OUTLINE of the HISTORY of MALAYA

1300 About this time the first Siamese kingdom in the Menam valley demands tokens of tribute from Kedah and the other small settlements in the Malay Peninsula. Kedah's main export commodity is tin. 1390 About this time one Parameswara, a prince of Palembang who has married a princess of Majapahit, announces his independence of Majapahit. A Javanese expedition lays waste Bangka island and region of Palembang. Parameswara goes to Tumasik (= Singapore) where he is welcomed. Eight days later, Parameswara has murdered the king and claimed Singapore Island and surrounding territory as his own. 15th Century Malacca The ruler is somewhat a semi-divinity who owes much to Hindu tradition as does court ceremonial. Etiquette is stressed. Much depends on the ruler's personal character and ability. The Bendahara stands next to royalty as Chief Minister (prime minister), sometimes viceroy and CIC, the office also includes Chief Justice and Premier Noble of the State. Other important offices are the Temenggong (Chief of Police and Master of Royal Ceremonies), Laksamana (Admiral of the Fleet) and Penghulu Bendahari (or Sri Naradiraja = Royal Treasurer). Malaya is leader in the conversion of the Malay peoples to Islam; starting first at the court, though Hindu traditions remain and Sanskrit is used. Islam is spread both by marriage and conquest. In addition, the presence of great numbers of Moslem Turks, Arabs, Persians and Muslim Indians in Malacca helps to convert others. 1400 About this time, taking the advice of a group of fishermen, Parameswara moves his settlement to Malacca. He quickly befriends Ming China and a trade relationship rapidly grows. 1409 Chinese admiral Cheng Ho visits Malacca. 1411 Parameswara goes on a state visit to Peking. 1414 Seeking trade and political agreements with Java and Sumatra, Parameswara marries a Muslim princess of Pasai which harbors a lively trade with India and Java. Thus Indian and Javanese merchants come to Malacca where Chinese wares are available. Parameswara accepts Islam, becoming Iskandar Shah. The port is growing rapidly; protected from molestation by Chinese arms. 1424 Death of Iskandar Shah. Successor is Hindu titled Sri Maharaja (or later; Muhammad Shah). Malacca has become a South East Asian trade center, handling ships from India, Bengal, Madras, China, Formosa, Philippines, the Moluccas, Indonesia and the peninsula itself: The port has become very wealthy. Port charges are standardized. Gold, silver and tin are used for currency. There is a standard system of weights and measures. Precautions are built in to prevent favoritism and official corruption. Sri Maharaja organizes the offices of state. 1444 Death of Sri Maharaja; the succession is contested by his two sons Raja Ibrahim (married to a princess of Rokan in Sumatra) and Raja Kasim (married to a sister of Tun Ali, a Tamil Muslim merchant). Raja Ibrahim, a child is placed on the throne with the title Sri Parameswara Deva Shah with his uncle the Raja of Rokan as regent. 1445 A coup d'etat led by Tun Ali and Raja Kasim with the approval of prime minister (Bendahara) Sriwa Raja, overthrows and kills Sri Parameswara D. S. and uncle. Raja Kasim takes title of Muzaffar Shah, using the title Sultan (his mother and uncle (Tun Ali) were members of a Tamil Muslim trading family of Da Sai); he therefore brings Islam to the Malaccan court. He refuses to pay tribute to Siam and manages to defeat a Siamese force sent against Malacca, whose forces were led by Tun Perak, son of Bendahara Sriwa Raja. Meanwhile, Sriwa Raja cannot influence Muzaffar Shah and so poisons himself. The sultan appoints Tun Ali as Bendahara; Tun Perak withdraws to Klang, becoming head-man there, where he defeats the Siamese forces. Now the sultan decides to keep Tun Perak in Malacca, but this only raises friction between Tun Perak and Tun Ali, a situation threatening civil war. 1456 Civil war is avoided by having Tun Ali resign the Bendaharaship in exchange for marrying Tun Kudu, sister of Tun Perak and now ex-wife of Sultan Muzaffar Shah. Tun Perak becomes Bendahara in which he becomes the "power behind the throne". Meanwhile, the Siamese attempt another attack on Malacca but it withdraws after a Malaccan show of force. Now Malacca undertakes an aggressive foreign policy under Sultan Mansur Shah. Pahang is taken and two missions are sent; one to Siam (mission of peace) and one to China to restore the old custom of Chinese recognition of the ruler. 1474 Kedah becomes a Muslim state; her ruling house is linked by marriage with that of Malacca. In addition to tin, Kedah trades in elephants, ivory, timber and rattans. 1477 Death of Sultan Mansur Shah. Son and successor is Sultan Ala'ud'din, nephew by marriage to Tun Perak. By this time Malacca has conquered Siak and Kampar, Indragiri and Rokan, the Malay states from Kedah to Johore and the Rhio Archipelago; even Pahang, Trengganu and Kelantan acknowledge Malacca. Sultan Ala'ud'din, enthroned by Tun Perak's influence, takes a personal interest in the maintenance of law and order. He also reasserts Malacca's authority over Siak. 1488 Death of Sultan Ala'ud'din, possibly by poisoning Son and successor is Mahmud Shah, grand-nephew of Tun Perak. The early years of his reign see Malacca at her zenith; control extends to Patani; an attempt by the Raja of Ligor, vassal of Siam, to conquer Pahang is repulsed. But foreign merchants are beginning to complain about oppressive practices; plots and counter-plots begin to undermine the court.

1509 Battle at Diu; Portuguese under Almeida defeat a combined English and Indian fleet and gain mastery of the Indian Ocean. Meanwhile, a Portuguese fleet under Diogo Lopes de Sequeira anchors Malacca: Sent by Almeida which was directed by King Manuel to build a fort at Malacca to oppose a rumored Spanish fleet approaching from the east. Sequeira at first receives a friendly reception which soon turns to dislike; the Gujeratis convince the Bendahara that the Portuguese expedition should be destroyed; the attempt fails as Sequeira manages to escape. 1510 Almeida has been succeeded by Afonso de Albuquerque, whose policy is to safeguard Portuguese trade by building strong fortresses at key coastal sites. He captures Goa. Meanwhile, Bendahara Tun Mutahir's high handed manner has offended a Tamil merchant. Also, he had offended the sultan by marrying his daughter Tun Fatimah to someone else instead of allowing the sultan a chance. Tun Mutahir is condemned and executed; Dato'Paduka Tuan, aged son of Tun Perak, is appointed Bendahara. 1511 (April) Albuquerque sails from Goa with 18 ships and 1,000, (July) anchors off Malacca: He comes to make demands, but the cause of the 1509 expulsion is placed on now dead Tun Mutahir. Negotiations fail and the Portuguese prisoners are released after Albuquerque fires some Cambay vessels; the Portuguese demand sites for a factory and a fort. War preparations begin. (15 Aug) Albuquerque takes the bridge linking the two sections of town, then eventually Malacca, sacking the town: Mahmud and son Ahmad flee to Pahang. Most Malaccan merchants stood aside and took no part. Now construction of a fortress begins. A few months later, Albuquerque leaves. He has begun a system of administration. He also begins the minting of a new coinage in tin, silver and gold. Malacca is governed by the Captain of the Fortress. 1511-2 Wealthy and powerful Javanese merchant Utimutiraja leads a movement against the Portuguese, in league with Sultan Mahmud. Albuquerque has him arrested and executed. Next, a "Captain Java" Patih Kadir leads a revolt but is forced to return to Java. Johore begins to rise in importance under the ex-sultan. 1512 Sultan Mahmud and his followers go to Pahang, ruled by his relatives Abdul Jamil and son Maneur. From here Mahmud sends an embassy to China but China is too busy with the marauding northern Tatars to help. Chinese traders continue at Malacca, unwilling to witness a political change there. 1513 Dissatisfied with Pahang, Mahmud and his followers move to Bintang island and begin building it up into a trade center. Bintang serves as a point at which Mahmud can harass Portuguese shipping, maintain his vassal states (and be leader of an expedition against Portuguese Malacca) and ready an attack on Malacca. Japara, a trading state in north central Java sends a 100 ship force against the Portuguese at Malacca but are severely defeated. 1515 Mahmud begins yearly attacks on Malacca (to 1519). Johore begins yearly serious attacks on Malacca (to 1524). 1517 An advance force from Johore gains a stronghold on the Muar river. 1523 Johore's forces attack Malacca and are driven off. Acheh, a rival trade center, fails Portuguese attempts to gain a lasting foothold in northern Sumatra by conquering Pasai and Pedir; a bitter enmity has developed between Malacca and Acheh (the latter is trying to expand in the peninsula). 1524 Johore's forces attack Malacca and are driven off. 1525 Portuguese from Malacca capture the fort at Muar. 1526 Portuguese from Malacca invade Bintang, Johore, and destroy Mahmud's capital. Mahmud sails away to Sumatra and the court of Kampar. 1528 Death of Mahmud. His younger son Ala'ud'din founds a capital at Johore Lama and begins attracting trade and tribute and assailing the Portuguese. 1530 By this time Portuguese controlled trade at Malacca has become a private trade carried on by Portuguese officials in their own self-interests; very little Royal Income is leaving Malacca for Portugal. 1535 About this time is written most of "Sejarah Melayu", a description of the "Golden Age" of the Malaccan kingdom. 1536 A Portuguese raid forces Ala'ud'din to submit to peace terms. Johore too, at this time is beginning to feel the rising power of Acheh, a rival trade center yet both oppose Portuguese activity. Antonio Galvao becomes Portuguese governor. Being honest and considerate (a rarity among Portuguese administrators) he is respected and admired by the locals (to 1540). 1539 About this time an era of shifting alliances dawns, chiefly among Portuguese Malacca, Johore and Acheh: Johore wishes to regain Malacca, as does Acheh for a strategic outpost. Acheh is beginning to menace the small states in eastern Sumatra that Johore considers her vassals. At times Johore utilizes alliances with the peninsular Malay states and even Portuguese Malacca against Acheh (to 1636). 1540 Combined fleets of Johore, Perak and Siak defeat a 160 vessel Acheh fleet. 1547 An Achinese fleet sails unmolested up the Malaca Straits, lands at Malacca (creating some distress there) then on to Perlis to set up a base for attacking Portuguese shipping. In a sea battle the Portuguese soundly defeat the Achinese. 1548 Jesuit College of St Paul founded at Malacca. 1551 Johore attacks Malacca, burning harbor shipping, capturing the suburbs, storming the fortress and besieging it for three

months. 1553 The Asian population of Malacca turns out for the funeral of Francis Xavier in respect for a holy man. 1557 One of the churches within the Portuguese compound is raised to the rank of Cathedral: Malacca is named a bishopric. 1564 The Achinese sack Johore Lama and Ala'ud'din is taken prisoner. But one of Ala'ud'din's sons revives Johore; the marauding on the Portuguese continues. 1566 The growing opposition to Spanish policies breaks into warfare as the Dutch oppose their rule by Spain. The Dutch begin warring on Spanish trading vessels. 1568 An Achinese army of 15,000 assaults Malacca and is driven off with heavy Portuguese losses. 1571 The Portuguese captain of the fortress, governor of Malacca, becomes titled Governor of the South, appointed by the king of Portugal for a three or four year term. 1574 The Javanese state of Japara sends a powerful fleet against Malacca but the Portuguese manage to defeat it. 1580 Death of King Henry. Philip II of Spain now becomes also King of Portugal, a rule that in only held by force of arms. Dutch-Portuguese trade is becoming more difficult. 1582 The presence of powerful Acheh forces Portuguese Malacca and Johore into on-again off-again truces. This year they ally and cooperate as Portuguese ships assist Johore in defending their capital against an Achinese attack: The sultan of Johore goes to Malacca to tender his thanks. 1586 Malacca is attacked by Johore. 1587 Portuguese retaliate for Johore's attacks on their shipping and on Malacca itself. They attack Johore, destroying the capital at Johore Lama on the Johore river. The next capital is moved farther upstream for protection. Between the battles with Johore and the bitter Achinese attacks, Portuguese Malacca is slowly losing her economic status. 1594 After harassing Dutch traders in Portugal for years now, the king of Spain closes Lisbon to any Dutch trade at all. 1595 Deprived of her middleman (Portugal) link to trade with the East, the Dutch begin going there themselves. 1595-6 First Dutch voyage to East Indies under Van Houtman who reaches northwest Java. 17th Century: Kedah adds pepper to her list of export products. In return, Muslim merchants bring the produce of India and the Middle East - Indian cloths from the Coromandel and Bengal coasts, metalware, glassware, drugs and spices. The overland routes from Patani and Ligor bring elephants and ivory. 1602 Realizing that an organization is needed for protection and a common trade policy, the Dutch form the United East India Company, supported by the merchants of six important towns. The company (DEIC) also figures in the war against Spain; a blow against Portugal being a blow against Spain. 1603 Dutch ships capture a heavily loaded Portuguese carrack from China in the Johore river. This gives the Dutch much prestige in Johore. 1606 Signing of a Dutch-Johore treaty: Dutch admiral Matelief agrees to help the sultan of Johore conquer the town of Malacca; the Dutch to be given free trading rights in the Johore river. Malacca will be divided in two; the walled town to the Dutch, the rest to the Sultan. Booty to be divided and Dutch have a monopoly of the European trade. Later the Dutch attack Malacca, but a family feud between the rulers of Johore and Patani prevent Malay aid (besides second thoughts about the "advantages" of the treaty). Dutch withdraw. 1607 The Dutch begin a campaign to control Malacca by destroying Portuguese trade and cutting the port off from the great sea routes. Iskandar Shah becomes Sultan at Acheh (to 1636). The most feared and successful of Acheh's rulers, he undertakes successful military campaigns, attacking the Malay peninsula. 1610 Johore concludes a treaty with Malacca. 1612 About this time a descendant of the Malacca Bendaharas compiles, with an added later addition, the "Sejerah Melayu". 1613 Iskandar Shah destroys Batu Sawar and begins extending his control over Pahang, Kedah and Perak; casting a menacing shadow over Portuguese Malacca. Many Malays are deported to northern Sumatra as prisoners, others migrate to eastern Sumatra (= Jambi), Macassar (Celebes) and the Moluccas. By this time the Christian population of Malacca has become sizeable and accepted, mainly through the Portuguese willingness to intermarry with the natives. 1615 Acheh attacks Malacca. Battle of Muar, the Portuguese battle the Achinese fleet. 1616 Johore attacks Malacca and the Portuguese battle the Achinese off Muar again. 1617 About this time Johore abandons Batu Sawar. 1619 Acheh invades Kedah to control Kedah's trade and to destroy her pepper plantations (that constitute a threat to the rival pepper production in northern Sumatra). By this time the Dutch have established a permanent HQ at Jakarta (= Batavia); from here they begin to make it a center of trade to Java, southern Sumatra and the Malay archipelago. 1620 About this time Malaccan trade begins to decline, due mainly to Dutch activities which include cutting off the rice boats to the port from Java and Sumatra. 1623 Johore's capital, Lingga, is destroyed by the Achinese. 1628 Acheh stages a large-scale invasion against Malacca but the Portuguese manage to beat it off.

1629 Joining the Portuguese, Johore defeats the Achinese in a sea battle (in the Straits) which begins the decline of Achinese aggression. 1636 Death of Iskandar Shah: Ending an era of Achinese aggression. 1637 Dutch - Johore treaty: Johore to aid Dutch in taking Malacca; Johore gains friendship of Dutch and freedom to develop a trade depot in the Johore river valley Up 'till now the Dutch (since 1606) have avoided the Johore-Malacca-Acheh wars while building up their position in northwest Java and driving out the Portuguese and English trade from the Moluccas, and gradually severing Portuguese trade routes and destroying Portuguese shipping. 1640 With Malacca virtually sealed off from Goa and Acheh quiet, the joint forces of Dutch and Johore attack (Aug) Malacca, besieging the fortress. Defense is led by Portuguese governor Manoel da Sousa Coutinho. 1641 (Jan) With starvation inside the fort and dysentery cholera and malaria outside, it is fairly easy to breach the unstrengthened town-side walls of the fort. The Portuguese garrison surrenders. This Portuguese defeat symbolizes that country's sea-power decline that has been going on for some time now, due in part to governmental inefficiency and corruption and the ambitions of Spain. The Dutch begin the rebuilding of Malacca as an outpost on their trade, a trade revival begins (to 1666). HQ remaining at Batavia. By this time a new river capital of Johore sits at Makam Tauhid. Also in the Kota Tinggi area. With the breaking of Portuguese power this year, Johore's prospects pick up: Sultan Abdul Jalil begins to revive the Johore empire, bringing Pahang, Siak and Indragiri under his control. Alliances are made with Patani and Jambi. 1648 Treaty of Westphalia; Netherlands is recognized as independent of Spanish rule. 1660 The DEIC forces the ruler of Macassar - capital of the Bugis homeland (= Celebes) - to sign a treaty promising to stop trading with the Spice Islands. The adventuresome Bugis do not adhere to the treaty. By this time the Johore river capital at Batu Sawar is flourishing. 1666 War with Jambi erupts ostensibly caused by a breach of promise (the son of the Johore sultan, betrothed to a daughter of the ruler of Jambi is instead married to the daughter of the Johore Laksamana) but most probably to settle the two cities' economic rivalry. Johore's decline begins. 1667 Angered because the Bugis are not adhering to the treaty of 1660, the Dutch capture Macassar, place it under Dutch overlordship and install a Dutch garrison. 1668 The Dutch find it necessary to depose the Bugis ruler and place southern Celebes under a Dutch governor, with HQ at Macassar. The Dutch have now, besides taking away the livlihood of many Bugis traders, have aroused Bugis enmity Many, along with their headmen and chiefs, begin emigrating; they begin settlements in northern Borneo and northern Java. 1673 A Jambi expedition destroys Batu Sawar. Sultan Abdul Jalil Shah II is exiled to Pahang. 1677 Death of Sultan A.J. Shah II. His nephew Ibrahim becomes sultan and chooses the island of Bintang (Rhio) as site for new capital. He struggles to hold together the Johore empire. 1680 About this time Bugis settlers reach the valleys of the river Klang and river Selangor. They are considered intruders but their prowess in warfare makes them much feared. While used as mercenaries, the Bugis drive a hard bargain and demand high prices for their services. 1682 Ibrahim Shah opens negotiations for an alliance with the Dutch. 1683 Death of Ibrahim. Son and successor is young Mahmud with the Laksamana prominent in the regency. The new sultan is cruel, mentally unbalanced, and much disliked. 1685 Death of Ibrahim Shah. Mahmud succeeds. He concludes a treaty with the Dutch. The English East India Company factory at Bencoolen remains as the last English East India Company (EEIC) outpost. It is expensive poorly situated and no match for Dutch competition. 1688 Siam ceases to have diplomatic relations with western countries. 1689 The English manage to gain Syriam as a repair depot for their ships (to 1743). 1699 Death of Sultan Mahmud by assassination without an heir. Former Bendahara Abdul Jalil to Johore's throne. His is a wise reign. 1700 The EEIC, never giving up on the idea of trade in the East Indies, establishes About this time a "factory" and fort at Benjarmassin, southern Borneo (it lasts until 1707). 1708 Abdul Jalil hands over rule of Johore to his younger brother the Raja Muda whose greed and ambition arouses the enmity, jealousy and hostility of the Malay chiefs. 1712 Unrest in Johore becomes more serious. It is caused by dissatisfaction with Raja Muda and the influence of Bugis settlers at Rhio creating Malay and Bugis factions. 1717-8 Siak prince Raja Kechil leads a Minangkabau force into Johore's capital (Rhio) and deposes Abdul Jalil (Raja Muda has killed his family and himself). Kechil becomes sultan (Abdul Jalil Rahmat Shah) with Abdul Jalil as Bendahara. Kechil circulates "proof" of his legitimacy and champions the Malays against the Bugis. The new sultan is immediately threatened by internal conspiracies (i.e.; he had married the younger of the Bendahara's daughters instead of the older, so the older daughter is plotting to induce the Bugis leader Diang Parani to invade Johore from Selangor) and external attack (i.e.; he had asked Bugis aid from Selangor in taking over rule - agreeing to make a

Bugis chief his deputy, or under-king (Yam-tuan-Muda) when he becomes sultan - and then did so without their knowledge). 1719 Abdul Jalil III (now Bendahara again) executed. 1721-2 Bugis revenge against Kechil: Under Diang Parani they drive Kechil from Rhio to Siak. Sulaiman, son of the late Bendahara becomes sultan, but as a puppet under Bugis chief Diang Merewah (brother of D. Parani) is in the newly created office of Yamtuan-Muda. Bugis chiefs begin marrying into Malay families. Parani marries Tengku Tengah, the new sultan's sister, slighted by Raja Kechil for her sister Tengku Kamgriah. 1724 A succession dispute in Kedah: Diang Parani secures the Kedah throne for the eldest son but this is disputed by a younger brother supported by Raja Kechil and his Mingragkabau Malays. 1726 The Bugis bring the Kedah civil war to an end, driving Raja Kechil back to Sumatra. For their success, they demand a payment which the new Sultan of Kedah states he cannot pay in lump sum but will pay in yearly installments; this is agreed to. 1728 The Bugis invade Perak to offset a growing Minangkabau influence and secure the throne for Sultan Muzaffar Shah who had asked their support. This establishment of Bugis control over Perak manages to keep the tin trade from becoming a Dutch monopoly. Daing Chelak becomes Bugis ruler at Rhio. 1738 The EEIC revives its depot at Banjarmassin. 1742 Another Bugis invasion of Perak maintains their control of the area and its tin trade. 1745 Worried about the Bugis, the Dutch order the rebuilding of the fort at Pulau Dinding. Sulaiman concludes a treaty with the Dutch at Malacca aimed at ousting (or at best weakening) the Bugis; the Dutch gain control of Siak, free trade in Johore and restoration of Dutch tin monopoly in Johore controlled states in return for Dutch help against the Bugis. The Bugis' Yamtuan-Muda (Daing Kemboja this year) withdraws from Rhio to the island of Lingga. 1755 Another similar treaty with the Dutch is concluded by Suleiman. Warfare with the Bugis erupts. 1756 Bugis forces attack Dutch Malacca. The Dutch obtain a pepper monopoly from the sultan of outhern Borneo and English interests at Banjarmassin come to an end. 1757 Dutch forces counterattack the Bugis forces at Lingga. 1757-8 Commodore Wilson discovers an alternate route to China from the New Guinea coast via the Philippines between Luzon and Formosa. This heartens the EEIC which is looking to reenter the Southeast Asian market; for she needs a naval base and port of call between India and China (the Dutch tolls are too high and native political situations can change overnight). 1758 Defeated, the Bugis concede the authority of the Johore Malay sultan and Dutch rights to a monopoly of tin purchases in once Johore regions. But the Bugis begin rebuilding their influence. 1760 Death of Sultan Suleiman. Brother and successor is Abdul Jalil Muadzam Shah. By this time the Bugis have regained their power behind the Johore throne, but refrain from open clashes with the Dutch. 1761 Death of A.J. Muadzam Shah. His brother succeeds as Ahmad Riayat Shah, now under a Bugis regency. 1762 The Sultan of Sulu grants the island of Balambangan to the EEIC, settlement is not made at this time, however. Meanwhile, an English embassy to Acheh seeking dockyard facilities meets with no success. 1764 Another English embassy to Acheh seeking dockyard facilities is again turned down. 1768 The French obtain permission to open a dockyard at Rangoon. 1770 The Bugis demand continued payments from Kedah on their 1726 debt. The sultan refuses and Raja Haji invades, temporarily occupying the capital. The Sultan of Kedah escapes to (modern) Perlis and speaks to Francis Light about his problems, seeking aid against the Bugis (to 1771). This resurgence of Bugis power brings renewed tension between them and the Dutch. By this time the Sultan of Kedah has become worried about the possibility of Siamese pressure coming to bear on his country. Also, frustrated at every turn, the EEIC has given up efforts of finding a suitable harbor in the Straits of Sunda. About this time Sulaiman's infant grand-son becomes sultan as Mahmud Shah. The Bugis have regained influence by holding the regency and reestablishing the office of Yamtuan-Muda, or office of under-king. 1771 Despite previous disappointments, the EEIC sends another mission to Acheh. Meanwhile, the Sultan of Kedah returns there from Perlis and speaks to Francis Light, ex-naval officer: The sultan proposes a trade settlement in return for English help and protection (the Bugis has seized Kedah's trade to pay their debts owed). F. Light advises the sultan to write to the EEIC and he writes advising the suitability of Penang as a base. 1772 (Jan) F. Light writes directly to Warren Hastings urging the Sultan of Kedah's offer be accepted. The company sends agent Edward Monckton to negotiate - also sends another mission to Acheh. Both fail (F. Light has no powers to act on behalf of the company); as for Kedah the company is unwilling to give any promises that might involve military commitments and the sultan fears Siamese re action to his possible treaty with the English. So now it looks as if the

English Penang project isn't going to become possible. 1773 With the Bugis power weakened in Selangor and Rhio, the small Minangkabu Malay states east of Malacca, recently having formed a loose coalition, now establish a dynasty An English settlement is finally made of Balambangan island. 1775 The English settlement on Balambangan is destroyed by pirates. 1777 Raja Haji becomes Yamtuan-Muda at Rhio (to 1784). 1780 F Light discusses the company's occupation of Ujong Salang but Warren Hastings says it is impossible with the distraction of the American War of Independence. 1782 The Dutch and Bugis Sultan Raja Haji quarrel - i.e.; open hostilities - over the distribution of the cargo from a captured English ship. French admiral de Suffren uses Acheh for refitting his ships. 1783 French admiral de Suffren uses Mergui and Trincomalee in Ceylon for refitting his ships. This French advantage, coupled with the loss of the American colonies (forcing English commerce to seek new and expanding eastern markets) brings strong English interest in Penang. 1784 The Bugis attack Malacca but Raja Haji is killed. The Dutch press the counterattack against Selangor and Rhio, driving the Bugis sultan out of Selangor and occupying both places: Rhio/Johore has traded Bugis control for Dutch control. With the American war over and the Dutch pushing to strengthen their interests in Ssoutheast Asia, F. Light approaches Sultan Abdullah of Kedah, whose father received Monckton, about British use of Penang. With Bugis decline and desirability of aid against rising Siam, Abdullah agrees. 1785 The Bugis sultan regains his position at Selangor Siamese-Burmese border skirmishes begin, with Siam holding the Burmese in check. 1786 F. Light takes the sultan's acceptance to Governor-General Macpherson at Calcutta. He OK's the action and F. Light returns and begins setting up a settlement. (Aug 11) Light formally takes possession of Penang (for the EEIC) naming it Prince of Wales Island and names the new port Georgetown (he is first Superintendent). Now English ships sailing between India and China have a friendly midway port, although the Sultan of Kedah's needs for military aid when he needs it is not conclusively settled. 1787 Mahmud Shah tries to form a Malay coalition against both the Dutch and English but is unsuccessful. 1788 (Jan) F. Light is informed by the Governor-General that no action will be taken that involves the Company in operations against any of the eastern princes. This places Light in disfavor with the sultan. By this year, Penang's population has reached 1,000. 1790 About this time Sultan Mahmud Shah asks the Ilanuns of Borneo for help against the Dutch but they drive out not only the Dutch but the Malays as well. The Dutch soon retake control. 1791 Giving up hope of further assurance by the Company for military aid, the Sultan of Kedah prepares to take Penang by force (for he has also lost some trade from the English occupation). F. Light scatters his fleet at Prai. A treaty is concluded; the sultan cedes Penang to the EEIC in exchange for a payment of 6,000 Spanish dollars a year to him and his successors. 1793 With France at war with England and Holland, the English are pressured to seize Southeast Asian ports to keep them out of French hands. 1794 Death of Francis Light. His one-man government is largely short-changed by the Company. His attempts to grow clover, nutmeg and cinnamon failed but his introduction of pepper proved to be an economic boon. 1794-5 French armies including Marshal Daendels invade Holland establishing a puppet government. William V flees to England to preside over a "free" Dutch government in exile. England decides to take over control of Dutch interests overseas to keep them out of French hands. 1795 By agreement with the exiled Dutch government in England, (William V issues "Kew Letters", ordering overseas Dutch governors to admit British troops and offer no resistance to British ships; England is to be regarded as a friendly power); a British garrison leaves Penang and takes over defense of Malacca, placed under a joint EnglishDutch rule (actually the Dutch are in a subordinate position). The Dutch garrison is withdrawn from Rhio. Mahmud Shah is restored but Bugis leader Raja Ali gains the position of Yamtuan-Muda against Malay opposition and the Bugis are again in control. By this time Johore, so weakened by Bugis and Dutch involvement, has lost all influence with Sumatran and Malayan states. Malacca's trade begins to pick up, arousing Penang's jealousy. Major Macdonald succeeds F. Light as superintendent at Penang. 1797 A large English fleet stops at Penang from India; it is enroute to Manila to attack Spanish shipping. 1798 Ahmad Taju'ddin becomes Sultan of Kedah. The Siamese suspect him of intrigues with the Burmese against them. 1799 Sir George Leith becomes Lieutenant-Governor at Penang. (31 Dec) The DEIC is dissolved, being heavily in debt, and the administration of its property taken over by the state. 19th Century Malay States: Each state is a world unto itself. There being no idea of a union of Malay states, though at times one may dominate another. Nor is there common racial feeling as one state's citizen is considered a foreigner in

another state. The majority are descendants of immigrants from Sumatra, Minangkabaus, others being Korinchi, Rawa, Mandiling and Batak groups. There are also Malays from Acheh, Java and those of the old peninsular stock. Also there are Arabs, Arab-Malays and Bugis. Living in separate villages - Kampong China - are the Chinese, mainly in Sungei, Ujong, Selangor and Perak and mainly involved in tin mining. There is a small Indian population. Government is personal and autocratic. The sultan is at the head, symbolizing the state's unity; he makes all appointments and is source of all authority; he alone has powers of life and death. He is responsible for defense and foreign policy, with the rest of the government in hands of appointed chiefs who have a say in the succession, usually within the royal family. Thus an aspirant to the throne needs their support. Some states, especially Perak, have a regular "ladder" of offices through which an aspirant must rise before being eligible to rule. The state is in districts based upon natural boundaries. Each being under a chief. Revenues are from taxes on crops and mining land and tolls on passing trade goods Each chief maintains a small army and is responsible for his districts' defense, law and order. Under the chief is the village head man. There are two classes of people: (1) The nobility, a hierarchy subdivided into many grades from the sultan on down, standing apart from the peasantry and holding important privileges and exemptions. In only unusual cases can a man of lower class birth enter the family oriented nobility. (2) The subject class - the Raayat. Ordinary villagers; farmers and fishermen. They are subject to two "customs"; the "Kerah", a system wherein the chief can call for compulsory labor for any purpose for which there is no payment except meals. The other is debt slavery, or debt bondage, by which those unable to repay loans repay them. The debt bondage extends to their families also. There is a small third class; slaves, non-Muslims, Africans, aborigines and Bataks. There are checks and balances on the exercise of power of the sultan and district chiefs, for their power depends on the strength of their following and the loyalty of their subjects which hinges on their treatment of their subjects. By 1850 the tin industry is largely Chinese. The Chinese mining camps are worlds unto themselves, each being under a Captain China. At times these camps are enlisted as mercenaries. Secret societies abound within the camps. These largely autonomous camps are a great source of unsettlement within the Malay government, outside the chief unsettling force; succession disputes. The wealth of the Malay States by the mid-19th century comes largely from the tin mine workings. 1800 Sir George Leith concludes a treaty with the sultan of Kedah wherein a strip of mainland across the straits from Penang is ceded to Penang (Province Wellesley) to serve both as protection and as a rice growing area: The sultan's annual stipend is raised to 10,000 dollars. The idea of naval bases at Acheh, Trincomalee and the Andamans (or Nicobars) has been abandoned with British future in Southeast Asia hinging on Penang. 1801 Small import duties are imposed at Penang, but are soon abandoned. 1802 Peace of Amiens brings a brief pause to the European wars. British administration of Malacca continues. 1804 Mr R.T. Farquhar succeeds Sir George Leith as Lieutenant-Governor. 1805 The Company changes its policy and upgrades Penang's administration with the chief administrator as "President", on the same par with Calcutta, Madras and Bombay. Mr Phillip Dundas is first president. He begins schemes of road building and drainage. Trade and population begin increasing. The French defeat at Trafalgar reduces their threat but Penang is found unsuitable for dockyards. Assistant Secretary Thomas Raffles arrives Penang. Meanwhile, the Company decides to divert Malacca's trade to Penang, planning to eventually abandon Malacca. The old Portuguese-Dutch fortifications are to be pulled down and the population moved to Penang. There are native and official protest. 1806 Death of Sultan Ahmadin of Perak. It is decided the succession shall lie with his three sons (by his three wives) in eldest order. 1807 A court of law and system of law are established at Penang. Demolition begins at Malacca. Farquhar on his own authority orders the preservation of the Dutch church and Government House, as well as other public buildings. Now Raffles arrives Malacca and petitions the GovernorGeneral at Calcutta, Lord Minto, reasons for retaining Malacca: Well settled and if abandoned a European "enemy" may take it up. The abandonment is halted and Malacca retained. 1808 Raffles reports, asserting that Malacca is better situated than Penang for trade with the islands. Meanwhile, Marshal Daendels arrives Java as Dutch Governor-General there. 1809 Rama II becomes ruler of Siam. He shows interest in opening Siam to Western countries (to 1824). 1810 Raffles is appointed Agent to the Governor-General for the Malay States by Lord Minto to furnish information and advice for a naval expedition against Dutch Java, for the French, now consolidating their hold on Holland - annexed this year - are doing the same on Dutch overseas possessions. Raffles chooses Malacca as his HQ. 1811 (June) Raffles, with Lord Minto, sails for Java. Dutch resistance is overcome and Raffles appointed Governor-General of Java. He undertakes bold and liberal (and expensive) reforms. English trade in Java increases and Penang falls farther out of the Malaccan sphere. 1812 Death of Sultan Mahmud of Johore. His eldest son and rightful heir Tunku Long is away in Pahang; the Bugis overlook him and raise his younger half-brother Abdu'l Rahman to the sultanate, with actual ruler the Bugis Raja

Ja'far, the ex-Yamtuan-Muda, who has taken the title Raja Muda (=Crown Prince). The disinherited Tunku Long goes to the island of Bulang, where he meets Muhammad who claims the title Raja Muda and who had therefore refused the office of Temenggong. The plan of a naval base at Penang is finally abandoned. 1813 Death of Lord Minto. Lord Moira becomes Governor-General; he is less favorable toward Raffles who is accused by general Gillespie of impropriety in his administration, though Raffles had worked for English retention of Java. 1815 Congress of Vienna restores Dutch possessions in the East Indies. 1816 Raffles is dismissed, he returns to England. (Aug) Java is restored to Dutch rule, but instead of a private company, the new Dutch administration is a direct representative of the home government; the Dutch are more strongly entrenched in the Malay archipelago than ever. They begin enforcing the old treaties and concluding new ones. (Nov) Bankok orders the Sultan of Kedah to invade Perak and have the "Bunga Mas" collected. Ahmad Taju'd does so but with much misgiving as Perak is independent of Siam. Founding of schools at Penang. 1817 Kedah's forces depose the sultan and Raja Muda is appointed viceroy under superintendence of the sultan of Kedah. Feted by London society, Raffles is knighted for his "History of Java". He is acquitted of the charges brought against him. Later, he is appointed a Lieutenant-Governor at Bencoolen. 1818 Penang sends representation to Siam to increase trade and establish more favorable custom regulations. Malacca is restored to the Dutch who are now back in Southeast Asia stronger than ever before, actually through English policy of friendship with Holland to keep France at bay. (March) Raffles arrives Bencoolen, but actively works to advance British influence in Sumatra, raising Dutch ire; Raffles is censured. (Aug) Raja Ja'far, actual ruler of Johore, concludes an agreement with Farquhar to allow the EEIC to trade within his territories. (Oct) Raffles meets with Governor-General Hastings in Bengal to discuss Bencoolen's future but Raffles elicits an agreement for a base at Acheh, a new settlement at southern end of Malaccan Straits and to establish a new port-of-call and tradecenter convenient for trading in the archipelago. Rhio is suggested. (Nov) Raja Ja'far concludes a treaty with the Dutch allowing a Dutch resident at Rhio; Rhio and Lingga are to be free ports, elsewhere Johore's trade is open only to the Dutch and locals. (Dec) Raffles leaves Calcutta going to Penang, joined by William Farquhar and their fleets sails down the coast looking for a new port. Governor-General Bannerman of Penang sent word to Calcutta to have Raffles stopped, this is agreed to but too late. 1819 Penang sends representation to Siam to increase trade and establish more favorable customs regulations. The "Bunga Mas" is sent to Siam from Perak, Meanwhile, Kedah has been asked to supply workboats and rice to Siam and to ensure no rice reaches Penang. Taju'ddin is in financial straits. (29 Jan) Raffles and Farquhar land Singapore Island, ruled by the Temenggong of Johore. (30 Jan) A "Preliminary Agreement" is signed: The EEIC is allowed to establish a "factory" on the island and the Temenggong will not enter into relations with any other power or allow it to settle within his territory; the Company offers protection and $3,000 per year payment. Raffles knows the Temenggong has no power to do this, so two vessels leave; Farquhar to Rhio to obtain Raja Ja'far's OK - he doesn't for Raja Ja'far fears the Dutch; the other a Malay mission to Bulang; Tunku Long is invited to Singapore and Raffles recognizes him as true Sultan of Johore, who is supported by the Temenggong. Discussions for a trading base are entered into. (6 Feb) Second treaty between the sultan, the Temenggong and Raffles: the Company is allowed to build a "factory", the sultan and Temenggong will make no other treaty with any other European or American power. The sultan and Temenggong are protected from external powers and receive pensions; sultan = $5,000, Temenggong $3,000 and half the dues paid by native vessels. (7 Feb) Raffles leaves Singapore for Acheh, obtaining a treaty of alliance and returns to Bencoolen. Farquhar remains at Singapore. The Dutch do not like the English at Singapore and a "paper war" begins; Dutch protest on legal grounds with messages circulating among Batavia, Malacca, Penang, Bencoolen, Calcutta, London and the Hague. The foundation of Singapore begins its spectacular rise in trade volume. 1820 With the "paper war" dragging on, now limited to talks between London and the Hague, the revenues of Singapore are meeting the costs of administration. 1821 Siam, not satisfied with Taju'ddin's progress in Perak, summons him to Bankok. He refuses to go. A Siamese army under Chau Phya, Raja of Ligor, invades Kedah. Many Kedah Malays, including Taju'ddin, seek refuge in Province Wellesley and Penang. Chau Phya demands Governor Phillips of Penang to return Taju'ddin; he refuses but sends troops to Province Wellesley to stop the Siamese from entering to search for fugitives. Unable to gain Company help, Taju'ddin seeks help from Burma and Selangor, much to the fears of Penang, who, this year, sends an unofficial agent to Siam seeking an increase in trade and more favorable customs regulations. 1822 On information and advice from Penang, the governor-general in India sends John Crawford on a fact finding mission to Siam to establish good relations, obtain Siamese acknowledgement of the Company's right to Penang and seek expanded trade. He achieves little if any success. Meanwhile, guerilla warfare by the Bugis Sultan of Selangor oppose the Siamese who are driven out of Perak, which now pays a tribute of tin to Selangor. By this time Singapore's value has grown considerably. This year her trade exceeds that of Penang and is growing

rapidly. (Oct) Raffles arrives Singapore on a visit. 1823 During his visit, Raffles has drawn up a code of law, established a magistrate council, a police force and a landregistry. Port management regulations established A town planning multiracial committee is set up. Penalties laid out for slave-traffic, gambling houses and cock-fighting. A botanical garden is laid out. A college, the Singapore Institution, is established. (June) Raffles concludes a treaty with Sultan Hussein and the Temenggong for the Company to control all Singapore's trade in exchange for larger pensions. Raffles returns to Bencoolen. The Company sends a mission to the Raja of Ligor seeking military cooperation with the British in the Anglo-Burmese war, no success for the Raja is preparing to reinforce his troops in Kedah and invade Perak. 1824 England is worried about the differences arising among her wartime allies (Britain, Prussia, Austria and Russia), concludes a treaty (March) with Holland to settle existing differences between them and to plan for the future to eliminate the possibility of further trouble: Holland cedes to Britain all Dutch factories in India and Malacca and withdraws objections to Singapore. Britain cedes Bencoolen to the Dutch. Holland agrees to no longer make further treaties or settlements in the Malay peninsula and England the same in Sumatra and islands south of Singapore. To trading bases are to be given up to any other power: If abandoned they revert to the other power. New settlements can only be made by permission of the home government. Vessels of either country may enter either's port at fixed charges. Neither country can conclude a treaty that would harm the other's trade. Dutch cannot monopolize trade within the Malay Archipelago or discriminate against British trade. The Dutch retain a monopoly on the spice trade of the Moluccas. Neither side interferes with the other at native ports and both combine to suppress piracy. [AngloDutch Treaty, or Treaty of London] Another mission is sent to the Raja of Ligor but without success except to momentarily halt his designs on Perak and Selangor. (Aug) Robert Fullerton becomes Governor at Penang and begins an aggressive policy to contain the Siamese. He attempts to reform the land-tenure system in Malacca and Naning, but meets with little success. (Aug) Crawford's treaty with Sultan Hussein and the Temenggong. [Singapore?] By this time there is a Chinese tin mining settlement in Selangor at Lukut. 1825 Due to Fullerton's urging, captain Henry Burney is sent on mission to the Raja at Logor to find out Siam's position in the Anglo-Burmese war, about Kedah and possibility of a commercial treaty. (May) To prevent a threatened Siamese naval attack on Perak, Fullerton sends gun boats into the Trang river. The Raja now undertakes a land invasion of both Perak and Selangor. (July) Burney elicits a "Preliminary Treaty" from the raja which, if approved, would prevent the raja from attacking Perak and Selangor and the Company promises to settle the differences between Perak and Selangor by diplomacy (the Anderson Treaties). The Company pledges in behalf of the Sultan of Kedah for his restoration; the "Bunga Mas" sent to Bangkok every three years. The sultan's pension is included. The Raja states if Bankok approves, he'll abide, but meanwhile sends a contingent of Siamese agents and troops to establish a pro-Siamese government in Perak. Death of the able Temenggong of Johore. 1826 Malacca and Singapore are made dependencies of the governor of Penang, yet only Singapore is paying its own way. (June) Burney manages to have an Anglo-Siamese treaty, or Treaty of Bankok, signed: Siam retains control of Kedah. Sultan Ahmad Taju'ddin is not allowed in Penang, Province Wellesley, Perak, Selangor or Burma. The English promise not to allow the exsultan of Kedah or his followers to attack Kedah or any other Siamese territory. The Siamese will not molest, attack or disturb Perak or Selangor. The English will not trouble Perak and assure that Selangor will not attack Perak (Low Treaty) Perak and Siam can send each other diplomatic missions. The Bunga Mas will be allowed to be sent. Kelantan and Trengganu remain only as tributaries to Siam but the Company can pursue its trade policies there. There is a commercial agreement between Siamese and English territories. By this treaty, Siam assures itself of English intentions since the ending of the Anglo-Burmese war. Death of Sultan Ibrahim of Selangor. Son and successor is Mohammed. Founding of a school at Malacca; the Malacca Free School. 1829 Governor-General Lord Bentinck visits Penang and is disturbed by the number of top ranking officials with their high salaries there; Penang is a financial burden to the Company. 1830 Penang is reduced to a Residency; its administration is reduced. Penang, Malacca and Singapore become directly dependent on India. BTT Kelantan is becoming for all practical purposes a Siamese state. 1831 The Sultan of Kedah is moved to Malacca after a successful rising against Siam occurred in Kedah. But the Siamese reconquer the area. Meanwhile, Abdul Said, chief (or Penghulu) of Naning and who opposes Fullerton's proposed tax collection procedures refuses to pay his [tenths?]: A small force is sent to Tabeh beginning the Naning War. Defeated by the Siamese, the Raja of Patani takes refuge in Kelantan, whose sultan is compelled to surrender the raja and pay a large indemnity to Bankok. Penang's anti-Siamese group considers this a violation of the Burney Treaty of 1826 and urges the establishment of an English "factory" at Kelantan. Nothing happens. 1832 Eleven months later, after much additional expense by the Company, Abdul Said, who was assisted by Malays from Rembau, is defeated and pensioned off in a house in Malacca. Singapore is decided upon to be the seat of the Chief

Resident - or Governor - of Penang, Malacca and Singapore, now coming to be known as the "Straits Settlements". 1833 Singapore's trade is restricted by the abolition of the EEIC's monopoly on direct Europe-China trade. 1835 Death of Sultan Muhammad of Keantan without an heir. Civil war erupts as claimants fight to succeed him. Death of Sultan Hussein of Johore. Son and successor is Ali, who is not immediately recognized as sultan by the EEIC. 1836 Taju'ddin leaves Malacca on a ruse, sails to Bruas in Perak and begins organizing another invasion of Kedah. Two ships are sent from Penang and they dispel his force and bring him back to Penang. 1837 The Singapore Institution becomes a boy's school; the Singapore Free School. 1838 Kedah rebells against the Siamese. Penang blockades the coast, but does not attack rebel craft: The Penang government favors the rebels but cannot aid them due to the Burney treaty. Munshi Abdullah visits Pahang and is not impressed While the country appears fertile, there is a lack of shops, markets and roads; houses are poorly built. Men go about armed. Fruits and vegetables are expensive. People are living by keeping buffaloes, cattle, goats and fowl. Exports are gold and tin, some jungle produce while some silkweaving in done. 1839 Omar becomes Sultan of Trengganu; he begins centralizing authority in the state and avoids bringing too much outside interference inside (to 1876). 1840 Long Ja'afar, chief of the Larut district of Perak, discovers large tin deposits there. A large-scale tin mining operation, a Chinese enterprise, develops. Another tin mining operation opens up at Kanching in the Selangor valley. The Chinese camps are divided into two rival camps on a Secret Society basis: Offshoots of the Triad Society in China that opposes Manchu rule and supports restoration of Ming rule, the two groups are the Ghee Hin (from the "Si Kwans" = four districts) - Cantonese speaking and Hai San (from the "Go Kwans" = five districts) which are Hakka or Hokkien speaking. 1841 The Sultan of Kedah sends his eldest son to Bangkok asking pardon and restoration; seconded by the Penang government that states it'll not assist in suppressing any future Kedah rebellion. 1842 Siam accepts the sultan's submission; Ahmad Taju'ddin is restored but to a smaller Kedah; part of which is now Perlis, a new Malay state under Siamese protection. British acquisition of Hong Kong begins an erosion of Singapore's trade. 1843 To compensate for his loss of territory, Ahmad Taju'ddin of Kedah seizes the Krain district of Perak, beginning a dispute with Perak backed by Penang. 1844 A girl's school is incorporated with the Singapore Free School. 1846 British acquisition of Labuan adds to further erosion of Singapore's trade. 1848 Under pressure of threats from Penang, Ahmad Taju'ddin withdraws from the Krian district of Perak. 1850 By this time the Johore islands, except Singapore (under the EEIC) are theoretically ruled by the Sultan of Lingga who is under Dutch influence. Mainland Johore is in dispute between the son of Sultan Hussein and son of Temenggong Abdu'l Rahman. 1851 Abdullah becomes sultan of Perak. 1852 P and O line builds a wharf and coaling station at New Harbor, Singapore, a new deep-water port which becomes a center for the export of Malayan tin and rubber. 1853 Death of Raja Sulaiman, non-royal son of ageing Sultan Mohamed of Selangor, was chief at Klang. 1854 An agreement is concluded wherein the descendants of Ali, unrecognized "Sultan" of Johore, gain all the lands and titles that are supposed to be his upon his death. (May) A clash between Hokkien and Cantonese Chinese in Singapore kills 600 and burns 300 houses. 1855 Another agreement is concluded (treaty among the Straits Authorities, Ali and Ibrahim); Ali is confirmed as Sultan of Johore, together with a pension from Johore's revenues and he is given land in the district of Muar. Also, Ibrahim and his successors are recognized as having rights of sovereignty in Johore subject only to acknowledging Ali and his descendants as Sultan. Great Britain obtains a consular system in Siam to have jurisdiction over British citizens there. 1857 Death of Bendahara Sewa Raja Ali of Pahang. Son and successor is Tun Mutahir. Meanwhile, the Dutch depose Mahmud Muzaffar Shah, Sultan of Lingga for his intrigues against them; he goes to Bankok. Death of district chief Long Ja'afar of Larut district. Son and successor is Ngah Ibrahim. Both have become very wealthy on tin-mining revenues. Death of Sultan Abdullah of Perak; Ja'afar becomes sultan there. Death of Sultan Mohamad of Selangor; his eight year old son Raja Mahmud is recognized as Raja Muda: Son-in-law Abdul Samad, grandson of Sultan Ibrahim, claims the throne. Tin mining at Ampang (Kuala Lumpur). 1858 Civil war in Pahang breaks out as Tun Mutahir's brother Wan Ahmad claims the old Bendahara intended to make the brothers joint rulers. Governor Colonel Cavenagh of the Straits Settlements offers (since trade is disrupted by the war) to mediate, but Mutahir will only agree to having his brother pensioned off; Ahmad rejects this. One of the brothers seeks help from Trengganu and Siam. The territories of the EEIC pass to the control of the India Office.

1860 By this time mining at Lukut has begun to decline. The main Secret Society rivalries are now between Kanching and Kuala Lumpur. About this time recognition of Sultan Abdul Samad of Selangor. By this time the Christian Brothers, a French order of nuns (Les Soeurs du Saint Enfant Jesus) and the American Methodist church have opened (since 1850) mission schools in the Straits Settlements; St Xavier's in Penang, St Joseph's at Singapore and Penang Convent School. 1861 Ahmad is driven out of Pahang. Going to Bangkok he is joined by Mahmud Muzaffar Shah, who claims the throne of Johore. Siam now feels she can interfere in Pahang since a claimant to the Bendaharaship and ruler of Johore is at their court. 1862 Siam sends several ships in support of Ahmad and Mahmud, landing them at Trengganu. Governor Cavenagh, with authority from the governor-general, sends a warship to the Trengganu coast demanding the ex-sultan of Lingga be returned to Bangkok. Refused. Trengganu's fort is shelled but without conclusive results (condemnation in the British House of Commons). All this from a rumor of a plan to depose Sultan Omar of Trengganu, but without evidence. Death of Ibrahim. Son and successor is Abu Bakar, ruler of Johore (Temenggong). A party of Ghee Hin are massacred in the Taiping area; the Ghee Hin are driven from their mines to Penang Ibrahim, unable to control events, gains the support of the Hai San. The Ghee Hin complain to governor Colonel Cavenagh who demands the government of Perak pay compensation to the Ghee Hin. To back this up he sends a warship to the Larut coast to block the tin trade. Ibrahim comes to terms and is given greater powers over Larut and Krian. 1863 (March) Mahmud is removed to Siam. (May) Death of Mutahir and the Penang civil war peters out: Wan Ahmad becomes Bendahara of Pahang. His policy of remaining on good terms between Singapore and Siam marks the end of Siamese interference in the east coast Malay states. The Sultan of Perak grants the district of Krian to Ibrahim (appointed Mantri this year). 1865 Both Singapore merchants and the Colonial Office are becoming concerned over the state of the Malaysian situation, for the Dutch are increasing their area of control and barring English ships from coastal trade in their territories and placing discriminatory duties on British goods. By this year, Dutch control of Sumatra has reached the southern border of Acheh. Death of Sultan Ja'afar of Perak. He is succeeded by Sultan Ali. 1866 Raja Mahdi attacks Klang, driving out Raja Ab-dullah, starting a Selangor civil war: By this time tin mining at Klang has become very profitable. Mahdi, who has no right to the rule, refuses to leave and the chiefs take sides thus begining a civil war. Abu Bakar gives the capital of Johore its modern name. He encourages immigration and plantation agriculture and establishes new land laws and new customs posts. 1867 The sultan brings in Tunku Sia'u'd-din (= Kudin), brother of Sultan Ahmad of Kedah, as arbitrator, but this increases the opposition of the chiefs and Selangor's civil war spreads into the hills, involving the Chinese mining camps: Kudin is backed by Yap Ah Loy, the Captain China at Kuala Lumpur while the Ghee Hin at Kanching back Mahdi, Mahmud and Arab warrior Sayid Mashhor. There is street fighting in Georgetown between the Ghee Hin and Hai San. Straits Settlements authorities are increasingly perturbed over the warfare of the Secret Societies. This year, the Straits Settlements are transferred from the India Office to the Colonial Office bringing them into a broader perspective from London (instead of being considered an appendage of India) and the Singapore [C of C?] can now push harder for a settled business atmosphere in the area. Sir Harry Ord is 1st Colonial Governor (to 1873). By this time a French protectorate has been established over Cambodia; now a period of French-Siamese dispute over Laos begins, the French bringing military pressure on Bangkok. The British in Burma are concerned. 1867-8 Trade recession hits Singapore. 1868 Yap Ah Loy becomes Captain China and only authority at Kuala Lumpur, putting the town "on the map". He builds a hospital. After visiting Europe and ascertaining Malay opinion, Abu Bakar assumes the title Maharaja with the agreement of the Straits Governor. 1869 Yusuf at Senggang writes to the Straits government claiming his right to the throne of Perak (for he is senior to Abdullah) when Ali dies. Colonel Macpherson, colonial secretary, tells the governor that Yusuf's claim cannot be supported, though his accession would provide indirect British rule of Perak. Opening of the Suez canal increases European commercial interests in the East and the number of steamships; Singapore merchants fear they will be bypassed by the development of direct European-Southeast Asian trade. 1870 Abgdullah grants part of Krian district to Penang trader and adventurer Bacon, against Ali's wishes and to the offence of Ibrahim. James Birch is appointed Colonial Secretary to the Straits Settlements.

Fierce warfare erupts between the Selangor alliances. The civil war extends to include the Chinese at Kanching and Kuala Lumpur (to 1873). 1870's Abu Bakar's relations with Negri Sembilan and Pahang are aimed at restoring some Johore authority over neighboring states. 1871 Death of Sultan Ali of Perak at Sayong. Raja Abdullah, son of Sultan Ja'afar is heir apparent (= Raja Muda) (he is damaged by a story that his wife has run off with a Selangor prince); Raja Ismail is Bendahara, but not of royalty is supported in Upper Perak (and way overdue for promotion to Raja Muda); Raja Yusuf is son of Sultan Abdullah but has no support among the chiefs; Ibrahim of Larut, Mantri (and wealthiest chief, he supports Ismail). So now the two main tin-bearing states of Perak and Selangor are in troubled condition, bringing the tin trade at times to a standstill. Abdullah refuses to attend the funeral and Ismail is chosen sultan. He appoints the eldest son of the late Ali as Bendahara. Ismail appoints a customs official to replace the Laksamana's son at Kuala Perak but Abdullah and the Shahbandar remove him, restoring the estuary trade to their own control; an act of rebellion. (Dec) Kudin sends an envoy to the Bendahara of Pahang seeking military support for his side in the Selangor civil war. A committee proposes that Residents be sent to the Malay States. It is apparent that the whole of Sumatra will come under Dutch rule; meanwhile, with the French defeat by Prussia, some French leaders see French expansion in Asia as a means of reviving French prestige. At this time in the Selangor civil war, Kudin has in his service two European officers (a Dutchman and Italian), 20 European and Eurasian NCO's and about 200 Indian Sepoys. A Chinese junk is plundered, crew and passengers killed by pirates who say they are from Kuala Selangor. A cry for action arises in Malacca and Singapore against piracy. HMS Rinaldo and Colonial steamer Pluto arrive Kuala Selangor, find it fortified by Sayid Mashhor. It is shelled and Kuala Selangor becomes Kudin's. The Singapore girl's school is moved to a new site. 1872 (April) By this time Abdullah is calling himself Sultan of Perak and interfering in the affairs of Krian and Larut. He has also made peace with Yusuf and appointed him Raja Muda! They plot to ally with the Ghee Hin and drive out Ibrahim. But now fighting between the Ghee Hin and Hai San breaks out in Larut. (Autumn) Chinese fighting now spreads to the coast, gathering Malay adherents: The White Flag society supports the Ghee Hin and the Red Flag the Hai San: Trade and tin mining grind to a halt. The Lieutenant-Governor of Penang Sir George Campbell states the beneficial effects of appointing a British Resident or Political Agent in the Malay States. (Dec) The Colonial Office approves limited intervention to suppress piracy and/or demand redress for aggression on British peoples and territories when deemed necessary. 1873 Ibrahim, unable to control the Chinese wars that now involve Malays, withdraws to the lower river Krian and easy access to Province Wellesley. (March) Up till now, Kudin and his supporters in the Selangor civil war have been on the defensive: Mahdi is in control of all the interior has an outlet to the sea at Kuala Selangor and has friends with the Sungei Ujong and Ulu Bernam. A large force from Pohang joins Kudin and the tide of war is turned; command of central Selangor area is taken and with Captain China Yap Ah Loy, Kuala Lumpur is taken. (June) Reconciled for a short time, Abdullah and Ibrahim quarrel; the Mantri moves to Penang. (July) Again the Colonial Office approves limited British intervention to suppress piracy or to demand redress for aggression on British people and territories if necessary. (Aug) Lieutenant-Governor Anoon of Penang arranges a meeting w/the Ghee Hin and Hai San leaders, attended by Abdullah, Yusuf the Mantri and Kudin, to bring the Larut wars to an end. The Chinese agree to an armistice pending arbitration from Penang; but fighting continues; Abdullah issues a proclamation to Larut Chinese headmen that is ignored. Abdullah seeks help from Singapore and member of council W.H. Reade tells him to wait for the new governor to arrive. (Sept) Sir Andrew Clark, new governor of Singapore, leaves England with instructions from the Colonial Office to use British influence with the native princes to rescue the Malay states from their present ruinous path. He is to report steps to be taken to restore peace and trade (the Singapore merchants are clamoring for a stable-orderly environment to carry out trade). He is to consider appointment of a British officer to reside in any state that consents to it. Clark considers this a passport for action. Meanwhile, Governor Ord of Singapore recognizes the Mantri, Ibrahim, as rightful ruler of Larut (Nov) Clark arrives Singapore, relieving Ord. Pirates attack a Malacca vessel off the estuary of the Langat where Abdul Samad lives, the vessel is plundered and most of its crew and passengers killed. Clark meets with Abdullah sends W.A. Pickering (officer in charge of Chinese affairs) to Penang to meet rival Chinese leaders and look into the Selangor problem, especially the trial of Sultan Abdul Samad for the piracy against the Malaccan vessel. Meanwhile, By this time, the Selangor civil war is drawing to a close with Kudin's ascendancy, but Mahdi and Mahmud aren't down yet. (Dec) Pirates attack another Malaccan boat but the crew swims to safety. 1874 (Jan) Pangkor Agreement: Chinese Engagement: Ghee Hin and Hai San leaders agree to keep the peace under penalty of $50,000 fines. Disarmament commission established. Mining lands are divided between the two groups. Ibrahim is confirmed as ruler at Larut, but not to have absolute soverignity, holding his rights and privileges by appointment of the Sultan. Ibrahim's Chief of Police, Captain Speedy, becomes Assistant Resident in Perak, a salaried state government official. Pangkor Engagement: Abdullah is confirmed as sultan. Ismail is pensioned off with the honorary title Sultan Muda. Yusuf is not mentioned. Abdullah receives a British Resident whose advice is to be

secured in all matters except Malay religion and customs. New boundaries are described for the Dindings and Province Wellesley. Meanwhile (Jan) Captain Speedy, since no Resident is appointed in Perak has a fairly free hand in Larut (to Nov); he takes a firm line as the Matri attempts to be an independent ruler, but Speedy has a minimum of Malay opposition. First he quells the mine camp troubles by banishing the leading troublemakers. He also attempts to ban the Secret Societies but this is an impossible task. Meanwhile, Abdullah carries on his own government in Lower Perak, farming out Kuala Perak's taxes to his friend Cheng Tee of Singapore. He also sells land concessions. (Feb) Negotiations at Langut. The accused pirates are tried and executed. Sir Andrew Clark meets with the viceroy and the sultan over Selangor. Clark does not place a British Resident until he sees how his Resident at Perak turns out. He begins cultivating friendly relations with the natives so that British intervention comes as a free choice of the chiefs. (March) Lord Carnavon approves Clark's appointment of a Resident at Perak. (April) Clark obtains a treaty from the Dato Klana of Sungei Ujong, battling with the Dato Bandar. The Dato Klana promises to govern with justice and protect the lives and property of traders and not aid enemies of the British government or of states allied to or at peace with Great Britain. The district of Sempang comes under the "control, order and direction" of the British government. (April-May) James Birch visits the west coast states accompanied by Swettenham, learning that both Yusuf at Senaggang and Ismail at Blanja are opposed to the Pangkor Engagement. By this time Speedy has put down lawlessness, established a Court of Law in Perak applying the Straits Settlements Penal Code and make the tin export duty a direct government levy. (May) Clarke's Resident at Perak is approved by the House of Lords. (June) Swettenham is sent to pursuade Yusuf and Ismail to meet Clarke at Penang; Yusuf goes but Ismail does not; Yusuf accepts British policy. (Aug) The Dato Klana ask for a British Resident. (Sept) Clarke leaves Frank Swettenham at Langat to give the sultan informal advice. (Nov) F. Swettenham, having made a good impression, is appointed Assistant Resident at Langat and J.G. Davidson, friend and advisor of Kudin, Resident at Selangor. Captain Tatham is appointed Assistant Resident at Sungei Ujong; the opposition to this of the Dato Bandar is put down by a British force and the Dato Klano's troops. James Birch becomes Resident at Perak. Speedy has built fair roads, towns for the miners and improved communication. Abdullah's "independence", however, has created a gulf between the Residency and himself; since Birch is an idealist with a purpose and not too mindful of Malay subtleties, this gulf is widening. (Dec) By this time British officials are operating in Larut, Lower Perak, Klang, Langat and Sungei Ujong: A British Protectorate over the Malay States has begun. By this time Singapore is becoming more involved in the economic welfare of the rest of Malaya. Cholera in Larut. 1875 (Jan) Birch arranges a meeting of Malay chiefs at Blanda but it doesn't turn out as well as expected as Birch and Abdullah are working at cross purposes. (May) A Malay deputation calls on the Governor at Singapore, but Clarke is handing over to his successor, Sir Wm Jervois Meanwhile, Birch is touring Perak trying to have Abdullah support new taxes, but Abdullah postpones these. (July) Abdullah calls together a representative conference of Malay chiefs at Durian Sabatany; it is decided to rid the area of Birch and drive out the English. (Sept) Governor Jervois visits Perak and notes how the system has fallen apart and attempts to reform. Ismail is against; Yusuf and Dris want the English to take over; Abdullah finally accepts, all three accepting pensions. Now Birch presses Abdullah to formalize the new proposals of government. (Oct) Swettenham and Birch distribute copies of the proclamations and new instructions of the new government. Abdullah and Ismail prepare to assassinate Birch. (2 Nov) Assassination of Birch at Pasir Salak. Swettenham escapes down river to Bandar Bahru; there is no Malay uprising. (Nov) British naval forces arrive from Singapore, Hong Kong and India and begin the pacification of Larut: The "Perak War" begins. Meanwhile, Raja Mahdi, from exile in Johore, plans a revolt against Kudin with aid of Sumatran Malays at Cheras and Kajang in the Langat valley. Davidson and his police commander Syers aided by Malay recruits and Chinese under Ah Loy squash the revolt. Oil Palm seeds reach Malaya from Ceylon and Kew. This in addition to the coconut palm grown in Malaya for centuries. 1876 Swettenham becomes Secretary for Malay Affairs at Singapore (to 1882). By mid year the Perak War is over; all conspirators are arrested and exiled. Yusuf becomes "Regent" of Perak. J.G. Davidson, a friend of Kudin, is transferring from Selangor to Perak as Acting Resident, but his position is an unhappy one. With the bad economic conditions in Perak, the Colonial Office recommends the Resident system not be expanded. 1877 Death of Sultan Ali of Johore. His descendants are left out as the land at Muar comes under control of Abu Bakar and Ali's son is called only Tunku and not Sultan. Disputes between Jelebu and Rembau states are brought to Abu Bakar for his arbitration. He is unable to reach a decision and the two states ask the Straits government to become arbiter. Hugh Law is appointed Resident in Perak as Davidson's successor (to 1889). Speaking Malay, he is able to begin boosting Perak's economy. 22 rubber plants arrive Singapore from Ceylon. 1878 Defeat of Tunku Antah who had attacked the Dato Klana of Sungei Ujong. Abu Bakar secures control of the Muar district through an election of Muar chiefs. Ali's successors now deprived of their land, are given an increased compensation (granted in 1855) to compensate for the loss of territory.

Malacca Free School becomes Malacca High School. 1879 Hugh Law demonstrates a British steam engine and centrifugal pump as a better means of dewatering the tin mines. 1880 The British Residency is transferred from Klang to Kuala Lumpur, thus eclipsing Yap Ah Loy's singular authority there. 1880's The British undertake a drive to modify French demands on Siam; to avoid or limit a common border with French Indo-China and negotiate with Siam a peaceful settlement of Anglo-Siamese frontiers. I.e.; Siam will by the buffer state between British and French interests (into the 1890's). 1882 Swettenham becomes British Resident at Kuala Lumpur. He finds the Captain China Yap Ah Loy still a power to be reckoned with. Ahmad, with the approval of the Maharaja of Johore, takes the title of Sultan of Pahang. 1883 A boundary dispute arises between Pahang and Jelebu as the headmen are seeking British protection. Straits governor Sir Cecil Smith tries to mediate; for Mansur is trying to use Selangor as a base for attacks on Pahang. This year the British begin expanding their influence beyond Sungei Ujong. The Cocos Islands are placed under the administration of Singapore. 1884 (1 Jan) Slavery and bondage in Perak comes to an end by law with compensation being paid to former masters. Abu Bakar founds a new town of Muar. 1885 Death of Ah Loy; the power of his Chinese group declines. Publication of "The Chersonese with the Gilding Off" by Mrs. Innes that gives an unflattering picture of Durian Sabatang, especially as it not being suitable as a steamship port. Swettenham is sent from Perak to settle a boundary dispute with the sultan of Perak, to reconcile Ahmad and Mansur and propose a treaty between Singapore and Pahang. Nothing comes of this meeting except the recommendation to watch British interests at Pekan. By this time Selangor has a useful cart-road running from north to south. Construction of a railroad from Taiping to Port Weld. Abu Bakar, the Maharaja, takes the title Sultan of Johore, signs a treaty of alliance with Great Britain and accepts a British officer as a consular official. 1886 Jelebu accepts British administrative officers and British protection. Yusuf is now recognized as Sultan of Pekan. By the end of this year, the Kuala Lumpur railroad runs to Bukit Kuda opposite Klang. Great Britain annexes Upper Burma, causing concern over a common French-British border in the area as French interests are expanding that way in Laos. Also, the French are contemplating a canal across the Isthmus of Kra. 1887 The Straits government finally obtains a treaty from the Sultan of Pekan; a British agent, Hugh Clifford, is appointed there. He influences the sultan to reform the legal and administrative system. Rembau accepts British administrative officers and British protection. A smelting center is established at Pulau Brani by the Straits Trading Company. 1888 (Feb) Murder of a British-Chinese shopkeeper near the sultan's palace. Clifford and the governor pressure Sultan Ahmad for greater protection of British subjects. (Aug) Sultan Ahmad asks Governor Cecil Smith for a British Resident Mr. J.P. Rodger is appointed. Henry Ridley appointed Director of the Gardens at Singapore; he advocates rubber cultivation to offset falling coffee prices. Pineapple cultivation begins on Singapore island, spreads to Johore. 1889 The rest of the small Malay states (including the four central states) place themselves under British protection, beginning the nucleus for a nine-state confederation. Hugh Law retires; he leaves Perak in sound economic condition. Raub Australian Gold Mining, Ltd, established at Raub. 1890 The Kuala Lumpur railroad reaches Klang via Connaught Bridge. Foundation of the Straits Steamship Company. About this time town Sanitary Boards are being established, relieving the Residents of many local details. 1891 Bahman, the Orang Kaya of Semantan, leads an armed resistance to the British but with limited support, he is quickly driven off. A railroad is built; Seremban to Port Pickson. Founding of an Anglo-Chinese school at Penang. 1892 Sultan Abu Bakar of Johore is awarded the first class order of the Double Dragon for his justice to the Chinese by the Chinese emperor. Construction of a new Chinese hospital at Kuala Lumpur by Captain China Yap Kwan Seng, maintained by voluntary contributions. 1893 Swettenham submits to Governor Cecil Smith a plan for federating the four Malay states with British Residents. The plan goes into "official consideration". A railroad is built; Tapah Road to Telok Anson. 1894 Founding of the Victoria Institute at Kuala Lumpur. Beri Beri in Selangor.

1895 Sir Charles Mitchell, successor of C. Smith, receives instructions that if the Malay rulers will agree to federation, then go ahead. Other British officials, including Swettenham, favor extension of British protection to Perlis, Kedah, Kelantan and Trengganu, claimed by Siam. But the Colonial Office is more cautious: This year there is a liaison with the Siamese government as a military force pursues Malay rebels from Pahang into Kelantan and Trengganu. Abu Bakar issues a written constitution for Johore; a Council of Ministers advise the sultan; a Council of State is a more or less legislative council, makes laws according to the ruler's consent. By this time two more railroads have been opened; from Tapah Road to Telok Anson in Perak; the other from Seremban to Port Dickson. Also by this time the Resident system has been firmly established in Perak, Selangor, Negri Sembilan and Pahang. 1896 Unable to achieve a buffer state in the Upper Mekong, an Anglo-French agreement is signed; France gains those British territories east of the Mekong and formerly part of the Shan States of Upper Burma. The integrity and independence of central Siam based on the Menam valley is guaranteed. Thus French operations in Menam are checked, British trade interests in Siam are protected and Anglo-Siamese negotiations over the southern boundary are in the offing. (1 July) Federated Malay States come into being. Kuala Lumpur is HQ of the Resident-General; i.e.; Federal Capital. This "federation" is very tenuous, however, with the states retaining much of their former authority. Tan Chay Yan plants 40 acres of rubber among his tapioca. 1897 British-Siamese convention: Siam agrees not to cede any territory south of the 11th parallel or give any special advantage in trade on land in that region without British approval; Great Britain will support Siam if any third power tries to gain influence in the area by pressure of any kind. (July) First Conference of Rulers of the Federated Malay States; it already sets the trend of greater centralization and lessening of the importance of the State Councils. A smelting plant is established at Penang, a Chinese enterprise (to 1907 when it becomes the Eastern Smelting Company). Methodist Boys School founded at Kuala Lumpur. 1898 Negri Sembilan becomes a federal state. 1899 British-Siamese agreement; Great Britain - paying a price for the agreement of 1897 - agrees to a boundary of Pahang and Trengganu with Siam. Railroad from Kuala Lumpur to Port Swettenham. Convent school founded at Kuala Lumpur. 1900 The British Foreign Office refuses to give British speculator Duff support in his claim of title to a larger land concession from the Sultan of Kelantan. Establishment of Institute of Medical Research at Kuala Lumpur. 1901 Amalgamation of the Public Works Departments of Perak, Selangor, Negri Sembilan and Pahang under a federal Director of Public Works. Dr Watson arrives Klang and begins draining malaria breeding grounds, drastically reducing the death rate 1902 Anglo-Siamese agreement; the sultans of Kelantan and Trengganu will conduct their foreign affairs only through the Siamese who shall appoint an advisor and assistant advisor to each and whose advice shall be asked in all matters except religion and custom: If peace and order is maintained; Siam will not interfere in their internal affairs. The sultan of Trengganu refuses to sign. 1903 An advisor and assistant advisor, both British officers in service w/the Siamese government, are appointed by Bangkok to Kelantan. Second Conference of Rulers held at Kuala Lumpur. The sultan of Perak speaks of overcentralization yet its economic and social benefits are becoming obvious. Christman Island is placed under the administration of Singapore. 1904 Swettenham leaves Singapore and states he's sympathetic with the Malay possession of Patani, Sai and Reman who have been complaining of Siamese oppression - he suggests British protection. British and French sign 'entente cordiale' burying their differences: A Franco-Siamese agreement is reached. Anglo-Siamese talks begin. St Johns convent school founded at Kuala Lumpur. 1905 Founding of Singapore Medical School (later the King Edward VII College of Medicine). Founding of Malay College at Kuala Kangsar. 1906 Labuan is placed under the administration of Singapore. 1907 Another Franco-Siamese agreement is concluded. Teacher training begins. 1909 Through the initiative of Sir John Anderson of Singapore a Federal Council is set up with the agreement of the rulers, with the High Commissioner its president. The new council has much authority over the state councils. Many officials think its only a matter of time till the "unfederated" states join the FMS. But these "unfederated" states have independent councils that spur the federated states to press for more independence. (March) Anglo-Siamese talks conclude with the signing of a treaty at Bangkok: The protection of Kelantan, Trengganu, Kedah and Perlis are transferred from Siam to Great Britain. Now the four northern states begin making their treaties with Great Britain

for protection. 1910 Trengganu agrees to accept British protection and control of foreign affairs. The FMS abolishes indentured labor, beginning the decline of the Malayan sugar industry. After a slow start, a Malayan rubber boom is in progress. Most plantations are in Perak, Selangor, Negri Sembilan and Johore. 1911 It is decided to hold a census every 10 years. Mosquito Advisory Board set up. 1912 Ibrahim, son of Abu Bakar, introduces an Executive Council in Johore's government. Introduction of the tin dredge. By this time tin mining is 80% under Chinese management and labor. The labor code is made to require estate-owners to provide schools for their workers' children 7-14 years old. 1913 Malayan Collieries Ltd establishes a coal mining operation at Batu Ayang. Closing of the last Malayan sugar factory. 1914 Johore opens the Council of State to non-subjects of Johore. Also a British General Advisor is taken on. 1917 A Frenchman makes the first commercial planting of the oil palm. 1918 The west coast railroad line is connected with the Siamese railroad. 1919 Trengganu takes a British Advisor. 1922 Opening of Malay Training College at Tanjong Malim 1923 Kedah takes a British Advisor. 1924 The numbers of official and unofficial members of the Legislative Council are made equal. 1926 Singapore is connected by railroad with the mainland Kuala Lumpur's education department takes over a PWD technical school. 1927 Sir Lawrence Guillemard, Straits Governor, reorganizes the Federal Council to more adequately cope with the dropping trade revenues of the early 1920's. About this time formation of the Malayan Communist Party (MCP), comprising almost wholly of Chinese members and organized like a Secret Society. 1928 Founding of Raffles College of Arts and Science at Singapore. 1930 An Immigration Ordinance imposes immigration restrictions and quotas. A new treaty regularizes the role of the British Advisor in Perlis. 1930's The Federal government is streamlined even more. 1931 Founding of School of Agriculture at Serdang (Selangor). 1937 Japanese invasion of China. 1940 A Local Defense Force is formed. Already a Malay Regiment has been formed and also a small scale Malay navy (June) Japan concludes a treaty of friendship with Thailand and then secures from the German controlled French government rights for troop movements and bases in French Indo-China. (Sept) By this time Japanese forces have occupied northern Indo-China. Japan's three-power pact with Germany and Italy is seen as a declaration of war against Great Britain, bringing British protected Malaya and the Straits Settlements into danger. 1941 (June) With the German invasion of Russia, Russia and Great Britain become allies; the MPC changes its attitude, supporting the war effort and production in Malaya. (July) With German successes against Russia, Japan entertains designs against the USA; all Indo-China is occupied. USA applies economic sanctions. (8 Dec) Japanese forces land at Kelantan and Patani, beginning the occupation of Malaya. 1942 (15 Feb) Fall of Singapore and all Malaya is Japanese occupied: The Malay Colonial government is swept away. Europeans are imprisoned; Japan takes direct control of the Straits Settlements and takes over advisory powers of Malay governments. The Kempeitai take over the police and labor is conscripted for war-related work (including the Burma -Thailand railroad). Malayan Chinese are treated ruthlessly. Japan tries to stamp out Western influences. Economic and health problems beset the population from Japanese confiscation of medical supplies and food and machinery is heavily damaged. An attempt is made to combine the administration of Malaya and Sumatra through HQ at Singapore but resistance to Japanese overlordship runs high especially armed guerilla groups working out of the jungle (Chinese) and the MPAJA (Malayan Peoples Anti-Japanese Army), the main force of the armed resistance; is MCP led. 1943 Japanese establish Malay local councils, half appointed by them, half appointed by village headmen, as advisory groups. 1944 Japan drops the scheme of combining Malayan and Sumatran administrations. 1945 (Aug) Surrender of Japan. The MPAJA now tries to gain control of Malaya before the British arrive; an atmosphere of tension mounts, with lawless incidents and bitterness, as some locals use Japanese tactics to gain their way. (Sept) British military forces arrive, a British Military Administration established. The MPAJA is disgraced and disbanded, but it goes underground (along with arms). The MCP becomes a legal party working for a Communist republic. The weakness of British protection brings Malaysians to consider directing their own destiny. (Oct) Details become known of London's plans to restore civil government to Malaya as soon as possible after the war. (Nov) Formation

of the MNP (Malay Nationalist Party) with Indonesian sponsorship and (Dec) the MDU (Malay Democratic Union), the party for non-Malays formed by professional Chinese. 1946 Formation of the Malayan Indian Congress (MIC) to speak for the interests of Malayan Indians. (Jan) Publication of a Government White Paper on restoring civil government to Malaya: The Federated and Unfederated states are to be united, along with Penang and Malacca, under a centralized government called the Malayan Union. Singapore will remain a British colony. The aim is to eventually replace the British government with one of democratic self-rule. (Jan-Feb) The General Labor Union under Communist influence attempts trials of strength (strikes, declaration of 15 Feb as holiday in commemoration of 1942, etc.) with the British Military Administration. (March) Founding of the UMNO (United Malays National Organization) by Dato Onn bin Ja'afar of Johore to resist the Malayan Union and prepare Malays for self-government. (1 April) Singapore's civil government is resumed, replacing the British Military Administration there. 1947 Strike activities are associated with the Communists; a Pan Malayan Federation of Labor is established as the Communists try to amalgamate all trade unionism into one organization under their control. By this time it has become quite evident that Singapore, with its contrasting economy and grossly different racial makeup, should be a separate entity instead of being included in the Malayan Union: (Oct) Chinese organizations call a token work stoppage in Singapore in resentment of the proposed exclusion of Singapore from the proposed Federation. They are worried about what their citizenship status will be. 1948 The number of Singapore Commissioners is increased from 25 to 27, with 18 of them elected. (Feb) Federation government established to pave the way for eventual democratic self-government. It takes over from the Malay Union abandoned because of widespread resistance. It is weighted on the Malay side, but minorities are still concerned over their citizenship status. Communist activity, strikes, banditry and other disruptions force the new government to declare an emergency; all Communist organizations are banned. The Communists resort to guerilla tactics as warfare becomes widespread. Meanwhile, a Russian sponsored meeting of Asian and Australian Communists is held at Calcutta with Southeast Asian countries represented and discussed. (March) Communists begin armed attacks in Malaya. Meanwhile, Communist led armed outbreaks occur in India, Burma and Indonesia. 1948-9 Malayan mine-managers and rubber planters have a difficult time defending their lives and properties against the civil warfare. 1949 (Feb) Formation of MCA (Malayan Chinese Association) under leadership of Mr. Tan Cheng-lock, giving the Chinese a legal mouthpiece in Malaya and disclaim charges of Chinese sympathy with the Communists. 1950 (Jan) Britain recognizes the People's Republic of China which adds to the problems of Malayan non-Communist Chinese. (April) General Briggs, Director of Operations, sets out a "Briggs Plan" of relocating the Chinese squatter population to "New Villages", greatly aided and enhanced by the MCA, to cut off the Communists from their major supply bases. 1951 Dato Omn leaves the UMNO (succeeded by Tengku Abdui Rahman of the House of Kedah) to start a new party, the IMP (Independent Malay Party), more representative of all Malaya's races. The "Member" system is introduced into the Legislative Council, preparation for ministerial responsibility under self-government. (Oct) Assassination of British High Commissioner Sir Henry Gurney but even so, fighting is dying down as Communist leadership is taking new, more "legitimate" courses; political activity and penetration of other organizations. Singapore receives by Royal Charter the status of a city, its local government becomes a City Council. By this time she has two political parties; Progressives (gradual development of self government) and Labor (besides similarity with that in Great Britain, urges self-rule and union with the Federation). 1952 Sir Gerald Templar appointed High Commissioner, bringing a tough military policy to bear on Malaya's unsettled politics. Amendments to the citizenship rules ease the consciences of many non-Malays. Also, authorization is given for the local elections of local councils. The UMNO and MCA gain most positions in most localities. 1953 By this year the UMNO and MCA parties have come to be called the 'Alliance Party". This partnership is later joined by the MIC. (Aug) The Alliance Party aims to establish an independent state within the Commonwealth. 1953-4 Singapore; the Rendel Commission (government appointed under Sir George Rendel) works out a constitution for the colony. 1954 Disappointed with the response to his IMP, Dato Omn establishes another non-communal party, Party Negara, in another attempt to cut across existing parties. (Feb) The Rendel Commission issues its report; various streamlinings of the Singapore constitution are recommended. These are accepted and rewriting commences. (June) General Templar leaves Malaya, succeeded by Sir Donald MacGillivray. Malaya's military situation has been quite improved and constructive political development is taking place 1955 (Feb) Singapore's new constitution becomes effective and (April) elections are held. (July) First federal elections; the Alliance party wins a majority in the Legislative Council. Now plans are laid for self-government. Tengku Abdul Rahman becomes chief minister. (Aug) TAR and the Rulers talk with the British Secretary of State for the Colonies on a visit; it is agreed that a conference should be held in London early in 1956 to discuss future relations between Malaya and Great Britain. "Merdeka" has become the Alliance's slogan. Also, the Secretary of State has the

constitution of Singapore amended so that the Governor and Chief Minister work together. (Dec) Taking the initiative against the Communist war, the Alliance has a meeting in Kedah between Tengku Abdul Rahman, Sir Cheng Lock Tan and Mr. David Marshal, Chief Minister of Singapore and Secretary-General of the Communist Party Chin Peng: Communists who surrender will be given amnesty; if they abandon Communism they can return to normal life; if they remain Communist they face detention; if they desire to go to China that will be allowed. But the talks are deadlocked as Chin Peng wants the Communist party legalized and ultimately a Communist republic. Later Mr. Marshal visits London for preliminary talks about a conference to discuss self-government for Malaya. 1956 (Jan-Feb) London Conference ("Merdeka Mission"). (Feb) Singapore's Progressives and Democrats unite as Liberal Socialists representing opposition to the government. (April) London Conference (Mr. Marshall) on Singapore's self-government. (May-Oct) Reid Commission meets in Malaya to draft the details of a constitution for an independent Malaya. (Sept) Police and troops from the Confederation are called in to quell disturbances in Singapore (done by Oct). 1957 The Singapore City Council is made entirely elective, comprising 32 councilors. (Feb) The Reid Commission issues its long and detailed report: The makeup of both the federal and state governments is established. (Mar-April) Second Conference at London; A new Singapore constitution is drafted: British interests are represented and provisions for excluding subversive elements is included. (Aug) Singapore government rounds up leaders of the extreme left faction, two had attempted to gain leadership. (31 Aug) At a ceremony at Kuala Lumpur, Malaya's independence is proclaimed. Tunku Abdul Rahman, ruler of Negri Sembilan, is firstst Paramount Ruler and Tengku Abdul Rahman remains as prime minister. The campaign against the Communists continues and 31 July 1960, is set as date to end the emergency (Dec) First election in Singapore returns the PAP (People's Action Party) to power. 1958 (May) An all-party delegation meets in London to discuss Singapore's new constitution. Only agreement is on disqualifying subversives. (Aug) A bill for the constitution is approved. (Nov) Orders for elections in Singapore are published. 1959 In Malayan elections, the Alliance party gains a victory considered a vote of confidence. (April) The Rendel constitution expires; elections must be held in Singapore as soon as possible. (May) In the Singapore elections, the PAP wins a sweeping majority. (3 June) Singapore begins internal self-government under a new constitution. 1960 (31 July) End of the Malayan Emergency. Though the Communist threat isn't gone, the government retains powers of preventative detention. BIBLIOGRAPHY A History of Malaya, J. Kennedy, MacMillan, London, 1962