learning about biodiversity Ecosytems

An ordinary desert supports a much greater variety of plants than does either a forest or a prairie. Ellsworth Huntington

In the new Life Sciences curriculum for Grade 10:

STRAND: Environmental Studies Grade 10: Biosphere to ecosystems Organisms interact with other organisms and with the environments in which they live in order to survive and produce offspring. The study of these interactions is called ecology. This section is structured so as to expose students to some of the interactions that occur in nature and to the terminology and concepts that describe them. The terminology and concepts selected here (LO 2) will be used in Grade 11 and Grade 12 across all strands, where appropriate. It also enables students to contextualize the meaning of these terms and concepts within the familiar contexts of both southern Africa (LO 2) and their local area (LO 1). The use of a local area context is also used to introduce human influences on the environments in which they and other organisms live (LO 3), a thread which will be expanded on both within local and global contexts, in more detail, in Grade 11. LO1 Investigating phenomena in the Life Sciences LO2 Constructing Life Sciences knowledge LO3 Applying Life Sciences in society

Biosphere to ecosystems
Choose an ecosystem within a local biome for special study Identify the abiotic and biotic factors operating and describe the interactions between them Explain the trophic relationships present If possible, record and describe seasonal changes Use keys and field guides to learn about biodiversity within the biome An excellent guide book to introduce your Grade 10 class to the concept of identifying plants is Whats that Tree: A starters guide to trees of southern Africa by Eugene Moll. It identifies all the families of trees and shrubs with great photos and easy to remember common names. See page 46 for details of the book. Biosphere Concept of the biosphere. Interconnectedness of components of global ecosystems Biomes Terrestrial and aquatic biomes of southern Africa: describe in terms of climate, soils and vegetation Ecosystems Theoretical understanding of ecosystems Abiotic and biotic factors: effects on community structure and ecosystem function Energy flow through ecosystems and relationship to trophic structure rophic levels: producers, T consumers (herbivores and carnivores), decomposers Food chains, food webs and food pyramid Nutrient cycles: water, oxygen, carbon and nitrogen [Names e.g. nitrates are required but no detail of chemistry is necessary] Choose at least ONE example of human influence within the ecosystem chosen for study in LO 1 Describe the selected human influence and the reasons for it having a positive and/or a negative impact on the ecosystem [This serves as an introduction/link to human influences on the environment in Grade 11] Ecotourism: economics, ethics and opportunities Link the nutrient cycles to current environmental issues, e.g. the threat of global warming and how it is affecting the Earth

A Succulent subject In the table opposite you will see what is required learning for part of the Life Sciences curriculum for Grade 10. The poster overleaf will assist in the teaching of ecosystems as it demonstrates how our indigenous succulent plants have adapted to the biotic and abiotic factors in their environment. In fact our Succulent Karoo Biome is one of the worlds twenty-five hotspots geographical areas which contain the worlds greatest plant and animal diversity, with associated potential for ecotourism. The fascinating plants that occur in these arid area ecosystems could not fail to interest all learners. Succulents are the easiest plants to grow, either in your school garden or to use for basic class experiments, for example, on how plants react to light (see p. 27). Succulents are also useful in schemes to store carbon in attempts to remove CO2 from the air to help slow down climate change. (See Investing in sustainability by Amanda Bourne in the December 2010 Veld & Flora, p. 153.) Human interest The plant below is a Ghaap (Hoodia gordonii), a spiny succulent that grows in the semi-arid areas of southern Africa. The young growing tips of the plant have been eaten by humans for centuries to quench thirst and suppress hunger. Today it is used commercially as part of a diet preparation to curb obesity.

Shaping up
The flagship article on p. 10 of this issue of Veld & Flora, From crags to riches, illustrates the concepts outlined above very well. The Drakensberg Alpine Centre is the only centre of plant endemism in southern Africa characterized by a sub-alpine and alpine environment, and it is estimated that its total flora (i.e. from mosses to trees) is 3 000 native species, which means it contributes one in ten species to the flora of southern Africa a flora renowned as the most species-rich temperate flora in the world! The author explores the question of why the flora of the Drakensberg Alpine Centre is so diverse and in doing so explains the historical factors that may have shaped the distribution of this flora (plant geography) as well as the more localized interactions between this flora and its environment (plant ecology). Several other articles in this issue, notably The lost fynbos of Tokai Park on p. 30 and Drawing a line in the sand on p. 34, are also about the importance of functioning ecosystems.

ABOVE: The Candelabra Flower (Brunsvigia radulosa) from the Drakensberg. Photo: Clinton Carbutt.

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learning about biodiversity Liliput and Goliath:

Temperature

Coping wit

Why are so many of the dwarf succulents confined to the winter rainfall areas and the arborescent (tree-like) species to the eastern and northern parts of South Africa? Here climate dictates: a short, cool, moist winter with long, dry, hot summers often results in dwarfism, whilst warm, subtropical, moist summers encourage plants to grow gigantic. Low temperatures during winter demand a dwarf growth, close to the ground, where they can make use of the warmth of the soil. During summers they go into their resting phase. The dwarf mesembs such as Conophytum, recycle their moisture from the old leaf pair to the younger leaf pair while retaining the old, dry leaf pair as a protective covering for the young leaves. Their highly advanced local seed dispersal ensures they remain within their habitat which is often on quartz gravel hills. At the other extreme, high temperatures often result in large barrelshaped succulent stemmed plants, such as the Bottle Tree (Pachypodium lealii), Baobab (Adansonia) and many of the taller Euphorbia species. Growth is cylindrical and tall, getting away from the very hot ground. The Richtersveld with its winter rainfall, covers a much smaller area (almost four times smaller) than the Kaokoveld of Namibia with its subtropical summer rain, but the latter is much poorer in species. Dwarfism allows for specialist adaptation, and the Land of Liliput can thus fit in many more species than the giants in the Land of Goliath. The dwarf succulents are very popular in succulent collections as they take up less space, and many of them can be grown indoors.

Succulent plant diversity in South Afri rich and fascinating. Spanning man miniature tufted plants such as Cono the worlds largest succulent. Suc evolutionarily advanced in compariso Lets explore some of the ways they An ecosystem is made up of living organisms that interact with each other and their environment. The biotic components are the living organisms such as plants, animals and micro-organisms.

Ingenious ways of storing moisture:

Water

Why are succulents leaves and stems often cylindrical or round in shape? This is the best surface to volume water storage ratio! We make use of water tanks which are cylindrical in shape for storing water. Apart from succulence many have features for coping with seasonally dry conditions. Botterboom (Tylecodon) forsake their leaves for the long dry summers, relying on their green photosyntheticactive succulent stems. Kobas (Cyphostemma) illustrated in the centre of this poster, follows the same strategy but loses its leaves during the winter. (A good example of convergence where two different plants from different families follow a similar strategy.) Most mesembs have terete leaves (cylindrical or slightly tapering, without ridges) orientated towards the sun, thus avoiding the full blast of the suns rays. All plants transpire to keep cool through their small breathing pores (stomata). How do succulents avoid too much water loss which could result in desiccation? Some succulents have a grey or whitish colour which reflects sunlight, others have a dense, whitish, hairy skin (epidermis) such as Senecio haworthii. The Giant Iceplant (Mesembryanthemum barklyi) illustrated on the left is covered with reflective glittering bladder cells.

Putting down ro

Succulents can grow in shallow s little competition from other plan when the top layer of the soil d their succulent nature which allo falls, can. In the Karoo with its lo deep roots which draw up moi alongside them with their shallo nature. Many succulents grow in enable them to cope with t

Read more
Discover more about succulents in these articles in back issues of Veld & Flora.

Charting uncertainty: Global climate change and its implications for our flora by Guy Midgley et al, vol. 88(2) June 2002 on page 70. Cliff hangers: What defines a cliff dwelling succulent plant? by Ernst van

Jaarsveld, vol. 88(4) Dec. 2002 on page 154. Desert grapes: An epeditition to the remote reaches of the southern Namib by Ernst van Jaarsveld, vol. 94(2) June 2008 on p. 82. Fanfare in the fynbos: Aloe plicatilis, a unique Western Cape tree aloe by Stephen

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Veld & Flora FACTSHEET SUCCULENTS

th adversity

Red and green:

Light

icas low rainfall regions is exceptionally ny different families, they vary from ophytum to the big and bold Baobab, cculents are highly specialized and on to plants from high rainfall regions. cope in their low rainfall ecosystems. Abiotic components of an ecosystem are the nonliving components that affect plants and animals. They include temperature, water, light and soil as well as altitude and aspect.

Like all green plants succulents have to trap carbon from the atmosphere for their normal food production and growth. Many succulents turn a reddish colour during dry conditions. This is the result of a pigment, anthocyanin, which is the plants solution to slowing down photosynthesis and thus dimming the suns bright rays. Succulents thus put their foot on the brakes when moisture becomes scarce. This reddish colour is not confined to succulents, and you can often see it in young leaves (for protecting the young, vulnerable tissue) or in deciduous trees and fruit which ripens (a sign that the fruits are ripe). Many succulents keep their breathing pores closed during dry, sunny conditions, only opening them during the night. How do they manage to photosynthesize, which requires CO2? During the night, the plants accumulate organic acids to which carbon is bound, which during the day, are broken down again and the CO2 released making it available without having to loose moisture via their breathing pores. This is known as Crassulacean Acid Metabolism (CAM). Not all succulents grow in full sun. Most of the smaller species grow on south-facing slopes or below Karoo shrubs that provide protection from the sun.

Avoiding predation:

Animals

ABOVE: Xing Quan from the Beijing University Botanical Gardens up a Kobas (Cyphostemma currorii) growing in Omavanda in Namibia.

oots:

Soil

soils, even on bedrock, where there is nts. Most plants simply cannot survive dries out but succulents, by virtue of ows them to survive until the next rain ow rainfall, many of the shrubs have isture, whilst the succulents survive ow roots and fleshy, moisture storing clayey soil too, as their shallow roots the low oxygen content of clay.

The high water content of succulent plants makes them vulnerable to herbivores, particularly the larger mammals. There are various ways they avoid predation. The big and bold succulent plants such as Aloe ferox and most euphorbias are spiny, and any animal would think twice before taking them on. They also have another trick up their sleeve chemicals. Aloes are extremely bitter, and euphorbias have a with milky latex that can damage eyes or burn skin. Another clever strategy some follow is to blend in with their background (camouflage). This group is usually small and humble; some resemble stones (stone plants such as Lithops and Pleiospilos), others simply have mottled green leaves (Gasteria and Senecio articulatus) which grow below shrubs and are thus difficult to see. There is also a large group of dwarf succulents that rely on other plants for their defence. They hide below spiny shrubs (nurse plants) and are thus well adapted to grow in shade which is why they make such good indoor plants. Some, like the large and very palatable Spekboom (Portulacaria afra) however, are quite without any defence. They make use of a different strategy altogether passive resistance! Any bit of vegetative material that falls to the ground when broken off the parent plant, immediately roots and forms a new plant. Karkei (Crassula ovata), Klein-karkai (C. tetragona), Ox-tongue (Gasteria), Adromischus and many others have also evolved this strategy, turning predation into procreation.

Cousins, vol. 96(4) Dec. 2010 on p. 164. Fog and dew in the Succulent Karoo: An indispensible source of water for arid Succulent Karoo shrubs by Ignatious Matimati et al, vol. 96(3) Sept. 2010 on p. 140. Kleinduimpie Grass: the only succulent

grass in the world by Ernst van Jaarsveld, vol. 95(1) March 2009 on page 19. The quarzite ridges of Gauteng by Michle Pfab, vol. 88(2) June 2002 on p. 56. The remarkable Kaoko Klipblom by Ernst van Jaarsveld, vol. 93(1) March 2007 on p. 42.

Text and photographs by Ernst van Jaarsveld and Caroline Voget. Download these articles at http://LABpages. blogspot.com.

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learning about biodiversity

How we lost the African acacias
The science of classifying plants (or indeed, any living organism) is called taxonomy. Taxonomists the world over follow a method invented by Linnaeus by which he organized plants into a hierarchy of increasingly specific groups from the Kingdom down to the smallest group, the species. He based his classification on external characteristics, like similarities of structure. This means that all living things have a scientific place and name that anyone in the world would recognize. Our Sweet Thorn is Acacia karroo, even though it has numerous common names Sweet Thorn, Soetdoring, Mookana, Mooka, umuNga and so on. Scientists studying it would know it as Acacia karroo and in that way they can track any studies that have been published about it in the scientific literature anywhere in the world. The many species that share the genus Acacia, in turn are grouped into the Thorn Tree or Mimosa subfamily (Mimosoideae), which belong in the Legume family (Fabaceae), which ultimately is placed in the Kingdom of Plants (Plantae). (The genus and the species is always written in italics, the genus capitalized and the species in lower case.) Up till now, based on several external features like feathery leaves, stipular scars or spines, or the presence of pods, botanists recognized about 1350 Acacia species in Africa, tropical Asia, Australia and in the tropical Americas, including some 40 species of African acacias (the thorn trees) and almost 1000 species of Australian acacias (the wattles). The latest taxonomic studies however show that the genus needs to be broken down into five genera, but what to do about naming the new genera? What should have happened The International Code of Botanical Nomenclature (ICBN), which was established to maintain order in the world of taxonomy, adheres to certain rules and regulations for naming and classifying plants. When researchers show that a genus needs to be split as in the case of Acacia, the generic name is kept for the plants that are the same as the type species (which is the actual plant on which the original species description is based). In this case there is some confusion as the type species for Acacia is Acacia scorpioides, which for some reason is no longer an accepted species, and is instead a synonym of the Scented Pod-thorn (Acacia nilotica). Nevertheless, if Acacia was to be split, and if the genera were named in accordance with the original type species, the name Acacia should have gone with A. nilotica to the 161 species in Africa, Asia, the Americas and a handful in northern Australia. Almost all of the Australian species would have needed new names under the next oldest
RIGHT: The Sweet Thorn (Acacia karroo). Painting by Helga Streicher. BELOW: A giraffe under an Umbrella Thorn (Acacia tortilis).

available generic name which was Racosperma. But what actually happened The ICBN makes allowances for special cases to be referred to relevant committees of the International Association for Plant Taxonomy (IAPT) for a legislated exception if the strict application of the rules of nomenclature would cause unnecessary disruption, and this is what a group of Australian botanists did. A case was put forward to change the type species of Acacia in such a way that, were the genus to be split up, the generic name Acacia would follow the largest group: the 1000odd wattles. In mid-2004 it was announced that the committee had made a decision to allow a new Australian type species, Acacia penninervis. This meant that the wattles would keep the name Acacia and the African thorn trees would have to change. To the collective dismay of African botanists, this was endorsed by the General Committee of IAPT and ratified at the International Botanical Congress in Vienna in 2005. At the next International Botanical Congress in Melbourne in 2011 there was a valiant attempt to challenge the process and outcome of the decision, but unfortunately it was not successful. So now, when the genus is finally split, the name Acacia will still apply to the 948 species of Australian wattles, seven related species in the Pacific Islands, one or two in the Madagascar region and 10 in tropical Asia. A few northern Australian species will have to change their generic name to Vachellia, and two will become Senegalia. The pantropical (tropical Africa, Asia and America) acacias on the other hand, will all become Vachellia, including Acacia karroo and Acacia tortilis, or Senegalia. The future of our acacias Can African scientists just ignore this unfair hijacking of our iconic African thorn trees and carry on calling our acacias Acacia? Sadly, it is not really an option as any scientists wanting their work published in internationally recognized journals would have to adhere to the internationally accepted scientific name. So, it seems, the iconic African name, acacia, will live on only as a common name.

Linking to the Curriculum In Life Sciences, for Grade 10, this article links in with the strand Diversity, change & continuity: History of life and biodiversity, the underlying concept to be taught being that Life exists in a huge array of forms and modes of life at present, which scientists organize according to a man-made classification system. In Grade 11 it links to the strand Diversity, change and continuity: Diversity of animals and plants and biogeography the underlying concept to be taught being that Plants and animals can be grouped according to similarities in their basic structure or body plan.

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