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1-119 Test Bank the elastic medial ligament acts as a shock absorber for the udder as the animal moves around. 3. Why dont the mammary glands of male animals usually develop and secrete milk? ANS: Males mammary glands dont develop and secrete milk because they do not have the balance of hormones required. 4. Describe the importance of colostrum to the health of a newborn animal. ANS: Before producing actual milk, the mammary gland produces colostrum, which contains larger amounts of proteins, lipids, and amino acids than milk and also contains high levelsof various essential vitamins. Colostrum supplies important nutrients to the newborn and has a laxative effect that helps clear the dark, sticky meconium fromthe newborns intestinal tract. In addition, colostrum provides antibodies that provide passive immunity for the newborn. These antibodies are specific for disease-causing organisms that the dam has been exposed to or vaccinated against. If the newborn drinks sufficient colostrum during the first few hours after birth, the large antibody molecules will be absorbed intact into its bloodstream and defend the animal against specific diseases. If colostrum is not consumed within the first few hours, the lining of the newborns intestine can no longer absorb thelarge antibody molecules intact. They will be broken down by the digestive process, and passive immunity will not be transmitted. These animals may die of earlyinfections, or they are weaker and do not grow as rapidly as animals that consumed colostrum at the appropriate time. 5. Describe how nursing or milking causesmilk letdown and also helps sustain lactation.ANS: When milk is produced, it accumulates up high in the mammary gland in the alveoli and small ducts. It does not move down into the larger ducts and sinuseswhere it is accessible for nursing or milking until milk letdown occurs. Continued physical stimulation of the teat or nipple and regular removal of milk from the gland send sensory nerve impulses to the brain. From there nerve pathways lead to the hypothalamus, which stimulates the anterior pituitary gland to continueits production of the hormones that keep lactation going. It also causes the hypothalamus to release the hormone oxytocin from the posterior pituitary gland. Oxytocin travels to the mammary gland and causes muscle-like myoepithelial cellsaround the alveoli and small ducts to contract. This squeezes milk down into thelarge ducts and sinuses, where it can be removed by nursing or milking. When nursing or milking stops, the flow of essential hormones stops also. The lack of hormonal stimulation combined with increased pressure in the gland (because it isno longer being emptied) causesMosby items and derived items 2008 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc.

1-120 Test Bank lactation to gradually cease and the mammary gland to dry up. This is called involution of the mammary gland.Colville: Evolve Resources for Clinical Anatomy and Physiology for Veterinary Technicians, 2nd editionAnswers to Test YourselfChapter 19: Avian Anatomy and PhysiologyP1. List three major functions of feathers.ANS: Three major functions of feathers are (1) flight; (2) protection of the thin skin from trauma, rain, and excessive radiation from sunlight; and (3) thermoregulation, camouflage, and communication behaviors, such as courtship, defense,and recognition.2. What type of feathers are the flight and tail feathers? Describe their microstructure.ANS: The flight and tail feathers are contour feathers (also called remiges on the

wings, auriculars around the ear openings, and retrices on the tail). Contourfeathers are moved by muscles attached to the walls of the follicles. The microstructure consists of several structures. The inferior umbilicus is a tiny opening at the base of the feather, where it inserts into the skin. When a new feather is developing, it receives nourishment from blood vessels that pass through this opening. The superior umbilicus is aMosby items and derived items 2008 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc. 1-121 Test Bank tiny opening on the feather shaft where the webbed part of the feather begins. In some birds it gives rise to an afterfeather, which is an accessory feather that is thought to provide additional insulation to retain a birds body heat. The calamus (quill) is the round, hollow, semitransparent portion of afeather that extends from the inferior umbilicus to the superior umbilicus. Therachis is the main feather shaft. The vane is the flattened part of a feather that appears weblike on each side of the rachis. The vane consists of numerous slender, closely spaced barbs. The barbs give rise to barbules, which have rollededges and tiny hooklets (hamuli). These hooklets interlock each barb with an adjacent one, forming a tightly linked, flexible web. The degree of tightness varies with the species. For example, the contour feathers of owls have fewer barbules than do those of hawks. The result is a looser feather weave that feels softerand allows air to pass through, creating silent flight.3. Define a fault bar. What causes it?ANS: A fault bar (stress bar) is a weakened area on the feather vane where the barbs lack barbules. If a feather is stressed during its growth, even for a few hours, there is an interruption in its blood flow and a fault bar develops. Whenthe stressor is removed, the blood supply is returned and normal development continues. The most common stressor is a poor diet.4. What is a blood feather?ANS: A blood feather is a growing feather. Blood can be seen in the proximal part of the feather shaft during the entire growth phase. Injury to a blood feathernot only results in bleeding but can prevent a feather from developing normallyuntil molted again.Mosby items and derived items 2008 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc. 1-122 Test Bank 5. How do the wing and tail feathers differ between predatory and prey bird species?ANS: The major flight feathers of many prey species are loosely seated in the follicles so that they can drop feathers quickly if grabbed as an aid to escape apredator. In predatory bird species, such as birds of prey, the feathers are seated very strongly in the follicles and pulling out a flight or tail feather canresult in permanent follicle damage, preventing a new feather from ever growingin.P1. Describe the attachment of the skull to the vertebral column. What does thistype of attachment provide?ANS: The first cervical vertebra, the atlas, contains a single condyle (ball andsockettype of structure) for attachment of the skull. This allows a greater range of head movement compared with mammals, which have two condyles attaching theskull to the vertebral column.2. List the bones in the avian wing from the shoulder to the wing tip.ANS: The bones of the avian wing are: humerus, radius, ulna, ulnar carpal, radial carpal, carpometacarpus, alula bone (first finger), and the phalanges of the second and third "fingers." The three fingers are digits two, three, and four. The shoulder girdle consists of the coracoids, scapula, and clavicle.3. List the bones in the avian leg beginning at the hip and extending down to the toes.ANS: The bones in the avian leg are: femur, patella, tibiotarsus, fibula,Mosby items and derived items 2008 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc. 1-123 Test Bank tarsometatarsus, and the phalanges of digits one through four. The number of digits varies from two to four, depending on the type of bird.4. List the two types of skeletal muscle fibers and describe their energy use.ANS: Birds have white or red muscle fibers. White fibers are thick in diameter,have a low blood supply, little myoglobin (for carrying oxygen), and use storesof glycogen to sustain muscle contraction. They predominate in the flight muscles of short-distance fliers such as

chickens, quail, grouse, and other gallinaceous birds that have rapid takeoffs but are capable of only short flights. If these birds are forced to fly repetitively, they quickly become fatigued and cannotfly at all until they recover. In contrast, red fibers are thinner and have a rich supply of blood, fat, myoglobin, and mitochondria. Using these components, they can produce enough energy to sustain muscle contractions for long periods. Red fibers are found in the flight muscles of long-distance fliers, including manyspecies of songbirds, water birds, pigeons, and birds of prey.5. Why can a bird perch while sleeping?ANS: The leg muscles are close to the center of gravity. In perching species, tendons that control the movement of the toes originate from flexor muscles in thethigh and extend over the heel joint into the digits. Extensor tendons run downthe front of the tibiotarsus and metatarsus, whereas the flexor tendons run along the back. The flexor tendons sit in a grove at the top of the metatarsus. When a bird bends its legs to perch, the tendons also bend and pull the toes closedaround the perch. This is called the perching reflex and allows a bird to firmly grip its perch while sleeping.P1. What are the two most important senses in birds?Mosby items and derived items 2008 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc. 1-124 Test Bank ANS: Vision and hearing2. Which eye structures are found in birds but not in mammals?ANS: The sclerotic ring, the pectin, a second fovea, and colored oil droplets onthe cones3. Where are the birds ears located?ANS: A birds ears are located on the sides of its head, behind and slightly belowits eyes.4. Name the two types of sensory nerve endings in the skin and where they are located.ANS: The first type of nerve ending is called a Grandrys corpuscle, and groups ofthese are located in the tongue and palate of many species that dig for food, such as woodcock and sandpipers. The second type of nerve ending is called a Herbst corpuscle. These are also often located in areas of the mouth such as the tongues of woodpeckers, the palates and beaks of ducks, and the mouth folds of young birds. In addition, Herbst corpuscles are located in the cloaca, legs, wings,uropygial gland, and the bases of many feathers, including the primary flight feathers. These corpuscles are very responsive to even the slightest feather movement. This characteristic explains why birds are sensitive when just the tips oftheir feathers are touched.PMosby items and derived items 2008 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc.

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