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Final Project
This project includes the design and cost analysis of a small scale hybrid sustainable photovoltaic and wind system for a house.
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Contents
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS ......................................................................................................... 3 1. 2. 3. Executive Summary ......................................................................................................................... 4 Need of Renewable Energy ............................................................................................................. 5 Types of renewable energy ............................................................................................................. 6 3.1 Solar energy .................................................................................................................................. 6 3.2 Wind energy .................................................................................................................................. 6 3.3 Biomass energy ............................................................................................................................. 6 3.4 Geothermal energy ....................................................................................................................... 7 3.5 Wave and Tidal Energy.................................................................................................................. 7 4. Project description .......................................................................................................................... 8 4.1 Introduction .................................................................................................................................. 8 4.2 Solar Radiation and Wind Speed in Darwin ................................................................................ 12 5. Calculation and Estimation ........................................................................................................... 17 5.1 For the PV System ....................................................................................................................... 17 5.2 Installation and cost of PV .......................................................................................................... 21 5.3 For the wind System ................................................................................................................... 24 5.4 Calculating Payback period for the Hybrid System ..................................................................... 25 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. Conceptual Design ........................................................................................................................ 25 Standard Components of a PV/ Wind Hybrid Unit ....................................................................... 28 Conclusion ..................................................................................................................................... 29 Appendix ....................................................................................................................................... 30 Reference .................................................................................................................................. 36
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LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS PV: NT: MWh: kWh: kV: RET: MW: REC : Avg: m/s: DC: AC: %: Photovoltaics Northern Territory Megawatt hours kilowatt hours Kilovolt Renewable Energy Target Megawatts (capacity) Renewable Energy Certificate average metres per second Direct Current Alternating Current Percent
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1. Executive Summary
Energy is important for the survival of all living organisms which plays a vital role in shaping the human condition and civilization. Energy is essential for survival, so the production and consumption of energy are some of the most important activities of human life. Moreover, it is clear that the process of energy used and changing of daily needs create human to discover new energy during their civilization such that: energy = progress = civilization. Energy is an essential element for economic development of any nation. However, exhaustible energy sources in the world are limited; there is an urgent need to focus attention on development of renewable energy sources and use of energy efficient technologies.
Australia has naturally gifted renewable energy and is a prime leader in a number of technologies, such as research and development for photovoltaic modules and fuel cells, solar thermal and wind power system. The impetus of renewable energy development in Australia is gaining rapidly due to the urgent need of to diminish the greenhouse gas emission.
Australia is blessed with the highest average solar radiation of any continent in the world, which means our solar industry has the greatest potential to lead the world. Moreover, solar energy is Australias largest energy resource; the average amount of solar energy that falls on Australia is about 15,000 times the nations energy use. In all parts of Australia, except Southern Victoria and Tasmania, solar radiations are average to very good. Sunlight can be used to generate electricity, provide hot water, and to heat, cool and light buildings.
Australia has among the best wind resource in the world and wind energy has become the cheapest renewable energy technology. Its current cost is only two to three cents more per kWh than the national electricity market pool prices, and this premium is reducing. Wind energy integrates well in to the electricity grid; it is a proven technology and involves a short construction period.
Financial analysis seeks to ascertain whether the proposed project will be financially viable in the sense of being able to meet the demand and whether the proposed project will satisfy the return expectations of those who provide the capital. The viability parameters considered are cost analysis and payback period of the hybrid system.
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With rapid rise in energy prices, concern over pollution, depletion of resources and environment degradation the awareness for limited resources around the world has increased dramatically. Use of fossil and nuclear fuels which causes greenhouse emissions, inefficient use of energy and release of harmful pollutants to the atmosphere causing threat such as air pollution, acid rain and the danger of nuclear radiation. Governments with vision have come to realise that generation of electrical power through non-renewable sources of energy is not enough. The power of the future must be environmentally friendly as well. Australias stationary energy sector, which includes electricity derived from coal- fired power, is responsible for around 50 precent of our greenhouse gas emission. Australias environmental, economic and energy security is at risk from climate change unless we can compete in a low carbon world. Any successful climate change solution must first target the energy sector specifically. Projections on the energy demand in the early years of 21st century are alarming. The estimates are about100 million tonnes per year for petroleum, 400 million tonnes per year for coal and 100,000 MW per year for power. This energy scenario poses a great challenge for our technology, and also to our environment, which is suffering a tremendous pressure.
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the equivalent of about 2.6 million years energy supply at 200405 consumption levels.
Tidal Tidal power is a special form of hydropower that exploits the bulk motion of the tides. Tidal barrage systems trap sea water in a large basin and the water is drained through low-head water turbines. In recent years, rotors have been developed that can extract the kinetic energy of underwater currents.
Wave The waves on the surface of the sea are caused mainly by the effects of wind which can be used to generate intermittent power. Floating buoys, platforms, or submerged devices placed in deep water, generate electricity using the bobbing motion of the oceans waves.
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Renewable energy carries with itself a number of benefits providing social, environmental and economical security. The following criteria should be met by efficient energy sources: Not deplete or adversely affect natural resources; Have minimal or no negative impact on environment or society; Be safe to consume today and not possess the uncertainty risk for future generations. Protect air, land and water against pollution; Have little or no emissions of greenhouse gases or net carbon; Meet the needs of consumer today and in the future in an accessible and efficient way;
All these criteria could be met by renewable energy and thus it could become sustainable for future.
4. Project description
4.1 Introduction
A Hybrid power system is the combination of two or more energy conversion technique, to maximize the use of renewables, resulting in a system with lower emissions than traditional fossil-fuelled technologies. In this project, I chose the solar panels and a small wind turbine hybrid generation technique to power a one bedroom unit house located at 256 Casuarina Drive, Nightcliff, Darwin. The major advantage of wind energy is that when used together with solar panels, the reliability of the system is enhanced. This would create more output from the wind turbine during the winter, whereas during the summer, the solar panels would produce their peak output. Hybrid energy systems oftentimes yield greater economic and environmental returns than wind, solar, geothermal or tri-generation stand-alone systems by themselves. Additionally, the size of battery storage can be reduced as there is less reliance on one method of power production. The radiant heat and light energy from the Sun is called as solar energy. This is the most readily and abundantly available source of energy. Since ancient times this energy has been harnessed by humans using a range of innovations and ever-evolving technologies. The earth receives more energy in just one hour from the sun than what is consumed in the whole world
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for one year. This energy comes from within the sun itself through process called nuclear fusion reaction. In this reaction four atoms of hydrogen combine to form one helium atom with loss of matter. This matter is emitted as radiant energy.
Photovoltaic (PV) literally stands for electricity from light. A photovoltaic cell is a special semiconductor diode that converts visible light into DC (direct current). Certain PV cells are able to transform infrared (IR) or ultraviolet (UV) rays into DC power. PV cells consist, in essence, of a junction between two thin layers of dissimilar semiconducting materials, known respectively as p-type (positive) and n-type (negative) semiconductor. These semiconductors are usually made from thin layers (two or more) of semi-conducting material, usually silicon. When this silicon is exposed to light it generates electrical charges and with the use of metal contacts this can be conducted away as direct current (DC). A single cell has small electrical output, so multiple cells are combined together and encapsulated to form a PV module (also called panel). This module is the principle and basic building block of entire PV system and numerous modules can be put together to give the desired electrical output. Contemporary PV cells are able to convert 10 to 20 percent of radiant energy into electrical energy. In years to come, this efficiency will be improved to produce even better results. The different types of PV systems are multi-crystalline Silicon Cells, Mono-crystalline Silicon Cells, Amorphous Silicon, Thick-Film Silicon and Other Thin films etc.
Mono-crystalline module (Single Crystalline): A mono crystalline panel is constructed using one single crystal. Metal strips are laid over the entire cell and act as a conductor that captures electrons. Mono crystal panels are slightly more efficient (about 12-17%) in the real world. However, it is slightly expensive than other PV cell.
Polycrystalline module: Polycrystalline (or multi-crystalline) modules which is easier to make are consist of a number of different crystals, fused together to make a single cell. These are very similar to singlecrystalline in performance and degradation, except they are slightly less efficient, typically 11-14%.
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Thin Film or Amorphous module: Thin film panels are produced very differently from crystalline panels i.e. sprays the silicon onto a base as a thin film. Thin-film panels are significantly less efficient (about 6-8%) than crystalline panels, and a greater number is required for the same output. The primary advantages of thin film panels lie in their low manufacturing costs and versatility.
Type of PV
Mono-crystalline module
Polycrystalline module
Thin
Film
or
The energy output of PV cell depends on: 1. The annual total amount of solar radiation available on the site 2. The orientation(azimuth) and tilt(elevation) of the PV arrays 3. The peak power rating of the array 4. The energy conversion efficiency of the PV modules 5. The efficiency of the inverters used to convert the DC power from the PV arrays in to AC
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Wind turbine harness the power of the wind in which the wind blows the blades and forced round, driving a turbine which generates electricity. The stronger the wind, the more electricity produced. Wind power is a proven and reliable technology that is widely used in
Australia, in which wind farms produce on average capacity factors of 3035%, making wind an attractive option. At the end of 2009, there were about 33 wind farms in Australia, most of which have turbines of from 1.5 to 3 megawatts (MW). The total operating wind generating capacity at the end of 2009 was 1877 MW providing 1.3% of Australia's national electricity demand. Some specifications
1. Have at least 4.5 m/s average wind speed. 2. The site should be unobstructed from tall buildings and trees. 3. It is recommended to site the wind turbine generator at least 6 m above any surrounding obstacles such as trees or buildings. 4. The local zoning allows a structure that is at least 12.8 m (42 feet) tall. i.e. the taller the tower, the better the power output. 5. The visual impact and closeness to homes should be considered because of noise and shadow flickering. 6. The overall cost should be considered in relation to locating the equipment and distribution costs like long cables.
In Practice, wind turbines are designed to work between certain wind speeds. The lower speed, called the cut in speed, is 4 - 5 m/s. At this speed the energy produced from the wind is not much greater than the amount of energy lost in friction and electrical losses. The cut out speed is the highest speed the machine can safely stand without being damaged and the rated speed is the wind speed at which the particular machine achieves its maximum output. The figure 1 shows the typical power curve of a wind turbine at different wind speed. (Source: www.aie.org.au)
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Figure 1: Power curve of a wind turbine (Source: http://www.bwea.com/pdf/briefings/technology-2005.pdf) The amount of electricity produced from a wind turbine depends on three factors: 1. Wind speed: The power available from the wind is a function of the cube of the wind speed. Therefore if the wind blows at twice the speed, its energy content will increase eightfold. 2. Wind turbine availability: This is the capability to operate when the wind is blowing, i.e. when the wind turbine is not undergoing maintenance.
3. The way wind turbines are arranged: Various factors such as environmental considerations, visibility and grid connection requirements often take precedence over the optimum wind capture layout.
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Figure 2: The potential for solar power generation in Australia (Source: http://www.science.org.au/reports/documents/AusRenewableEnergyFuture.pdf)
Figure 3: The potential for wind power generation in Australia (Source: http://www.science.org.au/reports/documents/AusRenewableEnergyFuture.pdf)
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Statistics Temperature
Mean maximum 31.8 31.4 31.9 32.7 32.0 30.6 30.5 31.3 32.6 33.2 33.3 32.6 temperature (C) Mean minimum 24.8 24.7 24.5 24.0 22.1 20.0 19.3 20.4 23.1 24.9 25.3 25.3 temperature (C) 32.0 70 1941 2011 1941 2011
Jan
Feb
Mar
Apr
May
Jun
Jul
Aug
Sep
Oct
Nov
Dec
Annual
Years
Plot Map
23.2 70
Rainfall
Mean rainfall (mm) 426.2 376.1 317.8 101.7 21.1 Decile 5 (median) 411.0 361.4 282.8 75.0 rainfall (mm) Mean number of days 18.9 18.1 16.8 of rain 1 mm 7.2 1.9 1.2 5.1 15.8 70.0 140.0 252.4 1738.4 70 1941 2011 1941 2011 1941 2011
4.3
0.0
0.0
0.0
1.7
0.3
0.2
0.4
1.6
4.9
9.9 14.1
94.1 70
0.6
0.7
1.9
9.2
3.6
0.9 103.2 56
6.5
3.8
3.4
2.6
3.4
9 am conditions
Mean 9am 28.0 27.7 27.6 27.4 25.6 23.3 22.8 24.4 27.0 28.7 29.2 28.8 temperature (C) Mean 9am relative humidity (%) 81 83 82 74 65 60 60 64 68 69 72 76 26.7 56 1954 2010 1954 2010 1941 2010
71 56
Mean 9am wind speed 11.4 11.1 (km/h) 9am wind speed vs direction plot
9.0
8.8
8.7
9.9
10.9 69
3 pm conditions
Mean 3pm 30.2 30.0 30.5 31.7 31.2 29.9 29.6 30.2 31.2 32.0 31.9 31.2 temperature (C) Mean 3pm relative humidity (%) 70 72 67 52 43 38 37 40 47 52 58 65 30.8 56 1954 2010 1954 2010 1941 2010
54 56
Mean 3pm wind speed 17.8 18.6 16.4 16.5 17.0 16.2 17.1 19.0 20.9 19.9 17.7 17.5 (km/h) 3pm wind speed vs direction plot
17.9 69
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The details about the solar irradiation and wind speed, air and ground temperature, humidity and air pressure can be graphically represented with the help of solar power calculator. The software is available in www.energymatters.com.au and we just need to enter the post code of darwin, the data is automatically calculated through the software.
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Thus, from the above figures 2, 3, 4 and table 2 the average solar irradiation, humidity, air temperature and wind speed of Darwin can be summarized as:
Average solar irradiation: 5.77 kWh/m/day Minimum (monthly avg.) solar irradiation: 4.87 kWh/m/day Maximum (monthly avg.) solar irradiation: 6.84 kWh/m/day
Humidity in Darwin
Average humidity: 68.33 Minimum (monthly avg.) humidity: 55.5 Maximum (monthly avg.) humidity: 80
Average wind speed: 4.22 m/s Minimum (monthly avg.) wind speed: 4.1 m/s Maximum (monthly avg.) wind speed: 4.6 m/s
Air temperature in Darwin Wind power is affected by air temperature because colder air is denser and therefore more effective at producing wind power.
Average air temperature: 27.65 C Minimum (monthly avg.) air temperature: 24.9 C Maximum (monthly avg.) air temperature: 29.4 C
(Source: http://www.energymatters.com.au) At last, from the above data, we can conclude that Northern Territory is endowed with abundant sunshine, and is in a unique position to harness its solar resource but wind is not as abundant in the Territory, and is site specific.
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The details about the average solar irradiation, annual energy consumption and estimated green house emission can be represented with the help of Grid Connected solar power calculator. The software is available in www.energymatters.com.au and we just need to enter the Average daily energy consumption in kWh then the data is automatically calculated
through the software. (Go for: Grid Connect Solar Power Electricity Calculator)
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Thus from the figure (5), 20 kWh per day energy consumption produces the greenhouse emission of about 9490 kg per year.
The Figure 5 shows the suitable system options, costs and performance based on our electricity consumption and geographical location. Moreover, the details about the solar panel selection,
annual energy production and estimated greenhouse emission offset can be calculated through estimating energy consumption with the help of the software which is available in www.energymatters.com.au and we just need to enter the post code of Darwin. The figure 6 listed below is the system output of 3 kW (18175 W solar panels) solar panels which average annual production is 6000 kWh powers which reduces the green house emission of 7762.3 kg annually.
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Grid connected is connected to the local utility. This option is more preferable in areas already connected to the grid. The grid will act as a giant battery for the system. The solar panels and wind turbines generate DC electricity which is routed to an inverter that converts the current to 240 volts AC. The grid can absorb PV power that is surplus to current needs (say, on sunny summer afternoon), making it available for use by other customers and reducing the amount that has to be generated by conventional means; and at night or an cloudy days, when the output of the PV system is insufficient, the grid can provide backup energy from the conventional sources. Note: The grid connected hybrid system details explanation is in the conceptual design part.
5.1.2 PV System components:
Solar Panels Thus, from the figure 5, I need to install 3 KW (18175KW) Solar panels. However, it is varies from different location because different geographical locations receive different quantities of average peak sun hours per day. Again, from the figure 6, 3KW (18 175W) solar panel in Darwin will produce on average of 5.971 M watt annually. This is based on assumption that there is an Average solar irradiation of 5.77 kWh/m/day. Solar panels can be wired in series or in parallel to increase voltage or current respectively. Moreover, solar panel is rated up to temperature of 25 degrees Celsius and its output is varying by 2.5 precent for every 5 degree variation in temperature.
Moreover, I choose the 18175KW mono-crystalline Solar panels because of its high efficiency and also which takes up small area on roof space. The following is summary data on Sharp Solar Panel 175Watt 24Volt (mono) performance in Darwin. (Source: http://www.energymatters.com.au/index.php)
Solar panels should face north Acceptable solar panel angle for grid connect: 0 to 7 Optimal solar panel angle for grid connect: 2 Winter solar panel angle (SAPS): 27
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The details about the cable size and fuse recommendation can be calculated through estimated voltage production through the PV system with the help of the software which is available in www.energymatters.com.au (type: DC cable sizing calculator)
Solar Regulators The purpose of solar regulators or charge controllers is to regulate the current from the solar panels to prevent the batteries from overcharging which causes gassing and loss of electrolyte of the battery. A solar regulator also prevents the battery from back feeding into the solar panel at night and prevents the battery from damage and reduced life expectancy due to over current flow. However, solar regulators are rated by the amount of current they can receive from the solar panels. . See appendix for solar regulator
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Inverters A power inverter converts DC power or direct current to standard AC power or alternating current, which allows running electrical equipment off standard 240V AC. Inverters are rated by the amount of AC power they can fed to the system continuously in which it is fitted with overload protection. In the hybrid case the inverter is placed where it gets a DC voltage from both hybrid supplies from the wind turbine and solar panels. See appendix for Inverter
Solar Batteries A deep-cycle lead-acid battery is designed to be regularly deeply discharged using most of its capacity which are rated in Ampere Hours (Ah). The vast majority of deep cycle batteries on the market today are lead acid batteries. Lead acid batteries are recycled at a rate of 98% by volume, 99.5% by weight. A battery rated at 100Ah at the 100 hour rate can supply a total of 100A over a period of 100 hours. This would equate to 1.0A per hour.
The following should be considered to calculate an estimate of the systems payback time:
Up-front cost of the panels, regulators, inverter, battery, wind turbines and labour cost.
Eligibility for government rebates. The angle at which the roof is facing affects the amount of sun that will hit the solar panels. For my case, roof faces north side is suitable to get maximum performance of the system.
Details study of the climate data. System size. Taking rising electricity costs into account.
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The table 4 shows the estimated cost for the 3 kW solar systems and the roof space required to install the solar panel. The details about the solar panel selection, roof space required to produce desired energy can be calculated through estimating energy consumption with the help of the website http://www.solarselect.net.au
Table 4 Estimated cost for 3 kW PV system (Source: http://www.solarselect.net.au/index.php?pageid=15) Moreover, the PV system cost is estimated by dollars per watt installed i.e. all equipment, permitting, and labour necessary for complete installation. According to figure 5, my system is 3 kW and the total installation cost is approximately equal to 13,000. Thus, from figure 6, I chose 18175W panels multi crystalline solar panel that may be extended to 20 panels later in order to build up my system total environmental friendly. So from the table 4: Total cost of 18175W (including labour charge), Solar Regulator, Inverter = $16,000
Note: The price for the solar regulator, inverter and battery is taken from the http://www.energymatters.com.au website)
Before installing PV system, i used to pay $1368 annually at a rate of 19 cents/KW. Since the current energy sources (coal, oil, etc.) are likely to end, so the charging rates are likely to increase in the following years, then i would pay more than $1368 annually.
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Australia is divided up into various zones based on how much renewable energy can be generated by a solar panel in a given area. The Darwin is lies in a zone 2. The Solar Credits multiplier offers thousands of dollars in savings depending on the size and location of installation. Solar credits will apply to the first 1.5 kilowatts (kW) of capacity installed.
Figure: 7 Calculation of Renewable Energy Certificate and solar credit (Source: http://www.barrymiller.com.au/solar/#rec1)
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(Source: energy and climate change by David Coley) Where; A is the swept area of the rotor is the Wind speed in m/s In Darwin, Average wind speed is 4.22 m/s and in general the house unit use small rotor diameter wind blade i.e. ranges from 1-2 m. so the total energy can produced from the wind turbine is:
Where
Now,
The annual wind energy is really small as compared to the energy production from the PV system. Because the wind speed in Darwin is below the average wind speed required to move the wind turbine blade.
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Note: The price for the wind turbine is taken from the http://www.energymatters.com.au website) Total cost of the hybrid system: 17,500 Solar and wind power RECs rebate: The Solar and wind Credits rebate levels are based on two elements - zoning and REC values. However, I choose the solar rebate, because the wind speed in Darwin is quite low.
Government rebate calculation = $5,520 [source: http://www.barrymiller.com.au] Total cost = $17,500 - $5,520 = $11,980 Payback period for the Hybrid system:
= 9 years
6. Conceptual Design
Solar panels are classified according to their rated power output in Watts. This rating is the amount of power the solar panel would be expected to produce in 1 peak sun hour. Different geographical locations receive different quantities of average peak sun hours per day. In Australia, the figures range from as low as 3 in Tasmania to over 6 in areas of QLD, NT and WA.
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Many hybrid systems are stand-alone systems, which operate "off-grid"not connected to an electricity distribution system. For the times when neither the wind nor the solar systems are producing, most hybrid systems provide power through batteries and/or an engine generator powered by conventional fuels. However, my system is on-grid system in which grid will act as the battery for the system when the output is higher than the rated value. Moreover, if the energy is sufficient from the battery storage i.e. for the off grid, we can use our own energy. The solar panels and wind turbines generate DC electricity which is routed to an inverter that converts the current to 240 volts AC.
(Source: http://www.rpc.com.au/products/services/faq-info/wind_grid.pdf)
Figure 8 shows the grid connected hybrid renewable energy system in which the PV cells and wind generator produces DC electricity, which is converted into 240V AC by the inverter. Further the alternating current is fed to the home appliances and equipment (load or demand). If there is surplus electricity being generated, the inverter will feed it into the main grid. However, if the house demand is greater than the primary energy production from the renewable energy sources, the grid automatically supplies the house, via the inverter.
Moreover, in the grid conneceted hybrid system, a special kind of inverter also called gridcommutated inverter(or synchronous inverter) transforms the DC power from the hybrid system in to AC power at a voltage and frequency that can be accepted by the grid, while
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debit and credit meters measure the amount of power bought from or sold to the utility. In the meter system, the electricity meter (energy,kWh) operate in either direction so that any energy supplied by the system to the grid wind back the meter. This energy will therefore be substracted from the energy which the system uses from the grid(which winds the meter forwards). At the end of billing period the meter will read the net amount of kWh used by the system (our consumption).
Source: (http://www.solosol.net/solar_system_types.html)
The above figure 9 shows a simplified hybrid design system. The set-up consists of a cluster of small wind turbines, photovoltaic modules, a bi-directional grid forming mini grid inverter (which can also work as a battery charger), and battery storage. An inverter is a semiconductor-based device which is used to convert the DC power to AC power. Sun shines
on the solar panels or wind turns the wind turbine blades to generate DC electricity. Deep cycle batteries are charged according to the power produced by the solar panels and wind turbines. The 24 volt appliances can be run directly off the batteries or the current routed through an inverter which converts it to 240V/50Hz AC electricity suitable for running standard home appliances.
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200W, 24 V Air Breeze Land Wind Turbine with Power Center Controller
Tilt Tower Kit and Solar Panel Kits High Quality Solar Modules with 25 Year Warranty
Solar Module Frames (Wind Rated) Maximum Power Point Tracking (MPPT) Solar Booster LCD Display with Data Logging 24VDC, 30A Victron Centaur Battery Charger: See appendix for Details In-Built AC Auto Transfer Switch Battery Disconnect Fuse Switch and Circuit Protection Battery Interconnection Cables Battery Temperature Sensor Battery Warning Signage DC Links and Wind Turbine-Solar Array Cables
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8. Conclusion
The investment on the hybrid system which has just 9 years of pay pack period is worthwhile. Hybrid renewable energy is guaranteed clean and safe source of energy. It helps to decrease the pollution level. It ensures the supply of energy in every condition as it is hybrid system in which the other sources of energy to shift on them one by one. Actually, wind turbine power output is strongly dependent on the wind speed. Thus the energy saving and payback period are also dependent on wind speed. However considering the weather conditions in Darwin connecting the wind system is not really worthwhile. This is because the wind speed is always around 4.5m/s on average which is not really enough to make the investment worthwhile. However wind power is a clean energy source that can be relied on for the longterm future. In fact Australia nicknamed "Sunraysia" for its abundance of Sunlight energy. Moreover, Darwin has a highest solar radiation as compare to other Australian city. So, the utilisation of solar panels is a great way to generate clean and renewable electricity that's capable of powering remote appliances or powering our home or workplace. In fact, PV installations can operate for many years with little maintenance. The use of fossil and nuclear fuels which causes greenhouse emissions, and release of harmful pollutants to the atmosphere causing threat such as air pollution, acid rain and the danger of nuclear radiation. So, in the near future we have to depend upon the renewable energy resources to fulfil our energy demand.
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9. Appendix
System Specification: Solar Panel:
(Source: http://www.energymatters.com.au)
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Wind Turbine:
(Source: http://www.energymatters.com.au)
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Inverter:
(Source: http://www.energymatters.com.au)
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Regulators:
(Source: http://www.energymatters.com.au)
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(Source: http://www.energymatters.com.au)
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Battery Charger:
(Source: http://www.energymatters.com.au)
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10.
Reference
1. http://www.science.org.au/reports/documents/AusRenewableEnergyFuture.pdf 2. http://www.solaronline.com.au/solar_system_basics 3. http://www.bom.gov.au/nsw/observations/sydney.shtml 4. http://www.energymatters.com.au/ 5. http://www.apolloenergy.com.au/Renewable-Energy-Components/WindTurbines 6. http://www.solar1.mech.unsw.edu.au/glm/trnaus/tmy99.pdf 7. http://www.cleanenergycouncil.org.au/cec/resourcecentre/factsheets.html 8. http://www.barrymiller.com.au/solar/#rec1 9. Energy and Climate Change By David Coley 10. Renewable Energy power for a sustainable future, 2nd edition, by Godfrey Boyle
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