Introduction to Aircraft Design

Introduction to Aircraft Design

-
-
T. G. A. Simha
T. G. A. Simha
Reference:
The Elements of Aircraft Preliminary Design Roger D. Schaufele
2
I gratefully acknowledge the support of my colleagues at PLES.
My special thanks are to
- Mr. Sunder Singh
- Mr. Ravi Prakash Singh
- Mr. Vijay Sekhar Kandavalli
for preparing this presentation.
- T. G. A. Simha
Acknowledgement
3
L749A
Sukhoi-T4
X48B C130
Aircrafts
4
Contents:
Introduction to Aircraft Design
Specification
Design Drivers
Stages of aircraft Development
Design Methodologies
Weight estimate
Preliminary Wing Design
Fuselage Design
Design of Empennage
Power Plant
Aircraft 3 View
5
Aircraft Uses
Civil
Military
Civil Types
- Basic Trainer - Commuter
- Transport - Air Taxi
- Cargo - Logistics (Ambulance, rescue, fire-fighting)
- Business - Sports
- Personal Transport
Military Types
- Basic and Advanced Trainers - Fighters Air superiority
- Bombers- Deep penetration - Cargo and Troop Carriers
- Anti shipping and Anti submarine - Naval, Marines
- Tankers - Surveillance and Electronic warfare
- Air Patrol and Observation - Counter Insurgency
6
Specifications
Intended use of the aircraft leads to specification
Specification of role Purpose, Payload
Power plant specification Number and type
Performance specification Speed, Range, Altitude, Take off, Landing
Mission Specification Payload range, Military
Certification specification FAR PART etc.
7
Example of Specifications
Charles Lindberg Spirit of St. Lois, Feb 03.1927.
Can you construct whirlwind engine plane capable of flying non-stop between New
York and Paris. Stop. If so please state cost and delivery date.
US Army Signal Corps Mission Specification Dec 23.1907
- To carry two persons of about 350 lbs.
- To fly 125 miles.
- The speed at least 40 mph.
- To be quickly assembled and disassembled.
- To be assembled and fly in 1 hour.
- Other features.
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US Army Signal Corps Mission Specification for 1
st
US Military Airplane
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US Army Signal Corps Mission Specification for 1st US Military Airplane
10
Mission Specification for Short Range Jet Transport
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Mission Specification for Short Range Jet Transport
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Mission Specification for Military Attack Aircraft
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Mission Specification for Military Attack Aircraft
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Main Design Drivers
Mission requirement
- Payload - Range
- Performance
Life
- In service life
Cost
- Acquisition cost
- Operation and Maintenance cost
- Life cycle cost
15
The Design Problem
Mission
Requirements
Performance
Evaluation
Aircraft Drag
Estimate
Aircraft Weight
Estimate
Aircraft
Sizing
16
Stages of Aircraft Development
Conceptual Stage
- Technology Option
- Aircraft Configuration Alternatives
- Preliminary Sizing
- Development Testing
Preliminary Design
- Aircraft Sizing
- Three View Geometry
- Preliminary Structural Layouts
- Revised estimates
- Additional testing
- Systems Definition
Detailed Design
- Detail Structural Design
- Detail System Installations Design
- Drawings for Manufacture
17
Aircraft Development Process
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Design Methodologies
Design depends on good and accurate prediction of aircraft aerodynamic parameters
and weight.
Traditionally statistical and empirical methods are used Data from similar aircrafts.
Over 100 years of experience.
State of the art -
- Computer simulation
- Multidisciplinary optimization
- Computational fluid dynamics
- Finite Element Method etc.
19
Weight Estimate
W
to
= W
empty
+ W
payload
+ W
fuel
Where,
W
to
Take off weight
W
payload
Payload (Passenger + cargo)
W
empty
Aircraft empty weight (operational)
W
fuel
Fuel weight
These may be expressed as fractions
(W
empty
/ W
to
),
(W
payload
/ W
to
),
(W
fuel
/ W
to
)
20
Weight Estimate Fuel Weight
The weight fractions are estimated using statistical data.
Fuel Weight fraction
Range - N. miles
a - Knots
c specific fuel consumption
L/D Lift to Drag Ratio
Add additional fuel fractions for taxi, take off etc.
The fuel fraction range 20-50%.
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D
L
c
a
Range
W
W
cruise
f
i
ln
21
Weight Estimate Empty Weight
Estimated using statistical data
W
empty
Typically 30-45% of W
to
22
Weight Estimate Empty Weight
23
Weight Estimate Empty Weight
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Weight Estimate - Payload
Estimate based on number of passengers and cargo space.
Weight of passenger + baggage (205 lbs 215 lbs per passenger).
Cargo weight 10 lbs per cubic feet.
Total weight, W
to
= W
empty
+ W
payload
+ W
fuel
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Some Weight Data
Spirit of
St. Louis
Rutan
Voyager
Concorde Boeing
747
Empty Weight
2,535
(0.494)
2,448
(.252)
172,500
(.443)
392,032
(.450)
Payload
0 0 21,000
(.054)
88,410
(.102)
Fuel weight
2,600
(.506)
7,247
(.748)
195,500
(.503)
389,558
(0.448)
Total Weight
5,135
(1.0)
9,695
(1.0)
389,000
(1.0)
870,000
(1.0)
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Weight Breakdown of MWE
The breakup of manufacturers empty weight Statistical methods
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Typical Breakdown of MWE
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Weight and Balance
The center of gravity needs to be established
Estimated using detail breakdown of weights
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Preliminary Wing Design
Wing Parameters
Wing area
Sweep
Thickness ratio
Aspect ratio
Taper ratio
High lift devices
Control surface
Aerofoil design
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Estimate Of Wing Area
Wing area S significantly influences:
Cruise speed and altitude
Take off field length
Landing approach speed
Wing internal fuel
W - Weight of A/C
C
L
Lift coefficient
q Dynamic pressure
q C
W
S
L
*
=
31
Estimate Of Wing Area
Wing Area is estimated for different conditions.
Based on cruise:
C
L
: 0.4 to 0.55 for commercial jets
q : Corresponds to V
c
at cruise altitude
Based on Landing approach speed
Approach speed 120-150 knots commercial jets
C
Lmax
1.8 to 3.0
Based on Wing Loading
Wing loading W/S : 80-120 lbs/s.ft for jet transport
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Typical Values
33
34
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Example of Wing Area - Estimate
36
Estimate Of Wing Area
Wing Area is selected using the graph S vs W
37
Wing Sweep, Thickness and Aspect Ratios
Wing Sweep:
Increase Drag Divergence Mach No. M
DIV
Aerofoil shape and thickness ratio influences M
DIV
Sweep Angle is determined using charts for the desired cruise Mach No.
Sweep Angle : 0-35 deg
Thickness Ratio : 10-15%
Airfoil Selection
- Standard NACA series
- Designed by CFD
38
Wing Aspect Ratio and Taper Ratio
S
b
AR
2
=
root
tip
C
C
=
And
AR is a compromise between high L/D and structural weight.
High AR High L/D High Wing Weight
influences cruise effiency and stall characteristics.
AR : 7 9.5 Jet transport
: 0.4 0.2 Jet transport
Military Aircraft:
AR : 2.4 5.0 Jet transport
: 0.5 0.2 Jet transport

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Typical Wing Geometry
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Fuselage Design
Fuselage accommodates:
Pilots and Crew
Passengers
Baggage and Cargo
Engine
Utilities such as gallies etc.
Generally fuselage consists of three sections
Nose , Centre and Tail Cone
41
Fuselage Design
Basic Design Parameters:
Fuselage cross section
Fuselage cabin length
For Military Aircraft:
Cockpit and vision
Airduct and engine installation
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Fuselage Cross Section
Short range unpressurised aircraft Rectangular cross section.
Long range pressurised aircraft Circular / Double bubble.
Choice of number of seats abreast
Single Aisle
Twin Aisle
Wide bodied
Choice of class
Economy
Business
First class
43
Passenger Compartment Cross Sections Business Jets
44
Passenger Compartment Cross Sections Twin Aisle Jet Transports
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Passenger Compartment Arrangements of Business Jets
46
Passenger Cabin Layouts of Long Range Jet Transports
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Fuselage Design
Nose and Tail Cone:
Generally faired aerodynamic shapes.
Typical L/D ratios
- Nose section : 1.5 2
- Vision over the nose 10-20 Deg
- Tail section 2.5 to 3
- Upsweep 3 to 6 deg.
48
Design of Empennage
Empennage consists of:
Horizontal tail with Elevator
Vertical Tail / Fin with Rudder
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Design of Horizontal Tail
The horizontal tail provides stability and control of the aircraft.
Stability of aircraft depends on location of
Centre of Gravity of aircraft
Aerodynamic Centre of aircraft
Aircraft is stable when C.G. is forward of aerodynamic centre.
H.T. sized to provide the required C.G. range of the a/c.
50
Definitions:
Tail Volume coefficient:
S
W
Wing Area
S
H
Horizontal tail Area
l
H
Distance of 25mac of HT from 0.25 mac wing
C
W
m.a.c wing
Fuselage Volume Coefficient:
W
fus
Maximum fuselage width
L
fus
Fuselage length
Horizontal Tail Design
W W
H H
C S
l S
W W
fus fus
C S
L W
2
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Horizontal Tail Volume Diagram
52
Horizontal Tail Design
The area required is obtained from a chart
Horizontal Tail Design
53
Horizontal Tail Area
Required Volume Coefficient = VH % per 1% mac X C.G Range Required
Horizontal Tail Area = Required Volume X
H
W W
l
C S .
Horizontal Tail Design
54
Vertical Tail provides
Directional Stability
Directional Control To hold side slip-one engine failed case.
Vertical Tail Design
55
Definitions:
Vertical Tail Volume:
S
V
Vertical Tail Area
S Wing Area
l
V
Distance from 0.25
CW
to 0.25
CV
b
w
Wing Span
Fuselage Volume Parameter =
H
fus
Maximum Fuselage Height
L
fus
Fuselage length
W
v v
V
b
l
X
S
S
V =
( ) ( )
W
fus fus
b S
L H
.
2
Vertical Tail Design
56
The vertical tail area is
obtained from a chart
Vertical Tail Design
57
Detailing the Empennage:
Once the Area is estimated geometric features
Aspect Ratio
Sweep
Elevator/Rudder Chord ratio
Thickness Ratio

Aircraft Design
58
Typical Geometric parameters- Empennage
Aircraft Design
59
Aircraft Design
60
Aircraft Design
61
Definition of Engine Requirements:
Power Plants:
Piston Engine -propeller (low speed)
Turbo-Prop (medium Speed)
Turbo-Jet (High Speed)
The Engine Parameters:
Power/Thrust
Weight
Fuel Consumption
Number of Engines
Generally Number of engines- specified
Design Option
Safety and Redundancy
Aircraft Design
62
Aircraft Performance Determined by the Engine
Take off Field length (Max power)
Operational rate of climb (0.9 max)
Cruise performance (0.8 max)
Engine Thrust/Power required is obtained from design charts
Aircraft Performance
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Aircraft Design
64
Aircraft Design
65
Aircraft Design
66
Final Aircraft configuration Three view drawing
Considerations:
Fuselage
Cabin Arrangement
Windows/doors/emergency exits
Gallies and Services
Cargo handling
Wing
Wing- Fuselage fairing
Low/Mid/High Wing
Wing location along the longitudinal axis
Location of Engines
Location of Undercarriage
Aircraft Configuration
67
Considerations (Contd..)
Engine
Location
Air duct requirement
Exhaust
Empennage
Location of HT and VT
T Tail configuration
Aircraft Configuration
68
Typical 3-View Layout Drawing Regional Turbofan
69
INTRODUCTION TO AIRFRAME DESIGN
70
Airframe Design Drivers
Static Strength
Life and Durability
Aero elastic performance
Weight
Manufacturing and maintenance
Cost
71
Evolution of Airframe Technology
Structural Type Truss Stressed Skin Stressed Skin
Materials Wood fabric Aluminium
Composites,
Advanced Alloys like
Titanium
Technology Static Strength
Fatigue and
Damage
Tolerance
Aero-elasticity