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he term nuclear energy causes alarm in most peoples minds. The atomic
bombs that were dropped in Japan with such dreadful consequences, and
the accident at the nuclear power station in Chernobyl leaving so many of the
surrounding population with radiation sickness, have left us with the idea that
radioactive materials are to be so feared that they should have no place in our lives.
And yet, radioactive substances are used every day.

Radioactive substances
There are many uses for radioactive substances,
including:
in the treatment of cancer
in the diagnosis of diseases
as tracers to follow the progress of a reaction
to date archaeological objects
in many small technical devices
to power submarines.
Radioactive substances occur naturally as part of the
Earths crust.

Inside the nucleus

Many nuclear instruments are used to treat and to diagnose
disease. Here a PET (Positron Emission Tomographer) scan is
carried out on a patient.

Most elements have more than one isotope. Isotopes

have the same number of protons but differing
numbers of neutrons. It is the neutrons that glue all
the positive protons together in the nucleus, otherwise
the positively charged protons would repel and the
nucleus would fly apart.
Key:
Electron
Proton
Neutron
Hydrogen-1

Hydrogen-2

Hydrogen-3

The three isotopes of hydrogen. Hydrogen-2 and Hydrogen-3 are

also known as deuterium and tritium. Can you see why?

Archaeologists search for objects from the past. The age of these
objects will be found using carbon-14 dating.

Each of the isotopes shown still has only one proton

so they are still hydrogen, but they have 0, 1 and 2
neutrons respectively.
The symbol for an isotope is written as AZ E where:
A  the mass number (the total number of neutrons
and protons added together)
Z  the atomic number (the number of protons)
E is the symbol for the element.

74
Science Alive for VELS Level 6

For example: 126 C is an isotope of carbon because

it has 6 protons. It has a mass number of 12 which
means it has 6 neutrons (12 6). In words, it is
written as carbon-12. Carbon also has isotopes called
carbon-13 and carbon-14. Isotopes behave chemically
in the same way, but some may be unstable and break
down or decay. Of the isotopes of hydrogen, only
hydrogen-3 (tritium) is unstable.

There are three naturally occurring isotopes of

uranium, uranium-238, uranium-235 and uranium-234.
Each of the isotopes spontaneously disintegrates or
decays, producing alpha particles and gamma rays.
Each isotope has its own
Number of
Fraction
half-life, the time taken
half-lives
remaining
for the concentration to
1
fall to half its initial value.
1
2
Half-lives can vary from
1
2
4
microseconds to billions of
1
years. The half-lives of each
3
8
of the uranium isotopes are
1
4
16
more than a billion years.

Radioactivity
The isotopes that are unstable are radioactive. Their
nuclei are involved in nuclear reactions. The nucleus
undergoes changes and forms a new element and
emits radiation. Ordinary chemical reactions never
form new elements because the changes involve only
the outer shell electrons.
There are three main types of radiation: alpha (A),
beta (B) and gamma (G). All radiation is dangerous
but of these, gamma radiation is by far the worst.
Concrete or lead are required to shield us from it.

REMEMBER
1 Which radiation is the most dangerous?
A
2 In the symbol Z E, A represents the
number.
number and Z represents the
3 Calculate the number of neutrons in:
235
(a) 92 U
(b) carbon-13
(c) hydrogen-2.
4 The half-life for tritium is 4500 days. How many
days will it take for one quarter of an amount of
tritium to be left remaining?

The main types of radiation

Symbol

What it is

What
elements
produce it

Shielding
needed

Alpha

Streams of
The heavier
helium nuclei elements

A sheet of
paper

Beta

Streams of
electrons

The lighter
elements

Aluminium
sheeting
3 mm thick

Not particles,
but like light
of very high
energy

G radiation
accompanies
both of the
above

Concrete
or lead

Gamma

THINK
5 Write a sentence explaining what is meant by
nuclear energy.
6 Explain the difference between a chemical
reaction and a nuclear reaction using the
following as examples:
(a) Methane combusts and produces carbon
dioxide and water.
(b) Uranium-235 fissions and produces barium,
krypton and neutrons.

What radiation does to the human body

All radiation is dangerous to human beings. Alpha
particles, beta particles and gamma rays can knock
off electrons and cause cells to die, and genetic
changes that can lead to cancer. Alpha particles dont
penetrate our skin, and cause problems only if inhaled
or eaten. Beta particles penetrate more deeply, but
again are dangerous only if they get within our bodies.
Gamma radiation does penetrate our bodies, and like
cosmic radiation is very dangerous.

DESIGN AND CREATE

7 Design a poster that shows the dangers of
radiation.
INVESTIGATE
8 What are some of the effects of radiation
sickness?

learning

Background radiation
We are exposed to background radiation every day of
our lives. This is the radiation that comes from naturally
occurring radioactive elements and compounds in our
Earths crust. This level is safe. For example, all the
isotopes of uranium are radioactive and small amounts
of uranium occur naturally in soil and rocks. Uranium is
more plentiful than mercury or silver.

75
4. Chemical energy

I CAN:
explain what an isotope is and calculate the number
of neutrons in an isotope
recall the three main types of radiation and explain
what they are
explain that a nuclear reaction involves the nucleus
and causes a change in the elements involved
explain that a chemical reaction involves electrons
and never causes a change in the elements involved.