1. Fix coordinate system on object. Treat upstream flow as steady, uniform.

Streamlined bodies (lower Re) have little effect on surrounding fluid compared to blunt bodies. 2. Fluid flowing past a body create shear (viscous) and normal (pressure) stresses. a. Resultant of pressure distribution and shear stress is force. Drag force is in direction of upstream fluid flow. Lift force is normal to that direction. b. Approximate values using lift and drag coefficients. A is usually frontal area (projected area from viewpoint upstream looking at the object). i. ii. 3. Characteristics of flow described by dimensionless parameters involved. Re, Ma, Fr. 4. Re is ratio of inertial effects to viscous effects (=U*D/). When Re > 100, domination by inertial effects. When Re < 1, domination by viscous effects. a. For low Re numbers, viscous effects are felt far from the object in all directions. As Re increases, viscous effects become smaller in all directions expect downstream of the object. b. For large Re, viscous effects negligible everywhere except in regions very close to object and wake region behind it. There exists a thin boundary layer (where viscous effects important) next to plate in which velocity goes from upstream velocity to zero on the plate. Boundary layer increases in size in direction of flow starting at zero height on the leading edge. Outside of BL, streamlines are nearly parallel (inviscid). i. With increasing Re, inertial effects become important. Flow can separate itself from the body at the separation location, resulting in a separation bubble behind the cylinder in which parts of the flow is actually flowing upstream. c. For objects not streamlined, there is flow separation. d. velocity gradients largest in BL and wake region where the viscous effects are contained. 5. The actual fluid viscosity is the same everywhere in the fluid but the relative effects of viscosity (due to velocity gradients) are different within and between the BLs. 6. For an infinitely long plate, we use Re = Ux/v where x is the distance from the leading edge. a. Outside of BL, particles do not rotate. Once they enter the BL, there is a velocity gradient (velocity larger above and smaller below) and they start to rotate. b. Transition from laminar BL to turbulent BL occurs at Rexcr = 2x10^5 to 3x10^6 depending on roughness of surface and amount of turbulence in upstream flow. Purpose of BL is to allow fluid to change to its velocity upstream value of U to zero on the plate due to noslip condition. c. BL thickness, , is the distance from the plate at which the fluid velocity u is 0.99U when = 5. d. Generally, flow downstream has no effect on flow upstream. e. Blasius solution:

where Rex = Ux/v.

1. Friction drag is due directly to shear stress and also depends on orientation of the object. For a flat plate parallel to the direction of flow, the entire shear stress contributes directly to drag. For a perpendicular one, shear stress contributes nothing to drag. a. Friction drag on flat plate of width b and length L parallel to stream flow: i. Fd = 0.5*rho*U2*b*L*CDf 1. CDf is found on page 511.

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2. If flow is laminar, CDf is not a function of plate roughness. It is for turbulent flow. Pressure drag is the drag due directly to pressure on an object. It is also called form drag because it is heavily dependent on the shape of the object. It depends on pressure magnitude as well as orientation of the object. Pressure drag force is only present when there is a surface normal to the flow velocity (so that pressure acts in a direction parallel to flow). Shape dependence a. The more blunt the body, the higher the drag coefficient. b. For very long plate and small thickness, should use planform area rather than frontal area in computation of drag coefficient since viscous (shear) effects dominate. Composite body drag a. can approximate drag calculations by treating body as composite collection of its various parts. The most important parameter that affects lift is the shape of the object. a. Most of lift does not come from shear stress but from surface pressure distribution for high Re. For low Re, shear stress may be as important as pressure distribution.