Learning Theory

Learning plays a central role in the development of human behavior, including voluntary and involuntary motor behaviors, thinking, and emotion. Learning is defined as a change in behavior resulting from repeated practice, and both the environment and the behavior interact to produce the learned change. Types of Learning The three types of learning are as follows: (1) In classic conditioning, learning is thought to take place as a result of the contiguity of environmental events; when events occur closely together in time, persons will probably come to associate the two. (2) In operant conditioning, learning is thought to result from the consequences of a person's actions. (3) Social learning theory incorporates both classic and operant models of learning, but also considers a reciprocal interaction between the person and the environment. Cognitive processes are viewed as important factors in modulating a person's responses to environmental events. Classic Conditioning Classic (also called respondent) conditioning results from the repeated pairing of a neutral (conditioned) stimulus with one that evokes a response (unconditioned stimulus), such that the neutral stimulus eventually comes to evoke the response. The time relation between the presentation of the conditioned and unconditioned stimuli is important and varies for optimal learning from a fraction of a second to several seconds. The Russian physiologist and Nobel Prize winner Ivan Petrovich Pavlov (1849-1936), observed in his work on gastric secretion that a dog salivated not only when food was placed in its mouth but also at the sound of the footsteps of the person coming to feed it, even though the dog could not see or smell the food. Pavlov analyzed these events and called the saliva flow that occurred with the sound of footsteps a conditioned response (CR), a response elicited under certain conditions by a particular stimulus. In a typical Pavlovian experiment, a stimulus (S) that had no capacity to evoke a particular response before training did so after consistent association with another stimulus. For example, under normal circumstances, a dog does not salivate at the sound of a bell, but when the bell sound is always followed by the presentation of food, the dog 1

ultimately pairs the bell and the food. Eventually, the bell sound alone elicits salivation (CR). Because the food naturally produces salivation, it is referred to as an unconditioned stimulus (UCS). Salivation, a response that is reliably elicited by food (UCS), is referred to as an unconditioned response (UCR). The bell, which was originally unable to evoke salivation but came to do so when paired with food, is referred to as a conditioned stimulus (CS). Classic conditioning is most often applied to responses mediated by the autonomic nervous system. Extinction Extinction occurs when the conditioned stimulus is constantly repeated without the unconditioned stimulus until the response evoked by the conditioned stimulus gradually weakens and eventually disappears. In the previous example, extinction would occur if the bell (CS) is rung repeatedly without the food (UCS) being given. Eventually, salivation (CR) does not occur when the bell sounds, and extinction occurs. Extinction, however, does not completely destroy a conditioned response. If an animal is rested after extinction, the conditioned response returns, although less strong than originally, a phenomenon known as partial recovery. The American psychologist John B. Watson (1878-1958) used Pavlov's theory of classic conditioning to explain certain aspects of human behavior. In 1920, Watson described producing a phobia in an 11-month-old boy called Little Albert. At the same time that the boy was shown a white rat that he initially did not fear, he was exposed to a loud, frightening noise. After several such pairings, Albert became fearful of the white rat, even when he heard no loud noise. Watson and his colleagues obtained the same results using a white rabbit and eventually managed to generalize the response to any furry object. Stimulus Generalization Stimulus generalization describes a process whereby a conditioned response is transferred from one stimulus to another. Discrimination Discrimination is the process of recognizing and responding to differences between similar stimuli. If the two stimuli are sufficiently different, an animal can learn to respond to one and not to the other. Operant Conditioning B. F. Skinner (1904-1990) developed a theory of learning and behavior known as operant conditioning. Whereas in classic conditioning 2

an animal is passive or restrained and behavior is reinforced by the experimenter, in operant conditioning the animal is active and behaves in a way that produces a reward; thus learning occurs as a consequence of action. For example, a rat receives a reinforcing stimulus (food) only when it correctly responds by pressing a lever. Food, approval, praise, good grades, or any other response that satisfies a need in an animal or a person can serve as a reward. Operant conditioning is related to trial-and-error learning, as described by the American psychologist Edward L. Thorndike (18741949). In trial-and-error learning, a person or animal attempts to solve a problem by trying different actions until one proves successful. A freely moving organism behaves in a way that is instrumental in producing a reward. Premack's Principle A concept developed by David Premack states that a behavior engaged in with high frequency can be used to reinforce a lowfrequency behavior. In one experiment, Premack observed that children spent more time playing with a pinball machine than eating candy when both were freely available. When he made playing with the pinball machine contingent on eating a certain amount of candy, the children increased the amount of candy they ate. In a therapeutic application of this principle, patients with schizophrenia were observed to spend more time in a rehabilitation center sitting down doing nothing than they did working at a simple task. When 5 minutes of sitting down was made contingent on a certain amount of work, the work output was considerably increased, as was skill acquisition. This principle is also known as Grandma's rule (If you eat your spinach, you can have dessert). Social Learning Theory Social learning theory relies on role modeling, identification, and human interactions. A person can learn by imitating the behavior of another person, but personal factors are involved. When a person dislikes a role model, imitative behavior is unlikely. Social learning theorists combine operant and classic conditioning theories. For example, although the observation of models may be a major factor in the learning process, imitation of the model must be reinforced or rewarded if the behaviors are to become part of the person's repertoire. Albert Bandura is a major proponent of the social learning school. According to Bandura, behavior results from the interplay between cognitive and environmental factors, a concept known as reciprocal determinism. Persons learn by observing others, intentionally or accidentally; this process is described as modeling, or learning through imitation. A person's choice of model is influenced by a variety of factors, such as age, sex, status, and similarity. If a chosen 3

model reflects healthy norms and values, the person develops selfefficacy, the capacity to adapt to normal, everyday life as well as to threatening situations. It is possible to eliminate negative behavior patterns by having a person learn alternative techniques from other role models. For example, fearful children become less fearful when they watch other children acting fearlessly in the same situation. Similarly, demonstrating a fearless approach to a phobic situation may be useful to motivate a patient's approach to the feared object or situation. Modeling has also been used in weight reduction and smoking cessation programs. It is an important component of group treatment plans in which members of the group learn from one another. Cognitive Learning Cognition is the process of obtaining, organizing, and using intellectual knowledge. Persons perform mental operations and store bits of information in memory to be retrieved later. Cognitive learning theories focus on the role of understanding: Cognition implies understanding the connection between cause and effect, between action and the consequences of the action. Cognitive strategies are mental plans that persons use to understand themselves and the environment. Many theorists, such as Jean Piaget, have defined a series of stages in cognitive growth. Another approach toward cognition is information processing, a sequence of mental operations involving input, storage, and output of information. Cognition involves calling up and processing relevant information from stored memory. Behavior can change through techniques in which persons learn by listening to or reading instructions. Therapeutic instructions modify both a person's outcome and efficacy expectations. To learn new patterns of behavior, persons can monitor their behavior by charting events, such as when they eat or smoke. Self-monitoring also reduces the rate of relapse. If a therapist helps patients define and set realistic and well-specified goals, they have a greater likelihood of achieving them than if goals are poorly defined or unrealistic. Goal attainment enhances self-efficacy, which in turn affects future performance positively. Piaget was a major theorist of cognitive development. Memory Formation and Storage The neurobiological basis of learning is located in the structures of the brain involved in forming and storing information, which include the hippocampus, the cortex, and the cerebellum. One hundred billion neurons in the brain are involved in forming memories, including a layer of 4.6 million cells in the hippocampus. Learning begins with the senses taking in an environmental stimulus that is eventually transformed into a memory trace or memory 4

link. An electrical or chemical impulse, passing through a neuron when the brain receives information, triggers the formation of connections between synapses. Animal experiments have shown an increase in synaptic connections when learning occurs. Long-term memories have increased time to link with many locations in the cortex and, thus, are retained longer than short-term memories. The more connections, the better the chance of contacting a neural pathway leading to the memory; repeated reliving of a memory enhances its permanence. Storage is the key to a good memory. Relating material to something that is already known creates more pathways and increases the storage power. Processing information at a semantic level involves more of the mind than does rote memorization. Semantic information decays at a slower rate than information superficially memorized, without meaning and comprehension. Memory is divided into short-term and long-term types; long-term memory is also known as recent memory, recent past memory, remote memory, and secondary memory. Short-term memory also called immediate memory, working memory, primary memory, and buffer memory is adversely affected by chronic emotional stress, psychological exhaustion, or too much input. Short-term and long-term memory differ in the amount of information that can be stored. The capacity of shortterm memory is limited (five to nine bits of information). Smell and emotion may underlie long-term memories. Scent conveys information through the olfactory nerve to the hippocampus, which plays a role in the control of emotion. Learning and memory are affected by stress. The increase in adrenaline resulting from stress can enhance learning, but if stress is too great, learning is inhibited. A person's mood affects learning and the recall of material; a person learning material in a happy mood enhances his or her memory and has better recall. Those childhood memories that survive are memories associated with the time the child learned to speak, between the ages of 3 and 5 years. Before then, only memories associated with traumatic events or with smell are likely to be remembered.

Prepared By: Diana M. de Castro, M.D., D.P.B.P., F.P.P.A. Psychiatry

Reference: Kaplan and Sadocks Synopsis of Psychiatry 10th Edition