America and The Great War o The United States formally entered WWI in 1917 o The war propelled the United States into a position of international preeminence o The Road to War The Collapse of the European Peace The Triple Entente Britain, France, and Russia The Triple Alliance Germany, Austro-Hungarian Empire, and Italy The conflict emerged most directly out of a controversy involving nationalist movements within the Austro-Hungarian Empire o Archduke Ferdinand was assassinated With support from Germany, Austria-Hungary launched a punitive assault on Serbia The Serbians called on Russia to help with their defense Germany declared war on both France and Russia Great Britain declared war on Germany Within less than a year, virtually the entire European continent and part of Asia were embroiled in a major war Wilsons Neutrality Wilson called on his fellow citizens in 1914 to remain impartial in thought as well as deed o Many Americans were not genuinely impartial Economic realities also made it impossible for the United States to deal with the belligerents on equal terms o By 1915, the United States had gradually transformed itself from a neutral power into the arsenal of the Allies The Germans were resorting to a new tactic o Submarine warfare Enemy vessels, the Germans announced, would be sunk on sight May 7, 1915 Sinking of the Lusitania without warning o 128 Americans killed o Thought of as an act of piracy o Wilson angrily demanded that Germany promise not to repeat such outrages and that the Central Powers affirm their commitment to neutral to neutral rights Lacking sufficient naval power to enforce an effective blockade against Britain, the Germans decided that the marginal advantages of unrestricted submarine warfare did not yet justify the possibility of drawing America into the war Preparedness Versus Pacifism Wilson was still not ready to enter war o Domestic politics reelection Factions that continued to oppose intervention o The question of whether America should make military and economic preparations for war provided the first issue over which pacifists and interventionists could openly debate In the fall of 1915, Wilson endorsed an ambitious proposal by American military leaders for a large and rapid increase in the nations armed forces By midsummer 1916, armament for a possible conflict was well under way Wilson won reelection in 1916

o He kept us out of war A War for Democracy The United States, Wilson insisted, had no material aims in the conflict o Rather, the nation was committed to using the war as a vehicle for constructing a new world order, one based on the same progressive ideals that had motivated reform in America Zimmerman Telegram o The British gave Wilson a telegram they had intercepted from the German foreign minister to the government of Mexico o It proposed that in the even of war between Germany and the United States, the Mexicans should join with German against the Americans In return, they would regain their lost provinces to the north when the war was over Russian Revolution o A revolution in Russia toppled the reactionary czarist regime and replaced it with a new, republican government o The United States would now be spared the embarrassment of allying itself with a despotic monarchy In 1917, Wilson asked for a declaration of war o Approved on April 6th War Without Stint Entering the War A fleet of American destroyers aided the British nay in its assault on the U-boats Many Americans had hoped the provided naval assistance alone would be enough to turn the tide in the war o It quickly became clear that a major commitment of American ground forces would also be necessary to shore up the tottering Allies Russia left the war in 1918 The American Expeditionary Force The United States did not have a large enough standing army to provide the necessary ground forces in 1917 Some urged a voluntary process to raise the needed additional forces Selective Service Act o The draft brought nearly 3 million men into the army o The American Expeditionary Forces It was the first time in American history that any substantial number of soldiers and sailors had fought overseas for an extended period In some respects, the AEF was the most diverse fighting force the United States had ever assembled o Men o Women o African-Americans Having assembled this first genuinely national army, the War Department permitted the American Psychological Association to study it o They administered the IQ Test They reflected the educational expectations of the white middle-class people who had devised them The Military Struggle Under the command of General John J. Pershing, the American troops joined the existing Allied forces in turning back a series of new German assaults

By July 18th, the Allies had halted the German advance and were beginning a successful offensive of their own By the end of October, they had helped push the Germans back toward their own border and had cut the enemys major supply lines to the front On November 11, 1918, the Great War shuddered to a close The War and American Society Organizing the Economy for War By the time the war ended, the United States government had appropriated $32 billion for expenses directly related to the conflict To raise the money, the government relied on two devices o It launched a major drive to solicit loans from the American people by selling Liberty Bonds to the public Produced $23 billion o New taxes Brought in an additional $10 billion An even greater challenge was organizing the economy to meet war needs o Wilson established a Council of National Defense Composed of members of his cabinet o Established a Civilian Advisory Commission Which set up local defense councils in every state and locality o This early administrative structure soon proved completely unworkable War boards replaced them o One for railroads, one to supervise fuel, another to handle food, etc At the center of the effort to rationalize the economy was the War Industries Board o Coordinated government purchases of military supplies The effort to organize the economy for war produced some spectacular accomplishments Labor and the War The National War Labor Board pressured industry to grant important concessions to workers An eight-hour day, the maintenance of minimal living standards, equal pay for women doing equal work, recognition of the right of unions to organize, and bargain collectively In return, it insisted that workers forgo all strikes and that employers not engage in lockouts The war provided workers with important gains o But it did not stop labor militancy Western Federation of Miners staged a series of strikes to improve the terrible conditions in the underground mines o 1914 Colorado workers walked out of the mine owned by Rockefeller o The state militia was called into the town to protect the mines, but in fact, it actually worked to help employers defeat the strikers o Joined by the strikebreakers and others, the militia attacked the workers tent colony 39 people were killed Ludlow Massacre Economic and Social Results of the War

The war helped produce a remarkable period of economic growth in the United States o Industrial production soared, and manufacturing activity expanded in regions that had previously had relatively little of it o Employment increased dramatically o Farm prices rose to their highest levels in decades One of the most important social changes of the war years was the migration of hundreds of thousands of African Americans from the rural South into northern industrial cities o The Great Migration The result was a dramatic growth in black communities in northern industrial cities such as New York, Chicago, Cleveland, and Detroit As the black communities expanded, they inevitably began to rub up against white neighborhoods, with occasionally violent results For American women, black and white, the war meant new opportunities for employment o Jobs in steel, munitions, trucking, public transportation As soon as the war was over, almost all of the women working in previously male industrial jobs quit or were fired The Search for Social Unity The Peace Movement The most active and widespread peace activism came from the womens movement Women peace activists were sharply divided once America entered the war in 1917 Began calling for woman suffrage as a war measure, to ensure that women would feel fully a part of the nation Many other women refused to support the war Selling the War and Suppressing Dissent Most of the country supported the intervention once it began In communities all across the nation, there were outbursts of fervent patriotism, floods of voluntary enlistments in the military, and greatly increased displays of patriotism The war gave a large boost to the wave of religious revivalism that had been growing already for a decade before 1917 o Billy Sunday The leading revivalist of his time Government leaders remained deeply concerned about the significant minorities who continues to oppose the war even after the United States entered it o The most conspicuous government effort to rally public support was a vast propaganda campaign orchestrated by the new Committee on Public Information The CPI supervised the distribution of innumerable tons of pro-war literature The CPI attempted at first to distribute only the facts, believing that the truth would speak for itself o Their tactics became increasingly crude The government soon began more coercive efforts to suppress dissent o The Espionage Effort Act of 1917

Created stiff penalties for spying, sabotage, or obstruction of the war effort It empowered the post office to ban seditious material from the mails o Sabotage of 1918 o Sedition Act of 1918 These bill expanded the meaning of the Espionage Act to make illegal any public expression of opposition to the war It allowed officials to prosecute anyone who criticized the present of the government The most frequent targets of the new legislation were such anticapitalist groups as the Socialist Party and the Industrial Workers of the World Vigilante mobs sprang up to discipline those who dared challenge the war A cluster of citizens groups emerged to mobilize respectable members of their communities to root out disloyalty o The American Protective League There were many victims of such activities o Socialists, labor activists, female pacifists o The most frequent were immigrants The greatest target of abuse was the GermanAmerican community The Search for a New World Order The Fourteen Points On January 8th, 1918, Wilson appeared before Congress to present the principles for which he claimed the nation was fighting o The Fourteen Points First, Wilsons proposal contained 8 specific recommendations for adjusting postwar boundaries and for establishing new nations to replace the defunct Austro-Hungarian and Ottoman Empires Second, there were five general principles to govern international conduct in the future o Freedom of the seas o Open covenants instead of secret treaties o Reductions in armaments o Free trade o Impartial mediation of colonial claims Finally, there was a proposal for a league of nations that would help implement these new principles and territorial adjustments and resolve future controversies Early Obstacles Wilson was confident that popular support would enable him to win Allied approval of his peace plan o It would not be so easy In Europe, leaders of the Allied powers were preparing to resist him even before the armistice was signed o Britain and France were in no mood for a benign and generous peace Wilson appealed to the American voters to support his peace plans by electing Democrats to Congress o Republicans won The Paris Peace Conference

The principle figures in the negotiations were the leaders of the victorious Allied nations o Lloyd George Great Britain o Clemenceau France o Vittorio Orlando Italy o Wilson U.S. Not long after Wilson came to Paris, he ordered American troops into the Soviet Union o Diplomatic relations between the United States and Soviet Union were not restored until 1933 In the tense and often vindictive atmosphere these competing concerns produced in Paris, Wilson was unable to win approval of many of the broad principles he had espoused Where the treaty departed most conspicuously from Wilsons ideals was on the question of reparations o The reparations, combined with other territorial and economic penalties, constituted an effort to keep Germany not only weak but prostrate for the indefinite future Wilson did win some victories in the treaty o He secured approval of a plan to place many former colonies and imperial possessions in trusteeship under the League of Nations He helped design the creation of two new nations o Yugoslavia and Czechoslovakia But Wilsons most visible triumph was the creation of a permanent international organization to oversee world affairs and prevent future wars The League of Nations o The covenant provided for an assembly of nations that would meet regularly to debate means of resolving disputes and protecting the peace The Ratification Battle Many Americans, accustomed to their nations isolation from Europe, question the wisdom of this major new commitment to internationalism After a brief trip to Washington in February 1919, Wilson returned to Europe and insisted on several modifications in the covenant to satisfy his critics o The revisions limited Americas obligations to the League by ensuring that the United States would not be obliged to accept a League mandate to oversee a territory and that the League would not challenge the Monroe Doctrine Did not work Wilson presented the Treaty of Versailles to the Senate on July 10, 1919 o The Senate, raised many objections When he realized the Senate would not budge, he decided to appeal to the public Wilsons Ordeal Wilson embarked on a grueling, cross-country speaking tour to arouse public support for the treaty He suffered a major stroke When the Senate Foreign Relations Committee finally sent the treaty to the full Senate for ratification, recommending nearly 50 amendments and reservations, Wilson refused to consider any of them Public interest in the peace process had begun to fade

Partly as a reaction against the tragic bitterness of the ratification fight, but more in response to a series of other crises A Society in Turmoil Industry and Labor The fighting had ended sooner than anyone had anticipated, and without warning, without planning, the nation was launched into the difficult task of economic reconversion The postwar prosperity rested largely on the lingering effects of the war and on sudden, temporary demands The postwar boom was accompanied by raging inflation The year 1919 saw an unprecedented wave of strikes o Shipyard strike in Seattle that brought the city to a stand still U.S. Marines brought in Strike failed o Strike by the Boston police Boston erupted in violence and looting National Guard called in to restore order o In September 1919, the greatest strike in American history began Steelworkers walked off the job The steel strike was long, bitter, and violent By January, the strike had collapsed The wave of strikes was a reflection of the high expectations workers had in the aftermath of a war they believed had been fought to secure their rights o It was also a reflection of the power of the forces arrayed against them The Demands of African Americans The black soldiers were an inspiration to thousands of urban African Americans o A sign, they thought, that a new age had come, that the glory of black heroism in the war would make it impossible for white society ever again to treaty African Americans as less than equal citizens That black soldiers had fought in the war had almost no impact at all on white attitudes By 1919, the racial climate had become savage and murderous o The worst of the race riots happened in Chicago The deadliest race riot in American history had occurred in New York during the Civil War Marcus Garvey o Encouraged African American to take pride in their won achievements and to develop an awareness of their African heritage United Negro Improvement Association The Red Scare The Russian Revolution of November 1917 made it clear that communism was no longer simply a theory, but now an important regime Concerns about the communist threat grew in 1919 when the Soviet government announced the formation of the Communist International (Comintern) Purpose was to export revolution around the world

In April, the post office intercepted several dozen parcels addressed to leading businessmen and politicians that were triggered to explode when opened o Later bombings followed o The bombings crystallized what was already a growing determination among many middle-class Americans to fight back against radicalism Antiradical newspapers and politicians now began to portray almost every form of instability or protest as a sign of a radical threat There were spontaneous acts of violence against supposed radicals in some communities Perhaps the greatest contribution to the Red Scare came from the federal government Palmer Raids o A series of raids on alleged radical centers throughout the country intended to uncover huge caches of weapons and explosives Found NOTHING Sacco and Vanzetti o Charged with the murder of a paymaster in Massachusetts Went before a biased judge Sentenced to death o Theirs was a cause that a generation of Americans never forgot The Retreat from Idealism The passage of the 19th Amendment marked not the beginning of an era of reform, but the end of one A general sense of disillusionment filled the country Presidential Election of 1920 Democrats Wilson Republicans Harding o Normalcy Harding won

Chapter 24

The New Era o The Roaring Twenties o The decade was a time of significant, even dramatic social, economic, and political change o The New Economy Economic Growth The nations manufacturing output rose by ore than 60 percent during the decade There was an economic boom in 1924 o The economic boom was a result of many things The debilitation of European industry in the aftermath of WWI Technology Automobile Industry was one of the most important o Fueled a boom in the construction industry Radio expanded Motion pictures grew dramatically Cheap, readily available energy further enhanced the ability of industry to produce Economic Organization Large sectors of American business were accelerating their drive toward a national organization and consolidation o Others were not In those areas where industry did consolidate, new forms of corporate organization emerged to advance the trend o Some industries strove to stabilize themselves through cooperation An important vehicle was the trade association o A national organization created by various members of an industry to encourage coordination in production and marketing techniques The great, unrealized dream of the new Era was to find a way to stabilized the economy so that collapses would never occur again Labor in the New Era The remarkable economic growth was accompanied by a continuing, and in some areas even increasing maldistribution of wealth and purchasing power American industrial workers experienced both the successes and the failures of the 1920s as much as any other group o Welfare Capitalism Improvements in working conditions After 1929, with the economy in crisis, the entire system quickly collapsed Most laborers worked for employers interested primarily in keeping their labor costs to a minimum Only by relying on the earnings of several family members at once could many working-class families make ends meet Many laborers continued to regard an effective, independent union movement as their best hope o Yet the unions themselves were generally conservative and failed to adapt to the realities of the modern economy

Women and Minorities in the Work Force A growing proportion of the work force consisted of women o Pink-collar jobs Secretaries, salesclerks, telephone operators o Because technically such positions were not industrial jobs, the AFL and other labor organizations were generally uninterested in organizing these workers African Americans had few opportunities for union representation o The Brotherhood of Sleeping Car Porters was a notable exception In the West and Southwest, Asians and Hispanics were most actively excluded from with-dominated unions Mexican immigrants formed a major part of the unskilled work force throughout the Southwest and California o Mexican workers faced the hostilities of whites, but there were few efforts to exclude them The American Plan The strength of the corporations was the principal reason for the absence of effective labor organization The American Plan was the protection of the open shop o A shop in which no worker could be required to join a union When such tactics proved insufficient to counter union power, government assistance often made the difference The Plight of the Farm Like industry, American agriculture in the 1920s was embracing new technologies for increasing production o Tractors At the same time, agricultural production was increasing rapidly in other parts of the world as well The result was overproduction, a disastrous decline in food prices, and a severe drop in income for farmers In response, some farmers began to demand relief in the form of government price supports One price-raising scheme in particular came to dominate agrarian demands o The idea of parity A formula for guaranteeing farmers a fair price for their crops regardless of how national or international agricultural markets might fluctuate The legislative expression of the demand for parity was the McNaryHaugen bill o Vetoed The New Culture Consumerism Among the many changes industrialization produced in the United States was the creation of a mass consumer culture America became a society in which people could buy items not just because of need but for pleasure The automobile affected American life in countless ways o Expanded the geographical horizons of millions of people o The automobile also transformed the idea of vacations o For young people, it allowed them to move easily away from parents and family to develop social lives of their own It contributed to one of the distinctive developments of the early twentieth century

The emergence of a distinctive and welldeveloped youth culture in many communities

Advertising No group was more aware of the emergence of consumerism than the advertising industry o Advertisers also encouraged the public to absorb the values of promotions and salesmanship and to admire those who were effective booster and publicists The advertising industry could never have had the impact it did without the emergence of new vehicles of communication that made it possible to reach large audiences quickly and easily o Newspapers, wire services, magazines The Movies and Broadcasting At the same time, movies were becoming an ever more popular and powerful form of mass communication o 1927 first talkie the Jazz Singer o 1921 the film industry introduced standards to clean up Hollywood The most important communications vehicle was the only one truly new to the 1920s: radio o The first commercial station was KDKA in Pittsburgh o NBC was the first national radio network Formed in 1927 o The radio industry feared government regulation and control o The stations and networks monitored program content carefully and excluded controversial or provocative material o Radio programming was more diverse than film Modernist Religion The influence of the consumer culture, and its increasing emphasis on immediate, personal fulfillment, was visible even in religion Liberal Protestantism o Harry Emerson Fodick The basis of Christian religion was not unexamined faith, but a fully developed personality Abundant Religion book he wrote Many middle-class Americans were gradually devaluing religion, assigning it a secondary role or no role at all o The Sabbath was becoming not a day of rest and reflection, but a holiday filled with activities and entertainments Professional Women In the 1920s college-educated women were no longer pioneers 25% of all woman workers were married Professional opportunities for women remained limited by societys assumptions about what were suitable female occupations Changing Ideas of Motherhood The decade saw a redefinition of the idea of motherhood James B. Watson - behaviorist o Maternal affection was not sufficient preparation for child rearing. Mothers should rely on advice and assistance of experts For many middle-class women, these changes helped redefine what had been an all-consuming activity Many women did not like having to depend on experts for advice They devoted more time to compassionate romance

o They saw sex for fun now Progress in the development of birth control was both a cause and a result of this change o Margaret Sanger Birth control devices began to become popular with middle-class women The Flapper: Image and Reality The new, more secular view of womanhood had effects on women beyond the middle class as well Some women concluded that in the New Era it was no longer necessary to maintain a rigid, Victorian female respectability Such assumptions became the basis of the flapper The flapper lifestyle had a particular impact on lower-middle-class single women, who were flocking to new jobs in industry Although, most women remained highly dependent on men and relatively powerless when men exploited that dependence Pressing for Womens Rights The realization that the new woman was as much myth as reality inspired some American feminists to continue their crusade for reform Female-dominated consumer groups grew rapidly and increased the range and energy of female activists efforts Women activists won a significant triumph in 1921, when they helped secure passage in Congress of a measure in keeping with the traditional feminist goal of securing protective legislation for women o The Sheppard-Towner Act It provided federal funs to states to establish prenatal and child healthcare programs In 1929 Congress terminated the program Education and Youth The growing secularism of American culture and its expanding emphasis on training and expertise found reflection in the increasingly important role of education in the lives of American youth More people were going to school than ever before Schools were beginning to perform new and more varied functions The growing importance of education contributed to the emergence of a separate youth culture The idea of adolescence as a distinct period in the life of an individual was for the most part new to the twentieth century School became an institution that allowed them to define themselves less in terms of their families and more in terms of their peer groups The Decline of the Self-Made Man The increasing importance of education and the changing nature of adolescence underscored one of the most important changes in American society: the gradual disappearance of the ideal of the selfmade man Beginning in the late nineteenth century and accelerating in the early twentieth century, it became more difficult to believe any longer that success was possible without education and training That sense of losing control, of becoming more ever dependent on rules and norms, created a crisis of self-identification among many American men Self-made men o Henry Ford, Thomas Edison, Charles Lindbergh The Disenchanted

The generation of artists and intellectuals coming of age in the 1920s found the new society in which they lived especially disturbing Rather than trying to influence and reform their society, they isolated themselves from it and embarked on a restless search for personal fulfillment The Lost Generation At the heart of the Lost Generations critique of modern society was a sense of personal alienation It was deeply rooted in WWI o A Farewell to Arms They were equally disturbed by the character of American society in peacetime To many, it was a society and culture utterly devoid of idealism or vision, stepped in outmoded and priggish morality, obsessed with materialism and consumerism, alienating and dehumanizing Criticizers of society debunkers o H. L. Mencken Booboisie o Sinclair Lewis Intellectuals of the 1920s claimed to reject the success ethic that they believed dominated American life o F. Scott Fitzgerald Some artists and intellectuals responded to their disillusionment by leaving America to live in France Only art could allow them full individual expression; only the act of creation could offer them fulfillment Not all intellectuals of the 1920s expressed alienation and despair Some expressed reservations about their society not by withdrawing from it, but by advocating reform o John Dewey The Harlem Renaissance To other groups of intellectuals, the solution to contemporary problems lay in an exploration of their own cultural or regional origins In postwar Harlem, a new generation of black artists and intellectuals created a flourishing African-American culture o Nightclubs o Theatres Harlem in the 1920s was above all a center of literature, poetry, and art o Black artists were trying in part to demonstrate the richness of their own racial heritage Langston Hughes Alain Locke Aaron Douglas The Harlem Renaissance not only helped advance African-American art and culture, but brought its products to the attention of the larger society in ways that had tremendous impact on both whites and blacks Claude McKay It had a deep and lasting effort on the development of some of Americas most important cultural and artistic traditions The Southern Agrarians A strangely similar effort was under way among an influential group of white southern intellectuals The effort grew out of a small circle of poets centered at Vanderbilt University in the early 1920s o The Fugitives

They had become so disillusioned by what they considered the society that they began looking to the South as an alternative Southern life was not based on the harsh, crass values of material gain, but on the more rewarding and enduring human values 1930 Ill take my stand o A critique of industrialization and the society it was creating The South could serve as a model for a nation drunk with visions of limitless growth and modernization A Conflict of Cultures Prohibition A year after prohibition started, the noble experiment was not working well Prohibition did substantially reduce drinking in some places o But it also produced conspicuous and growing violations that made the law an almost immediate source of disillusionment and controversy Before long, it was almost as easy to acquire illegal alcohol in much of the country as it had once been to acquire legal alcohol Organized crime figures took it over o Al Capone Protestant Americans continued vehemently to defend it 1933 21st Amendment repeal of prohibition Nativism and the Klan Like prohibition, agitation for a curb on foreign immigration to the United States had begun in the nineteenth century o Immigration came to be associated with radicalism In 1921, Congress passed an emergency immigration act o Establishing a quota system by which annual immigration from any country could not exceed 3 percent of the number of persons of that nationality who had been in the United States in 1910 The National Origins Act of 1924 banned immigration from east Asia entirely 1929 a further restriction set a rigid limit of 150,000 immigrants a year Among other things, this provincial nativism helped instigate the rebirth of the Ku Klux Klan as a major force in American society The Klan regrouped after the case of Leo Frank, a Jew who was accused of killing a woman o They lynched him White Protestant American male supremacy Many Klan units tried to present themselves as patriots and defenders of mortality o What the Klan feared was anyone who posed anyone who was a threat to traditional values The KKK was fighting not just to preserve racial homogeneity but to defend its definition of a traditional culture against the values and morals of modernity It died out after 1925 Religious Fundamentalism Another cultural controversy of the 1920s was the result of a bitter conflict over the place of religion in contemporary society Protestantism was divided o Modernists science incorporated into it

o Fundamentalists keeping the traditions alive Fundamentalism was a highly evangelical movement, interested in spreading the doctrine to new groups In Tennessee in March 1925, the legislature actually adopted a measure making it illegal for any public school teacher to teach any theory that denies the story of the divine creation of man as taught in the Bible o The American Civil Liberties Union opposed this They were all about freedom of speech and belief They opened themselves for anyone who was willing to take a stand against the law John T. Scopes, a biology teacher, was arrested His trial is famous o Williams Bryan Jennings was there Fundamentalist Admitted that not all religious dogma was subject to only one interpretation The Scopes trial was a traumatic experience for many fundamentalists The Democrats Ordeal The anguish of provincial Americans attempting to defend an embattled way of life proved particularly troubling to the Democratic Party They were a party of diverse interests In 1924, the tensions between them proved devastating o At the Democratic National Convention in New York that summer, conflict broke out over the platform when the partys urban wing attempted to win approval of planks calling for the repeal of prohibition and denunciation of the Klan o There was also a deadlock in their decision for a presidential candidate o They settled on John W. Davis A similar schism plagued the Democrats again in 1928, when Al Smith finally secured his partys nomination for president after a much shorter and less acrimonious battle o Smiths opponent was Herbert Hoover Hoover won Republican Government Harding and Coolidge Harding was elected to the presidency in 1920 He appointed capable men to the most important cabinet offices; he attempted to stabilize the nations foreign policy; and he displayed on occasion a vigorous humanity He pardoned Eugene V. Debs in 1921 Although Harding appointed several men of real distinction to his cabinet, he lacked the strength to abandon the party hacks who had helped create his political success Teapot Dome Scandal o Naval oil reserves Harding transferred control of those reserves from the Navy Department to the Interior Department His secretary of the Interior, Albert Fall, then secretly leased them to two wealthy businessmen and received in return nearly half a million dollars in loans to ease his private financial troubles Later sent to prison for a year

In the summer of 1923 Harding left Washington for Alaska o He later suffered two major heart attacks and died Calvin Coolidge succeeded Harding in the presidency o Both Harding and Coolidge both took an essentially passive approach to the presidency Coolidge believed that the government should interfere as little as possible in the life of the nation He did nothing important in the nation He won the 1924 presidential election Government and Business Much of the federal government was working effectively and efficiently during the 1920s to adapt public policy to the widely accepted goal of the time o Helping business and industry operate with maximum efficiency and productivity Congress cut all the taxes by more than half The Coolidge administration managed to retire half the nations WWI debt The most prominent member of the cabinet was Commerce Secretary Herbert Hoover Hoover believed public institutions had a duty to play an active role in creating the new, cooperative order Business associationalism The creation of a national organizations of businessmen in particular industries They could stabilized their industries and promote efficiency in production and market Lochner v New York (1905) o The Court had struck down a New York law limiting the number of hours bakers in New York could be required to work Bailey v. Brexel Furniture Company (1922) o Federal legislation regulating child labor Adkins v. Childrens Hospital (1923) o Nullified a minimum wage law for women in the District of Columbia United States v. Maple Flooring Association (1925) o Sanctioned the creation of trade associations That such organizations did not violate antitrust statues as long as some competition survived within an industry In Congress, progressive reformers of the old school continued to criticize the monopolistic practices of big business, to attack governments alliance with the corporate community, and to decry social injustices Some progressives derived encouragement from the election of Herbert Hoover Less than a year after his inauguration, the nation plunged into the severest and most prolonged economic crisis in its history

Chapter 25
The Great Depression o The Coming of the Great Depression The Great Crash In 1928 stock prices were going up There was a widespread speculative fever that grew steadily more intense, particularly once brokerage firms began encouraging the mania by recklessly offering easy credit to those buying stocks October 29, 1929 Black Tuesday the stock market crashed o It remained deeply depressed for more than four years and did not fully recover for over a decade Causes of the Depression What is remarkable about the Great Depression is that it was so severe and that it lasted so long A number of different factors account for the severity of the crisis o A lack of diversification in the American economy in the 1920s Prosperity had depended excessively on a few basic industries o Maldistribution of purchasing power and a weakness in consumer demand o The credit structure of the economy o Americas position in international trade o The international debt structure after WWI The collapse of the international credit structure was one of the reasons the Depression spread to Europe after 1931 Progress of the Depression The stock market crash of 1929 did not so much cause the Depression as help trigger a chain of events that exposed longstanding weaknesses in the American economy Over 9,000 American banks either went bankrupt or closed their doors o avoid bankruptcy between 1930 and 1933 The nations money supply greatly decreased Deflation followed The collapse was so rapid and so devastating that at the time it created only bewilderment among many of those who attempted to explain it Unemployment averaged about 20% of the population o The American People in Hard Times Unemployment and Relief The suffering extended into every area of society Unemployment rates were astounding Unemployed workers walked through the streets day after day looking for jobs that did not exist In many places, relief simply collapsed Breadlines stretched for blocks outside Red Cross and Salvation Army kitchens Rural conditions were worse Farm income declined by 60% A third of all American farmers lost their land Beginning in 1930, a large area of the nation, which came to be known as the Dust Bowl, began to experience a steady decline in rainfall and an accompanying increase in heat

Many farmers traveled to California and other states in search of jobs African Americans and the Depression African Americans for the most part had not shared very much in the prosperity of the previous decade They experienced more unemployment, homelessness, malnutrition, and disease than they had in the past As the Depression deepened, whites in many southern cities began to demand that all blacks be dismissed from their jobs By 1932, over half the blacks in the South were without employment Therefore, many black southerners left the South in the 1930s and journeyed to the cities of the North Scottsboro case o Nine black teenagers were taken off a freight train in Alabama and arrested for vagrancy and disorder o They were later accused of raping two white women Untrue o They were all sentenced to death o The Supreme Court overturned the convictions in 1932 The Depression was a time of important changes in the role and behavior of leading black organizations Mexican Americans in Depression America Similar patterns of discrimination confronted Mexicans and Mexican Americans Chicanos, Mexican-Americans filled many of the same menial jobs in the West and elsewhere that blacks filled in other regions The Depression made things significantly worse for them Unemployed white Anglos in the Southwest demanded jobs held by Hispanics Mexican unemployment rose quickly to levels far higher than those for Anglos Some Mexicans were forced to leave the country Those who remained faced persistent discrimination Many Mexicans began as a result to migrate to cities such as Los Angeles Asian Americans in Hard Times For Asian Americans, the Depression reinforced longstanding patterns of discrimination and economic marginalization Like blacks and Hispanics, they often lost jobs to white Americans desperate for work that a few years earlier they would not have considered They found no work outside of Chinatowns Women and the Workplace in the Great Depression The economic crisis served in many ways to strengthen the widespread belief that a womans proper place was in the home From 1932 until 1937, it was illegal for more than one member of a family to hold a federal civil service job Both single and married women worked in the 1930s, despite public condemnation of the practice, because they or their families needed the money By the end of the Depression, 20% more women were working than had been doing so at the beginning However, black women suffered massive unemployment because of a great reduction of domestic service jobs

The Depression saw the virtual extinction of the National Womans Party, which had fought throughout the 1920s for the Equal Rights Amendment and other egalitarian goals. Depression Families The economic hardships of the Depression years placed great strains on American families Such circumstanced forced many families to retreat from the consumer patterns they had developed in the 1920s o Women often sewed their own clothing and preserved foods rather than buying them o Home businesses sprang up The Depression also eroded the strength of many family units Marriage, divorce, and birth rates declined The Depression and American Culture Depression Values Mainstream culture had celebrated affluence and consumerism and had stressed the importance of personal gratification through both prosperity and industrial growth Many Americans assumed that the experience of hard times would have profound effects on the nations social values American social values seemed to change relatively little in response to the Depression o Many people responded to hard times by sticking harder to their beliefs No assumption would seem to have been more vulnerable to erosion during the Depression than the belief that the individual was in control of his or her own fate o In some respects, the economic crisis did work to undermine the traditional success ethic in America o The survival of the ideals so work and individual advancement was evident in many ways o The Depression was sometimes hard to see, because the unemployed tended to hide themselves At the same time, millions responded eagerly to reassurances that they could restore themselves to prosperity and success o Many men and women believed that the economic problems of their time were the fault of society, not of individuals, and that some collective social response was necessary Artists and Intellectuals in the Great Depression Most effective in conveying the dimensions of the poverty in America was a group of documentary photographers who traveled through the South recording the nature of agricultural life o Roy Stryker, Walker Evans, Arthur Rothstein, Ben Shan, Margaret Bourke-White, Dorothea Lange Produced memorable studies of farm families and their surroundings, studies designed to reveal the savage impact of a hostile environment on its victims Many writers devoted themselves to exposes of social injustice o Erskine Caldwell, Richard Wright, John Steinbeck, John dos Passos, Clifford Odets But the cultural products of the 1930s that attracted the widest popular audiences were those that diverted attention away from the Depression o Radio and movies Radio Almost every American family had a radio in the 1930s

o It drew people together The staple of broadcasting was escapism Radio brought a new kind of comedy to a wide audience Soap operas were enormously popular as well in the 1930s Radio programs were broadcast live and as a result, radio spawned an enormous number of public performances Radio provided Americans with their first direct access to important public events Radio was important for the way it drew the nation together by creating the possibility of shared experience and common access to culture and information o It was also significant for the way it helped reshape the social life of the nation, for the way it encouraged many families and individuals to center their lives more around the home than they had in the past The Movies By mid-1930s movies were becoming more interesting Hollywood continued to exercise tight control over its products in the 1930s through its resilient censor will Hays But neither the censor nor the studio system could prevent films from exploring social questions altogether o The director Frank Capra provided a muted social message in several of his comedies which celebrated the virtues of the small town and the decency of the common people in contrast to the selfish, corrupt values of the city and the urban rich More often the commercial films of the 1930s were deliberately and explicitly escapist o Musicals o Films designed to divert audiences from their troubles and indulge their fantasies about quick and easy wealth The 1930s saw the beginning of Walt Disneys long reign as the champion of animation and childrens entertainment Hollywood did little to challenge the conventions of popular culture on issues of gender and race Popular Literature and Journalism The social and political strains of the Great Depression found voice much more successfully in print than they did on the airwaves or the screen Not all literature was challenging or controversial o The most popular books and magazines of the time were as escapist and romantic as the most popular as radio shows and movies o Time was started in 1937 Other depression writing was frankly and openly challenging to the dominant values of American popular culture The Popular Front and the Left In the later 1930s, much of the political literature adopted a more optimistic approach to society This was in part a result of the rise of the Popular Front o A broad coalition of antifascist groups on the left, of which the most important was the American Communist Party In its heyday, the Popular Front did much to enhance the reputation and influence of the Communist party

But it also helped mobilize writers, artists, and intellectuals behind a pattern of social criticism o For some intellectuals, the Popular Front offered an escape from the lonely and difficult stance of detachment and alienation many had embraced in the 1920s The Communist Party was active as well in organizing the unemployed in the early 1930s and staged a hunger march in Washington D. C. in 1931 The American Communist Party was not the open, patriotic organization it tried to appear o It was always under the close and rigid supervision of the Soviet Union o The subordination of the party leadership to the Soviet Union was most clearly demonstrated in 1939, when Stalin signed a nonaggression pact with Nazi Germany The Front then began again to criticize America Antiradicalism was a powerful force in the 1930s o Hostility toward the Communist Party was intense at many levels of government The 1930s witnessed an impressive widening of the ideological range of mainstream art and politics o A less confrontational grappling with the social misery of the 1930s was a remarkable book by the novelist James Agee and the photographer Walker Evans Let Us now Praise Famous Men o Perhaps the most successful chronicler of social conditions in the 1930s was the novelist John Steinbeck The Grapes of Wrath The Ordeal of Herbert Hoover The Hoover Programs Hoovers first response to the Depression was to attempt to restore public confidence in the economy He summoned leaders of business, labor, and agriculture to the White House and urged upon them a program of voluntary cooperation for recovery o He implored business men not to cut production or lay off workers o He talked labor leaders into forgoing demands for higher wages or better hours The president proposed to Congress an increase of $423 million in federal public works programs o In 1932, at the depth of the depression, he proposed a tax increase to help the government avoid a deficit In April 1929, he proposed the Agricultural Marketing Act o Established for the first time a government bureaucracy to help farmers maintain prices A federally sponsored Farm Board would administer a budget of $500 million, from which it could make loans to national marketing cooperatives or establish corporations to buy surpluses and thus raise prices The Hawley Smoot Tariff of 1930

Contained protective increases on seventy-five farm products and raised rates to the highest point in American history FAILURE A Deepening Crisis In the 1930 congressional elections Democrats won control of the House and had made substantial gains in the Senate Americans held Hoover to blame for the crisis in the country The international financial panic of the spring of 1931 destroyed the illusion that the economic crisis was coming to an end In May 1931 the largest bank in Austria collapsed Panic gripped the financial institutions of neighboring countries European governments withdrew their gold investments from American banks The American economy rapidly declined to new lows Reconstruction Finance Corporation o 1932 o A government agency whose purpose was to provide federal loans to troubled banks, railroads, and other businesses o The RFC had a budget of $1.5 billion for public works alone The RFC did not have enough money to make any real impact on the Depression Popular Protest By the middle of 1932 radical and dissident voices were becoming loud and pervasive In the Midwest farmers called for legislation by which the government would guarantee them a return on their crops at least equal to the cost of production o In the summer of 1932, a group of unhappy farm owners gathered in Des Moines, Iowa to put together a farmers strike The strike spread, but was a failure The uprising created considerable consternation in state government sin the farm belt and even more in Washington, where the president and much of Congress were facing a national election A more celebrated protest movement emerged from a less likely quarter o American veterans A war bonus had been promised for those in WWI to be handed out in 1945 They wanted it in 1932 Hoover refused o The veterans formed themselves into the Bonus Expeditionary Force and marched into Washington They promised to stay until Congress approved legislation to pay the bonus The army was called in after police attempts to get rid of the bonus army failed The Election of 1932 Republicans Herbert Hoover Democrats FDR FDR won in a landslide The Interregnum The period between the election and the inauguration was a season of growing economic crisis In February, only a month before the inauguration, a new crisis developed when the American banking system began to collapse

March 4, 1933 was a day of both economic crisis and considerable personal bitterness

Chapter 26
The New Deal o Launching the New Deal Restoring Confidence On March 6th, FDR issued a proclamation closing all American banks for four days until Congress could meet in special session to consider banking-reform legislation Roosevelt sent to Congress the Emergency Banking Act o A generally conservative bill designed primarily to protect the larger banks from being dragged down by the weakness of smaller ones o Provided for Treasury Department inspection of all banks before they would be allowed to reopen, for federal assistance to some troubled institutions, and for a thorough reorganization of those n the greatest difficulty o The immediate banking crisis was over The Economy Act o Designed to convince fiscally conservative Americans that the federal government was in safe, responsible hands o The act proposed to balance the federal budget by cutting the salaries of government employees and reducing pensions to veterans by as much as 15% He supported and then signed a bill to legalize the manufacture and sale of beer with a 3.2% alcohol content o The 21st Amendment was ratified in 1933 Agricultural Adjustment Agricultural Adjustment Act o 1933 o Its provision for reducing crop production to end agricultural surpluses and halt the downward spiral of farm prices o Under the domestic allotment system of the act, producers of seven basic commodities would decide on production limits for their crops The government would then tell individual farmers how much they should plant and pay them subsidies for leaving some of their land idle Farm prices did go up after 1933 and farm income increased by half In January 1936, the Supreme Court struck down the crucial provisions of the Agricultural Adjustment Act o Arguing that the government had no constitutional authority to require farmers to limit production The Soil Conservation and Domestic Allotment Act o It permitted the government to pay farmers to reduce production so as to conserve soil, prevent erosion, and accomplish other secondary goals o It also attempted to protect sharecroppers and tenant farmers Now landlords were required to share the payments they received for cutting back production with those who worked their land The Resettlement Administration o 1935 The Farm Security Administration o 1937

Both provided loans to help farmers cultivating submarginal soil to relocate on better lands Rural Electrification Administration o 1935 o Worked to make electric power available for the first time to thousands of farmers through utility cooperatives Industrial Recovery National Industrial Recovery Act o 1933 o The most important and far-reaching legislation ever enacted by the American Congress o The National Recovery Administration Hugh S. Johnson Called on every business establishment in the nation to accept a temporary blanket code o A minimum wage of between 30 and 40 cents an hour, a maximum work week of 35 to 40 hours, and the abolition of child labor Set of industrial codes o These industrial codes set floors below which no company would lower prices or wages in its search for a competitive advantage, and they included agreements on maintaining employment and production The Troubled NRA Section 7(a) of the National Industrial Recovery Act promised workers the right to form unions and engage in collective bargaining and encouraged many workers to join unions for the first time o But Section 7(a) contained no enforcement mechanisms The Public Works Administration o Established by the bill to administer spending programs only gradually allowed the $3.3 billion in public works funds to trickle out Perhaps the clearest evidence of the NRAs failure was that industrial production actually declined in the months after it establishment Reformers were complaining that the NRA was encouraging economic concentration and monopoly o A national Recovery Review Board reported that the NRA was excessively dominated by big business and unduly encouraging monopoly The Schechter Decision The constitutional basis for the NRA had been Congresss power to regulate commerce among the states The case before the Court involved alleged NRA code violations by the Schechter brothers o The Court ruled unanimously that the Schechters were not engaged in interstate commerce and that Congress had unconstitutionally delegated legislative power to the president to draft the NRA codes o It nullified the legislation establishing the agency The TVA

Tennessee Valley Authority o The TVA was intended not only to complete a damn at Muscle Shoals and build others in the region, and not only to generate and sell electricity from them to the public at reasonable rates o It was also to be the agent for a comprehensive redevelopment of the entire region Currency, Banks, and the Stock Market On April 18, 1933 the president made the shift off the gold standard official with an executive order Glass-Steagall Act o 1933 o Gave the government authority to curb irresponsible speculation by banks o Established the Federal Deposit Insurance corporation, which guaranteed all bank deposits up to $2,500 Truth in Securities Act o 1933 o Required corporations issuing new securities to provide full and accurate information about them to the public Securities and Exchange Commission o 1934 o To police the stock market The Growth of Federal Relief Federal Emergency Relief Administration o Provided cash grants to states to prop up bankrupt relief agencies Civil Works Administration o It put more than 4 million people to work on temporary projects This use of government spending to stimulate the economy was one of the New Deals most important contributions to public policy o Pump priming Civilian Conservation Corps o The CCC was designed to provide employment to the millions of urban young men who could find no jobs in the cities and who were raising fears of urban violence o The CCC created a series of camps in national parks and forests and in other rural and wilderness settings The Farm Credit Administration o Was a response to the problem of mortgage relief The Frazier-Lemke Farm Bankruptcy Act o 1933 o Another answer Home Owners Loan Corporation Federal Housing Administration o To insure mortgages for new construction and home repairs The New Deal in Transition Attacks from the Right and the Left Some of the most strident attacks on the New Deal came from critics on the right o In August 1934, the American Liberty League was formed Designed specifically to arouse public opposition to the New Deals dictorial policies and its supposed attacks on free enterprise

Roosevelts critics on the left also managed to produce alarm among some supporters of the administration o The Communist Party and The Socialist Party Popular Protest More menacing to the New Deal was a group of dissident political movements that defied easy ideological classification o Francis E. Townsend Townsend plan All Americans over the age of sixty would receive monthly government pensions of $200, provided they retired and spent the money in full each month o Charles E. Coughlin Proposed the remonetization of silver, issuing of greenbacks, and nationalization of the banking system Established the National union for Social Justice in 1935 o Huey P. Long He had become a dictator in Louisiana He advocated a drastic program of wealth redistribution Share-Our-Wealth Plan Established the Share-Our-Wealth Society in 1934 The Second New Deal In the spring of 1935, Roosevelt launched a series of important new programs in response both to the growing political pressures and to the continuing economic crisis o The Second New Deal The president was now willing openly to attack corporate interests o He asked Congress for a law to break up the great utility holding companies Holding Company Act o 1935 A series of tax reforms put forth by the president gave great alarm to Americans o Soak the rich scheme o The new tax laws were more important symbolically than they were economically The Wagner Act The Supreme court decision in 1935 to invalidate the National Industrial Recovery Act solved some problems for the Roosevelt administration, but it also created others Section 7(a) was now a defunct act National Labor Relations Act o 1935 o Wagner Act o Provided workers with more federal protection than Section 7(a) of the National Industrial Recovery Act had offered o It provided a crucial enforcement mechanism The National Labor Relations Board Labor Militancy

The emergence of a powerful American trade union movement in the 1930s was one of the most important social and political developments of the decade New and more militant labor organizations emerged to challenge the established, conservative unions The growing militancy first became obvious in 1934, when newly organized workers demonstrated a determination and radicalism not seen since 1919 and became involved in militant, occasionally violent, confrontations with employers and local authorities The Labor Schism During the 1930s another concept of labor organization challenged the craft union ideal o Industrial unionism Advocates argued that all the workers in a particular industry should be organized in a single union John L. Lewis o Created the Congress of Industrial Organizations in 1936 after fights with the American Federation of Labor The schism clearly weakened the labor movement in many ways Organizing Battles Major battles were under way in the automobile and steel industrials in the Unions o The United Auto Workers was gradually emerging preeminent in the early and mid-1930s Auto workers employed a controversial and effective new technique for challenging corporate opposition The sit-down strike Starting in 1936 the sit down strike spread to other plants by 1937 The strikers ignored court orders and local police efforts to force them to vacate the buildings Employers were forced to recognize the UAW The sit-down strike proved effective for rubber works and others as well In the steel industry, the battle for unionization was more difficult o In 1936, the Steel Workers Organization Committee began a major organizing drive involving thousands of works and frequent strikes o In 1937 United States Steel recognized the union rather than risk a costly strike at a time when it sensed itself on the verge of recovery from the Depression Social Security From the first moments of the New Deal important members of the administration had been lobbying for a system of federally sponsored social insurance for the elderly and the unemployed Social Security Act o 1935 o For the elderly there were two types of assistance Those who were destitute at the the time the bill passed could begin receiving up to $15 a month in federal assistance Many Americans presently working were incorporated into a pension system

Pension payments would not begin until 1940 and the recipients would receive between $10 and $85 a month The Social Security Act created a system of unemployment insurance It also provided aid to blind and otherwise handicapped people and to dependent children The distinction built into the social Security Act between insurance and public assistance institutionalized a set of cultural biases that would continue to influence the policies of welfare for the rest of the twentieth century The 1935 act was the most important single piece of social welfare legislation in American history New Directions in Relief Works Progress Administration o 1935 o Established a system of work relief for the unemployed o Kept an average of 2.1 million workers employed between 1935 and 1941 The WPA also displayed remarkable flexibility and imagination in offering assistance to those whose occupations fid not fit into any traditional category of relief o The Federal Writers Project gave unemployed writers a chance to do their work and receive a government salary o The Federal Arts Project helped painters, sculptors, and others to continue their careers o The Federal Music Project and the Federal Theater Project over saw the production of concerts and plays o The National Youth Administration provided work and scholarship assistance to high-school and college-age men and women o The Emergency Housing Division of the Public Works Administration began federal sponsorship of public housing For men, the government concentrated mainly on work relief The principal government aid to women was not work relief, but cash assistance o Aid to Dependent Children program of Social Security The 1936 Referendum The Presidential Election Republicans Alf M. Landon Democrats FDR Union Party William Lemke The greatest landslide in American history to that point The election displayed the party realignment that the new Deal had produced Farmers, industrial workers, women, blacks It would be decades before the Republican Party could again produce a majority coalition of its own The New Deal in Disarray The Court Fight Without informing congressional leaders in advance, FDR sent a surprise message to Capitol Hill proposing a general overhaul of the federal court system and including, among many provision, one to add up to six new justice to the supreme Court Roosevelt said that eh Court needed new and younger blood

His real purpose was to give himself the opportunity to appoint new, liberal justices and change the ideological balance of the court o Court-packing West Coast Hotel v. Parrish (1937) o To uphold a state minimum wage law Congress ultimately defeated the presidents plan He never had the same political motivation again Other Setbacks One causality of this newly powerful conservative coalition was an ambitious plan to reorganize the executive branch of government o Executive reorganization, like Court packing, reinforced conservative arguments that the president was aspiring to become a dictator The greatest blow to the administration as it began its second terms was an economic one o A serious new recession that threatened to discredit everything the New Deal had done Retrenchment and Recession There was a boom in 1937 o FDR started cutting back on his relief plans to try and balance the budget By 1938 economic conditions were soon almost as bad as in the bleak days of 1932 and 1933 The recession of 1937 was a shock to many o It was a result of many factors The new crisis forced a revaluation of policies within the administration In April 1938, the president asked Congress for an emergency appropriation of $5 billion for public works and relief programs, and government funds soon began pouring into the economy once again o Within a few months, another tentative recovery seemed to be under way, and the advocates of spending pointed to it as proof of the validity of their approach In April 1938, Roosevelt sent a stinging message to Congress, vehemently denouncing what he called an unjustifiable concentration of economic power and asking for the creation of a commission to examine the problem o Congress established the Temporary National Economic Committee To investigate the impact of monopoly on the economy Fair Labor Standards Act o Created a national minimum wage and a mandated forty-hour work week Limits and Legacies of the New Deal The Idea of the Broker State Instead of gorging all elements of society into a single, harmonious unit the real achievement of the New Deal was to elevate and strengthen new interest groups so as to allow them to compete more effectively in the national marketplace The New Deal made the federal government a mediator in that continuous competition One of the enduring legacies of the new Deal was to make the federal government a protector of interest groups and a supervisor of the competition among them

One of the important limits of the new Deal was its very modest record on behalf of several important social groups African Americans and the New Deal One group the New Deal did relatively little to assist was African Americas Marian Anderson was not permitted to sing in D. C. o Eleanor Roosevelt found a way for her to sing on the steps of the Lincoln Memorial One of the first modern civil rights demonstrations Black Cabinet o The black members of FDRs administration By 1936, more than 90% of blacks were voting Democratic New Deal relief agencies did not challenge, and indeed reinforced, existing patterns of discrimination But it refused to make the issue of race a significant part of its agenda The New Deal and the Indian Problem In many respects, government polices toward the Indian tribes in the 1930s were simply a continuation of the long-established effort to encourage Native Americans to assimilate Commissioner of Indian Affairs John Collier o Collier promoted legislation that would reverse the pressures on Native Americans to assimilate and would allow them the right to live in traditional Indian ways Indian Reorganization Act of 1934 It restored to the tribes the right to own land collectively The efforts of the 1930s did not solve what some called the Indian Problem They did provide Indians with some tools for rebuilding the viability of the tribes Women and the New Deal The New Deal was not hostile to feminist aspirations, but neither did it do a great deal to advance them Roosevelt appointed the first female cabinet member in the nations history, Secretary of Labor Frances Perkins Such things were in part a response to pressure from Eleanor Roosevelt Hattie Caraway of AK became in 1934 the first woman ever elected to a full term in the U. S. Senate The New Deal in the West and the South The two regions of the United States that did receive special attention from the New Deal were the West and the South o Most westerners were eager for the assistance New Deal agencies provided, but their political leaders were not always as supportive The main reason for the New Deals particular impact on the West was that conditions in the region made the governments programs especially important o Farming o But the region pad a price for the governments beneficence For generations after the Great Depression, the federal government maintained a much greater and more visible bureaucratic presence in the West than in any other region

The New Deal also directed national attention toward the economic condition of the South in a way that no previous administration had done The New Deal and the National Economy The most frequent criticisms of the New Deal involve its failure genuinely to revive or reform the American economy The New Deal substantially did not alter the distribution of power within American capitalism o Only a small impact on the distribution of wealth The New Deal did have a number of important and lasting effects on both the behavior and the structure of the American economy The New Deal also created the basis of the federal welfare state The New Deal and American Politics Perhaps the most dramatic effect of the New Deal was on the structure and behavior of American government itself and on the character of American politics The New Deal had a profound impact on how the American people defined themselves politically

Chapter 27
The Global Crisis, 1921 1941 o The Diplomacy of the New Era Replacing the League Washington Conference o 1921 o An attempt to prevent what was threatening to become a costly and destablishing naval armaments races between America, Britain, and Japan o The Fiver-Power Pact of 1922 Established both limits for total naval tonnage and a ratio of armaments among the signatories For everyone 5 tons of American and British warships, Japan would maintain 3 and France and Italy 1.75 each o Nine-Power Pact Pledging a continuation of the Open-Door policy in China o Four-Power Pact The United States, Britain, France, and Japan promised to respect one anothers Pacific territories and cooperate to prevent aggression Kellogg-Briand Pact o 1928 o A multilateral treaty outlawing war as an instrument of national policy Debts and Diplomacy The first responsibility of diplomacy was to ensure that American overseas trade faced no obstacles to expansion and that it would remain free of interference The United States was most concerned about Europe, on whose economic health American prosperity in large part depended Dawes Plan o 1924 o An agreement among France, Britain, Germany, and the United States under which American banks would provide enormous loans to the Germans, enabling them to meet their reparations payments o In return, Britain and France would agree to reduce the amount of those payments American industries began to open in Europe o Many warned that the reckless expansion of overseas loans and investments threatened disaster The United States was becoming too dependent on unstable European economic The high tariff barriers that the Republican congress had erected were creating additional problems o European nations were unable to export their goods to the United States and could not find money to repay their debts Latin America o American corporations built roads and other facilities in many areas to weaken the appeal of revolutionary forces in the region and to increase their own access to Latin Americas rich natural resources

By the end of the 1920s, resentment of Yankee imperialism was growing rapidly Hoover and the World Crisis The world financial crisis was not only creating economic distress, it was producing a dangerous nationalism that threatened the weak international agreements established during the previous decade The Depression was toppling some existing political leaders and replacing them with powerful, belligerent governments bent on expansion as a solution to their economic problems In Latin America, Hoover worked studiously to repair some of the damage created by earlier American policies o Hoover announced a new policy America would grant diplomatic recognition to any sitting government in the region without questioning the means it had used to obtain power In Europe, Hoovers proposed moratorium on debts in 1931 failed to attract broad support or produce financial stability o At a conference in London in January 1930, American negotiators reached agreement with European and Japanese delegates on extending the limits on naval construction established at the Washington Conference of 1921 France and Britain said no o World Disarmament conference that opened in Geneva in January 1932 France rejected the idea of disarmament entirely and called for the creation of an international army to counter the growing power of Germany The conference ultimately dissolved in failure The ineffectiveness of diplomacy in Europe was particularly troubling in view of some of the new governments coming to power on the Continent o Fascist and Nazi More immediately alarming to the Hoover administration was a major crisis in Asia o Japanese invasion of Manchuria By the time Hoover left office it was clear that the international system the United States had attempted to create in the 1920s had collapsed Isolationism and Internationalism Depression Diplomacy Perhaps Roosevelts sharpest break with the policies of his predecessor was on the question of American economic relations with Europe World Economic Conference o 1933 o Roosevelt had already decided to allow the gold value of the dollar to fall to enable American goods to compete in world markets o The conference quickly dissolved without reaching agreement Roosevelt abandoned the commitments of the Hoover administration to settle the issue of war debts through international agreement 1934 he signed a bill to forbid American banks from making loans to any nation in default on its debts Roosevelt approved the Reciprocal Trade Agreement Act of 1934 o Authorizing the administration to negotiate treaties lower tariffs by as much as 50% in return for reciprocal reductions by other nations

America and the Soviet Union In 1933 Russia and America reached an agreement o The Soviets would cease their propaganda efforts in the United States and protect American citizens in Russia, in return, the United States would recognize the communist regime By the end of 1934 the Soviet Union and the United States were once again viewing each other with considerable mistrust The Good Neighbor Policy Somewhat more successful were American efforts to enhance both diplomatic and economic relations with Latin America through what became known as the Good Neighbor Policy Inter-American Conference o 1933 o No state has the right to intervene in the internal or external affairs of another However, it did nothing to stem the growing American domination of the Latin American economics The Rise of Isolationism The Geneva Conference was a failure Support for isolationism emerged from many quarters In 1935 Roosevelt asked the Senate to ratify a treaty to make the United States a member of the World Court o Isolationists put it down Neutrality Act of 1935, 1936, and 1937 o Were designed to prevent a recurrence of the events that many Americans now believed has pressured the United States into WWI o The 1935 law established a mandatory arms embargo against both victim and aggressor in any military conflict and empowered the president to warn American citizens tat they might travel on the ships of warring nations only at their own risk o The 1936 act renewed these provisions o The 1937 Act established the so-called cash-and-carry policy By which belligerents could purchase only nonmilitary goods from the United States and had to pay cash and carry the gods away on their own vessels The Failure of Munich Hitler had begun invading other countries On September 29, Hitler met with the leaders of France and Great Britain at Munich in an effort to resolve the crisis o The French and British agreed to accept the German demands in Czechoslovakia in return for Hitlers promise to expand no farther o The Munich accords were the most prominent element of a policy that came to be known as appeasement o The policy was a failure Hitler invaded the rest of Czechoslovakia and was demanding Poland o 1939 he staged a full invasion of Poland o France and Britain declared war on Germany WWII had begun From Neutrality to Intervention Neutrality Tested

In 1939 Roosevelt asked Congress for a revision of the Neutrality Acts o Congress passed the 1939 measure that maintained the prohibition on American ships entering war zones o It did permit belligerent to purchase arms on the same cashand-carry basis that the earlier Neutrality Acts had established for the sale of nonmilitary materials Whatever illusions anyone may have had about the reality of the war in Western Europe were shattered in the spring of 1940 when Germany launched an invasion to the west o They instituted the Vichy government in France o One western European stronghold after another fell into German hands On June 10, Mussolini brought Italy into the war On May 16, 1940 Roosevelt asked Congress for an additional $1 billion for defense and received it quickly Burke-Wadsworth Act o The first peacetime draft in American history 1940 Fight for Freedom Committee o People who were for Americas interference in the war Opposing them was a new lobby called the America First Committee The Third-Term Campaign FDR ran for a third term Republicans Wendell Willkie o Both parties ran on the same stands FDR won again Neutrality Abandoned Lend-lease system o It would allow the government not only to sell but to lend or lease armaments to any nation deemed vital to the defense of the United States By July 1941, American ships were patrolling the ocean as far east as Iceland scoring convoys of merchant ships, and radioing information to British vessels about the location of Nazi submarines When Germans began to fire on American ships FDR ordered American ships to fire on sight Atlantic Charter o The United States and Britain set out certain common principles on which to base a better future for the world The Road to Pearl Harbor In the meantime, Japan was taking advantage of the crisis to extending its empire in the Pacific In 1940, Japan signed the Tripartite Pact o A loose defensive alliance with Germany and Italy that seemed to extend the Axis into Asia When Japan attacked the Dutch East Indies FDR froze all Japanese assts in the United States and established a complete trade embargo December 7th, 1941 o Pearl Harbor the attack unified the American people in a fervent commitment to war On December 8th, the Congress approved a declaration of war

Chapter 28
American in a World at War o War on Two Fronts Containing the Japanese After the bombing of Pearl Harbor, American and British possessions in the Pacific fell to the Japanese American strategists planned two broad offensives to turn the tide against the Japanese o One would come North from Australia (MacArthur), the other west from Hawaii (Nimitz) and meet to defeat Japanese forces Battle of Coral Sea o May 7-8, 1942 o American forces turned back the previously unstoppable Japanese fleet Battle of Midway o June 3-6, 1942 o The American navy destroyed four Japanese aircraft carriers while losing only one and regained control of the central Pacific for the United States Solomon Islands o August 1942 o American forces assaulted three of the islands: Gavutu, Tulagi, and Guadalcanal o The Japanese were forced to abandon the island and their last chance of launching an effective offensive to the south Holding Off the Germans General George C. Marshall supported a plan for a major Allied invasion of France across the English Channel in 1943 But the Soviets and the British wanted to institute their own plans FDR decided to support the British plan o A series of Allied offensives around the edges of the Nazi empire before undertaking the major invasion of France The British opened a counteroffensive against Nazi forces in North Africa under General Ervin Rommel and forced the Germans to retreat from Egypt On November 8, Anglo-American forces landed at Oran and Algiers in Algeria and at Casablanca and began moving east toward Rommel The Germans began to defeat the American forces But the American offensive finally drove the last Germans from Africa in May 1943 July 9, 1943 American and British armies landed in southeast Sicily o 38 days later they had conquered the island and were moving into the mainland o Mussolinis government collapsed and he fled Italy soon became committed to the Allies America and the Holocaust As early as 1942, high officials in Washington had incontrovertible evident that Hitlers forces were rounding up Jews and others from all over Europe, transporting them to concentration camps in eastern Germany and Poland, and systematically murdering them Public pressure began to build for an Allied effort to end the killing or at least to rescue some of the surviving Jews

One ship, the St. Louis, had arrived off Miami in 1939 carrying nearly 1,000 escape German Jews, only to be refused entry and forced to return to Europe There was a deliberate effort by officials in the State Department to prevent Jews from entering the United States The American People in Wartime Prosperity WWII had its most profound impact on American domestic life by at last ending the Great Depression The most important agent of the new prosperity was federal spending The gross national product soared Personal incomes in some areas grew by as much as 100% or more The demands of wartime production created a shortage of consumer goods, so many wage earners diverted much of their new affluence into savings, which would later help keep the economic boom alive in the postwar years The War and the West The impact of government spending was perhaps most dramatic in the West Altogether the government made almost $40 billion worth of capital investments in the West during the war o Factories, military and transportation facilities, highways, power plants The Pacific Coast had become the center of the growing American aircraft industry and shipbuilding industry Once a lightly industrialized region, parts of the West were now among the most important manufacturing areas in the country Labor and the War The war created a serious labor shortage o The armed forces took more than 15 million men and women out of the civilian work force at the same tie that the demand for labor was rising rapidly The government was principally interested in preventing inflation and in keeping production moving without disruption It managed to win important concessions from union leaders on both scores o Little Steel Formula Set a 15% limit on wartime wage increases o No-strike pledge Unions agreed not to stop production in wartime In return, the government provided labor with a maintenance-of-membership agreement Ensured the continued health of the union organizations, but in return workers had to give up the right to demand major economic gains during the war When the United Mine Workers defied the government by striking in May 1943, Congress reacted by passing the Smith-Connally Act (War Labor Disputes Act) o Required unions to wait thirty days before striking and empowered the president to seize a struck war plant Stabilizing the Boom Anti-Inflation Act o Gave the administration authority to freeze agricultural prices, wages, salaries, and rents throughout the country

o Enforcement was lead by the Office of Price Administration Revenue Act of 1942 o Established a 94% rate for the highest brackets and for the first time imposed taxes on the lowest-income families as well o To simplify collection, Congress enacted a withholding system of payroll deductions in 1943 Mobilizing Production War Production Board o The WPB was to be a superagency with broad powers over the economy The WPB constantly found itself outmaneuvered and frustrated o It was never able to win control over military purchases, never able to satisfy the complaints of small businesses The president transferred much of the WPBs authority to a new office located within the White House o The Office of War Mobilization African Americans and the War As WWII approached blacks were determined to use the conflict to improve their position in society In the summer of 1941, A. Philip Randolph, president of the Brotherhood of Sleeping Car Porters began to insist that the government require companies receiving defense contracts to integrate their work forces o Led to the establishment of the Fair Employment Practices Commission To investigate discrimination against blacks in war industries The Congress of Racial Equality o 1942 o Mobilized mass popular resistance to discrimination in a way that the older, more conservative organizations had never done In 1944 they forced a Washington D. C. restaurant to agree to serve blacks Pressure for change was also growing within the military o By the end of the war, the number of black service men had increased seven old o Substantial discrimination survived in all the services until well after the war Native Americans and the War Approximately 25,000 Native Americans performed military service during WWII The war had important effects on those Native Americans who remained civilians Some young Native Americans took this chance to go out and work in war plants o This brought many Indians into intimate contact with white society for the first time, and awakened in some of them a taste for the material benefits of life in capitalist American that they would retain after the war The wartime emphasis on national unity undermined support for the revitalization of tribal autonomy that the Indian Reorganization Act of 1934 had launched Mexican-American War Workers

Large numbers of Mexican workers entered the United States during the war in response to labor shortages on the Pacific Coast, in the Southwest and other places in the nation The American and Mexican governments agreed in 1942 to a program by which contract laborers would be admitted to the United States for a limited time to work at specific jobs, and American employers in some parts of the Southwest began actively recruiting Hispanic workers The sudden expansion of Mexican-American neighborhoods created tensions and occasionally conflict in some American cities Zoot suits became a symbol of rebellion against and defiance toward conventional white, middle class society Zoot Suit Riots o In 1943, animosity toward the zoot-suiters produced a fourday riot in LA o Los Angeles passed a law prohibiting the wearing of zoot suits Women and Children at War The number of women in the work force increased by nearly 60% Many women entered the industrial work force to replace male workers serving in the military Many employers treated women in the war plants with a combination of solicitude and patronization Women did make important inroads in industrial employment during the war o Rosie the Riveter symbolized the new importance of the female industrial work force Above all, women worked for the government The new opportunities produced new problems o Mothers had to leave their children while they worked o Juvenile crime rose markedly in the war years The return of prosperity during the war helped increase the rate and lower the age of marriage o The divorce rate rose rapidly The increase in marriages lead to the baby boom Wartime Life and Culture The abundance of the war years created a striking buoyancy in American life that the conflict itself only partially subdued The book, theater, and movie industries did record business o Magazines, Radios, Resort hotels, Casinos, Racetracks, Dance halls Advertisers, and at times even the government, exhorted Americans to support the war effort to ensure a future of material comfort and consumer choice for themselves and their children For men at the front, the image of home was a powerful antidote to the rigors of wartime o The pinup became a source of one of the most popular icons of the front For the servicemen who remained in America during the war, the company of friendly women was critical to maintaining morale Schools, colleges, and universities experience major disruptions because of the war o With a lack of male teachers and students major universities turned themselves into training camps for military officers The Internment of Japanese Americans The government barred for the mails a few papers it considered seditious, but there was no general censorship of dissident publications

A few Nazi agents and American fascist were jailed, but there was no major assault on people suspected of sympathizing with the Axis But there was a glaring exception to the general rule of tolerance The treatment of the small, politically powerless group of Japanese Americans There was some public pressure in California to remove the Japanese threat The real impetus for taking action came from the government In February 1942, the president authorized the army to intern the Japanese Americans o He created the War Relocation Authority to oversee the project The internment camps were more a target of white economic aspirations than of missionary work The internment never produced significant popular opposition Korematsu v. United States (1944) o The Supreme Court ruled that the relocation was constitutionally permissible By the end of 1944 most of the internes had been released Chinese Americans and the War The American alliance with China during WWII significantly enhanced both the legal and social status of Chinese Americans In 1943, Congress finally repealed the Chinese Exclusion Act Permanent residents of the United States of Chinese descent were finally permitted to become citizens The Retreat from Reform The greatest assault on New Deal reform came from conservative sin Congress, who seized on the war as an excuse to do what many had wanted to do in peacetime o Dismantle many of the achievement of the New Deal The president quietly accepted the defeat or erosion of New Deal measures in order to win support for his war policies and peace plans 1944 election Republicans Thomas Dewey Democrats FDR o Democrats wanted FDR to change Vice Presidents again Harry S. Truman FDR wins, AGAIN! o The conduct of the war was not an issue in the campaign o Instead, the election revolved around domestic economic issues The Defeat of the Axis The Liberation of France June 6, 1944 D-Day, General Dwight D. Eisenhower sent a vast armada into action o The landing was on the coast of Normandy o Within a week, the German forces had been dislodged from virtually the entire Normandy coast Battle of Saint-Lo o Forces were able to drive into the heart of France August 25th, Free French forces arrived in Paris and liberated the city from four years of German occupation Battle of the Bulge o The battle ended serious German resistance in the west

On April 30, Adolph Hitler killed himself On May 8, 1945 the remaining German forces surrendered unconditionally o V-E Day (Victory in Europe Day) The Pacific Offensive In February 1944, American naval forces won a series of victories in the Marshall Islands and cracked the outer perimeter of the Japanese Empire o The decisive battles of the Pacific war occurred in the Pacific In mid-June 1944, an enormous American armada struck the heavily fortified Marian Islands and captured Tinian, Guam and Saipan Battle of Leyte Gulf o The largest naval engagement in history o The Japanese used virtually their entire fleet against the Allied invaders in three major encounters In February 1945, American marines seized the tiny volcanic island of Iwo Jima American forces captured Okinawa in June of 1945 Moderate Japanese leaders were struggling for power within the government and were looking for ways to bring the war to an end The Manhattan Project From 1941 on, the government secretly poured nearly $2 billion into the so-called Manhattan Project A massive scientific effort conducted at hidden laboratories The bomb was no longer a scientific project o It was a weapon of war Atomic Warfare Harry S. Truman issued an ultimatum to the Japanese demanding that they surrender by August 3 or face complete devastation When the deadline passed with no surrender, Truman ordered the air force to use the new atomic weapons against Japan On August 6, 1945 and American B-29, the Enola Gay, dropped an atomic weapon on the Japanese industrial center at Hiroshima Two days later the Soviet Union declared war on Japan The following day the United States sent another American plane to drop another atomic weapon Nagasaki On August 14 the government announced that it was ready to give up On September 2, 1945 Japanese officials signed the articles of surrender

Chapter 29
The Cold War o Origins of the Cold War Soviet-American Tensions Reasons for American hostility toward the Soviet Union o The fundamental American animosity toward communism o The first act of the new Soviet regime had been to negotiate a separate peace with Germany in 1918, leaving the West to fight the Central Powers along in WWI o The Soviet Union had called for the overthrow of capitalist regimes o The Stalin Purges o The Nazi-Soviet Pact Reasons for Soviet hostility toward the United States o The United States had opposed the revolution in 1917 and had sent in troops into Russia at the end of WWI to work o The West had excluded the Soviet Union from the international community throughout the two decades following WWI o The United States had refused to recognize the Soviet government until 1933 o Most Russian communists harbored deep suspicions of an a genuine distaste for industrial capitalism In some respects, the wartime experience helped to abate that mistrust In other respects, the war deepened the gulf between the two nations At the heart of the tensions between the Americans and the Soviets in the 1940s was a fundamental difference in the ways the great powers envisioned the postwar world o America nations would abandon their traditional belief in military alliance and spheres of influence and govern their relations with one another through democratic processes, with an international organization serving as the arbiter of dispute and the protector of every nations right of self-determination o Soviet Union the great powers would control areas of strategic interest to them, in which something vaguely similar to the traditional European balance of power would reemerge Wartime Diplomacy Serious strains began to develop in the alliance with the Soviet Union as early as 1942 New tensions had emerged in the alliance as a result of the refusal by the British and Americans to allow any Soviet participation in the creation of a new Italian government Unresolved Poland debate Yalta February 1945, Yalta Conference On a number of issues, the Big Three reached mutually satisfactory agreements o In return for Stalins promise to enter the war against Japan, Roosevelt agreed that the Soviet Union should receive the Kurile Islands north of Japan; that it should regain southern Sakhalin Island and Port Arthur o The negotiators also agreed to accept a plan for a new international organization The United Nations

Would contain a General Assembly The most important decision-making body would be a Security Council, with permanent representatives of the five major powers o The United States, Britain, France, the Soviet Union, and China These agreements became the basis of the United Nations charted drafted in 1945 Fundamental disagreement remained about the postwar Polish government o Stalin had already imposed a pro-communist government o Roosevelt and Churchill insisted that the pro-Western government must be in place There was no agreement about the future of Germany o Roosevelt wanted a reunited Germany o Stalin wanted is taken apart piece by piece They finally agreed o The United States, Greta Britain, France, and the Soviet Union would each control its own zone of occupation in Germany o Berlin would be divided into four sectors The Yalta accords were less a settlement of postwar issues than a set of loose principles that sidestepped the most divisive issues April 12, 1945 FDR died The Souring of the Peace The Failure of Potsdam Truman had been in office only a few days before he decided to get tough with the Soviet Union Truman felt that the United States should be able to get 85% of what it wanted, but he was ultimately forced to settle for much less He conceded first on Poland o Truman recognized the Warsaw government Truman met with Churchill and Stalin in July 1945 at Potsdam o Truman reluctantly accepted adjustments of the PolishGerman border that Stalin had long demanded o The result was to confirm that Germany would remain divided The China Problem Central to American hopes for an open, peaceful world policed by the great powers was a strong, independent China o Those hopes faced an obstacle The Chinese government of Chiang Kai-shek At Potsdam, Truman had managed to persuade Stalin to recognize Chiang as the legitimate ruler of China In the last months of the war, American forces diverted attention from the Japanese long enough to assist Chiang against the communist in Manchuria The American government began considering an alternative to China as the strong, pro-Western force in Asia o A revived Japan The United States lifted all limitations on industrial development and encouraged rapid economic growth in Japan The Containment Doctrine By the end of 1945, the Grand Alliance of WWII was in shambles A new American policy was slowly emerging

Rather than attempting to create a unified open world, the West would work to contain the threat of further Soviet expansion The new doctrine emerged in part as a response to events in Europe in 1946 o In Greece, communist forces were again threatening the prowestern government Britain could no longer work to stop them o On March 13, 1947, Truman appeared before Congress and delivered the Truman Doctrine I believe that it must be the policy of the United States to support free peoples who are resisting attempted subjugation by armed minorities or by outside pressures o He also asked for $400 million dollars to fight in Greece Congress approved it The American commitment established a basis for American foreign policy that would survive for over forty years The Marshall Plan An integral part of the containment policy was a proposal to aid in the economic reconstruction of Western Europe o Above all, American policymakers believed that unless something could be done to strengthen the shaky proAmerican governments in Western Europe, they might fall under the control of rapidly growing domestic communist parties In June 1947 George C. Marshall announced a plan to provide economic assistance to all European nations that would join in drafting a program for recovery o Sixteen Western European nations eagerly participated In April, Congress approved the creation of the Economic Cooperation Administration o The agency that would administer the Marshall Plan Mobilization at Home In 1948 Congress approved a new military draft and revived the Selective Service System The Atomic Energy Commission established in 1946, became the supervisory body charged with overseeing all nuclear research, civilian and military alike The National Security Act of 1947 o Created several new instruments of foreign policy o A new Department of Defense would oversee al branches of the armed services, combing functions previously performed by the War and Navy Departments o A National Security Council operating out of the White House, would advise the president on foreign and military policy o A Central Intelligence Agency would be responsible for collecting information through both open and covert methods and for engaging secretly in political and military operations on behalf of American goals The Road to NATO At about the same time, the United States was moving to strengthen the military capabilities of Western Europe

Truman reached an agreement with England and France to merge the three western zones of occupation into a new West German republic On June 24, 1948, Stalin imposed a tight blockade around the western sectors of Berlin o Truman ordered a massive airlift to supply the city with good, fuel, and supplies o In the spring of 1949 Stalin lifted his blockade o In October, the division of Germany into two nations became official On April 4, 1949 twelve nations signed an agreement establishing the North Atlantic Treaty Organization and declaring that an armed attack against one member would be considered an attack against all o It spurred the Soviet Union to create an alliance of its own with the communist governments in Eastern Europe The Warsaw Pact The Open-Ended Crisis A series of events in 1949 launched the Cold War in new directions o An announcement in September that the Soviet Union had successfully exploded its first atomic weapon shocked and frightened many Americans o So did the collapse of Chiang Kai-sheks nationalist government in china Chiang fled with his allies to Taiwan Truman called for a through review of American foreign policy o The result was a national Security Council report NSC-68 Argued that the United States could no longer rely on other nations to take the initiative in resisting communism Among other things the report called for a major expansion of American military power, with a defense budget almost four times the previously project figure American Politics and Society After the War The Problems of Reconversion Under intense public pressure, the Truman administration attempted to hasten that return to normal economic conditions The result was a period of economic problems The Servicemens Readjustment Act of 1944, the GI Bill, provided economic and educational assistance to veterans There was a flood of consumer demand o It ensured that there would be no new depression, but it contributed to more than two years of serious inflation In the summer of 1946, the president vetoed an extension of the authority of the wartime Office of Price Administration, thus elimination price controls Compounding the economic difficulties was a sharp rise in labor unrest o In April 1946 John L. Lewis led the United Mine Workers out on strike, shutting down the coal fields for forty days Truman finally forced the miners to return to work by ordering government seizure of the mines o Almost simultaneously, the nations railroads suffered a total shutdown as two major unions walked out on strike

Truman pressured the workers back to work after only a few days With veterans returning home and looking for jobs in the industrial economy, employers tended to push women, blacks, Hispanics, Chinese, and others out of the plants to make room for white males The Fair Deal Rejected Days after the Japanese surrender Truman submitted to Congress a twenty-one-point domestic program outlining what he later termed the Fair Deal It called for o Expansion of Social Security benefits o The raising of the legal minimum wage from 40 to 65 cents an hour o A program to ensure full employment through aggressive use of federal spending and investment o A permanent Fair Employment Practices Act o Public housing and slum clearance o Long-range environmental and public works planning o Government promotion of scientific research o Federal aid to funding for the St. Lawrence Seaway o Nationalization of atomic energy o National health insurance But the Fair Deal programs fell victim to the same public and congressional conservationism that had crippled the last years of the New Deal Labor Management Relations Act of 1947 o Taft-Hartley Act o It made illegal the so-called closed shop (a workplace in which no one can be hired without first being a member of a union) o It permitted states to pass right-to-work laws prohibiting union shops o Also empowered the president to call for a cooling-off period before a strike by issuing an injunction against any work stoppage that endangered national safety or health The Election of 1948 Democrats - Truman Dixiecrats Strom Thurmond Progressive Party Henry A. Wallace Republicans Thomas E. Dewey Democrats tried to elect Eisenhower for the presidency, he declined Everyone thought that Dewey was going to win because the Democratic Party was so split Truman won The Fair Deal Revised Congress raised the legal minimum wage from 40 cents to 75 cents an hour It approved an important expansion of the Social Security system, increasing benefits by 75 percent and extending them to 10 million additional people It passed the National Housing Act of 1949 o Provided for the construction of 810,000 units of low-income housing, accompanied by long-term rent subsidies Truman ordered an end to discrimination in the hiring of government employees

He began to dismantle segregation within the armed forces He allowed the Justice Department to become actively involved in court battles against discriminatory statues Shelley v Kraemer (1948) o Ruled that the courts could not be used to enforce private covenants meant to bar blacks from residential neighborhoods

The Korean War The United States first military engagement of the Cold War The Divided Peninsula By the end of 1945 both Soviet and American troops occupied Korea, dividing it at the 38th parallel When the troops left Korea was divided into a Northern Communist government and a Southern Pro-Western government The relative weakness of the south offered a strong temptation in nationalists in the North Korean government who wanted to reunite the country The Truman administration responded quickly to the invasion On June 27, 1950, the president ordered limited American military assistance to South Korea American delegates were able to win UN agreement to a resolution calling for international assistance to the Rhee government the intervention in Korea was the first expression of the newly expansive American foreign policy outlined in NSC-68 From Invasion to Stalemate Chinese armies came to the rescue of Communist Northern Korea From the start, Truman was determined to avoid a direct conflict with China, which he feared might lead to a new world war On April 11, 1951 Truman relieved MacArthur of his command because he wanted to attack China itself and could not keep his objections to himself o There was a storm of public outrage The Korean stalemate continued on The war dragged on until 1953 Limited Mobilization Just as the war in Korea produced only a limited American military commitment abroad, so it created only a limited economic mobilization at home Office of Defense Mobilization o To fight inflation by holding down prices and discouraging high union wage demands In 1951 after a railroad strike Truman ordered the government to seize control of the railroads o That helped keep the trains running, but it had no effect on union demands In 1952 after a steel strike Truman seized the steel mills Truman was forced to relent The Korean War gave a significant boost to economic growth by pumping new government funds into the economy at a point when many believed a recession was about to begin It became a time of rising insecurity about Americas position in the world and intensified anxiety about communism The Crusade Against Subversion HUAC and Alger Hiss

Much of the anticommunist furor emerged out of the Republican Partys search for an issue with which to attack the Democrats, and out of the Democrats efforts to stifle that issue The House Un-American Activities Committee held widely publicized investigations to prove that the government had tolerated communist subversion They first went after Hollywood More alarming to the public was HUACs investigation into charges of disloyalty leveled against former high-ranking member of the State Department: Alger Hiss The Hiss case not only discredited a prominent young diplomat; it cast suspicion on a generation of liberal Democrats and made it possible for many Americans to believe that communists had actually infiltrated the government The Federal Loyalty Program and the Rosenberg Case The Truman administration in 1947 initiated a widely publicized program to review the "loyalty of federal employees o The president authorized sensitive agencies to fire people deemed no more than bad security risks o The employee loyalty program became a signal throughout the executive branch to launched a major assault on subversion In 1950, the Congress passed the McCarran Internal Security Act o Requiring all communist organizations to register with the government and to publish their records The Rosenburgs were thought to have leaked government secrets about the bomb to Russia o They were sentenced to death A pervasive fear settled on the country o It was a climate that made possible the rise of an extraordinary public figure McCarthyism Joseph McCarthy o He raised a sheet of paper and claimed to hold in my hand a list of 205 known communist currently working in the American State Department He conducted highly publicized investigations of subversion in many areas of the government The Republican Revival Public frustration over the stalemate in Korea and popular fears of internal subversion combined to make 1952 a bad year for the Democratic Party Democratic Party Adlai E. Stevenson Republicans Dwight D. Eisenhower Eisenhower and Nixon both made effective use of allegations of corruption in the Truman administration ad pledge repeatedly to clean up the mess in Washington Eisenhower won

Chapter 30
The Affluent Society o The Economic Miracle Sources of Economic Growth By 1949, despite the continuing problems of postwar reconversion, an economic expansion had begun that would continue with only brief interruptions for almost twenty years The causes of this growth varied o Government spending continued to stimulate growth through public funding of schools, housing, veterans benefits, welfare, and the $100 billion interstate highway program o Technological progress also contributed to the boom There was the development of electronic computers The first modern computer emerged as a result of efforts during WWII to decipher enemy codes Not until the 1980s did most Americans come into direct and regular contact with computers, but the new machines were having a substantial effect on the economy long before that The national birth rate reversed a long pattern of decline with the socalled baby boom o The baby boom meant increased consumer demand and expanding economic growth The rapid expansion of suburbs helped stimulate growth in several important sectors of the economy Because of this unprecedented growth, the economy grew nearly ten times as fast as the population in their thirty years after the war o The American people had achieved the highest standard of living of any society in the history of the world The Rise of the Modern West No region of the country experience more dramatic changes as a result of the new economic growth than the American West By the 1960s some parts of the West were among the most important industrial and cultural centers of the nation in their own right As during WWII much of the growth of the West was a result of federal spending and investment o Dams, power stations, highways, and other infrastructure projects The enormous increase in automobile use after WWII gave a large stimulus to the petroleum industry and contributed to the rapid growth of oil fields in Texas and Colorado State governments in the West invested heavily in their universities Climate also contributed The New Economics The exciting discovery of the power of the American economic system was a major cause of the confident, even arrogant tone of much American political life in the 1950s o There was the belief that Keynesian economics made it possible for government to regulate and stabilize the economy without intruding directly into the private sector By the mid-1950s, Keynesian theory was rapidly becoming a fundamental article of faith

Armed with these fiscal and monetary tools, many economists now believed, it was possible for the government to maintain a permanent prosperity If any doubters remained, there was ample evidence to dispel their misgivings during the era Accompanying the belief in the possibility of permanent economic stability was the equally exhilarating belief in permanent economic growth by the mid-1950s, reformers concerned about economic deprivation were arguing that the solution lay in increased production The Keynesians never managed to remake federal economic policy entirely to their liking o Still, the new economics gave many Americans a confidence in their ability to solve economic problems that previous generations had never developed Capital and Labor A relatively small number or large-scale organizations controlled an enormous proportion oft eh nations economic activity A similar consolidation was occurring in the agricultural economy Corporations enjoying booming growth were reluctant to allow strikes to interfere with their operations By the early 1950s large labor unions had developed a new kind of relationship with employers o Postwar Contract Workers in steel, automobiles, and other large unionized industries were receiving generous increases in wages and benefits o In return the unions tacitly agreed to refrain from raising other issues The contract served the corporations and the union leadership well Many rank-and-file workers resented the abandonment of efforts to give them more control over the conditions of their labor The economic successes of the 1950s helped pave the way for a reunification of the labor movement o 1955, the American Federation of Labor and the Congress of Industrial Organizations ended their 20 year rivalry and merged to create the AFL-CIO But success also bread stagnation and corruption in some union bureaucracies While the labor movement enjoyed significant success in winning better wages and benefits for workers already organized in strong unions, the majority of laborers who were as yet unorganized made fewer advances o New obstacles to organization Taft-Hartley Act and the state right-to-work laws In the American South impediments to unionization were enormous o Antiunion sentiment was so powerful in the South that almost all organizing drives encountered crushing and usually fatal resistance People of Plenty The Consumer Culture At the center of middle-class culture in the 1950s was a growing absorption with consumer goods It was a result of o Increased prosperity o Increasing variety and availability of products o Advertisers adeptness in creating a demand for those product

o A growth of consumer credit To a striking degree, the prosperity of the 1950s and 1960s was consumer driven Because consumer goods were so often marketed nationally, the 1950s were notable for the rapid spread of creation national consumer crazes The Suburban Nation By 1960 a third of the nations population was living in suburbs The most famous of the postwar suburban developers, William Levitt, came to symbolize the new suburban growth with his use of massproduction techniques to construct a large housing development on Long Island, NY o They helped to meet an enormous demand for housing that had been growing for more than a decade Many Americans wanted to move to the suburbs o One reason was the enormous importance postwar Americans place on family life after five years of war in which families had often been separated or otherwise disrupted o They provided privacy o A place to raise a large family o They provided security from the noise and dangers of urban living o They offered space for the new consumer goods o Suburban life also helped provide a sense of community Suburban neighborhoods o They were not uniform The Suburban Family For professional men, suburban life generally meant a rigid division between their working and personal worlds For many middle-class married women, it meant an increase isolation from the workplace One of the most influential books in postwar American life was a famous guide to child rearing o Baby and Child Care Said that the needs of the child come before everything else Women who could afford not to work faced heavy pressures to remain in the home and concentrate on raising their children Yet by 1960, nearly a third of all married women were in the paid workforce The increasing numbers of women in the workplace laid the groundwork for demands for equal treatment by employers that became and important part of the feminist crusades of the 1960s and 1970s The Birth of Television Television is perhaps the most powerful medium of mass communication in history The television industry emerged directly out of the radio industry Like radio, the television business was driven by advertising The impact of television on American life was rapid, pervasive, and profound o Television entertainment programming replace movies and radio as the principal source of diversion for American families Much of the programming of the 1950s and early 1960s created a common image of American life

An image that was predominately white, middle-class, and suburban o Programming also reinforced the concept of gender roles o Television inadvertently created conditions that could accentuate social conflict Science and Space There was an indication of the widespread fascination with which Americans in the age of atomic weapons viewed science and technology o Medicines were taking care of death rates o They were also impressed by other scientific and technological innovations The jet plane, the computer, synthetics, new types of commercially prepared foods The American space program The program began in large part because of the Cold War o Sputnik 1957 On May 5, 1961 Alan Shepard became the first American launched into space On February 2, 1962 John Glenn became the first American to orbit the globe Summer of 1969, Neil Armstrong and Edwin Aldrin became the first men to walk on the surface of the moon Enthusiasm began to die down Early in 1986, an explosion destroyed one of the shuttles, the Challenger, shortly after it took off o The incident, and the widespread national grief that it provoked, made clear the degree to which the space program continued to embody some of the nations most romantic hopes Organized Society and Its Detractors Large-scale organizations and bureaucracies increased their influence over American life in the postwar era More and more Americans were becoming convinced that the key to a successful future lay in acquiring the specialized training and skills necessary for work in large organizations o The American educational system responded to the demands of this increasingly organized society by experimenting with changing in curriculum and philosophy The National Defense Education Act of 1958 Provided federal funding for development of programs in those areas of science, mathematics, and foreign languages As in earlier eras, many Americans reacted to these developments with ambivalence, even hostility Novelists expressed misgivings in their work about the enormity and impersonality of modern society The Beats and the Restless Culture of Youth The most derisive critics of bureaucracy, and of middle-class society in general, were a group of young poets, writers, and artists generally known as the beats beatniks The beats were the most visible evidence of a widespread restlessness among young Americans in the 1950s In part, that restlessness was a result of prosperity itself

Tremendous public attention was directed at the phenomenon of juvenile delinquency and in both politics and popular culture there were dire warnings about the growing criminality of American youth Also disturbing to many older Americans was the style of youth culture o The culture of alienation that the beats so vividly represented had counterparts even in ordinary middle-class behavior Teenage rebelliousness toward parents, youthful fascination with fast cars and motorcycles, and an increasing visibility of teenage sex, assisted by the greater availability of birth-control devices and the spreading automobile culture that came to dominated the social lives of teenagers in much of the nation o The popularity of James Dean was a particularly vivid sign of this aspect of youth culture in the 1950s Dean became an icon of the unfocused rebelliousness of American youth in his time Rock n Roll One of the most powerful signs of the restiveness of American youth was the enormous popularity of rock n roll and of the greatest early rock star o Elvis Presley Presley became a symbol of a youthful determination to push at the borders of the conventional and acceptable Presleys music, like that of most early white rock musicians, drew heavily from black rhythm and blues traditions Rock also drew from country western music, gospel music, even from jazz The rise of such white rock musicians as Presley was a result in part of the limited willingness of white audience to accept black musicians The rapid rise and enormous popularity of rock owed a great deal to innovations in radio and television programming o Early in the 1950s, a new breed of radio announcers began to create programming aimed specifically at young fans of rock music Disk Jockeys Radio and television were important to the recording industry because they encouraged the sale of records o Also important were jukeboxes Rock music began in the 1950s to do what jazz and swing had done in the 1920s 40s o To define both youth culture as a whole and the experience of a generation The Other America On the Margins of the Affluent Society In 1962, The Other America was published o Chronicles of the continuing existence of poverty in America The great economic expansion of the postwar years reduced poverty dramatically but did not eliminate it Most of the poor experience poverty intermittently and temporarily This poverty was a poverty that the growing prosperity of the postwar era seemed to affect hardly at all Rural Poverty

Among those on the margins of the affluent society were many rural Americans Not all farmers were poor o But the agrarian economy did produce substantial numbers of genuinely impoverished people Migrant farm workers and coal miners fell to the same kind of poverty The Inner Cities As white families moved from cities to suburbs in vast numbers, more and more inner-city neighborhoods became vast repositories for the poor o Ghettos from which there was no easy escape African Americans helped this growth Similar migrations from Mexico and Puerto Rico expanded poor Hispanic barrios in many American cities at the same time For many years, the principal policy response to the poverty of inner cities was urban renewal o The effort to tear down buildings in the poorest and most degraded areas In some cases, urban renewal provided new public housing for poor city residents In many cases, urban renewal projects replaced slums with middle and upper-income housing, office towers, or commercial buildings One result of inner-city poverty was a rising rate of juvenile crime The Rise of the Civil Rights Movement The Brown Decision and Massive Resistance On May 17, 1954 the Supreme Court announced its decision in the case of Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka o Ruled that segregation in schools was unconstitutional The Brown decision was the culmination of many decades of effort by black opponents of segregation The Topeka suit involved the case of an African-American girl who had to travel several miles to a segregated public school every day even though she lived virtually next door to a white elementary school o The Court concluded that school segregation inflicted unacceptable damage on those it affected The following year, the Court issued another decision to provide rules for implementing the 1954 order o It ruled that communities must work to desegregate their schools with all deliberate speed, but it set no timetable and left specific decisions up to lower courts Strong local opposition produced long delays and bitter conflicts o More than 100 southern members of Congress signed a manifesto in 1956 denouncing the Brown decision and urging their constituents to defy it Shuttlesworth v. Birmingham Board of Education (1958) o Refused to declare pupil placement laws, placing a student in a school based on academic or social behaviors, unconstitutional The Brown decision, far from ending segregation, had launched a prolonged battle between federal authority and state and local governments, and between those who believed in racial equality and those who did not In 1957, federal courts had ordered the desegregation of Central High School in Little Rick, Arkansas

An angry white mob tried to prevent implementation of the order by blockading the entrances to the school o President Eisenhower responded by federalizing the National Guard and sending troops to Little Rock to restore order and ensure that the court orders would be obeyed The Expanding Movement The Brown decision helped spark a growing number of popular challenges to segregation in the South December 1, 1955, Rosa Parks was arrested in Montgomery, Alabama, when she refused to give up her seat on a Montgomery bus to a white passenger o The arrest of this admired woman produced outrage in the citys African-American community and helped local leaders organize a successful boycott of the bus system to demand an end to segregated seating o The bus boycott put economic pressure not only on the bus company but on many Montgomery merchants The bus boycotters found it difficult to get to downtown stores and tended to shop instead in their own neighborhoods A Supreme Court decision in 1956 declared segregation in public transportation to be illegal More important than the immediate victories of the Montgomery boycott was its success in establishing a new form of racial protest and in elevating to prominence a new figure in the movement for civil rights o Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. Kings approach to black protest was based on the doctrine of nonviolence He urged African Americans to engage in peaceful demonstrations The popular movement he came to represent soon spread throughout the South and throughout the country One important color line had been breached as early as 1947, when the Brooklyn Dodgers signed the great Jackie Robinson as the first African American to play Major League Baseball President Eisenhower signed a civil rights act in 1957 o Providing federal protection for blacks who wished to register to vote Causes of the Civil Rights Movement Several factors contributed to the rise of African-American protest in these years o Millions of black men and women had served in the military or worked in war plants during the war and had derived from the experience a broader view of the world and their place in it o Another factor was the growth of an urban black middle class o Television and other forms of popular culture were another factor in the rising consciousness of racism among blacks Other forces were at work mobilizing many white Americans to support the movement once it began o The Cold War o Political mobilization of northern blacks o Labor unions with substantial black memberships

By the early 1960s, this movement had made it one of the most powerful forces in America Eisenhower Republicanism Whats Good forGeneral Motors The first Republican administration in 20 years was staffed mostly with men drawn from the same quarter as those who had staffed Republican administrations in the 1920s o The business community Many of the nation's leading businessmen and financiers ha reconciled themselves to at least the broad outlines of the Keynesian welfare state the New Deal had launched and had come to see it as something that actually benefited them To his cabinet, Eisenhower appointed wealthy corporate lawyers and business executives Eisenhowers leadership style helped enhance the power of his cabinet officers and others Eisenhowers consistent inclination was to limit federal activities and encourage private enterprise The Survival of the Welfare State The president took few new initiatives in domestic policy Perhaps the most significant legislative accomplishment of the Eisenhower administration was the Federal Highway Act of 1956 o Authorized $25 billion for a ten-year effort to construct over 40,000 miles of interstate highways o The program was to be funded through a highway trust fund whose revenues would come from new taxes on the purchase of fuel, automobiles, trucks, and tires In 1956, Eisenhower ran for a second term o Republicans Adlai Stevenson o Eisenhower won Democrats still held power over Congress The Decline of McCarthyism In its first years in office the Eisenhower administration did little to discourage the anticommunist furor that had gripped the nation Among the most celebrated controversies of the new administrations first year was the case of J. Robert Oppenheimer o He opposed the building of the Hydrogen Bomb o In 1953, the FBI distributed a dossier within the administration detailing Oppenheimers prewar association with various left-wing groups He was denied security clearance to government secrets But by 1954, such policies were beginning to produce significant opposition o The clearest signal of that change was the political demise of Senator Joseph McCarthy He overstepped his boundaries when he charged Secretary of Army Robert Stevens Army-McCarthy hearings In December 1954, he was condemned for conduct unbecoming a senator Eisenhower, Dulles, and the Cold War Dulles and Massive Retaliation Eisenhowers secretary of state, and the dominant figure in the nations foreign policy in the 1950s, was John Foster Dulles

He entered office denouncing the containment policies of the Truman years o Arguing that the United States should pursue an active program of liberation which would lead to a rollback of communism expansion Massive Retaliation o The United States would, he explained, respond to communist threats to its allies not by using conventional forces to local conflicts but by relying on the deterrent of massive retaliatory power (nuclear weapons) By the end of the decade, the United States had become a party to almost a dozen such treaties of mutual defense in NATO in all areas of the world Korea and Vietnam The most troubling foreign policy concern of the Truman years, the war in Korea, plagued the Eisenhower administration only briefly On July 27, 1953, negotiators at Panmunjom finally signed an agreement ending the hostilities o Each antagonist was to withdraw its troops a mile and a half form the existing battle like The 38th parallel Almost simultaneously the` United States faced a difficult choice in Southeast Asia, where France was fighting to retain control of its onetime colony Vietnam o Opposing the French were the powerful nationalist forces of Ho Chi Minh, which were determined to win independence for their nation Eisenhower supported the French o Only American intervention, it was clear, could prevent the total collapse of the French military effort Eisenhower refused to permit direct American military intervention in Vietnam o The French effort finally failed on May 7, 1954 They decided to settle the conflict at the Geneva Conference The agreement marked the end of the French commitment to Vietnam and the beginning of an expanded American presence there Israel and the Crisis of the Middle East The establishment of a Jewish state in Palestine had been the dream of a powerful international Zionist movement for more than half a century before WWII o On May 14, 1948, British rule ended and Jews proclaimed the existence of the nation of Israel The creation of Israel created some conflicts Palestinian Arabs, unwilling to accept being displaced form what they considered their own country, rejected the partition and fought determinedly against the new state in 1948 o America was deeply concerned about the stability and friendliness of the Arab regimes in the area The region contained the rickets oil reserves in the word, reserves in which American companies had already invested heavily

The United States reacted with alarm as it watch Mohammed Mossadegh, the prime minister of Iran, begin to resist the presence of Western corporations in his nation In 1953, the American CIA joined forces with conservative Iranian military leaders to engineer a coup that drove Mossadegh from office They replaced him with the Shah of Iran He remained closely tied to the United States for the next twenty-five years American policy was less effective in dealing with the nationalist government of Egypt o In 1956, to punish Nasser, leader of Egypt, for his friendliness toward the communists, Dulles withdrew American offers to assist in building the great Aswan Dam across the Nile o Nasser retaliated by seizing control of the Suez Canal form the British o On October 29, 1956, Israeli forces struck a preemptive blow against Egypt The next day the British and French landed troops in the Suez to drive the Egyptians from the canal By refusing to join the invasion, the United States helped pressure the French and British to withdraw and helped persuade Israel to agree to a truce with Egypt o In 1958, as pan-Arab forces loyal to Nasser challenged the government of Lebanon, Eisenhower ordered 5,000 American marines to land on the beaches of Beirut to protect the existing regime The government managed to stabilize their position on their own, and within months the forces withdrew Latin America and Yankee Imperialism WWII and the Cold War had eroded the limited initiative of the Good Neighbor Policy toward Latin America Latin American animosity toward the United States grew steadily during the 1950s, as more people in the region came to view the expanding influence of American corporations in their countries as a form of imperials o Such concerns deepened when the Eisenhower administration ordered the CIA to help topple the new leftist government of Jacobo Arbenz Guzman in Guatemala No nation in the region had been more closely tied to America than Cuba o Beginning in 1957, a popular movement of resistance to the Batista regime began to gather power under the leadership of Fidel Castro On January 1, 1959, with Batista in exile in Spain, Castro marched into Havana and established a new government o At first, the American government reacted warmly to Castro Hopeful that Castro would be a moderate, democratic reformer who would allow American economic activity to continue in Cuba unchallenged BIG MISTAKE!

When Castro began accepting assistance form the Soviet Union in 1960, the United States cut back the quota by which Cuba could export sugar to America at a favor price Castro soon cemented an alliance with the Soviet Union Europe and the Soviet Union Although the problems of the Third World were moving slowly to the center of American foreign policy, the direct relationship with the Soviet Union and the effort to resist communist expansion in Europe remained the principal concerns of the Eisenhower administration In 1955, Eisenhower and other NATO leaders met with the Soviet premier, Nikolai Bulganin, at a cordial summit conference in Geneva o They could find no basis for agreement Relations between the Soviet Union and the West soured further in 1956 in response to the Hungarian Revolution o Hungarians were demanding democratic reforms Soviets came in to crush the uprising o The suppression of the uprising convinced many American leaders that Soviet policies had not softened as much as the events of the previous two years had suggested The failure of conciliation brought renewed vigor to the Cold War and greatly intensified the Soviet-American arms race The arms race not only increased tensions between the United States and Russia o It increased tensions within each nation as well The U-2 Crisis In this tense and fearful atmosphere, the Soviet Union raised new challenges to the West in Berlin In November 1958, Nikita Khrushchev renewed his predecessors demands that NATO powers abandon the city o The United States and its allies refused Khrushchev suggested that he and Eisenhower discuss the issue personally o The United States agreed Only days before Eisenhower was to leave for Moscow the Soviet Union announced that it had shot down an American U-2, a spy plane, over Russian territory By the spring of 1960, Khrushchev knew that no agreement was possible on the Berlin issue The events of 1960 provided a somber backdrop for the end of the Eisenhower administration He warned in his farewell address of 1961 of the unwarranted influence of a vast military-industrial complex o His caution, in both domestic and international affairs, stood in marked contrast to the attitudes of his successors, who argued that the United States must act more boldly and aggressively on behalf of its goals at home and abroad

Chapter 31
The Ordeal of Liberalism o Expanding the Liberal State The Rise of John Kennedy 1960 Election o Republicans Richard Nixon o Democrats JFK o JFK won Kennedy in the White House Kennedy had campaigned promising a program of domestic legislation more ambitious than any since the New Deal The New Frontier Although Democrats remained in control of both houses, the partys majorities were dependent on conservative southerners They were more likely to vote for Republicans than JFK o JFK found his legislative proposals hopelessly stalled As a result, the president had to look elsewhere for opportunities to display positive leadership o Kennedy initiated a series of tariff negotiations with foreign governments in an effort to stimulate American exports The Kennedy Round o A 1962 proposal for a substantial federal tax cut to stimulate the economy More than any other president of the century, Kennedy made his own personality an integral part of his presidency and a central focus of national attention November 22, 1963 Kennedy was assassinated o Lee Harvey Oswald o The death of President Kennedy was one of several traumatic public episodes in national history that have left a permanent mark on all who experience it The Johnson Succession At the time much of the nation took comfort in the personality and perforce of Kennedys successor in the White House, Lyndon Johnson Johnson was a man who believed in the active use of power Between 1963 and 1966, he compiled the most impressive legislative record of any president since FDR The Assault on Poverty The domestic programs of Kennedy and Johnson administrations had two basic goals o Maintaining the strength of the American economy and expanding the responsibilities of the federal government for the general social welfare For the first time since the 1930s, the federal government took steps in the 1960s to create important new social welfare programs o Medicare A program to provide federal aid to the elderly for medical expenses 1965 o In 1966, Johnson steered to passage the Medicaid program, which extended federal medical assistance to welfare recipients of all ages o Medicare and Medicaid were the first steps in a much larger assault on poverty

It reflected the view of those who believed that poverty was a result of more than lack of money It was a product to the institutional and cultural deficiencies of poor communities The centerpiece of this war on poverty was the Office of Economic Opportunity o Created an array of new education, employment, housing, and health-care programs Community action An effort to involve members of poor communities themselves in the planning and administration of the programs designed to help them o The community action approach proved impossible to sustain Head Start Program o A preschool enrichment program to help the children of poor families prepare for their educations Food stamps o Provided cash assistance to allow poor families to buy food Cities, Schools, and Immigration Closely tied to the antipoverty program were federal efforts to promote the revitalization of decaying cities and to strengthen the nations schools The Housing Act of 1961 o Offered $4.9 billion in federal grants to cities for the preservation of open spaces, the development of mass transit systems, and the subsidization of middle-income housing o In 1966, the Department of Housing and Urban Development was established Johnson also inaugurated the Model Cities program o Offered federal subsidies for urban redevelopment Elementary and Secondary Education Act of 1965 and a series of subsequent measures o The bills extended aid to both private and parochial schools and based the aid on the economic conditions of their students, not the needs of the schools themselves o Total federal expenditures for education and technical training from $7 billion between 1964 and 1967 Immigration Reform Act of 1965 o One of the most important pieced of legislation of the 1960s o The law maintained a strict limit on the number of newcomers admitted to the country each year 170,000 o But it eliminated the national origins system established in the 1920s Legacies of the Great Society The great surge of reform of the Kennedy-Johnson years reflected a new awareness of social problems in America o It also reflected the confident belief of liberals that Americas resources were virtually limitless and that purposeful public effort could surmount any obstacle In 1964, Johnson managed to win passage of a $11.5 billion tax cut

The cut increased the federal deficit, but it helped produce substantial economic growth over the next several years that made up for much of the revenue initially lost The high costs of the Great Society programs and the inability of the government to find the revenues to pay for them contributed to a growing disillusionment in later years with the idea of federal efforts to solve social problems The decade of the 1960s saw the most substantial decrease in poverty in the United Sates of any period in the nations history The Battle for Racial Equality Expanding Protests JFKs administration set out to contain the racial problem by expanding enforcement of existing laws and supporting litigation to overturn existing segregation statutes, hoping to make modest progress without creating politically damaging divisions In February 1960, black college students in Greensboro, NC, staged a sit-in at a segregated Woolworths lunch counter o Similar demonstrations spread throughout the South o Some of those who participated in the sit-ins forced the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee which worked to keep the spirit of resistance alive In 1961, an interracial group of students began what they called freedom rides o Traveling by bus throughout the South, the freedom riders tried to force the desegregation of bus stations Kennedy ordered the integration of all bus and train stations The Southern Christian Leadership Conference also created citizeneducation and other programs to mobilize black workers, farmers, housewives, and others to challenge segregation, disenfranchisement, and discrimination In October 1962, a federal court ordered the University of Mississippi to enroll its first black student o President Kennedy sent federal troops to the city to restore order and protect the students right to attend the university after protests broke out Events in Alabama in 1963 helped bring the growing movement to something of a climax o Martin Luther King, Jr. A National Commitment The events in Alabama and Mississippi were a warning to the president that he could no longer contain or avoid the issue of race Kennedy introduced a series of public accommodations barring the discrimination I employment, and increasing the power of the government to file suits on behalf of school integration o To generate support for the legislation, and to dramatize the power of the growing movement, more than 200,000 demonstrators marched down the Mall in Washington, D.C., in August 1963 They gathered before the Lincoln Memorial for the greatest civil rights demonstration in the nations history Martin Luther King, Jr., in one of the greatest speeches of his distinguished oratorical career, roused

the crowd with a litany of images prefaced again and again by the phrase, I have a dream The assassination of President Kennedy three months later gave new impetus to the battle for civil rights legislation o In 1964 the Senate passed the most comprehensive civil rights bill in the nations history The Battle for Voting Rights Having won a significant victory in one area, the civil rights movement shifted its focus to another o Voting rights Freedom summer o Thousands of civil rights workers worked on behalf of black voter registration and participation Produced the Mississippi Freedom Democratic Party In March 1965, King helped organize a major demonstration in Selma, Alabama, to press the demand for the right of blacks to register to vote Civil Rights Act of 1965 o Voting Rights Act o Provided federal protection to blacks attempting to exercise their right to vote The Changing Movement For decades, the nations African-American population had been undergoing a major demographic shit Although the economic condition of much of American society was improving, in the poor urban communities in which the black population was concentrated, things were getting significantly worse o By the mid-1960s the issue of race was moving out of the South and into the rest of the nation A symbol of the movements new direction, and of the problems it would cause, was a major campaign in the summer of 1966 in Chicago, in which King played a prominent role o Organizers of the Chicago campaign hoped to direct national attention to housing and employment discrimination in northern industrial cities in much the same way similar campaigns had exposed legal racism in the South o The Chicago campaign was, on the whole, an exercise in frustration Urban Violence Well before the Chicago campaign, the problem of urban poverty had thrust itself into national attention when riots broke out in black neighborhoods in major cities Televised reports of the violence alarmed millions of Americans and created both a new sense of urgency and a growing sense of doubt among many of those whites who had embraced the cause of racial justice A special Commission on Civil Disorders issued a celebrated report in the spring of 1968 recommending massive spending to eliminate the abysmal conditions of the ghettoes Black Power Disillusioned with the ideal of peaceful change in cooperation with whites, an increasing number of African Americans were turning to a new approach of the racial issue o The philosophy of black power

It suggested a move away from interracial cooperation and toward increased awareness of racial distinctiveness Perhaps the most enduring impact of the black-power ideology was a social and psychological one o Instilling racial pride in African Americans It encouraged the growth of black studies in schools and universities It helped stimulate important black literary and artistic movements It produced a new interest among many blacks in their African roots It led to a reject by some blacks of certain cultural practices borrowed from white society But black power had political manifestations as well o Most notably in creating a deep schism within the civil rights movement Particularly alarming to many whites were organizations that existed entirely outside the mainstream civil rights movement o The Black Panther Party o The Nation of Islam The most celebrated of the Black Muslims was Malcolm Little o Malcolm X o Malcolm became one of the movements most influential spokesmen o Malcolm was assassinated in 1965 Malcolm remained an influential figure in many black communities long after his death Flexible Response and the Cold War Diversifying Foreign Policy JFKs forceful inaugural address was a clear indication of how central opposition to communism was to his and the nations thinking o Kennedy remained committed to the nations atomic weapons program Whatever missile gap there was favored the USA Kennedys unhappiness with the Eisenhower foreign policy was no that it relied on nuclear weapons; it was that it developed too few other tools and thus had a little capacity to respond to problems for which nuclear weapons were inappropriate solutions JFK gave enthusiastic support to the growth of the Special Forces o A small branch of the army created in the 1950s to wage guerilla warfare in limited conflicts o The Green Berets JFK also favored expanding American influence through peaceful means o Alliance for Progress o To repair the badly deteriorating relationship with Latin America o A series of projects undertaken cooperatively by the United States and Latin American governments for peaceful development and stabilization of the nations of that region JFK also inaugurated the Agency for International Development o To coordinate foreign aid Established the Peace Corps

Sent young American volunteers abroad to work in developing areas The Bay of Pigs Fiasco Among the fist foreign policy ventures of the Kennedy administration was a disastrous assault on the Castro government in Cuba o The Eisenhower administration had launched the project o The CIA had been working for months in Central America to train a small army of anti-Castro Cuban exiles to invade Cuba and overthrow the Castro regime JFK didnt want to, but he approved the invasion On April 17, 1961, 2,000 of the armed exiles landed at the Bay of Pigs in Cuba, expecting first American air support and then a spontaneous uprising by the Cuban people on their behalf o They received neither o Well-armed Castro forces easily crushed the invaders and within two days the entire mission had collapsed Confrontations with the Soviet Union In the grim aftermath of the Bay of Pgs, Kennedy traveled to Vienna in June 1961 for his first meeting with Soviet Premier Nikita Khrushchev o Their frosty and at times angry exchange of views did little to reduce tensions between the two nations o Khrushchev had threatened war if the West did not abandon its defense of West Berlin On August 13, 1961, the Soviet Union stopped the exodus of East Berliners by directing East Germany to construct a wall between East and West Berlin For nearly 30 years, the Berlin Wall stood as the most potent physical symbol of the conflict between the communist and noncommunist worlds The rising tensions culminated the following October in the most dangerous and dramatic crisis of the Cold War o Cuban Missile Crisis On October 22, after nearly a week of tense deliberations by a special task force in the White House, JFK ordered a naval and air blockade around Cuba, a quarantine against all offensive weapons Khrushchev said that he would remove the missiles if America didnt invade Cuba JFK agreed and removed the missiles the USA had in Turkey o The Cuban missile crisis brought the world closer to nuclear war than at any time since WWII o In the summer of 1963, the United States and the Soviet Union concluded years of negotiation by agreeing to a treaty to ban the testing of nuclear weapons in the atmosphere o In the longer run the missile crisis had more ominous consequences A Russian buildup of arms Johnson and the World Lyndon Johnson entered the presidency lacking even JFKs limited prior experience with internal affairs An internal rebellion in the Dominican Republic gave him an early opportunity to show he was a strong and forceful leader

A 1961 assassination had topple the repressive dictatorship of General Rafael Trujillo o A conservative regime began to collapse in the face of a revolt by a broad range of groups on behalf of the nationalist reformer Juan Bosch Arguing that Bosch planned to establish a pro-Castro, communist regime, Johnson sent in 30,000 American troops to quell the disorder From Johnsons first moments in office his foreign policy was almost totally dominated by the bitter civil war in Vietnam and by the expanding involvement of the United States there

Vietnam The First Indochina War Vietnam became a colony of France It fell under the control of Japan during WWII o After the defeat of Japan, the question arose of what was to happen to Vietnam in the postwar world The French wanted to reassert their control over Vietnam The Vietminh were committed to creating an independent nation In the fall of 1945, after the collapse of Japan and before the Western powers had time to return, the Vietminh declared Vietnam an independent nation and set up a nationalist government under Ho Chi Minh in Hanoi o Ho had worked closely during the war with American intelligence forces in Indochina in fighting the Japanese The United States did nothing to stop the French as they moved back into Vietnam in 1946 and began a struggle with the Vietminh to reestablish control over the country o The French set up a government in Vietnam o For the next four years, during what had become known as the First Indochina War, Truman and then Eisenhower continued to support the French military campaign against the Vietminh The First Indochina War had come to an end when the French government had decided the time had come to get out after a long battle Geneva and the Two Vietnams An international conference at Geneva now took up the fate of Vietnam o The United States never signed the accords o The Geneva Conference produced an agreement to end the Vietnam conflict There would be an immediate cease-fire in the war Vietnam would be temporarily partitioned along the 17th parallel North Vietnam was the heart of traditional Vietnamese society o Northern Vietnam was also the poorest region of the country South Vietnam was a much more recently settled area o It was a looser, more heterogeneous, more individuality society o It was also more prosperous and fertile than the North

America and Diem As soon as the Geneva accords established the partition, the French finally left Vietnam altogether o The United States almost immediately stepped into the vacuum and became the principal benefactor of the new government in the South Led by Ngo Dinh Diem The United States came to regard Diem as a powerful and impressive alternative to Ho Chi Minh Diem wanted to hold off the elections because he would surely lose A new policy emanating from Moscow beginning in 1959, emphasizing communist wars of national liberation, also encouraged Ho Chi Minh to resume his armed struggle for national unification o The Viet Cong in the North was committed to overthrowing the puppet regime of Diem and reuniting the nation This marked the beginning of the Second Indochina War By 1961, the Viet Cong forces were very successfully destabilizing the Diem regime In 1963, the Diem regime precipitated a major crisis by trying o discipline and repress the South Vietnamese Buddhists in an effort to make Catholicism the dominant religion of the country o The Buddhists began to stage enormous antigovernment demonstrations The Buddhist crisis was alarming and embarrassing to the Kennedy administration o It caused the American government to reconsider its commitment to Diem In the fall of 1963, Kennedy gave his tacit approval to a plot by a group of South Vietnamese generals to topple Diem o They assassinated Diem and his brother A few weeks later, JFK was killed as well From Aid to Intervention Lyndon Johnson thus inherited what was already a substantial American commitment to the survival of an anticommunist South Vietnam o During his first two years in office, he expanded that commitment into a full-scale American war The new president faced many new pressures to expand the American involvement and very few to limit it A compliant Congress raised little protest to For several years public opinion remained firmly behind him Above all, intervention in South Vietnam was fully consistent with nearly 20 years of American foreign policy o Vietnam, Johnson believed, was a test of American willingness to fight communist aggression, a test he was determined not to fail Congress passed the Gulf of Tonkin Resolution after United States forces were attacked in the Gulf of Tonkin o Authorized the president to take all necessary measures to protect American forces and prevent further aggression in Southeast Asia

Bombing of North Vietnam went on from 1965 to 1972 after 7 marines were killed at an American military base at Pleiku Four months later in 1965, the president finally admitted that the character of the war had changed o American soldiers would now begin playing an active combat role in the conflict The Quagmire For more than 7 years, American combat forces remained bogged down in a war that the United States was never able either to win or fully to understand o Combating a fore whose strength lay less in weaponry than its infiltration of the population, the United States responded with heavy-handed technological warfare designed for conventional battles against conventional armies Central to the American war effort was a commitment to what the military called attrition o A strategy premised on the belief that the United States could inflict so many causalities and so much damage on the enemy that eventually they would be unable and unwilling to continue the struggle Failed By the end of 1967, virtually every identifiable target of any strategic importance in North Vietnam had been destroyed o The bombing produced none of the effects that the United States wanted The Chinese and Russians helped, they built underground tunnels They still had a will to fight Another crucial part of the American strategy was the pacification program o Was intended to push the Viet Cong from particular regions and then pacify those regions by winning the hearts and minds of those people As the war dragged on and victory remained elusive, some American officers and officials began to urge the president to expand the military efforts o The Johnson administration resisted The president began to encounter additional obstacles and frustrations at home The War at Home As late as the end of 1965, few Americans, and even fewer influential ones, had protested the American involvement in Vietnam o A series of teach-ins sparked a national debate over the war before such debate developed inside the government itself By the end of 1967, American students opposed to the war had become a significant political force Opposition to the war had become a central issue in left-wing politics and in the culture of colleges and universities

The growing chorus of popular protest soon began to stimulate opposition to the war from within the government In the meantime, the American economy was beginning to suffer o Johnsons commitment to fighting the war while continuing his Great Society reforms proved impossible to maintain In August 1967, Johnson asked Congress for a tax increase which he knew was necessary if the nation was to avoid even more ruinous inflation o In return, congressional conservative demanded and received a $6 billion reduction in the funding for Great Society programs The Traumas of 1968 The Tet Offensive On January 31, 1968, the first day of the Vietnamese New Year (Tet), communist forces launched an enormous, concerted attack on American strongholds throughout South Vietnam o Such images shocked many Americans and proved devastating to popular support for the war No single event did more to undermine support for the war in the United States o In the following weeks, opposition to the war grew substantially The Political Challenge Beginning in the summer of 1967, dissident Democrats tried to mobilize support behind an antiwar candidate who would challenge Lyndon Johnson in the 1968 primaries o Eugene McCarthy In the New Hampshire primary he nearly defeated the president o Robert Kennedy entered the campaign On March 31, Johnson went on television to announce a limited halt in the bombing of North Vietnam and his withdrawal from the presidential contest o For a moment, it seemed as though the antiwar forces had won The King and Kennedy Assassinations In the midst of this bitter political battle, in which the war had been the dominant issue, attention suddenly turned back to the nations bitter racial conflicts On April 4, Martin Luther King, Jr., who had traveled to Memphis, Tennessee, to lend his support to striking black sanitation workers in the city, was shot and killed while standing on the balcony of his hotel o James Earl Ray o Kings tragic death produced an outpouring of grief matched in recent memory only by the reaction to the death of John Kennedy Robert Kennedy was shot and killed two months later by a young Palestinian apparently enraged by pro-Israeli remarks Kennedy had recently made o The passions Kennedy had aroused made his violent death a particularly shattering experience for many Americans Hubert Humphrey got the nomination for president for the Democratic party The Conservative Response The turbulent events of 1968 persuaded many observers that American society was in the throes of revolutionary change

In fact the response of most Americans to the turmoil was a conservative one The most visible sign of the conservative backlash was the surprising success of the campaign of George Wallace for the presidency o A big supporter of segregation A more effective effort to mobilize the silent majority in favor of order and stability was under way within the Republican Party o Nixon Nixon won o The election made clears that a majority of the American electorate was more interested in restoring stability than in promoting social change

Chapter 32
The Crisis of Authority o The Youth Culture The New Left In retrospect, it seems unsurprising that young Americans became so assertive and powerful in American culture and politics in the 1960s One of the most visible results of the increasingly assertive youth movement was a radicalization of many American college and university students, who in the course of the 1960s formed what became known as the New Left o A large, diverse group of men and women energized by the polarizing developments of their time to challenge the political system The New Left drew from many sources Relatively few members of the New Left were communists, but many were drawn to the writings of Karl Marx and of contemporary Marxist theorists The New Left drew its inspiration above all from the civil rights movement In 1962, a group of students gathered in Michigan to form an organization to give voice to their demands o Students for a Democratic Society Their declaration of beliefs expressed their disillusionment with the society they had inherited and their determination to build a new politics The Port Huron Statement Some members of SDS moved into inner-city neighborhoods and tried for a time, without notable success, to mobilize poor, working-class people politically A 1964 dispute at the University of California at Berkeley over the rights of students to engage in political activities on campus gained national attention o The immediate issue was the right of students to pass out literature and recruit volunteers for political causes on campus o The revolt at Berkeley was the first outburst of what was to be nearly a decade of campus turmoil Also in 1969, Berkeley became the scene of perhaps the most prolonged and traumatic conflict of any American college campus in the 1960s o A battle over the efforts of a few students to build a Peoples Park on a vacant lot the university planned to use to build a parking garage o By the end of the Peoples Park battle the Berkeley campus was completely polarized Student radicals were winning large audiences for their extravagant rhetoric linking together university administrators, the police, and the larger political and economic system, describing them all as part of one united oppressive force Most campus radicals were rarely if ever violent Not many people, not even many students, ever accepted the radical political views that lay at the heart of the New Left The October 1967 march on the Pentagon, where demonstrators were met by a solid line of armed troop; the spring mobilization of April

1968, which attracted hundreds of thousands of demonstrators in cities around the country; the Vietnam moratorium of the fall of 1969, during which millions of opponents of the war gathered in major rallies across the nation; and countless other demonstrations, large and small all helped thrust the issue of the war into the center of American politics Closely related to opposition to the war was opposition to the military draft o The gradual abolition of many traditional deferments swelled the ranks of those face with conscription Not until 1977, when President Jimmy Carter issued a general pardon to draft resisters and a far more limited amnesty for deserters, did the Vietnam exiles begin to return to the country in substantial numbers The Counterculture Closely related to the New Left was a new youth culture openly scornful of the values and conventions of middle-class society The most visible characteristic of the counterculture was a change in lifestyle o Hippies Also central to this counterculture were drugs There was also a new, more permissive view of sexual behavior The countercultures rejection of traditional values and its open embrace of sensual pleasure sometimes masked its philosophy, which offered a fundamental challenge to the American middle-class mainstream o The counterculture challenged the structure of modern American society, attacking its banality, its hollowness, its artificially, its materials, its isolationism from nature o In a corrupt and alienating society, the new creed seemed to suggest, the first responsibility of the individual is cultivation of the self, the unleashing to ones own full potential for pleasure and fulfillment The Making of a Counter Culture o Theodore Roszak The Greening of America o Charles Reich The most pervasive element of the new youth society was one that even the least radical members of the generation embraced o Rock music For a time, most rock musicians concentrated largely on uncontroversial, romantic themes By the late 1960s rock had begun to reflect many of the new iconoclastic values of its time The Beatles The Rolling Stones Many popular musicians used their music to express explicit political radicalism as well Bob Dylan Joan Baez A powerful symbol of the fusion of rock music an the counterculture was the great music festival at Woodstock, NY, in the summer of 1960 Virtually no Americans could avoid seeing how rapidly the norms of their society were changing in the late 1960s

The Mobilization of Minorities Seeds of Indian Militancy Few minorities had deeper or more justifiable grievances against the prevailing culture than American Indians o For much of the postwar era, federal policy toward the tribes had been shaped by a determination to incorporate Indians into mainstream American society, whether Indians wanted to assimilate or not Two laws passed in 1953 established the basis of a new policy, which became known as termination o Through termination, the federal government withdrew al official recognition of the tribes as legal entities, administratively separate from state governments, and made them subject to the same local jurisdictions as white residents o To some degrees, the termination and assimilation policies achieved their objectives The Democratic administrations of the 1960s made no effort to revive termination policy o Instead, they made modest efforts to restore at least some degree of tribal autonomy The Indian Civil Rights Movement In 1961, more than 400 members of 67 tribes gathered in Chicago to discuss ways of bringing all Indians together in an effort to redress common wrongs o The manifesto they issued, the Declaration of Indian Purpose, stressed the right to choose our own way of lie. One result was a gradual change in the way popular culture depicted Indians o By the 1970s, almost no films or television westerns any longer portrayed Indians as brutal savages attacking peaceful white people The new activism had some immediate political results o In 1968, Congress passed the Indian Civil Rights Act Guaranteed reservation Indians many of the protections accorded other citizens by the Bill of Rights, but which also recognized the legitimacy of tribal laws within in the reservations In 1968, Indian fishermen clashed with Washington State officials on the Columbia River and in Puget Sound o The Indians claimed that treaties gave them the exclusive right to fish in the area The following year, members of several tribes made a symbolic protest by occupying the abandoned federal prison on Alcatraz Island in San Francisco Bay and claiming the site by right of discovery In response to the growing pressure, the new Nixon administration appointed a Mohawk-Sioux to the position of commissioner of Indian Affairs in 1969 In the early 1970s, Wounded Knee was part of a large Sioux reservation, two-thirds of which had been leased to white ranchers for generations as an outgrowth of the Dawes Act o In February 1973, members of the American Indian Movement (AIM) seized and occupied the town of Wounded Knee for two months, demanding radical changes in the administration of the reservation and insisting that the government honor its long forgotten treaty obligations

More immediately effective than these militant protests were the victories that various tribes were achieving in the 1970s in the federal courts United States v. Wheeler (1978) o The Supreme court confirmed that tribes had independent legal standing and could not be terminated by Congress Other decisions ratified the authority of tribes to impose taxes on businesses within their reservations and to perform other sovereign functions County of Oneida v. Oneida Indian Nation (1985) o The U.S. Supreme Court supported Indian claims to 100,000 acres in upstate New York that the Oneida tribe claimed by virtue of treaty rights long forgotten by whites The Indian civil rights movement fell far short of winning full justice and equality for its constituents o For all its limits the Indian civil rights movement helped the tribes win a series of new legal rights and protections that gave them a stronger position than they had enjoyed at any previous time in the 20th century Latino Activism More numerous and more visible than Indians were Latinos The most numerous and important Latino group in the United States was Mexican Americans In 1953, the government launched what it called Operation Wetback to deport the illegal immigrants, but the effort failed to stem the flow of new arrivals o By the late 1960s Mexican Americans were one of the largest population groups in the West Mexican Americans and others were slower to develop political influence than some other minorities o One of the most visible efforts to organize Mexican Americans occurred in California, where an Arizona-born Chicano farmer worker, Cesar Chavez, created an effective union of itinerant farm workers In 1965, his United Farm Workers launched a prolonged strike against growers to demand, first, recognition of their union and second, increased wages and benefits Two years later Chavez won a substantial victory when the growers of half of Californias table grapes signed contracts with his union Latino Americans were the center of controversy of the 1970s and beyond o The issue of bilingualism It was a question that aroused the opposition not only of many whites but of some Hispanics as well The United States Supreme Court confirmed the right of non-Englishspeaking students to schooling into their native language in 1974 Challenging the Melting Pot Ideal The efforts of blacks, Latinos, Indians, Asians, and others to forge a clearer group identity seemed to challenge a longstanding premise of American political thought The idea of the melting pot Many advocated a culturally pluralistic society

The advocates of cultural pluralism succeeded Gay Liberation The last important liberation movement to emerge in the 1960s, and the most surprising to many Americans, was the effort by homosexuals to win political and economic rights and, equally important, social acceptance Nonheterosexual men and women had long been forced either to suppress their sexual preference, to express them surreptitiously, or to live within isolated and often persecuted communities On June 27, 1969, police officers raided the Stonewall Inn, a gay nightclub in NYCs Greenwich Village, and began arresting patrons simply for frequenting the place o Gay on-lookers rioted The Stonewall riot marked the beginning of the gay liberation movement New organizations sprang up around the country Most of all the gay liberation movement transformed the outlook of gay men and lesbians themselves o It helped them to come out By the early 1990s, gay men and women were achieving some of the same milestones that other oppressed minorities had attained in earlier decades The New Feminism The Rebirth Feminism had been a weak and often embattled force in American life fore more than 40 years after the adoption of the woman suffrage amendment in 1920 o Through the 1950s and 1960s, active feminism was often difficult to detect The 1963 publication of Betty Friedans The Feminine Mystique is often cited as the first event of contemporary womens liberation o By the time The Feminine Mystique appeared, JFK had established the Presidents Commission on the Status of Women The commission brought national attention to sexual discrimination and helped create important networks of feminist activists who would lobby for legislation redress Also in 1963, the Kennedy administration helped win passage of the Equal Pay Act o Barred the pervasive practice of paying women less than men for equal work Congress incorporated into the Civil Rights Act of 1964 an amendment Title VII that extended to women many of the same legal protections against discrimination that were being extended to blacks The events of the early 1960s helped expose a contradiction that had been developing for decades between the image and the reality of womens roles in America o The feminine mystique v. the woman in the working world In 1966, Friedan joined with other feminists to create the National Organization for Women, which was to become the nations largest and most influential feminist organization o The new organization reflected the varying constituencies of the emerging feminist movement

It demanded greater educational opportunities for women and denounced the domestic ideal and the traditional concept of marriage Denounced the exclusion of women from professions, from politics, and from countless other areas of American life because of prejudices about womens proper role

Womens Liberation By the late 1960s, new and more radical feminist demands were also attracting a large following, especially among younger, affluent, white, educated women By the early 1970s, a significant change was visible in the tone and direction of the organization and of the womens movement as a whole In its most radical form, the new feminism rejected the whole notion of marriage, family, and even heterosexual intercourse By the late 1970s large numbers of women were coming to see themselves as an exploited group organizing against oppression and developing a culture and communities of their own Expanding Achievements By the early 1970s, the public and private achievements of the womens movement were already substantial o Women were making rapid progress in their efforts to move into the economic and political mainstream o Women were also becoming an important force in business and the professions There were also important symbolic changes, such as the refusal of many women to adopt their husbands names when they married and the use of the term Ms. In place of Mrs. or Miss to denote the irrelevance of a womens martial status in the public world In politics, women were beginning to compete effectively with men by the early 1970s for both elected and appointive positions In professional athletics women were beginning to compete with men both for attention and for an equal share of prized money o Billie Jean King Women even joined the space program o Sally Ride In 1972, Congress approved the Equal Rights Amendment to the Constitution and sent it to the states o In 1982, the amendment finally died when the time allotted for ratification expired The Abortion Controversy A vital element of American feminism since the 1920s had been womens effort to win greater control of their own sexual and reproductive lives o Abortion had once been legal in much of the United States, but by the beginning of the 20th century it was banned by statute in most of the country and remained so into the 1960s Roe v. Wade (1973) o The Supreme Courts decision was based on a relatively new theory of a constitutional right to privacy first recognized by the Court only a few year earlier in Griswold v. Connecticut, invalidated all laws prohibiting abortion during the 1 st trimester

Although in many ways feminism was much like other liberation movements of the 1960s and 1970s, it differed from them in one fundamental respect o Its success Nixon, Kissinger, and the War Vietnamization Despite Nixons own passionate interest in international affairs, he brought with him into government a man who ultimately seemed to overshadow him in the conduct of diplomacy o Henry Kissinger Together, Nixon and Kissinger set out to find an acceptable solution to the stalemate in Vietnam o The new Vietnam policy moved along several fronts One was an effort to limit domestic opposition to the war so as to permit the administration more political space in which to maneuver More important in stifling dissent was the new policy of Vietnamization of the war The training and equipping of the South Vietnamese military to assume the burden of combat in place of American forces o Vietnamization did help quiet domestic opposition to the war But it did nothing to break the stalemate in the negotiations with the North Vietnamese in Paris Escalation By the end of their first year in office, Nixon and Kissinger had concluded that the most effective way to tip the military balance in Americas favor was to destroy the bases in Cambodia from which the American military believed the North Vietnamese were launching many of their attacks In the spring of 1970, possibly with U.S. encouragement and support, conservative military leaders overthrew the neutral government of Cambodia and established a new, pro-American regime under General Lon Nol o Literally overnight, the Cambodian invasion restored the dwindling antiwar movement to vigorous life The mood of crisis intensified greatly on May 4, when four college students were killed and nine others injured when members of the National Guard opened fire on antiwar demonstrators at Kent State University o The clamor against the war quickly spread into the government and the press Congress angrily repealed the Gulf of Tonkin Resolution in December In June 1971, first the New York Times and later other newspapers began publishing, excerpts from a secret study of the war prepared by the Defense Department during the Johnson administration The Pentagon Papers o Provided confirmation that the government had been dishonest, both in reporting the military

progress of the war and in explaining its own motives for American involvement Particularly troubling were signs of decay within the American military o The continuing carnage, the increasing savagery, and the social distress at home had largely destroyed public support for the war Meanwhile, the fighting in Indochina raged on o In February 1971, the president ordered the air force to assist the South Vietnamese army in an invasion of Laos A test, as he saw it, of his Vietnamization program They lost o In March 1972, the North Vietnamese mounted their biggest offensive since 1968 The Easter Offensive Without American help, the South Vietnamese would have lost Peace with Honor As the 1972 presidential election approached, the administration stepped up its efforts to produce a breakthrough in negotiations with the North Vietnamese o On October 26, only days before the presidential election, Kissinger announced that peace is at hand Several weeks later, negotiations broke down once again o December 16, talks broke off The next day, December 17, American B-52s began the heaviest and most destructive air raids of the entire war on Hanoi, Haiphong, and other North Vietnamese targets On December 30, Nixon terminated the Christmas bombing On January 27, 1973, the United States and the North Vietnamese signed an agreement on ending the war and restoring peace in Vietnam o The terms of the Paris accords were little different from those Kissinger and Tho had accepted in principle a few months before o There would be an immediate cease-fire o The North Vietnamese would release several hundred American prisoners of war Defeat in Indochina American forces were hardly out of Indochina before the Paris accords collapsed o During the first year after the cease-fire, the contending Vietnamese armies suffered greater battle losses than the Americans had absorbed during ten years of fighting In March 1975, the North Vietnamese launched a full-scale offensive against the now greatly weakened forces of the south o Communists took over South Vietnam and Cambodia That was the dismal end of over a decade of direct American military involvement in Vietnam o The war caused the nation to suffer a blow to its confidence and self-esteem from which it would not soon recover Nixon, Kissinger, and the World China and the Soviet Union For more than 20 years, ever since the fall of Chiang Kai-shek in 1949, the United States had treated China as if it did not exist

Instead, America recognized the forlorn regime-in-exile on Taiwan as the legitimate government of mainland China In July 1971, Nixon sent Henry Kissinger on a secret mission to Beijing o When Kissinger returned, the president made the starling announcement that he would visit China himself within the next few months In February 1972, Nixon paid a formal visit to China and, in a single stroke, erased much of the deep American animosity toward the Chinese communists o The initiatives in China coincided with an effort by the Nixon administration to improve relations with the Soviet Union In 1969, American and Soviet diplomats met in Helsinki, Finland, to begin talks on limiting nuclear weapons o Strategic Arms Limitation Treaty 1972 Froze the nuclear missiles of both sides at present levels The Problems of Multipolarity The policies of rapprochement with communist China and dtente with the Soviet Union reflected Nixons and Kissingers belief in the importance of stable relationships among the great powers Central to the Nixon-Kissinger policy toward the Third World was the effort to maintain a stable status quo without involving the United States too deeply in local disputes Nixon Doctrine o 1969 and 1970 o By which the United States would participate in the defense and development of allies and friends but would leave the basic responsibility for the future to those friends to the nations themselves In 1970, the CIA poured substantial funds into Chile to help support the established government against a communist challenge o When a Marxist leader was elected the United States funneled more money for his overthrow o It eventually happened and the U.S. came on good terms with the new repressive military government In the Middle East, conditions were growing more volatile in the aftermath of the 1967 Six-Day War in which Israel routed Egyptian, Syrian, and Jordanian forces, gained control of the whole of the longdivided city of Jerusalem and occupied substantial new territories o The war increased the number of refugee Palestinians o In October 1973, on the Jewish High Holy Day of Yom Kipper, Egyptian and Syrian forces attacked Israel o The United States intervened, placing heavy pressure on Israel to accept a cease-fire rather than press its advantage o The imposed settlement of the Yom Kipper War demonstrated the growing dependence of the United States and its allies on Arab oil A larger lesson of 1973 was that the nations of the Third World could no longer be expected to act as passive, cooperative client states Politics and Economics Under Nixon Domestic Initiatives Many of Nixons domestic polices were a response to what he believed to be the demands of his own constituency conservative, middle-class

people whom he liked to call the silent majority and who wanted to reduced federal interference in local affairs o He tried to persuade Congress to pass legislation prohibiting the use of forced bussing to achieve school desegregation o He forbade the Department of Health, Education, and Welfare to cut off federal funds from school districts that had failed to comply with court orders to integrate Yet Nixons domestic efforts were not entirely conservative o One of the administrations boldest efforts was an attempt to overhaul the nations enormous welfare system Replace it with the Family Assistance Plan It would in effect have created a guaranteed annual income for all Americans o $1,600 in federal grants, which could be supplemented by outside earning up to $4,000 It was killed in the Senate From the Warren Court to the Nixon Court Of all the liberal institutions that had aroused the enmity of the silent majority in the 1950s and 1960s, none had evoked more anger and bitterness than the Supreme Court Engel v. Vitale (1962) o The Court had ruled that prayers in public schools were unconstitutional o Sparked outrage among religious fundamentalist and others Roth v. United States (1957) o The court had sharply limited the authority of local government to curb pornography Gideon v. Wainwright (1963) o The Court had ruled that every felony defendant was entitled to a lawyer regardless of his or her ability to pay Escobedo v. Illinois (1964) o It ruled that a defendant must be allowed access to a lawyer before questioning by police Miranda v. Arizona (1966) o The Court had confirmed the obligation of authorities inform a criminal suspect of his or her rights One of the most important of the Warren Court in the 1960s was Baker v. Carr (1962) o Required state legislatures to apportion electoral districts so that all citizens votes would have equal weight Nixon was determined to use his judicial appointments to give the Court a more conservative cast o When Chief Justice Earl Warren resigned early in 1969, Nixon replaced him with a federal appeals court judge of known conservative leanings, Warren Burger o After other justices stepped down Nixon appointed more of his choosing In the process, he transformed the Warren Court into what some called the Nixon Court and others the Burger Court The new Court fell short of what many conservatives had expected Swann v. Charlotte-Mecklenburg Board of Education (1971) o The court ruled in favor of the use of forced busing to achieve racial balance in schools

Furman v. Georgia (1972) o The Court overturned existing capital punishment statutes and established strict new guidelines for such laws in the future Roe v. Wade (1973) o It struck down laws forbidding abortions Milliken v. Bradley (1974) o A plan to transfer students across district lines to achieve racial balance Bakke v. Board of Regents of California (1978) o It established restrictive new guidelines for such programs in the future Stone v. Powell (1976) o The Court agreed to certain limits on the right of a defendant to appeal a state conviction to the federal judiciary The Election of 1972 However unsuccessful his administration may have been in achieving some of its specific goals, Nixon entered the presidential race in 1972 with a substantial reserve of strength Nixon was most fortunate in 1972 in his opposition The Democrats were making their own contributions to the Nixon cause by nominating for president a representative of their most liberal wing o Senator George McGovern On election day Nixon won The Troubled Economy Although it was political scandal that would ultimately destroy the Nixon presidency, the most important national crisis of the early 1970s was the troubled transformation of the American economy The fact that the American economy was doing so well rested in part on several artificial conditions that were rapidly disappearing by the late 1960s o Above all, the absence of significant foreign competition and easy access to raw materials in the Third World o Inflation soon began to soar The greatest immediate blow to the American economy was the increasing cost of energy o For many years, OPEC had operated as an informal bargaining unit for the sale of oil by Third World nations, but had seldom managed to exercise any real strength OPEC began to assert itself in the world No single factor did more to produce the soaring inflation of the 1970s But inflation was only one of the new problems facing the American economy o The other and more important in the long run, was the decline of the nations manufacturing sector o By the 1970s the climate for American manufacturing had changed significantly Thus the 1970s marked the beginning of a long, painful process of deindustrialization, during which thousands of factories across the country closed their gates and millions of workers lost their jobs The Nixon Response The Nixon administration responded to these mounting economic problems by focusing on the one thing it thought it could control

o Inflation The United States was encountering a new and puzzling dilemma o Stagflation A combining of rising prices an general economic stagnation In the summer of 1971, Nixon imposed a ninety-day freeze on all wages and prices at their existing levels o Then, in November, he launched what he called Phase II of his economic plan Mandatory guidelines for wage and price increased, to be administrated by a federal agency The new tactics helped revive the economy in the short term, but inflation rose substantially o In 1973, prices rose 9% o In 1974, they rose 12% The erratic economic programs of the Nixon administration were a sign of a broader national confusion about the prospects for American prosperity The Watergate Crisis The Scandals Nixons outlook was in part a culmination of long-term changes in the presidency Something new was expected of the president after WWII o A succession of presidents had sought new methods for the exercise of power, often stretching the law, occasionally breaking it Nixon not only continued but greatly accelerated these trends Early on the morning of June 17, 1972, police arrested five men who had broken into the offices of the Democratic National committee in the Watergate office building in Washington D. C. Public interesting the disclosures grew slowly in the last months of 1972 Two different sets of scandals were emerging from the investigations o One was a general pattern of abuses of power involving both the White House and the Nixon campaign committee o The other scandal, and the one that became the major focus of public attention for nearly two years, was the way to which the administration tried to manage the investigations of the Watergate break-in and other abuses There was mounting evidence that the president gad been involved in illegal efforts to obstruct investigations of and withhold information about the episode o Nixon accepted the departure of those members of his administration implicated in the scandals Nixon continued to insist that he himself was innocent There the matter might have rested, had it not been for the disclosure during the Senate hearings of a White House taping system that had recorded virtually every conversation in the presidents office during the period in question The Fall of Richard Nixon Nixons situation deteriorated further in the following months o The impeachment investigation quickly gathered pace

In April 1974, in an effort to head of further subpoenas of the tapes, the president released transcripts of a number relevant conversations They helped to suggest Nixons complicity in the cover-up o In July, the crisis reached a climax First the Supreme Court ruled unanimously, in United States v. Richard M. Nixon, that the president must relinquish the tapes to Special Prosecutor Jaworski They charged him with 3 articles of impeachment o Nixon had obstructed justice in the Watergate cover-up o Nixon misused federal agencies to violate the rights of citizens o Nixon defied the authority of Congress by refusing to deliver tape and other material subpoenaed by the committee On August 8, 1974, Nixon announced his resignation o The first president in American history ever to do so

Chapter 33
The Age of Limits o Politics and Diplomacy After Watergate The Ford Custodianship Gerald Ford inherited the presidency under unenviable circumstances o The new presidents effort to establish himself as a symbol of political integrity suffered a setback only a month after he took office, when he granted Richard Nixon "a full, free, and absolute" pardon for any crimes he may have committed during his presidency The pardon caused a decline in Fords popularity from which he never fully recovered The Ford administration enjoyed less success in its effort to solve the problems of the American economy o The president rejected the idea of wage and price controls and called instead for largely ineffective voluntary efforts Supported high interest rates, opposed increased federal spending, and resisted pressures fro a tax reduction Ford had to deal with a serious recession in 1974 and 1975 Central to the economic problems was the continuing energy crisis At first it seemed that the new administrations foreign policy would differ little from that of its predecessor o Late in 1974, Ford met with Leonid Brezhnev at Vladivostok in Siberia and signed an arms control accord that was to serve as the basis for SALT II o The following summer the Soviet union and Western nations agreed to ratify the borders that had divided Europe since 1945 o In the Middle East, Henry Kissinger helped produce a new accord by which Israel agreed to return large portions of the occupied Sinai to Egypt o In China the death of Mao Zedong in 1976 brought to power a new, apparently more moderate government eager to expand its ties with the United States As the 1976 presidential election approached, Fords policies were coming under attack from both the right and the left o Republicans Ford o Democrats Jimmy Carter Carter won by 2.1% The Trials of Jimmy Carter Like Ford, Jimmy Carter assumed the presidency at a moment when the nation faced problems of staggering complexity and difficulty o Carter had campaigned for the presidency as an outsider, representing Americans suspicious of entrenched bureaucracies and complacent public officials Carter devoted much of his time to the problems of energy and the economy o He moved first to reduced unemployment by raising public spending and cutting federal taxes o During Carters last two years in office, prices rose at well over a 10% annual rate Carter responded with a combination of tight money and calls for voluntary restraint

The problem of energy also grew steadily more troublesome in the Carter years Faced with increasing pressure to act upon the major price increase brought forth by OPEC, Carter retreated to Camp David Ten days later, he emerged to deliver a remarkable television address o It included a series of proposals for resolving the energy crisis o He complained of a crisis of confidence that had struck at the very heart and soul of our national will o The Malaise speech Human Rights and National Interests Among Jimmy Carters most frequent campaign promises was a pledge to build a new basis for American foreign policy, one in which the defense of human rights would replace the pursuit of selfish interests Carter completed negotiations begun several years earlier on a pair of treaties to turn over control of the Panama Canal to the government of Panama o The Senate ratified the treaties Less controversial was Carters stunning success in arranging a peace treaty between Egypt and Israel o In November 1977, the Egyptian president, Anwar Sadat, accepted an invitation from Prime Minister Menachem Begin to visit Israel In Tel Aviv, he announced that Egypt was now willing to accept the state of Israel as a legitimate political entity o When talks between Israeli and Egyptian negotiators stalled, Carter invited Sadat and Begin to a summit conference at Camp David in September 1978, and persuaded them to remain there for two weeks while he and others helped mediate the disputes between them On March 26, 1979, Begin and Sadat returned together to the White House to sign a formal peace treaty between their two nations The Camp David Accords In the meantime, Carter continued trying to improve relations with china and the Soviet Union and to completer a new arms agreement On December 15, 1978, Washington and Beijing announced the resumption of formal diplomatic relations between the two nations A few months later, Carter traveled to Vienna to meet with Brezhnev to finish drafting the new SALT II arms control agreement o The treaty set limits on the number of long-range missiles, bombers, and nuclear warheads on each side o By the fall of 1979 ratification was already in jeopardy The Year of the Hostages Ever since the early 1950s, the United States had provided political support an massive military assistance to the government of the Shah of Iran o By 1979 the Shah was in deep trouble with his own people

A combination of resentments produced a powerful revolutionary movement o In January 1979, the Shah fled the country The United States made cautious efforts in the first months after the Shahs abdication to establish cordial relations with the succession of increasingly militant regimes that followed o What power there was resided with the Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini In late October 1979, the deposed Shah arrived in New York to be treated for cancer o Days later, on November 4, an armed mob invaded the American embassy in Teheran, seized the diplomats and military personnel inside, and demanded the return of the Shah to Iran in exchange for their freedom 53 Americans remained hostages in the embassy for over a year Only weeks after the hostage seizure, on December 27, 1979, Soviet troops invaded Afghanistan o Many claimed it was a Russian stepping stone to their possible control over much of the worlds oil supplies Carter angrily imposed a series of economic sanctions on the Russians, canceled American participation in the 1980 summer Olympic Games in Moscow, and announced the withdrawal of SATL II from Senate consideration The combination of domestic economic troubles and international crises created widespread anxiety, frustration and anger in the United States The Rise of the New American Right The Sunbelt and Its Politics The most widely discussed demographic phenomenon of the 1970s was the rise of what became know as the Sunbelt o A term used to describe a collection of regions that emerged together in the postwar era to become the most dynamically growing parts of the country In addition to shifting the nations economic focus from one region to another, the rise of the Sunbelt helped produce a changing the political climate o The strong populist traditions n the South and the West were capable of producing progressive and even radial politics o More often in the late twentieth century, the produced a strong opposition to the growth of government a resentment of the proliferating regulations and restrictions that the liberal state was producing Both the South and the West embraced myths about their own pasts that reinforced the hostility to the liberal government of the mid- and later 20th century If anything, the growth of the Sunbelt seemed to make the politics of the regions even more hostile to government o The so-called Sagebrush Rebellion mobilized conservative opposition to environmental laws and restriction on development It also sought to portray the West as a victim of government control

Complained about the very large amounts of land the federal government owned in many western states and demanded that the land be opened for development Suburbanization also fueled the rise of the right o Orange County o Suburbs tended to attract people who wished to flee the problems and the jarring diversity of cities, who preferred stable, homogeneous surroundings o The seemingly tranquil life of the suburb reinforced the conservative view that other parts of the nation were abandoning the values and norms that society required Religious Revivalism In the 1960s, many social critics had predicted the virtual extinction of religious influence in American life In the 1970s the United States experienced the beginning of a major religious revival Some of the new religious enthusiasm found expression in the rise of various cults and pseudo-faiths o Scientology, Unification Church of the Reverend Sun Myung Moon, Peoples Temple The most important impulse of the religious revival was the growth of evangelical Christianity o For many years, the evangelicals had gone largely unnoted by much of the media and the secular public, which had dismissed them as a limited, provincial phenomenon In the 1970s, some Christian evangelicals became active on the political and cultural right o By the late 1970s, the Christian right had become a visible and increasing powerful political force Jerry Falwell o Moral Majority o Attacked the rise of secular humanism Pat Robertson o Christian Coalition Their goal was a new era in which Christian values once again dominated American life The Emergence of the New Right Evangelical Christian were an important part of what became known as the new right o A diverse but powerful movement that enjoyed rapid growth in the 1970s and early 1980s By the late 1970s, there were right-wing think tanks, consulting firms, lobbyists, foundations, and scholarly centers Another factor in the revival of the right was the emergence of a credible right-wing leadership in the 1960s and early 1970s o Ronald Reagan The presidency of Gerald Ford also played an important role in the rise of the right, by destroying the fragile equilibrium that had enabled the right wing and the moderate wing of the Republican Party to coexist The Tax Revolt At least equally important to the success of the new right was a new and potent conservative issue o The tax revolt

It had its public beginning in 1978, when Howard Jarvis, a conservative activist in California, launched the first successful major citizens tax revolt in California with Proposition 13 A referendum question on the state ballot rolling back property tax rates The tax revolt helped the right solve one of its biggest problems o For years after the new Deal, Republican conservatives had struggled to halt and even reverse the growth of the federal government Most of those efforts had ended in futility In Proposition 13 and similar initiatives, members of the right found a better way to discredit government than by attacking specific programs o Attacking taxes The right exploited the resentment of paying taxes and expanded its constituency far beyond anything it had known before o The 1980 presidential election propelled it to a historic victory The Campaign of 1980 By the time of the crises in Iran and Afghanistan, Jimmy Carter was in desperate political trouble Democrats Carter Republicans Reagan o Reagan won On the day of Reagans inauguration, the American hostages in Iran were released after their 444 day ordeal The Reagan Revolution The Reagan Coalition Reagan owed his election to widespread disillusionment with Carter and to the crises and disappointments that many voters associated with him But he owed it as well to the emergence of a powerful coalition of conservative groups o The Reagan coalition included a small but highly influential group of wealthy Americans associated with the corporate and financial world What untied this group was a firm commitment to capitalism and to unfettered economic growth That the corporate world is entitled to a special position of influence and privilege in society A second element of the Reagan coalition was even smaller, but also disproportionately influential o A group of intellectuals commonly known as neoconservatives Gave the right a firm base among opinion leaders Their principal concern was to reassert legitimate authority and reaffirm Western democratic, anticommunist values and commitments These two groups joined in an uneasy alliance in 1980 with the growing new right The most important different between the two groups was a fundamental distrust of the eastern establishment o A suspicion of its motives and goals

These populist conservatives expressed the kinds of concerns that outsiders, nonelites, have traditionally voiced in American society o An opposition to centralized power and influence Reagan in the White House Even many people who disagreed with Reagans policies found themselves drawn to his attractive and carefully honed public image Reagan was not much involved in the day-to-day affairs of running the government Supply-Side Economics Reagans 1980 campaign for the presidency had promised among other things, to restore the economy to health by a bold experiment that became known as supply-side economics or Reaganomics o It operated from the assumption that the woes of the American economy were in large part a result of excessive taxation, which left inadequate capital available to investors to stimulate growth o The solution was to reduce taxes, with particularly generous benefits to corporations and wealthy individuals, in order to encourage new investments o A cornerstone of the Reagan economic program was a dramatic cut in the federal budget In its first months in office the new administration hastily assembled a legislative program based on the supply-side idea o Its proposed $40 billion in budget reductions and managed to win congressional approval of almost all of them o The president proposed a bold three year, 30% reduction on both individual and corporate tax rates In the summer of 1981 the Congress passed it Men and women whom Reagan appointed fanned out through the executive branch of government committed to reducing the role of government in American economic life Deregulation, an idea many Democrats had begun to embrace in the Carter years, became almost a religion in the Reagan administration The Environmental Protection Agency o Relaxed or entirely eliminated enforcement of major environmental laws and regulations The Civil Rights Division of the Justice Department o Eased enforcement of civil rights laws The Department of Transportation o Slowed implementation of new rules limiting automobile emissions and imposing new safety standards on cars and trucks By early 1982 the nation had sunk into the most severe recession since the 1930s o The recession convinced many people that the Reagan economic program had failed The recovery was a result of many things o The years of tight money policies by the Federal Reserve board had helped lower inflation o The Board also lowered interest rates o The virtual collapse of the OPEC cartel had produced at least a temporary end to the inflationary pressures of spiraling fuel costs The Fiscal Crisis

The economic revival did little to reduce the staggering federal budget deficits or to slow the growth in the national debt By the mid-1980s, this growing fiscal crisis had become one of the central issues in American politics Regan had accumulated more debt in his eight years in office than the American government had accumulated in its entire previous history The enormous deficits had many causes o The budget suffered from enormous increases in the costs of entitlement programs o A result of the aging of the population and dramatic increases in the cost of health care o The 1981 tax cuts contributed to the deficit In the face of these deficits, the administration refused to consider raising income taxes It would not agree to reductions in military spending It could not much reduce the costs of entitlement programs Its answer to the fiscal crises was further cuts in discretionary domestic spending o Reductions in funding for food stamps, a major cut in federal subsidies of low-income housing, strict new limitations on Medicare and Medicaid payments, reductions in student loans, school lunches, and other educational programs, and an end to many forms of federal assistance to the states and cities By the end of Ragans third year in office, funding for domestic programs had been cut nearly as far as Congress was willing to tolerate o And still no end of the rising deficit was in sight Reagan and the World Reagan encountered a similar combination of triumphs and difficulties in international affairs Although the president had long denounced the SALT II arms control treaty as unfavorable to the Untied States, he continued to honor its provisions Reagan proposed the Strategic Defense Initiative (SDI) o Widely known as Star Wars o Reagan claimed that SDI, through the use of lasers and satellites, could provide an effective shield against incoming missiles and thus make nuclear war obsolete The escalation of Cold War tensions and the slowing of arms control initiatives helped produce an important popular movement in Europe and the United States calling for an end to nuclear weapons buildups In America, the principal goal of the movement was a nuclear freeze o An agreement between the two superpowers not to expand their atomic arsenals o Nearly a million people rallied in Central Park in 1982 to support the freeze The administration began to support opponents of communism anywhere in the world, whether or not the regimes or movement there where challenging had any direct connection to the Soviet Union o This new policy became known as the Reagan Doctrine The most conspicuous example of the new activism came in Latin America o Grenada

American forcers were sent to oust an anti-American Marxist regime that showed signs of forging a relationship with Moscow o El Salvador The president provided increased military and economic assistance o Nicaragua Sandinistas The Reagan administration gave both rhetorical and material support to the so-called contras A guerilla movement drawn from several antigovernment groups and fights fighting to topple the Sandinista regime In other parts of the world, the administrations bellicose rhetoric seemed to hide and instinctive restraint o In 1982, the Israeli army launched an invasion of Lebanon in an effort to drive guerillas of the Palestinian Liberation Organization from the country An American peacekeeping force entered Beirut to supervise the evacuation of PLO forces from Lebanon o The Americans became the targets in 1983 of a terrorist bombing of a U.S. military barracks in Beirut that left 241 marines dead The tragedy in Lebanon was an example of the changing character of Third World struggles An increasing reliance on terrorism by otherwise powerless groups to advance their political aims The Election of 1984 Reagan approached the campaign of 1984 at the head of a united Republican Part firmly committed to his candidacy Democrats Mondale o Took on Geraldine Ferraro as his vice president running mate Reagan won