College Algebra-2

'ALGEBRA
FOR
SECONDARY SCHOOLS
BY
WEBSTER WELLS,
S.B.
PROFESSOR OF MATHEMATICS IN THE MASSACHUSETTS INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
BOSTON,
D. C.
U.S.A.
HEATH &
CO.,
PUBLISHERS
1906
3^"
Copyright,
1906,
By WEBSTER WELLS.
All rights reserved.
PREFACE
The
present work
is
intended to meet the needs of High
Schools and Academies of the highest grade.
While
in the
main similar
additional
to the author's " Essentials of Algebraj"
many
topics
have been introduced, and improvements
made; attention is especially invited to the following: 1. The product by inspection of two binomials of the form
mx +
2.
n and px
-\-
(% 100).
In the chapter on Factoring will be found the factoring of expressions of the forms x^ + ax^y^ + y* and ax^ + bx + c,
when
The
In
3.
the factors do not involve surds ( 115, 117).

later in
These forms are considered

solution of equations
298 and 300.

is
by factoring
also taken
up
in
this chapter.
107 will be found
many new
varieties of examples.
In
176 will be found a set of problems in which the
solutions are negative, fractional, or zero.

4.
In the chapter on Evolution will be found the square
root
by inspection of polynomials
a'
of the
form
b'
c'
+ 2ab + 2ac + 26c,
and the cube root by inspection of polynomials of the form

a
+ 3 a'b
-\-
Sab'
b'
( 212, 223).
The development
of polynomials
of the rules for the square
and cube root

to be
and arithmetical numbers leaves nothing
221708
iv
desired from
PREFACE
a theoretical point of view.
(See 213, 214,
217, 224, 225, 228.)
In the solution of quadratic equations by formula the equation is in the form aa^ -\- bx -{- c = 0.
5.
6.
( 289),
In
all
is
the theoretical work in Chapter

in the
XXI, the
quadratic
equation
form aof
-{-
bx
-\-
= 0.
In the chapter on Ratio and Proportion, in several of the 7. demonstrations of theorems, fractions are used in place of
ratio symbols.
8.
In 386 and 387 will be found the same proof of the

is
Binomial Theorem for Positive Integral Exponents as

" in the " Essentials of Algebra
;
given
those wishing a more comcoefficients is
plete proof, in
for
which the general law of

will find
proved
any two consecutive terms,
it
in 447. Coefficients
9.
The proof
of the
Theorem
of
Undetermined
given in
396
;
is
the same as that given in the " Essentials of

is
Algebra
10.
"
a more rigorous proof
given in
450.
The author has thought it best to omit the proof of the Binomial Theorem for Fractional and Negative Exponents, as
a rigorous demonstration
preparatory schools.
11.
is
beyond the capacity of pupils
in
In Chapter
Factor and Lowest
XXXIII will be found Highest Common Common Multiple by Division; and also
its
the reduction of a fraction to
lowest terms,
when the
numerator and denominator cannot be readily factored by

inspection.
Any
teacher
with Chapters
who so desires IX and X.

and n
can take this work in connection
Chapter
all
XXXIII
also contains the proof of (1), 235, for

(
is
values of
tion
whose denominator
445); and the reduction of a fracirrational to an equivalent fraction
PREFACE
having a rational denominator, when the denominator
is
V
the
sum
of
of a rational expression
and a surd of the

( 446).
nth. degree, or
two surds of the nth degree
An
to
important feature of the

in
work
is
the prominence given
graphical methods;
of
Chapter XIII will be found the
graph and also of
a linear equation with two a linear

expression
unknown numbers, involving one unknown
number.
In 184, 185, and 186 will be found the graphical representations of the solutions of simultaneous
linear equations,
including inconsistent and indeterminate equations.
The
305,
subject
is
taken up for quadratic equations in 303 to
and 314
to 316.
To meet the demands

cal
of
many
schools, a
number
of physi-
problems have been introduced; these will be found at the end of Exercises 62, 128, 129, and 145.
At the end
are employed
of the chapter on Variation will be found a set
of problems in physics in
;
which the principles
of
variation
and also several
illustrations of the application
of graphs in physics.
All the above work in physics has been
prepared by Professor Kobert A. Milliken, of the University

of Chicago.
In nearly every set of numerical equations, beginning with Exercise 58, will be found examples in which other letters
than
X, y,
and
z are
The examples and problems
used to represent unknown numbers. are about 4000 in number;
and no example is a duplicate of any in the author's "Academic Algebra" or "Essentials of Algebra." There is throughout the work a much greater variety of
examples than in the above treatises. An important and useful feature of the work
is
the Index,
vi
PREFACE
to
all
which contains references

definitions.
operations and important
To meet
the wants of the most advanced schools, the author
has introduced nine additional chapters, which will cover the

entrance requirements in algebra at any American college or
scientific school.
These additional chapters are:
XXXIII.
The Fundamental Laws

cation.
for Addition
and Multipli-
XXXIV.
Additional Methods in Factoring.
XXXV. XXXVI.
XXXVII. XXXVIII.
Mathematical Induction.
Equivalent Equations.
Graphical Eepresentation of Imaginary Numbers.
Indeterminate Forms.
XXXIX.
XL.
XLI.
Horner's Synthetic Division.
Permutations and Combinations.

Exponential and Logarithmic Series.
desires
to
The author
ration of the
express his thanks to the
many
teachers in secondary schools, whose suggestions in the prepa-
work have been
of the greatest service.
WEBSTER WELLS.
Boston, 1906.
CONTENTS
CHAPTER
I.
PAGE
Definitions and Notation
1 1
.
.
Symbols
Equations
2 2
Axioms
Solution of Problems
by Algebraic Methods
.3
9
11
Algebraic Expressions
II.
Positive and Negative
Numbers
Addition of Positive and Negative Numbers

Multiplication of Positive and Negative
III.
...
.
.
12
Numbers
14
17
Addition and Subtraction op Algebraic Expressions Addition of Monomials

Addition of Polynomials Subtraction of Monomials
Subtraction of Polynomials
.
.
18
21
....
.
.24
26 28
32
Parentheses
IV.
Multiplication of Algebraic Expressions Multiplication of Monomials Multiplication of Polynomials by Monomials

Division of Algebraic Expressions
Division of Monomials
. .
...
.
.
33
34
Multiplication of Polynomials by Polynomials
V.
Division of Polynomials by Monomials Division of Polynomials by Polynomials
......43 ....
.
.
36
42
45
46
VI.
Integral Linear Equations
.51
.
Principles used in solving Integral Equations Solution of Integral Linear Equations
....
.
52
54
57
Problems leading
/
to Integral Linear Equations with
One
63
74
91
Unknown Number
VII.
Special Methods in Multiplication and Division
VIII.
Factoring
Miscellaneous and Review Examples Solution of Equations by Factoring
vii
.... ....
94
Vlll
CHAPTER
CONTENTS
Highest CojviMon Factor.
Highest
IX.
Lowest Common Multiple
Common Factor Lowest Common Multiple

Fractions Reduction of Fractions Addition and Subtraction
of Fractions
.
Multiplication of Fractions Division of Fractions .
Complex Fractions Miscellaneous and Review Examples

\J
XL
Fractional and Literal Linear Equations

Solution of Fractional Linear Equations Solution of Literal Linear Equations
.
Solution of Equations involving Decimals
Problems involving Linear Equations Problems involving Literal Equations

XII.
Simultaneous Linear Equations Elimination by Addition or Subtraction Elimination by Substitution Elimination by Comparison
.
Simultaneous Linear Equations containing More than
Two Unknown Numbers

XIII.
Problems involving Simultaneous Linear Equati
Graphical Representation
Graph of a Linear Equation involving Two I'nknown Numbers
Intersections of Graphs
XIV.
Inequalities
XV.
XVI.
Involution
Evolution
Evolution of Monomials
Square Root of a Polynomial Square Root of an Arithmetical Number Cube Root of a Polynomial Cube Root of an Arithmetical Number
.
XVII.
Theory of Exponents
....
Miscellaneous Examples
CONTENTS
I
IX
PAGE
CHAPTER
XVIII
Surds
.........
.
222
222
Reduction of a Surd to its Simplest Form Addition and Subtraction of Surds To reduce Surds of Different Degrees to Equivalent Surds of the Same Degree Multiplication of Surds Division of Surds
Involution of Surds
226
227 228
230
231
Evolution of Surds
233
Reduction of a Fraction whose Denominator is Irrational to an Equivalent Fraction having a Rational
Denominator
Properties of Quadratic Surds
233 237 242
Imaginary Numbers
XIX.
Quadratic Equations
Pure Quadratic Equations Affected Quadratic Equations
248
248 250
Problems involving Quadratic Equations with One
Unknown Number
XX.
XXI.
..
.261
268 273
276
Equations solved like Quadratics
Theory of Quadratic Equations

Factoring
Graphical Representation of Quadratic Expressions with One Unknown Number
XXII.
Simultaneous Quadratic Equations
....
283
286
Graphical Representation of Simultaneous Quadratic
CONTENTS
CHAPTEK
PAGE
XXIX.
Undetermined Coefficients
Convergency and Divergency of Series Tlie Theorem of Undetermined CoeflScients
.
357 358
Expansion Expansion
of Fractions of
Surds
.... ....
.
360
361
363
364
Partial Fractions
Reversion of Series
370
. .
XXX.
XXXI.
The Binomial Theorem

Logarithms
372
372
Fractional and Negative Exponents
Properties of Logarithms Use of the Table
Applications Miscellaneous Examples
......... ..... ........

. .
.
376
378
383
388
391
Exponential Equations
393
XXXII.
Miscellaneous Topics
Highest
395 Factor
Common
and Lowest Common

395
Multiple by Division
Proof of
nents
(1), 235, for All
Values of
and
)i
405
407

The Theorem XXXIII.
plication
of
for Positive Integral

Coefficients
Expo.
.
Undetermined
408
The Fundamental Laws for Addition and MultiAdditional Methods
XXXIV.
Symmetry
.... ....
in
.
410
Factoring
413 416
422
426
434 438
XXXV.
XXXVI.
XXXVII.
XXXVIII.
Mathematical Induction
Equivalent Equations
Graphical Representation of Imaginary Numbers

Indeterminate Forms
XXXIX.
XL.
XLI.
Horner's Synthetic Division
441
Permutations and Combinations
445
453
453 455
456
Exponential and Logarithmic Series The Exponential Series The Logarithmic Series
.
.
Calculation of Logarithms
Index
459
ALGEBRA FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS
ALGIBBRA
I.
DEFINITIONS AND NOTATION
1; In Algebra, the operations of Arithmetic are abridged
and generalized by means of Symbols.
SYMBOLS REPRESENTING NUMBERS

2. The symbols usually employed to represent numbers are the Arabic Numerals and the letters of the Alphabet.
The numerals represent known or determinate numbers. The letters represent numbers which may have any values
whatever, or numbers whose values are to be found.
SYMBOLS REPRESENTING OPERATIONS

3.
The Sign
of Addition,
+,
is
read "plusJ^
Thus, a-{-b signifies that the number represented by b is to be added to the number represented by a a -\-b -{- c signifies
;
that the
number represented by b is to be. added to the number represented by a, and then the number represented by c added
;
to the result
and so
on.
The
result of addition is called the Sum.
We shall use the expression " the number a," or simply " a," to signify " the number represented hy a^''"' etc.
4.
The Sign
of Subtraction,
is
read " minusJ'

b is to be subtracted
Thus, a
signifies that the

;
number
from the number a a tracted from a, and then

so on.
b
c
'
signifies that b is to
-
be sub-
subtracted from the result;

-'
and
2
5.
ALGEBRA
The
Sign
of
Multiplication,
x,
is
read
'Himes/^ or
"
multiplied byJ^
Thus, a X b signifies that the number a is to be multiplied by the number b; a xb x c signifies that a is to be multiplied by b, and the result multiplied by c and so on.
;
usually omitted in Algebra, except between two numbers expressed in Arabic numerals. Thus, 2 X signifies 2 multiplied by x but the product of
sign of multiplication
is
;
The
2 by 3 could not be expressed 23.

6.
The Sign
of Division,
-i-,
is
read '^divided by."

is
Thus, a-i-b signifies that the number a

the
to be divided
by
number
b.
The
division of a
by
6 is also expressed -
EQUATIONS
7.
The Sign
of Equality,
=,
is
read "equals."
b.
Thus, a
8.
=b
signifies that
is
the number a equals the number
An
Equation
a statement that two numbers are equal.
of an equation is the number to the left Jirst of the sign of equality, and the second member is the number to the right of that sign.
The
member
Thus, in the equation 2
a;
3 = 5, the
first
member
is
a;
3,
and the second member
5.
AXIOMS
9.
An Axiom
is
a truth which
is
assumed as
self-evident.
:
Algebraic operations are based on the following axioms

1.
2.
3.
4.
Any number equals itself. Any number equals the sum of all its parts. Any number is greater than any of its parts. Two mimbers which are equal to the same number,
ar/i equal.
or
to
equal 7iumbers,

5.
3
to
If the same number, or equal numbers, be added

tvlll
equal
numbers, the resulting numbers

6.
be equal.
If the same number, or equal numbers, be subtracted from equal numbers, the residting numbers ivill be equal.
7. If equal numbers be multiplied by the same number, or equal number's, the resulting numbers will be equal. 8. If equal numbers be divided by the same number, or equal
numbers, the resulting numbers will be equal.
SOLUTION OF PROBLEMS BY ALGEBRAIC METHODS

10.
The following examples
will illustrate the use of Alge-
braic symbols in the solution of problems. The utility of the process consists in the fact that the unknown numbers are represented by symbols, and that the
various operations are stated in Algebraic language.

1.
The sum
;
the less by 4
of two numbers is 30, and the greater exceeds what are the numbers ?
less
We will represent the

Then
number hj
x.
By
the greater will be represented by x + 4. the conditions of the problem, the sum of the less
is
number and
:
the
greater
30
this is stated in Algebraic
language as follows
+ + 4 = 30.
a;
(1)
Now, x + x
add
cal
it
= xx2 =2
+
for to multiply
an arithmetical number by
2,
we
twice.
Again, x x 2
numbers
is
the
x aj, or 2 a; ( 5) for the product of two arithmetisame in whichever order they are multiplied.
;
Therefore, x
= 2x;
and equation
2X
(1)
can be written
+ = 30.
4
;
The members of this equation, 2 x + 4 and 30, are equal numbers if from each of them we subtract the number 4, the resulting numbers will
be equal (Ax.
6, 9).
2 a; = 30 - 4, or 2 x = 26. Therefore, Dividing the equal numbers 2 x and 26 by 2 (Ax. 8, 9),

a;
we have
13.
is
Hence, the less
number
is 13,
and the greater
13
+ 4,
or 17.
4
The written work
Let
Then,
ALGEBRA
will stand as follows
:
X
a;
= the = = =
less
number.
+ +
the greater number.

30, or 2
26.
13, the less
aj
By
the conditions,
jc
+ 4 = 30.
number.
Whence,
Dividing by
2,
ic
2 x
x =
Whence,
+4=
17, the greater number.
2. The sum of the ages of A and B is 109 years,. and A is 13 years younger than B; find their ages. Let X represent the number of years in B's age. Then, x 13 will represent the number of years in A's age. By the conditions of the problem, the sum of the ages of A and B is
109 years.
Whence,
Adding 13
to
x-lS +
2
= = = =
109, or 2
13
109.
both members (Ax.

a:
5, 9),
122.
61, the 48, the
Dividing by
2,
number
number
of years in B's age. of years in A's age.
And,
13
The
Let
vn-itten
work
will stand as follows
X x
the
number
of years in B's age.
Then,
By
the conditions,
Whence,
Dividing by
Therefore,
It
2,
.
13 = the number of years in A's age. - 13 + = 109, or 2 x - 13 = 109. 2 x = 122.

a;
x
x
13
= 61,
= 48,
the
number
the
number
must be
carefully borne in mind that x can only represent an abstract
number.
Thus, in Ex.
represent the
3.
2,
we
number of years
do, not say "let x represent B's age," but "let x in B's age."
as B,
A, B, and C together have $ 66. and C has 3 times as much as A.
A has
one-half as
much
?
How much
has each

Let
X
2 3 the conditions,
ic
jc
= = =
=
the
the
number
of dollars
of dollars of dollars
A
B
C
has.
has, has.
Then,
number
number
and
aj
the
66.
By
2ic
3cc
But the sum

Whence,
Dividing by
of x, twice
oj,
and 3 times x
6x
is
6 times
a;,
or 6
x.
= 66.
=
11, the
6,
x
2x 3X
number
number
of dollars
A
B
C
has. has,
has.
Whence,
and
22, the
of dollars of dollars
= 33,
the
number
(By letting x represent the number of dollars

fractions.)
has, in Ex. 3,
we
avoid
EXERCISE
1.
The
it
exceeds
''
greater of two numbers by 49 find the numbers.

;
is
8 times the
less,
and
2.
The sum
17 years older than
of the ages of and B B find their ages.

;
is
119 years, and
is
Divide $ 74 between 3.^ more than B.

/ 4.
A and B
A
and
so that
may
receive
^ 48
Divide $108 between
so that
A may
receive
5 times as
*
much
as B.
5.
Divide 91 into two parts such that the smaller shall be
one-sixth of the greater.

^ 6.
A man
travels 112 miles
by train 54 miles farther than does he travel in each way ?

^
7.
by train and steamer he goes by steamer. How many miles

;
The sum
of three
numbers
is
69; the
first is
14 greater
than the second, and 28 greater than the third.

bers.
Find the num-
8. The sum of the ages of A, B, and C is 134 years 13 years younger than A, and 7 years younger than C.
is
Find
their afjes.
6
9.
ALGEBRA
one-twelfth as
'
cow and sheep together cost $91, and the sheep cost much as the cow how much, did each cost ?
;
10.
Divide $ 6.75 between
and
so that
A may
receive
one-fourth as
^
much
as B.
11. man has $ 2. After losing a certain sum, he finds that he has left 20 cents more than 3 times the sum which he
lost.
How much
did he lose
12.
much as B, and C much has each ?

13.
A, B, and C have together $ 140 has as much as A and

;
A
B
has 4 times as
together.
How
C,
A, B, and C have together $ 100 A has $ 10 less than and C has $ 25 more than B. How much has each ?
;
v.^14. At an election two candidates, A and B, had together 653 votes, and A was beaten by 395 votes. How many did each receive ?
-
15.
A field is
it is
7 times as long as
feet.
around
16.
240
Find
its
it is wide, and the distance dimensions.
My
horse, carriage,
is
325.
The horse
and the carriage is much is each worth?

17.
and harness are worth together worth 6 times as much as the harness, worth $ 65 more than the horse. How
The sum
of three
numbers
is
87
the third
number
is
one-eighth of the first, and the second Find the numbers. first.
18.
number 15
less
than the
At
received together 436 votes; votes, and over C of 3 votes.
a certain election, three candidates. A, B, and C, had a majority over B of 14
How many
did each receive ?
19. The sum of the ages of A, B, and C is 110 years B's age exceeds twice C's by 12 years, and A is 9 years younger than B. Find their ages.
;

20.
the red
is
pole 77 feet long is painted red, white, and black; one-fifth of the white, and the black 21 feet more
than the red.

^
How many
first,
feet are there of each color ?
21.
Divide 70 into three parts such that the third part shall
be one-fifth of the
22.
.
and one-fourth
of the second.
receive one-half as
Divide $ 7.55 between A, B, and C so that C may much as A, and B $ 2.95 less than A and
together.
23. A, B, and C have together $22.50; B has $1.50 more than A, and C has $ 8 less than twice the amount that A has. How much has each ?
24.
The
profits of a
third as great as in the preceding year,
shopkeeper in a certain year were oneand $ 515 less than in
the following year.
were $ 2615, what were the

25.
If the total profits for the three years profits in each year ?
of four numbers is 96. The first is 4 times the and exceeds the third by 20 and the second exceeds fourth, the sum of the first and fourth by 4. Find the numbers.
The sum
>
26.
Divide $ 468 between A, B, C, and D, so that
A may
receive one-fifth as
much
as D.
as B,
one-fifth as
much
as C, and
one-fifth as
much
DEFINITIONS
11.
If a
number be multiplied by
is
the product
called a
itself any number of times, Power of the number.
An Exponent is a number written at the right of, and above another number, to indicate what power of the latter is to be
taken; thus, read " a
a^,
a^,
a*,
^^ or " a second power, denotes a xa', " a third read "a cu&e," or power" denotes a x a X a; read " a fourth" " a fourth power," or " a exponeyit 4,"
square,''^
denotes a
ax
a x
a,
etc.
8
If
ALGEBRA
no exponent is expressed, ihejirst power Thus, a is the same as a\
is
understood.
12. Symbols of Aggregation.
The
vinculum
parentheses ( ), the brackets [ ], the braces J j, and the indicate that the numbers enclosed by them are
,
;
to be taken collectively
thus,
c,
{a+b)xc,
all
[a
+ 6]
\a-\-b\
c,
and a-{-b x
6 to
indicate that the result obtained

c.
by adding
is to
be
multiplied by
EXERCISE 2
What
operations are signified by the following ?
2.
m(xy).
ab
^'
\^
yy
(m-n).
9_
(2a + 36)(4c-5d).
'
^'*
^.
, + (y-z).
7.
^-^.
b
10.
d
:
fl+^V^ yj
\x
Write the following in symbols

11.
12.
The
result of subtracting 6 times
n from 5 times m.
Three times the product of the eighth power of the ninth power of n.
and
y
*
13.
The quotient
d.
of the
sum
of a
and
6,
divided by the
sum
of c
and
14. 15.
The product of ^x-\-y and z^. The result of subtracting y z from

c d.
x.
The product oi ab and The result of adding the quotient quotient of x by y. 18. The square of m + n.
16.
17.
,
of
by
n,
and the
19.
The cube
of
a-
c.

20. Tlie fourth 21.
9
x.
power of the quotient of a divided by

of the quotient of 1
The product
y.
by
a;
and the quotient
of
Ihj
13.
ALGEBRAIC EXPRESSIONS
"
f
An
number expressed
Algebraic Expression, or simply an Expression, in algebraic symbols as,

;
is
2, a,
*^
or
2aj2-3a&
+ 5.
14. The Numerical Value of an expression is the result obtained by substituting particular numerical values for the letters involved in it, and performing the operations indicated.
1.
Find the numerical value of the expression

h
when a = 4,
= 3, c = 5,
and d =
4 x 4 o
2.
We
have,
4a +
-# =
+ ^-^-23= 16 + 10-8 =18.
If the expression involves parentheses, the operations indicated within the parentheses must be performed first.
2.
Find the numerical value, when a =
9, 6
= 7,
and
= 4, of
(_6)(6 +
c)-^.
= 16,
and
6
We have,
a-
= 2,
+ c = 11,
a-\-b
- c = 3.
Then the numerical value
of the expression is
2xll-M = 22-l^ = a
3 3
EXERCISE 3
;^
J^^
= 4,
1.
Find the numerical values of the following when a d = 5, m = 3, and n = 2:
= 6, 6 = 3,
a?h-cd\
2.
2ahcd.
3.
3a6 + 46c-5cd.
10
ALGEBRA
28 cZ^
POSITIVE
AND NEGATIVE NUMBERS
11
II.
POSITIVE
There are certain concrete magnitudes which are capatwo opposite states. Thus, in financial transactions, we may have assets or Uahilities, and gains or losses; we may have motion along a
15.
ble of existing in
straight line in a certain

tion;
etc.
direction, or in the opposite direc-
In each of these cases, the
effect of
combining with a magis
nitude of a certain kind another of the opposite kind, diminish the former, destroy it, or reverse its state.
to
Thus,
if
to
a certain
amount
is
of
asset
we add
a certain
or
of liability, the asset changed into liability.
amount
diminished, destroyed,
and besides denoting addition and subsigns , traction, are also used, in Algebra, to distinguish between the opposite states of magnitudes like those of 15.
16.
The
Thus,
are
by the sign
indicate assets by the sign -f-, and liabilities for example, the statement that a man's assets 100, means that he has liabilities to the amount of $ 100.
we may
EXERCISE 4
1.
If a
is
much
'
man has assets of $400, and he worth ?
liabilities of
$600,
how
2. If gains be taken as positive, and losses as negative, what does a gain of $ 100 mean ?
3.
In what position
In what position
is
man who
man who
is
miles north of a
certain place ?
4. is
is
50
feet west of a
certain point ?
5. How many miles north of a certain place goes 5 miles north, and then 9 miles south ?
is
man who
12
6.
ALGEBRA
is
How many miles east of a certain place 11 miles west, and then 6 miles east ? goes
17.
Positive
man who
and Negative Numbers.
and negative states of any concrete magnitude be expressed without reference to the unit, the results are
If the positive
called positive Thus, in
is
and
+ f 5 and $3, + 5
+
yiegative
numbers, respectively. is a positive number, and

called the positive sign,
3
and
a negative number.
For
'
this reason the sign
is
the sign
tive
the negative sign. If no sign is expressed, the number

;
is
understood to be posi
thus, 5
is
the same as
sign
+ 5.
The negative
number.
18.
must never be omitted before a negative
The
Absolute Value of a
number
is
the number taken
independently of the sign affecting it. Thus, the absolute value of 3 is 3.
ADDITION OF POSITIVE AND NEGATIVE NUMBERS

19.
We
meaning, so long as
shall give to addition in Algebra its arithmetical the 7iumbers to be added are positive integers
or positive fractions.
may then attach any meaning we please to addition involving other forms of numbers, provided the new meanings are not inconsistent with principles previously established.
20. In adding a positive number and a negative, or two negative numbers, our methods must be in accordance with the principles of 15.
If a man has assets of $ 5, and then incurs liabilities of f 3, he will be worth $2. If he has assets of $ 3, and then incurs liabilities of $ 5, he will be in debt to the amount of $2.
We
POSITIVE
If

$ 5, and then incurs amount of $ 8.
liabilities of
13
he has
liabilities of
^ 3,
he will be in debt to the
Now
may
with the notation of
be regarded as adding
the
$3
15,
incurring liabilities of
$3
to his property.
Whence,
sum
of
the
sum
sum
of of
+ |5 f5
- $5
and and
$3
is
and
the
and
+$3 is $3 is
+ ^2; $2; $8.
Or, omitting reference to the unit,
+ 5) + (-3) = +2; (_5) + ( + 3)=-2; (_5) + (-3)=-8.

(
To
indicate the addition of
5 and
3,
:
they must be enclosed in
parentheses ( 12).
We
then have the following rules
^ To add a x>ositive and a negative number, subtract the less absolute value ( 18) from the greater, and prejlx to the result the sign of the number having the greater absolute value.
y To add two negative numbers, add

prefix a negative sign
to the result.
their absolute values,
and
21. Examples.
1.
Find the sum of
+ 10
(
and
3.
7.
Subtracting 3 from 10, the result
is 7.
Whence,
2.
10)
+ ( - 3) = +
and
Find the sum of
12
(_
12)
+ 6.
Subtracting 6 from 12, the result
is 6.
Whence,
3.
+ ( + 6) =-6.
Add
-9
of 9
and -5.
and 5
is 14.
The sum
Whence,
(_
9)
+ (_
5)
=_
14
14
ALGEBRA
EXERCISE 5
Find the values of the following
^1. (-6)
2.
3.
v'4.
+ (-7). (+8) + (-3).
8.
f-5Vf-'
(-9)+(4-5).
9.
5. 6.
17.
+ (-11). (-13) + (-18). (_42) + (+57). (-34) + (+82).

(+4)
f+D^f-l V V f y
+ (+12j). (+17f) + (-10A). (-14|) + (-21A).
(-15i)
1011.
12.
MULTIPLICATION OF POSITIVE AND NEGATIVE
NUMBERS
22. If two expressions are multiplied together, the first is called the Multiplicand, and the second the Multiplier. The result of multiplication is called the Product.
shall retain for multiplication, in Algebra, its arith23. metical meaning, so long as the multiplier is a positive integer or
We
a positive fractioyi.
That is, to multiply a number by a positive integer is to add the multiplicand as many times as there are units in the multiplier.
For example,
Thus,
4 three (-4)x(+3) = (-4) + (-4) + (-4) = -12.

to multiply
by
3,
we add
times.
24. In Arithmetic, the product of two numbers

in whichever oi^der they are multiplied.
is
the same
3x4 and 4 x 3 are each equal to 12. we could assume this law to hold for the product positive number by a negative, we should have
Thus,
If
of a
(+3)x(-4) = (-4)x(+3) = -12(23)=-(3x4).
POSITIVE
Then,
if

is
15
follow-
the above law
to hold,
ing meaning to multiplication by a negative
we must give the number

:
the absolute value ( 18)

the result.
To multiply a 7iumber by a negative number is to multiply it by of the multiplier, and change the sign of
Thus, to multiply + 4 by 3, we multiply giving + 12, and change the sign of the result.
+4
by +3,
That
is,
(+ 4) X (- 3)
= - 12.
4 by 3, we multiply 4 by +3, Again, to multiply 12 ( 23), and change the sign of the result. giving
That
25.
is,
(- 4) X (- 3)
= + 12.
:
From 23 and 24 we
derive the following rule
"^To multiply one number by another, multiply together

absolute values.
their
X Make
of like
26.
1.
the
sign,
product plus when the multipUcand and multiplier are and minus whe7i they are of unlike sign.
Examples.
Multiply
the rule,
+8
(+
by -5.
8)
By
2.
x (-
5)
=-
(8
5)
= - 40.
Multiply
the rule,
-7
by
- 9.
(7
By
3.
(- 7) x (- 9) = +
x 9)
= + 63.
b
Find the numerical value when a = 4 and

(a
= 7,
of
+ by.
-27.
We
have,
6)3 ^^
_ 7)(4 _ 7)(4 _7) (4
= (-3)(-3)(-3) =
EXERCISE 6
1.
:
(-H,5)x(-4).
2.
(-11) X (+3).
16 3
ADDITION AND SUBTRACTION
17
ADDITION AND SUBTRACTION OF III. ALGEBRAIC EXPRESSIONS. PARENTHESES

*127.
Monomial, or Term,
is
an expression
parts are not separated by the signs or 5.

2x^,
or
13)
a?^,
whose
as 2
3 ah,
3 ah,
and
+5
is
are called the terms of the expression

.
2x"-âh-^^.
Â. Positive
If no sign
tive.
Term
is
one preceded by a -h sign as + 5 a. expressed, the term is understood to be posi;
Â Negative
The
Term is one preceded by a sign as 3 ah. sign must never be omitted before a negative term.
;
28. If two or more numbers are multiplied together, each of them, or the product of any number of them,
of the product.
is
called a Factor
Thus,
a, h,
c,
ah, ac,
and
he are factors of the product ahc.
*'29. Any factor of a product is called the Coefficient of the product of the remaining factors. Thus, in 2 ah, 2 is the coefficient of ah, 2 a of 6, a of 2 h, etc. V 30.
als,
and the other in

the
If one factor of a product is expressed in Arabic numerletters, the former is called the numerical
latter.
coefficient of
Thus, in 2 ah, 2 is the numerical coefficient of ah. If no numerical coefficient is expressed, the coefficient 1 is
understood
31.
;
thus, a
is
the same as 1
a.
By
is,
25,
That
3 a is
is
(-3) X a
=-
(3
Then,
3 and a. the product of the numerical coefficient of a in
a)
= -3a. 3 a.
/Thus,
in
a negative term as in a
positive, the numerical coeffi-
cient includes the sign.
18
^'
ALGEBRA
Similar or Like Terms are those which either do not
32.
differ at all, or differ only in their
numerical coefficients
2 x^y and 7 x^y. " Dissimilar or Unlike Terms are those which are not similar
as 3 x^y
as
and 3 xy'^.
ADDITION OF MONOMIALS
33.
The sum
of a
and
h is expressed
+6
( 3).
V 34. define Subtraction, in Algebra, as the process of finding one of two numbers, when their sum and the other number are given. The Minuend is the sum of the numbers.
We
The Subtrahend is the given number. The Remainder is the required number.
35.
The remainder when

( 4).
h is subtracted
from a
is
-6
expressed
Since the
the minuend
sum
of the remainder
and the subtrahend gives
( 34),
we have
ah-\-h = a.
^
Hence, if
the
same number
he both
added
to,
arid subtracted
from, another, the value of the

^
latter is not
changed.
36. It follows from
35 that terms of equal absolute value,
but opposite sign, in an expression,

37.
may
be cancelled.
We
will
now show how

a
to find the
sum
of
a and
b.
By 35,
for adding
and
But by 20,
for
+ {-b) = a + {-b) + b-b; subtracting b does not alter a + ( 6). (-6) + ^ = 0;

numbers of the same absolute
a-\-
(1)
and
b are
value, but
opposite sign.
Therefore,
{b)
=a
b',
for the other terms in the second

other.
member
of (1) cancel each

*^38.
It follows
is effected
19
from 33 and 37 that the addition of monoa,
mials
by uniting their terms with their respective signs
Thus, the sum of
d, and ab-\-c d e.
b,c,
e is
^39. We assume that the terms can be united in any order, provided each has its proper sign. Hence, the result of 38 can also be expressed
c-\-a
This law
"^
e db, d b-\-c e-\-a,

Commutative
etc.
;
is
called the
Law for
Addition
compare
4,
451.
40.
4,
To multiply
3 by
5 + 3 by 4, we multiply 5 by and add the second result to the first.
and then
Thus,
We
a by
c,
then assume
+ 3)4=5x4 + 3x4. that to multiply a + 5 by

(5
c,
c,
we multiply
to the
first.
and then
by
and add the second result
Thus,
This law
is
(a
+ b)c = ac
will
-\-
be.
its
called the Distributive
for the various forms of
number
Law for Multiplication ; be found in 455.
proof
41. Addition of Similar Terms ( 32).

1.
Required the sum of 5 a and 3 a.

5a
We have,
2.
3a
(5 + 3)a = 8 a.
( 40)
Required the sum of

have,
5 a and
3 a.
(31) (40) (20) (81)
We
(_ 5a) + (- 3a) = (-
5) x a +(- 3) x a = [(-5) + (-3)]xa = (-8)xa = -8a.
3.
Required the
sum
of 5 a
and
3 a.
(40)
( 20)
We have,
5a+(- 3)a =[5 +(- 3)] x

= 2 .
20
4.
ALGEBRA
Required the sum of
(_ 5)a +
5a
3 a
and 3a.
(40)
2 a.
We have,
=[(-
5) + 3] x a = (-2)x a (20) = -
/ Therefore, to add two similar terms, find the sum of their numerical coefficients ( 20, 30, 31), and affix to the result the
common
5.
letters.
Find the sum of 2
a,
a, 8a,
12 a,
and 6
a.
Since the additions

positive terms first, these two results.
may be performed in any order, we may add the and then the negative terms, and finally combine
and 6 a
is
The sum The sum
of 2 a, 3 a, of
11 a.
a and
12 a
is
is
Hence, the required sum

6.
11
13 a. a + ( 13 a),
or
2 a.
The sum The sum
Add 3(a-b), -2(a-b), 6(a-b), and -4(a-6). of 3(a - b) and 6(a - b) is 9(a - b). of 2(a &) and 4(a &) is 6(a 6).
is
Then, the result
[9
+(-^ 6)](a
6), or
3(a
6).
If the terms are not all similar, we may combine the similar terms, and unite the others with their respective signs ( 38).
7.
Eequired the sum of 12

a;.
a,
5x,
3 y^, Ba,
Sx, and
The sum The sum
of 12 a and
of
-6x,
5a Sx, and
is
is
7 a.
a;
Then, the required sum
- 3 is 7 a Sy^.
( 36).
EXERCISE 7
Add
^1.
2. 3.
the following
11 a and
6 a.
a;.
6.
7.
abc
and 12 abc.
7x and -10
8a^/ and -29a^/.
-4n
and -9w.
and 5a6.
v8. 9(a
9.
^^
4.
v*
13ab
+ &) and -2(a + 6). ITa^n^ and 60a%nl
5.
-17 a^
and -loa^.
10.
8a, 7a, and -^9a.

11.
21
15m, m,
16 xyz,
12.
13.
14.
5 4 xyz,
711,
and
12 m.
xyz,
and
6 xyz.
and -147il
6(x y),
18
n2,
-5(x y), and 10(x-y).

2n2,
-13^2,
7i',
15. 16.
rl7.
18.
19.
^20.
-3a% -17a% and 10a6. 3 ax, and 2 9 7 ax, 8 5 llz, 2x, and 10?/. (m + n), 4 (m n), 3 (m 4- n), and 7 (m 14 a, Ad, 8c, 6, 2a, 3c, 15 and 4 3 9 and 2 6 X, 7 52;, Sy,
19a3?>, 2a^b,
6?/,
6?/.
a;,
2;,
2/,
'8
ri).
c?,
c.
2/,
2,
a;,
?/,
2;,
a;.
iÂDDITION OF POLYNOMIALS
42.
Polynomial
;
is
an algebraic expression consisting of
more than one term
as a
b,
or 2x^
xy 3 y^.
;
A A A
polynomial
Binomial
Trinomial
is is
is
also called a multinomial. as

;
a polynomial of ^wo terms
b.
a polynomial of three terms
as a
+6
c.
polynomial is said to be arranged according to the descending powers of any letter, when the term containing the highest power of that letter is placed first, that having the next lower immediately after, and so on.
43.
Thus,
is
x'
+3
ar^2/-
2a^/ + 3a;/-4/
x.
arranged according to the descending powers of

The term
?/*, which does not involve x at all, is regarded as containing the lowest power of x in the above expression.
polynomial is said to be arranged according to the ascending powers of any letter, when the term containing the lowest j)ower of that letter is placed first, that having the next higher immediately after, and so on.
Thus,
is
x'-\-3a^y-2x^y^-\-Sxf-4:7/^
y.
arranged according to the ascending powers of
22
ALGEBRA
,
44. Addition of Polynomials.
Let
it
be required to add &
+ c to
and
a.
a.
Since 6
+c
is
the
c
sum
a
of h
c ( 3),
we may add
+c
to
a by adding h and
separately to
Then,
The above assumes
+ (6 + c) = a + & + c.
of &
(To indicate the addition
c,
we
enclose
it
in parentheses.)
that, to
add the sum
of a set of terms,
we add
the
terms separately. This is called the Associative

in 452.
Law for Addition;
its
proof will be found
45. Let
it
By
37,
Then, to
( 44).
6 c is the sum add h c to a,
be required to add h
of b
cto and
h
a.
c.
we add
and
separately to a
Whence,
46.
'"^To
1.
-f-
(6
c) = a + & c.
following rule
:
From 44 and 45 we have the

add a polynomial, add
its
terms with their signs unchanged.
Add 6a 7a^,
3a^ 2a + 3?/^,
and
.2 a^
a m/i.
We set the expressions down one underneath the other, similar terms being in the same vertical column. We then find the sum of the terms in each column, and write the results with their respective signs thus,
;
-7 - 2a + 3 + 3 a + 2aj2 a 2 4- 3
6a
a:2 a:2 a;2
?/3
?/3
mn _ ^^
2. Add 4:X-3x'-ll + 5x\ U-êa^ + lOx-^x".

It is
12a;2_
7_8 a^-15a;,
and
convenient to arrange each expression in descending powers of x

thus,
( 43)
5x^- 3a;2+ 4a; -11 -Sx^ + V2x^-lbx- 7

GccS3x3
Qx^+lOx+U - X- A

3.
23
Add
9(a
+ ^>)-8(6 + c),
8(6
_ 3(6 + c) - 7(c + a),

+ c) + c)-7(c + +4(c + + c) - 3(c +
and
4(c
+ a)-5(tt + 6).
9(a+6)-5(a+6) 4(a + 6)
3(6
a) a) a)
ll(&
4.
Add fa + |6 ic and i-a-f6 + fc.
EXERCISE 8
Add
the following
1.
2.
i^.
-17am-{4.bn
Sa-7b
6a^-16y^
-5+46
a-2b
4.
9a^+ 32/' -12a^ + 10y^
6am-llbn
9am-{-19bn
2!.
7 x-{-6y
9z
and 4ic
8?/
+5
5.
6.
4m^ 4mwH-n', 5 a 7 6, 4 6 9
m' + 4 m?i H- 4
c,
w',
and
5m' + 5n'.
S
and 6
2 a.
x'-6 xy-4.y\
Vrt.
8.
^:^-2xy + 7y% -^ x'^^ xy-10 yS^ndi
a-9-8a2 + l6a^
^(a
+ 15 a=^- 12 a-2 a',
and Ga'-lOa^ + lla-lS.

9.
+ b)-4.x(x-y), -6{a + b) + ^x{x-y), and 8 (a H- 6) 7

cc
(a;
2/).
10.
Vll.
|a-i6-y\c 5m4-9w + 4a;,

^8âj-h|2/
and
-f a
7 m.
+ i6--^c.
-10 + 8a; + 2m,
2/
-3a;-72/-6n,
and JVa;-|2/-i2;.
and n-\-lly
12.
+ H2
24
13.
ALGEBRA
4(y-{.z)-9(z + x\ 7{z-\-x). 6c + 2a-Sb, 4.d-7 c-{-12 a, Sb-5d + and -10 a -11 6 + 9 d. _7(a-6)2 + 8(a-6)+2, 4(a - 6)2 - 5 (a - 6),
U(x -{-y) -17 (y + z),
and S(x-^y)
14.
c,
n5.
16.
3(a-by-9. 8a3-lla-7a2, 2a-6a2 + 10, -5 + 4a3 + 9a, and lSa'-5-12\

a;22/
and
17.
+ 2a;2/' + 3i^
o^^/'
4-
2/^
_ 5 ^^^^
6a^
+ 5tf-7 xy',
and _82/' + 9a^2/-7aj3.

'^18.
lla^-13 + 4a:3^5^^ -14x + 2a^ + 7 + 12a^, Sx'-3x-10-{-6x% and l-15a^H-9a;- 16
a^.
|a2-|a-|, -Ja^ + a + l, and _7a2_6tt_^|. ^20. 5mhi-n^-4.m^-\-2m7i% 7 mn^ ~lSm^n + 2m^-d7i%

19.
V2l.
- 15 m7^2 + 3 m^n + 16 + 8 m%_ 5 m^ + 3 mn^ 6 + 10 m^n. -5n3 + 2n-12-15<, - 14 + 7 n - n^ - 9 n^, 6?i2+137i3^3_ll^^ and ^-nn + 10n^ + 4.n\
71^
and
?i^
t SUBTRACTION OF MONOMIALS
47.
The remainder when
h is subtracted
from a
is
expressed
a-6(4).
We will
By
34,
now show how to subtract h from a. the sum of the remainder and the subtrahend equals
the minuend.
that,
Then, the required remainder must be an expression such when it is added to 6V:^he sum shall equal a. But if a- + 5 is added to 6, the sum is a ( 35). Therefore, the required remainder is a + b.
That
48.
is,
a-(-6) = a + 6.
47,
Prom
we have
the following rule

its sign,
To
the
subtract
a monomial, change
and add
the result to
minuend.

1.
25
Subtract 5 a from 2
a.
'
Changing the sign of the subtrahend,

uend,
2 a
2.
and adding the
result to the
min-
2 a
+ (-
5 a)
= -3 a
( 41).
Subtract
2a from 5 a,
5a^(-2a) = 5a + 2a = 7a.
3.
Subtract
5a from 2a.
-2a-(-5a)=-2a +
5 = 3a.
4.
Subtract 5{x-\-y) from 2(x-\-y).
- 2(a: +
The
?/)- 5(a;
?/)
=-
7(x
?/).
pupil should endeavor to put down the results, in examples like the above, v^îthout writing the intermediate step ; changing the sign of the subtrahend mentally, and adding the result to the minuend.
5.
From
23 a take the
23 a
sum
of 19 a
and
5 a.
is to
It is
subtracted,
convenient to change the sign of each expression which and then add the results.
19 a
he
We
then have
+ 5 a,
or
37 a.
EXERCISE 9
Subtract the following
1.
:
9 from
3.
4.
5.
'''e.
-5
from
12.
Y.
8. 9.
y^2.
3.
2 from - 6. - 16 from - 10.

10. 11.
42 from
15.
- 28
from
- 61.
-f from 3^. - if from - f. - 3|. lOf from

--14.
v*12.
a?
13.
14 a
^â^
4
g^
8a
15.
16.
-11a;
6c.
15 mn - 1 mn
12 x'y
7 x'y
5 6c from
xyz from
19.
19 (a -6) from 17 (a -6).
- 8 xyz.
'
20.
21. 22.
17.
18.
25
a^x^
from 13 a-x\
- 40 ahc from - 23 ahc.
- 18 a^c" from - 45 a%c\ From 7 x take - 11 y. From - 2 a^ take 5 w^.
26
23.
ALGEBRA
From
the
sum sum
of
18 ab and
9ab
take the
sum
of
21 ab
24.
and 11
ab.
From
the
of
13 n^
and 24
n^ take the
sum sum
of
46 n^ and
19 n^.
the
aj?/^,
V 25. From 29 x^^ 34

J\
49.
sum
and
47
of 16 xy^
ic^/^.
and 37
a;?/^
take the
of
SUBTRACTION OF POLYNOMIALS
may be regarded as the sum we have the following rule
:
Since a polynomial
of its
separate terms ( 38),
To subtract a polynomial, change and add the result to the minuend.

1.
the sign
of each of
its
terms,
Subtract 7 a^^
_ 9 a'b -\-Sb^
from 5
a^
- 2 a'b
-\- 4.
ab\
subtrahend under the minuend, so that similar terms shall be in the same vertical column. We then mentally change the sign of each term of the subtrahend, and
It is
convenient to place tlie
add the
result to the
minuend
thus,
4:
,6a^-2a^b +
ah^
+ 7 a62 ^ 8 63 5a3+ 1 a% -Sab^-Sb^

9 d^h
2.
Subtract the
sum
of 9x^
Sx-{-x^
and d
is
a^ + x
from
and
6a;3-7ic-4.
We change the sign of each expression which add the results. ^ ^ a; 4 6x^ 7 -x^-9 xl+ 8 X
6
aj3
to be subtracted,
+ x'^- x-5 _ 8 x2 -9
10
EXERCISE
Subtract the following:
1.
aj^
2.
-|-
3.
4- 13
a?
11
3a^-\-6x5
2 m^ 4 mn 9n^ 8m^ 7 mn +, 14 n^
ab \-bc + ca ab bc-^ ca

4.
27
5.
6.
7.
From Sx + 2y 7z subtract Sx 2y-\-7z. From 4:a^- 5a^ -15a-6 take a^ -120,' -3a
+ ll.
From
7a 9c 6
subtract
5c + 12 a 85.
8.
Subtract 5(x+y)-\-9(xy) from 7 (x-{-y)6(xy). Take 49 x^ + 16 m^ - 56 mx from 25 m^ -f- 36 a^ - 60 mx.
9.
10.
V 11.
12.
+ 6 a^?/ 4 11 9 xry + 14: xy^ Sy^? Take 8 a - 12 a^^ + 6 aft^ - 6^ from a^-6 o?h + 12 a^^ _ 8 h\ What expression must be added to 3 a^ + 5 By how much does 2 m 4 m^ 15 + 17 m^ exceed 9 + 6 m^ 11 m 14 m^ ?
By how much
does 15
or^
a??/^
2/^
exceed Sx^
a?
to give
13.
14.
15.
From
+ 15 ar^- 18 subtract ~2x' -13 + 41 Take 3 6-16 d + 7 a -10c from -13c-hl4 a-5d^9 Subtract 12a; 7^-6?/ from lln + 3m 8a;.
a?
ix^.
6.
v'le.
17. 18. 19.
From
7r-5+20 7i3+13n
take
-9-14
71^
+16ii+5
rz^.
From fa tV^ + to^ subtract ia + |6 fc. Subtract 15 a -21^2 + 17 from -12d' + 22a^-9a
Take a^-Qo? -Ua^-Sa-\-4:
from 7a^
+ 3a'^-5a2-lla-9. \7i-\-^p take fm J7i + Jj9. ^m From n^-10A'-nV + 8wa;=^ + 3a;4 ^1. take 5 n^ + 4 nâ; - 9 nâ;^ + 2n:x?- 12 a;^ 22. Take 18a;*-8a; + 6a;^ + 12-8a;3 from -10a;3^2-15a;2 + llar^-4a;. - 10 a%'' + 13 a'W - 7 ah'' -5 b' 23. Take from 9 (f + 3 a'b + 6 r/// - a^fts _ ig 5 xy - ?/ and 7 x^ 3xy-\-9y^ ^ 4. From the sum of 2 ^ Ql subtract 4x^ 6xy-{-S y^. O' ^ 25. From 5 a^ 1. subtract the sum of 4 a^ and 3 a
20.
From
a-^
55^
.r-
'^
"*.
28
26.
ALGEBRA
From 7x 5z~3y
and
subtract the
4tX.
sum
of S y
-\-
2x
11 z
27.
28.
29.
6z~12y + 6 n 11 subtract the sum of 2 4 n 3, 77i2-107i + 4, and -3n2 + 8n-12. From the sum of 36 + 2a-4c and 9G-\-3b~5d subtract the sum of 6 7 a and 8a 7d + 9& + 5c. From the sum of 4a-l + 5a^-8a^ ll-da'+Sa^-T a,
From
671^
r^^
c?
and
3a^-7+10a-a^
subtract
30.
a*^
+ 9 a 6 a^ + 2.
3a^-10a;-5
From
the
sum
of 7 a^-4.x^-\-Gx and
take the
sum of 5a^ + 4ic-|-12 and 8a^-lla;2_2.
PARENTHESES
50. Removal of Parentheses.
By
45,
a+
(6
c) = a + 6
c.
Hence, parentheses preceded by a -\- sign may he removed without changing the signs of the terms enclosed.
Again, by
(h G) = a h-\-c. Hence, pa7-entheses preceded by a sigyi

49,
may
-{-
be
to
removed if
the sign
of each term enclosed be changed, from
, and from
to
^.
rules apply equally to the removal of the brackets,
The above
braces, or
( 12). It should be noticed in. the case of the latter that the sign apparently prefixed to the first term underneath is in reality
vinculum
prefixed to the vinculum the (a b), and
thus, 4- a
ab
same as
6 means (a b).
the same as
61.
1.
Eemove
the parentheses from
2a-36-(5a-4 6)4-(4a-6).
By
the rules of
50,
the expression becomes
2a-3&-5a + 46 + 4a-6 = a.

Parentheses sometimes enclose others
be
;
29
in this case they
may
by the rules of 50. Beginners should remove one at a time, commencing with the innermost pair but after a little practice, they should be able
in succession
;
removed
to
remove several signs of aggregation
at
one operation, in which

pair.
case they should

2.
commence with the outermost
Simplify 4fl? \^ x -\remove the vinculum
{ 2 x x a)\.
then the parentheses, and finally the
We
braces.
first,
Thus,
4a;-{3x+(-2x-x-a)} = 4x-{3x + (-2aj-x + a)} = 4x {3x 2x x + a} = 4x 3x + 2x4-aJ = 4x a.

EXERCISE
II
Simplify the following by removing the signs of aggregation, and then uniting similar terms
:
1.
2.
Z.
4.
5.
6.
^7.
*8.
9.
m + ( 4 m + 6 2x-^y-[px + y-]+\-^x-ly\. a-6-2c + 2a-b-c -^-2b-c. 4.y^-2x'-l-4.x^-7xy + 5y^^ + (Sx^-9xy). Sa^-5ab-l-4.a'-{-2ab-9b^-7a'-6ab + b\ 5a-(7a-[9a + 4]).
9
?i)
(3 m n).
7x-l-Sy-10x-lly]. 6 m?i + 5 ([ 7 m7i 3] 5 m7^ 11 ). 8 a^ - 9 - (5 a^ - 3 a + 2) + (6 a^ - 4 a - 7).

J J
10.
^11.
12.
2x-{Sy-\-5x-5x-y)-(-9y-^3x). 25- (-8- [-34-16-47]).

7x-(5x-[-12x-\-6x-ll']).
/13.
2a-(-3b-\-c-la-b])-(Sa-\-2c-[^2b-{-ScJ).
30
14.
ALGEBRA
5m-[7m- J-3m-4wi + 9i -6m-8]

+ 7) j]. m [71 6 m] [m + 7 nj). 2a+[-6&- S3c + (-46-6c + a)J]. 7x-(-6x-l~5x-[-4:X-3x-22l). 5 n - [S - (3 n + 6) - - 6 n -\-7 - 5\'].
37-[419
513
j
15.
16. 17. 18. 19.
-(56 -28
m (3 n +
71
71
20. 21.
22.
4a-[a- 5-7a-(8a-5a + 3)-(-6a-2a-9)|].

a?_
5
-11 2/- [2 a;-(-42/-S- 7 aj-5 2/1 -6 i-9?/)]j.
3a-[6-(46-7c)-f2a-(36-5c)-66 + cn.
^23. 2aj-[-4iK-{oa;-(aj-7a; + 6)j+(3aj-8a;-9)].

52. Insertion of Parentheses.
To
enclose
terms in parentheses, we take the converse of the
rules of 50.
A7iy 7iumber of terms

by a
-{-
may
may
be enclosed in pa7êntheses preceded
sign, without cliangi7ig their signs.
Any mimber
by a
of terms
sign, if the sign
or fi-om
be e7iclosed in parentheses p7'eceded each êrm be changed, froin -{- to , of
to
-\-.
Ex.
Enclose the last three terms of a
parentheses preceded by a
Result,
b + c d-\-e
in
sign.
e).
{c-\-d
12
EXERCISE
In each of the following expressions, enclose the last three terms in parentheses preceded by a sign
:
1.
a b c-\-d.
5. 6.
7.
"2.
3. 4.
m3
+ 2?7i2 + 3m + 4.
4:X^ y^ 2yz z\ d\ a^ + b- - c-\-
x'^xhj-xy''-7f.
x'^-2xy^7f + 3x-4.y.
a2-462 + l26-9.
V%. n^-b n^-S7i'' + ^n
+ l.
ADDITION AND SUBTIIACTION

9.
31
in
In each of the above results, enclose the last two terms
})arentheses in brackets preceded
by a
sign.
53. Addition and Subtraction of Terms having Literal

cients.
Coeffi-
To add two
or
more terms involving the same power
of a
certain letter, with literal, or numerical and literal, coefficients, it is convenient to put the coefficient of this letter in parentheses.
1.
Add ax and
x.
Bji 40,
ax-\-2x
(2
(a
2)x.
'
2.
Add
n)ij
m + n)y
3 7i)y
and (m
3 n)y.
(2
m+
+ (m -
w + w) + (w - 3 n)']y = (2 m + w + m - 3 ri)?/( 50) = (3 w - 2 w)?/.

[(2
to put
(The pupil should endeavor

3.
down
the result in one operation. )
Subtract (b
48,
c)a^ from
ax2
ax^.
By
(6
c)a;2
= ia-(ib- c)]x2 = (a - & + c)x2 (

13
50).
EXERCISE
Add
1.
the following
bx.
cc^.
ax and
4.
5.
mx, nx, and px.
y 2.
3
.
mx^ and 2 mny and pqy.
VQ.
aV and (ab b^)af. 7 d)n. (3 a + 4 b)n and (5 c

nxy from
(p
Subtract the following :

^î^.
8.
2 bx from 3 ax.
9.
aa;^/.
mny from
V 11.
a6?/,
10.
+ g)a;
from
ma;.
(2
-3
b)y^
from
(5 a
- 4 b)y\
32
ALGEBRA
IV.
MULTIPLICATION OF ALGEBRAIC EXPRESSIONS

h are
54. The Rule of Signs.

If a
and
any two positive numbers, we have by
25^
(+ a) X (+ &)= + ab,
(a)x(-{-b) =
ab,
we may
state
:
(+a) X (- &) = - db, (_,) x ( 6) = + &.

what
is
From
these results
called the Rule of
Signs in multiplication, as follows
TJie product of two terms of like sign of two terms of unlike sign is 7iegative.
is
positive; the product
55.
We
have by
54,
( a) X (
6)
X (
c)
= (ab) x ( c) = abc
;
(1)
(1),
(- a) X (-
6)
X (- c) X (- d)=(- abc) x(-d), by
= abcd',
etc.
That is, the product of three negative terms is negative the product of four negative terms is positive and so on. ^ In general, the product of any number of terms is positive or
;
;
negative according as the
number of negative terms
is
even or odd.
56. The
Let
it
Law of Exponents. be required to multiply a^ by al

a^
By
and
lly
Whence,
a^
= a X a X a, a^ = axa. a^ = a X a x a x a x a =
a""
a'^.
We
Let
will
it
now
consider the general case.
be required to multiply
by
a",
where
m and n
are
any positive integers.
MULTIPLICATION OF ALGP^BRAIC EXPRESSIONS
38
We
and
have
a'^âxax
a''
to
m factors,
n
factors.
?-
Then,
(r
a''
= axax =a x ax
, is
-" to

to
m+
factors
= "*+".
(The Sign of Continuation^
read ''and so
ony)
^tlence, the exponent of a letter in the product is equal to its exponent in the multiplicand plus its exponent in the multiplier.
This
is
called the
Law
of Exponents for Multiplication.

three or more
similar result holds for the product of powers of the same letter.
Thus,
a^xa^x
a'
= a^+'*+^ = a^.
MULTIPLICATION OF MONOMIALS
57.
1.
Let
it
be required to multiply 7 a by
2 5.
By
31,
7
_,26=(-2)x&.
a x (- 2
Then,
6)=
7 7
a x
(-
2)
&
=
In the above solution,
ivritten in
x(-2)x
a X
6=-14a&.
(54)
we assume
that the factors of a product can he

its
any order.
called the
This
is
the various forms of
Commutative Laid for Multiplication ; number will be found in 453.
proof for
2.
(
Eequired the product of
2 a^h^,
6 ab^, and
7 a^c,
- 2 a^b^) X
Q ab^ X
(-
7 a^c)
= (-2)a^b^x 6ab^x(-7)a*c = ( 2) X 6 X ( - 7) X ^2 X X = 84 a^ftSc, by 55 and 56.

Of
6^
6^
We
then have the following rule for the product of any

of
number
monomials
>^To the product of the numerical coefficients ( 30, annex the letters ; giving to each an exponent equal to
its
31, 55, 56)

the
sum
of
expo7ients in the factors.
34
3.
ALGEBRA
Multiply
-Ba^bhj -S
5
aW.
(4.
a%) X
8 ah^)
40 a^+iî+s
^ 40 a^î,
Find the product of 4

4 w2 X
n^,
3 n^,
and 2 w^
3 w6) X 2 w*
= - 24 ^2+6+4. = - 24 n".
5.
Multiply x'^hj 7 x\
6.
Multiply 6
6
c
(?.
+ ny by
7
(m
+ nf= 42 (m +
14
w)^-
(m + ny X
(m +
w)^
EXERCISE
Multiply the following:
1.
a;''
by 4
a;2.
V 9.
10.
2.-8 a^h by 7 ab\ - 3 by. V* 3. 11 ax by 4.-7 xf by 9

/5.
HI.
1^12.
a.-^?/.
15
6V by
a^ft^
1^
13.
v6.
7.
^8.
- x^y^'z' by a^/2;. by 2/)^ 13 - 5 a%h' by - 12

(a;
2/)
14.
15.
+ 5)^ by 6(a + &)' - 6 aV/ by 11 x^zK - 2 a^-ft^n by - 5 a"^6^. 14 xPy""^ by 8 4 m^ - 7 m^ and - 3 m\ 2 a^ 6 6^ and - 8 c^
9(a
a;*?/*^.
(aj
a^^6,
ft^c"*,
and cV^.
17.
V 18.
y
19.
20.
21.
a'^^'^c^ 16. - 5 a^y, - 9^V, and- z'x x^, 6 and 4 2 - 3 a% - 5 5^c, - 2 câ, and - a^ftV. 3 mhiâ?, 4 mhi^y^, 5 mô^y'^, and 6 A-y. - WPd', - a'^d^, and - 0. a2"tc^ 2 mx^, 3 my, 5 iiV, and 4 n^?/*. m^Ti^,
a)^,
aj'',
aj^.
MULTIPLICATION OF POLYNOMIALS BY MONOMIALS

58. In
ac
40,
we assumed
that the product of a
+6
by
was
+ he.
35
We
then have the following rule for the product of a poly:
nomial by a monomial
V Multiply
add
Ex.
each term of the multiplicand by the multiplier^ and
the 2)ciTtial products.
Multiply 2a^-5aj + 7 by -83^
(2a;2_5x+7)x(-8a:3)
= (2a:2)x(-8x3) + (-5a;)x(-8a;3) + (7)x(-8a;S) = _ 16x5 + 40x4-56^:3.

The student should put down
the final result in one operation.
EXERCISE
Multiply the following
/I.
2.
:
15
5a;-12 by 7 x.
10 a^b -^7 ah' by
5.
8a;^
by 6x^-\-5x-17.
-6ab\
by
6.
7.
-4:a^b^ by
7
x'^y^''
3a^-2ah-ib\
by 3xhf.
^. x^ 4:X^y^ + 4:y^
,4.
Sm^'-m^-S
k
9.
by
xY-l 5m^
7i^
S x^y"
e,
8.
6a^-4a^-5a^ by 9a^
m^n + 8
2
a'b'
^ 10.
by
3 m'* by 12 m^n'^. a^ ~ 6 a^^ + 12 aft^ _ g 53^ +

7i4
kll. 9?i2_6-2n3-57i
/12.
by
-3n^
bo^-2x'y-{-4.xy''-3f hy llxy.
iMULTIPLICATION OF POLYNOMIALS BY POLYNOMIALS

59.
Let
it
be required to multiply a-\-b by c-\-d.
As
in 40,
we multiply
(a
a-\-b by
c,
and then a-\-b by

that
is,
d,
and add the second result
to the first;
+ 6) (c + d) = (a 4- b)c + (a + b)d = ac be -{ ad bd.

-\-
-\-
We then
have the following rule
Multiply each term of the multiplicand by each term of the

multiplier, arid
add
the partial products.
36
60.
1.
ALGEBRA
Multiply 3 a
-46
by 2 a- 5b.
In accordance with the rule, we multiply 3 a 5 &, and add the partial products.
ib
by 2
a,
and then by
convenient arrangement of the work being in the same vertical column.
is
shown below,
similar terms
3a -4& 2a -5b
6a2- Sab
6 a2
- 15 a5 + 20 62 _ 23 a6 + 20 h^
The work may be
verified
by performing the example with the multi-
plicand and multiplier interchanged.

2.
Multiply 4 aa^
+ a^ -Sa^ -2a^x
hj 2x
+ a.
convenient to arrange the multiplicand and multiplier in the same order of powers of some common letter ( 43), and write the partial
It is
products in the same order. Arranging the expressions according to the descending powers of a, ^^^^
we
a3-2a2x + 4ax2-8a;3
a
a*
+2x
- 2 a^x + 4 a'^x^ - 8 ax^ 2 a^x - 4 a2y2 + Sax^16 x*
o^
-16x*
EXERCISE
:
16
VI.
2. 3.
5x-7 hj Sx + 2, 8 m -f n by 8 m + n. 2a-3 hy 6a-7,

7.
V^4.
5.
6.
+ 8 by -5a;?/-4. m 3 by m + 3. m^ a^- a- 12 by a- 7.
-10a;?/
4(a-6)-3by4(a-6)+3. ^8. x^-2xy-\-Sy^hj x-3y.

9.
4.m^-h9n^-6m7ihj3n-{-2m.
10.
/ 11.
ia-i6by-ia-i6.
x 4:yhjx^-{-4:xy
+ 16 y^.
MULTIPLICATION OF ALGEBKAIC EXPRESSIONS

12.
37
13.
14.
15.
16.
+ & + c by a 6 3 m 5 m^ by 6 m^ 4- 5 m\ " - 4 + 2 _ n3 by 2 + 8 2ci2-3a + 5by a2 + a-2. + 1 by 7(m + w)- 2. 6(m + n)2 - 5(m +
a
c.
-{4:
71
7i2
71.
ii)
17.
18. 19.
2ar^-3aj2_5^_jLby
2
3a.'-5.
6x-\-2af-\-Shy -4:-\-x^-3x.
^20.
21.
*
+ m^ + 3 mn by 2^^^ - 3 mn + m^. fx2_|^ + _4^ by fa^ + |. 4 a^ + 6 a - 10 by 2 a- - 3 a + 5.

7i2
22.
23.
9aj
+ 2a;2_5by4 + 3.r2-7a;.
-j-3n-4rhy9n'-5n- 6.
10 n'
^24.
x^p+'^y
a-^
xhf
by
a^î'-i
+ ^/^"^
62.
25. 26.
V
27. 28.
29.
30.
+ 2a26 + 2a62 + &'by a2-2a& + m^ - 3 m^ + 9 m^ - 27 m + 81 by m + 3. 3(a + &)'-2(a + ?>)+l by 4(a + 6)2-(a + 5) + 5. 3 + aV-7a-4a2by a + a2-7. 8 m' + 12 mhi + 18 mî^ + 27 by 2 m^î - 3 innK 4 a'^+'b' - 3 a'b'' by a^+'b - 2 a6"-\.
71^
V'31.
32.
-a^-2cv'-Jr6a-5hya'-2a-{-10.
5a;*-6a:^-4a^ + 2ic-3by 3a;-2.
m^'
V33. 4
+ 6 m^n - 5 7^71^-3 yf by 3
wo?
771^
+ 2 mri - tiI
'
'^
35.
mx + my nx ny by
my + nx ny.
36. 37.
^
38.
+ 3 a'x + 3 ax- + a^, a^-6a;?/ + 9/by 0^3-90^2^ + 27 a;?/2-27 c^ by a'" 6" + a"' +
a^
2/3.
Z)'*
a^-3a'x + 3ax'-a^hj
c^.
38
39.
40.
ALGEBRA
2n^-Sn^-n + 4:hj 2n^-Sn^-\-n-4:, 5x'-7 + 2x'-8xhj -4:-i-3x^-5x,

5a^ +
41.
42.
a^-2a'-6a-j-3hj2d'-a-6.
by
-i-m-
fm^-fm-l
a
+ im-|.
43.
44.
+ 3,
4- 4,
and
a 5.
45. 46.
^47.
48. 49.
+ l. 2 + 4 and m-\-2n, im? 7, 5 8, and 6 5. 4 wi + 2, 3, cc- 5, and + 6.

a?-6, 3a?-2, and4a;
77i7z
7?^,
m^
8 nK
771
7>i
0^
.T
a;
+ 2&,
3a-45, and3a--2a6-862.
7n
2x + y,2x y,4.x^ + y^, and

2m-\-on, 2
n2
71
50.
51.
V52.
61.
+ + 2, a-2, a + 3, 3a-l,
722
71
+ y^. Sn, Sm-{-2 n, and 3 m 2 w. + 2, and + 3^2 4.

16
x^
71^
and 3 a^-2 a^- 19 a-6.
same power
If the product has more than one term involving the of a certain letter, with literal, or numerical and
literal, coefficients,
we put
the coefficient of this letter in paren-
theses, as in
53.
Ex.
Multiply x^
x^
ax bx + ab
by x a.
ax
xa

^2.
3.
39
4.
V^ 5.
:k? -\-
6.
7.
8.
mx nx mn by xp. hx cx-\-hc by x a. ax hx Z ah hj X h. x^ + ax + 2bx-\-2 ab by x + 5 gaj 5 j)g by 3ax bx-\-8ab by + 2 a. x' mx -^nx mn by x-\-'dn.
x^
x'^
-{-
-\-
c.
ic^
2>a;
a?
r.
ic^
cc
4:
4:
^9.
10. 11.
}/ 12.
a;2_^3ax-26a; + 6a6 by i-4c.
{a-h)x-3ab hj 2x-(a-b).
ic^"
5 ax"" 4- 4 5a;" 2ab by + - l)a;2 + (a + 2)x - (a + 3) by (2 a

ic"
c.
(a
- 2)x - a.
â?. Simplify {a-2 xf -2{3 a^x){a-x). yC.62. To simplify the expression, we first multiply a 2 aj by itself
then find the product of

result
2,
3a
x,
and a
( 11)
we
x,
and subtract the second
from the
a
first.
3a +
a
aj
40
4.
5. 6.
ALGEBRA
3m + iy(Sm-iy. X -y){x'- if) - (x + 2/)(a^ + y").

2a + 3 6)2-4(a-5)(a + 5
6).
^
7.
3x-{5y + 2z)-]\Zx-{by-2z)-].
8.
9.
/
10. 11.
m + 2 w (2 m n)'\ [2 m + (m 2 n)]. a + 6)+c2-(a-6-c)l a + 2)(a + 3)(a _ 4) + ( - 2)(a - 3)(a + 4).

?^
ix-^^y + \z)\
2x2+(3^-l)(4.T + 5)][5x2-(4a; + 3)(aj-2)].
12.
13. 14.
15.
16.
^17.
^
18.
+ 2 & - c - 3 c^)l a - 2)(a + 3) - (a - 3)(a + 4) - (a - 4)(a + 5). + 2) (2 - 1) (3 - 4) - - 2) (2 4- 1)(3 + 4). - - ^)] [^ - (^ -2/)]^-{ya - h) {o? + [a(a -\-h) + a + 6-2c)2-(& + c-2a)2+(c + a-26)2.
a
aj ic
aj
(a;
a;
a;
2^)] [2/
(^^
?>3)
Z)^].
#19.
20.
'
21. 22.
23.
24.
+ l)3+(2a;-l)l + & + c)(a& 4- &c 4- ca) (a + b)(h + c)(c + a). aJr'2hf-2{a + 2h){2a + h) + {2a + hf. x + y + zf-3{y + z)(z + x)(x + y). aJ^hf + 3{a-^rh)\a-h) + ?>{a + h){a-hf-{-{a-hY
2aj
DEFINITIONS
monomial is said to be rational and integral when it number expressed in Arabic numerals, or a single letter with unity for its exponent, or the product of two or more such numbers or letters.
63.
is
either a
Thus, 3 a^W, being equivalent to 3
&
6, is
rational
and
integral.
41
A
term
polynomial
is
is
said to be rational
;
and integral when each
rational
and integral
as
2 a^ -a6 + cl
letter
64. If a term has a literal portion which consists of a single with unity for its exponent, the term is said to be of the
fifbt degree.
Thus, 2 a
is
of the hrst degree.

rational
The degree of any the number of terms
and integral monomial ( 63) is of the lirst degree which are multiplied
3 a%^, being equivalent
;
together to form its literal portion. Thus, 5 ah is of the second degree

to 3
&
&
5, is
of the fifth degree
etc.
The degree cf a rational and integral monomial equals the sum of the exponents of the letters involved in it.
Thus,
a6V
is
of the
eiglith
degree.
is
and integral polynomial of its term of highest degree. degree 3c d'^ is of the third Thus, 2 a^h degree.
of a rational
The degree
the
65. Homogeneity.
Homogeneous terms are terms of the same degree. Thus, a^, 3 bh, and 5 x^y'^ are homogeneous terms.
A polynomial
homogeneous ;
is
said to be
homogeneous when
its
terms are
as a^ 4- 3 &^c 4 xyz.
66. If the multiplicand and multiplier are homogeneous, the product will also be homogeneous, and its degree equal to the sum of the degrees of the multiplicand and multiplier.
The examples
the third,
first,
in 60 are instances of the above law
thus,
in Ex. 2, the multiplicand, multiplier, are homogeneous,
and of
and fourth degrees,
respectively.
possible, apply the prinhomogeneity to test the accuracy of algebraic work. Thus, if two homogeneous expressions be multiplied together, and the product obtained is not homogeneous, it is evident that
The student should always, when
ciples of
the work
is
not correct.
42
ALGEBRA
V.
DIVISION OF ALGEBRAIC EXPRESSIONS
67.
We
define Division, in Algebra, as the process of finding
one of two numbers, when their product and the other number
are given.
The Dividend is the product of the numbers. The Divisor is the given number. The Quotient is the required number.
68. The Rule of Signs.
Since the dividend
is
the equations of
54
may
the product of the divisor and quotient, be written as follows

:
^=+b, =^= + h, =^ = -6, a +a +a

Froiji these results,
sion, as follows
:
and
+^ = -6.
a
we may
state the Rule of Signs in divi-
The quotient of two terms of like sign of two terms of unlike sign is negative.
69. Let
is
positive; the quotient
- = x,
(1)
quotient,
Then, since the dividend is the product of the divisor and we have a = hx
Multiply each of these equals by
ac
c
(Ax.
7, 9),
= hex.
he as the divisor,
Eegarding ac as the dividend,

quotient, this
and x as the
may
be written
Prom
That
(1)
and
(2),
=
^.
(Ax.
4, 9)
(3)
a factor common to the dividend and divisor cayi he or caiicelled. removed,

is,

70.
43
The Law
it
of
Exponents for Division.
Let
be required to divide a^ by al
-og^-,
Cancelling the
aâxaxaxaxa
a^
ax
factor a
common
a^
a^
xa
( 69),
o
we have
= a xaxa = a^.
We
Let
will
it
now

a"*
be required to divide
by
a",
where
and n are any
positive integers such that

vKj
a"*
Yi
m is
greater than n.
_a
X a Xa X
to
to
m
?i
factors
a**
a X a X a X
factor
factors
factors,
Cancelling the
common
a""
axaxax-"ton
torn
^ = axaxax
Hence,
exponent
% factors = a"*"".
the exponent of a letter in the quotient is equal to its
m the dividend,
minus
its
exponent in the divisor.
This
is
called the Laio of Exponents for Division.
DIVISION OF MONOMIALS
71.
1.
Let
'
it
be required to divide
14a^6 by
7a^.
By857
-14a25
7a2
^ (_2)x7xa2x&
7xa2
or-
Cancelling the
common
factors 7
and
( 69),
we have
Then
To
minus
the
to find the quotient of
two monomials
coefficients
the quotient
of
the
numerical
annex
the letters,
giving to each
its
an exponent equal
to its
exponent in the dividend

letter
same exponent in
exponent in the divisor, ajid omitting any the dividend and divisor.
having
44
2.
ALGEBRA
Divide 54
a'h^c'
by
- 9 a^6l
= - 6 a5-4c2 = - 6 ac2.
54 a663c2
3.
9 a*63
Divide
2x'^'^y''z''
by
'"i/V.
4.
Divide 35 (a
- hj by
7 (a
6)^
EXERCISE
Divide the following
1.
:
19
30by-5.
4.
5.
-64by8.
7. 8.
-H^y^.
21
a^^
2.
- 42
by
6.
- 135 by - 9.
176 by -11.
-
by 3 a^
3.
-48 by -4.
6 a^Y" by
6.
10.
^11.
- a^y^\
3 (a -5)2.
18.
19.
9 (a
-6^ by
by
12.
13. 14.
xifz^
--2/^.
20. 21. 22.

23.
24.
- 13 m%i*' by - 13 m'n\ 45 {x + by - 5 (x 4- ?/)^

?/)^
15. 16.
72a;yby6a;y.
- 40 a^h'c' by - 8 he.
90aiâjby
-63mVby7mV. - 28 a^6V by 2 6V. a"+i6'*+3 by - a6^ - 55 afyh''' by - 11 yh\ - 70 a^6V by 14 a5V. - 32 by - 8 V- 96 a^"^-Y by 12 aj^'+V52 a^^ftV^ by - 4 a'h(^.
9.
x^Py''-^'a;
17.
9aV.
25.
132 a^y^^^ by 12 a^y^.

6
Find the numerical value when a = 2,

(^
= 4,
= 5,
and
= -3of:
10 a6
c(^
2g
ftir
8ac
*
6d
2ft
CT4-4&
^^^y^
3c4-d*
+ 14& 12c - 9 & + 17 c' & & c 29 'a + 36 6 + 5c

28
'^
'
13 a
c + 4d*
c
(?

DIVISION OF POLYNOMIALS BY MONOMLALS
72.
45
We have,
we may regard
(a
is
+ b)c = aG-{- be.
Since the dividend

( 67),
ac
the product of the divisor and quotient be as the dividend, c as the divisor,
and a
+&
as the quotient.
Whence,
^^^^ = a + 6.
c
Hence, to divide a polynomial by a monomial, we divide each term of the dividend by the divisor, and add the results.
Ex. Divide 9
a^b^ -â''c-\-
12
a^bc^
by
- 3 a\
9 a-252 - 6 g^c + 3 ^2
12 a%c^
^ _ 3 5. ^ ^ aH -A abcK
EXERCISE 20
V
:
1.
25a-15a + 40a^by 5a^
'.
2.
3.
24 mV + 33 mn^
36 xhjz^- 9
54 a^^V
by
3 mn^.
9
3^y.
xyz^- 27 ix^yh^hy
4.
.
- 60 a^6V by 6 a6V.
5.
6.
*
7. 8.
- 22 x^V + 30 xY + 26 xy by - 2 xy. 70 n'^ - 56 n^^ - 63 n^ + 49 n' by 7 n'. 66 + 77 xy^z 55 xyz'^ by 11

cc*2/^
ic^/^J.
9.
10.
+ 28ai2-4a9-20aby4a. _ a;?+y by cc^. 14 m^n^ - 28 mV + 28 m^n^ - 14 wiV by - 14 m^n\

36ai^
a;^+'?2/'*+2
11.
12.
'ÎS.
32a;^5
84
14.
+ 24a;i3_4g^n_4o^9]^y _8aj8^ - 108 xyz^ - 48 a^y^^ by 12 xyz\ a^^6'c*'' a^b'^(^-' - a^b^^'c^'' by a^c^\ 30 d^%i^7i^ 60 a^m^n^ 45 a%n^ by 15 dimn?.
aj2/'2;'
46
ALGEBRA
DIVISION OF POLYNOMIALS BY POLYNOMIALS
73.
Let
it
c.
a;2
-4-3
be required to divide 12
+ 10 x^ 11 21
a;
ic^
]3y
Arranging each expression according to the descending powers of x ( 43), we are to find an expression which, when 3 a? 4, will produce the multiplied by the divisor, 2 a^ 10 a? - 21 aj^ - 11 a; + 12. dividend, It is evident that the term containing the highest power of X in the product is the product of the terms containing the highest powers of x in the multiplicand and multiplier. Therefore, 10 ic^ is the product of 2 x'^ and the term containing the highest power of x in the quotient. Whence, the term containing the highest power of x in the quotient is 10 x^ divided^ by 2 .x^, or 5 x. Multiplying the divisor by 5 x, we have the product 10 a^ 15 a^ 20 aj which, when subtracted from the divi 6 a;^ + 9 x + 12. dend, leaves the remainder This remainder must be the product of the divisor by the rest of the quotient therefore, to obtain the next term of the 6 a^^ + 9 a? + 12 as a new dividend. quotient, we regard Q>x'^, Dividing tlie term containing the highest power of x, by the term containing the highest power of x in the divisor, 2 aj2, we obtain 3 as the second term of the quotient. 3, we have the product Multiplying the divisor by 6 + 9 aj + 12 which, when subtracted from the second dividend, leaves no remainder.
; ;
a.-^
Hence, 5
a;
3 is
the required quotient. 2 a^
lOa^^-
3 4,
a;
Divisor.

Arrange
the dividend
47
and
divisor in the
same order of powers
of some common letter. Divide the first term of the dividend by the first term of the divisor, and ivrite the result as the first term of the quotient. Multiply the ivhole divisor by the first term of the quotient, and
subtract the product from the dividend.
If there be a remainder, regard it as a new dividend, and, proceed as before; arranging the remaiyider in the same order
of powers as the divideyid and divisor.
1.
Divide
âW -{-a^-'db^ -5a-b by ^W + d'-2ab.

a,
Arranging according to the descending powers of

a3
5 a2&
9 a52 _
a?
2 a6
+ 3 52
48
5.
'
ALGEBRA
a^-Sb^ by a -2b.
28n2 + 34n-12 by -7n-\-2.
64ar^
6.
7.
V 8.
+ 27/
by
4aj
+ 3?/.
by 3(a;-2/)+4.
6(x-yy-7(x-y)-20
9.
vlO.
11.
12. 13.
14.
25mV-36 by 6 + 5mn. -25a^?/ + 12a?* + 12a^?/2 by 3a;2-4a;2/. 1877i3-17ma^-6aj3 by 3m + 2a;. 2n2-6 + 5n3-197i by -871 + 5^2-3. 124-13i2-19a;-12ar^by -3aj2-4 + y^ 2yz z^hjx y
x'^
a;.^
z.
15. 16.
+ bf-c" by 2(a + &)-c. 8 m'*/i 24 m%^ + 12 m^ 31 m^7i^

Sia
by 6m^ 8n^ 5mn.
17.
8a + 9a*-l-16a2 by l-3a2-4a.
|m^ ^m I by
18.
|m +
-i-
vl9.
20.
^^'21.
2x3_io_6^_|.^4^-|^]!
^.
by
2-{-a;2-ic.
a;*-81 by a;3_3 ^52+ 9 a;_27.
a4-256
m^
6^
by
a-4 6.
n'^
22.
23. 24.
7 mV +
by m^ + 3
mw + n\
81a:^-l by l+3a;.
6-a34-6a^-8a-23a2 by 2a + 3.
{x-^yy-9(x-hyy + 27(x-\-y)-2T by (x + y)-3. -36a;2_i-|.4a;4-12aj by -2:2^1 + 6a;.
^25.
26.
27.
10a-a2-25 + 16a^
by 5
+ 4a2-a.
by Sn^ + 4:n-}-l.
3 x^
-{- y"".
28.
,29.
â^ + |iby |aj + f.' 3n*-lln3-25n2-13n-2

2a;y + 2/' +
73ic
9aj'
30.
.
by
- 2 xy
-{-
31.
+ 37aj5-35 + 20a;^-15a;2
]^y
_5 + 4a;2-|-9
a;.

32.
49
243n^
a;^
33.
34.
+ l by 3n + l. + 16^ + 96a;2 + 256aj + 256
by
(x-\-4:f.
-60n^-\-127n'-{-2Un-336 by
- 12
rr'
+ 11 n + 66.
35.
_32 + a' by 8a4-a^ + 16 + 2a3_|_4a2.

j^^y
V36. a2'"+^5-"4-2a2-+3^2n+l_^^2m+552n+2
37.
a^ft"-!
+ a'+25n
38. 39.
'
40.
.41.
42.
k43.
44.
45.
46.
47.
48.
,
49.
50. 51.
52.
+ T6^'-6V&' ^>y i-i&. 5a^ + 24-33a;2 + l0aj + 3x4 by -4 + 3a;. a^ + S7a^-70x + 50 by x2-2a; + 10. a^'+2 4- 8 + 4 a^'^-i. by af"'+^ _ 2 {Sa' + 5a-2){2d'-a-6) by (3 a-l)(2a + 3). 63cc^ + 114ar^ + 49a^-16a;-20 by dx'-^-Qx-Q. a^+^52 - a6^^+' by a^+^h^-a+\ _ 55 _ 5 ^4^ 5 ^^4 _^ 10 a62 _ 10 a?h^ by a^-63-3a26 + 3a6l -6?i^-25n^ 4-7^3 + 81^12 + 3^-28 by _2n3-5n2 + 8yi + 7. 23a^-5i^-12 + 12a^ + 8a;-14a^ by a;-2 + 3a^. 15a3-4a^-15 + 8a-5a-2a4+3a2 by -a + 4a3-3. 52x3 + 64 + 18a;^-200.'K2 + by 6a^- 8 +a^-12a;. 6^" 2 6"c^ c^^ by a'" a-'" a-6aV + 9a2n^-47i^ by a^-2 o?n-an'' + 2n\ 3x^-7a;^-lla;^ + 5aj3 + 7a;2 4.5aj-2 by 3a^-a5-2. 5n3+6n-ri^-8 + 6n+46n2-38n^
2V^'-T2'^
a;^'"-!
a^*"
a-^
_l_
a;^
d**
c^.
by 2-57z24_3yi3_4^^^
53.
54.
^
V
55. 56.
fm^-f m-^. 9a^-252/'-402/2-1622 by 3a; + 52/ + 42!. 90 n* - 143 n^ - 102 n^ + 131 n + 60 by (2 n - 3)(5 n + 4). + a^'"^/^ + by a^"* aj*"/" +
by
a:*"
4m^-2m3 + -|m2-Jg
2/^
2/^^.
50
ALGEBRA
0?^
^57. 4
V
58.
- 21 a^y + 21 xY - 4
2/^
by (x-y)(x-2y){2x + y).
by (a-2)2 + 8a.
a5
+ 32 + 10a(a3 + 8)+40a2(a + 2)
74. By 66, if the dividend and divisor are homogeneous, the quotient will be homogeneous, and its degree equal to the degree of the dividend minus the degree of the divisor. 75.
The operation
of division is often facilitated
by the use
a;
of parentheses.
Ex.
x^
Divide x^-j-(a-\-bc)x^-{- {ah bcca)x abc by
+ a.
+ (a +
&
c)x2
{ab
be cd)x
abc
x-\-'a
x2 4- (6
x^+
ih
(ft
r^
c)x2
c)x'^
- c)x -
be
+ {ah
ca^x hex hex

EXERCISE 22
abc

^
1.
x^ -]-(a
2.
3.
05^
b c)x^ + { ab \-bc ca)x + abc b)x ab. x^ (a + (ab be ca)x abc by x + (a + 6

by
-\-
c)ic^
c.
o^(a + b-\-c)x^-\-(ab-}-bc-{-ca)xabc by
-j-
x'^(b-\-c)x-{-bc.
4.
a^_(a-2&-3 c)x^ {-2ab -\-6bc-3 ca)x - 6 abc by x^(a 3 c)x 3 ac.

a^+ (3 a + 64-2 c)r^+ (3 a&+2 bc-\-6 ca)x+6 abc by
a;4-3 a.
5.
.
6.
V
a(a-6)c2+(-a& + 624-&c)a;-c(6+c) by (a-b)x+c.
7.
m(m +
a?^
8.
9.
+ w^jaj + 7i(m n) by mic n. (m 2 n)x 2 m^ + 11 mn 15n^ by + m 3 n. - 9 mTi - 15 n^)x - (12 mn - 9 n^) (2 m2 4- 10 mn)x^ + (8 m^ 2 ma? 3 n. by
yi)^;^
(m^
a?
10.
a;3-(3a + 26-4c)a;''^4-(6a6-86c+12ca)a;-24a5cbya;-26.
INTEGRAL LINEAR EQUATIONS
51
VI.
76.

of either
Any term
member
of an equation
is
called a
term of the equation.

77. A Numerical Equation is one in which all the known numbers are represented by Arabic numerals as,
;
ic
7=
a-
4- 6.
An Integral Equation is one each of whose rational and integral expression ( 63) as,
;
members
is
78. An Identical Equation, or Identity, is one whose members are equal, whatever values are given to the letters involved as {a-\-h){a-h) a?-h\
;
The sign =, read "is identically equal of the sign of equality in an identity.
79.
to,''''
is
frequently used in place
An
equation
is
said to be satisfied
it
by a
set of values of
when, on substituting the value of each letter in place of the letter wherever it occurs, the equation becomes identical. Thus, the equation x y = 5 is satisfied by the set of values 07 = 8, y = S; for, on substituting 8 for x, and 3 for y, the equar tion becomes 8 3 = 5, or 5 = 5; which is identical.
certain letters involved in
.
80.
or
An
Equation
of Condition is
an equation involving one

is
more
letters, called
Unknown Numbers, which
satisfied
only by particular values of these letters. 2 = 5 is not satisfied by every value Thus, the equation a; of X, but only by the particular value x = 3.
An equation of condition is Any letter in an equation

unknown number
;
usually called an equation. of condition may represent an
but it is usual to represent bers by the last letters of the alphabet.
unknown num-
52
81.
ALGEBRA
If an equation contains but one
unknown number, any

the equation
is
value of the
unknown number which

a;
satisfies
called a Root of the equation. Thus, 3 is a root of the equation
+ 2 = 5.
To
solve
an equation
is
to find its roots.
82. If a rationaland integral monomial ( 63) involves a certain letter, its degree with respect to it is denoted by its
exponent. If it involves two letters, its degree with respect denoted by the sum of their exponents etc.
;
to
them
is
Thus, 2 aWx^y^ is of the second degree with respect to of the fifth with respect to x and y.
83.
If
x,
and
an integral equation
( 77)
contains one or more unis
known numbers,
the degree of the equation
the degree of
its
term of highest degree. Thus, if X and y represent unknown numbers,
axby = c
aj2
ic
is
an equation of the first degree
= 2, an equation of the second degree -f 4 2x^3xy^ = 5, an equation of the third degree etc.
;
;
A Linear, or
Simple, Equation
is
an equation of the
first
degree.
PRINCIPLES USED IN SOLVING INTEGRAL EQUATIONS

84.
Since the
we may
members of an equation are equal numbers, write the last four axioms of 9 as follows
:
1. TJie same number, or equal number's, may be added to both members of an equation imthout destroying the equality. 2. Tlie same number, or equal numbers, may be subtracted both members of an equation imthout destroying the equality. from 3.
Both members of an equation may be multiplied by
the saine
number, or equal numbers, without destroying the equality.

4. Both members of an equation may be divided by the same number, or equal numbers, imthout destroying the equality.

85. Transposing Terms.
c. Consider the equation x-\-a b Adding -- a and + 6 to both members
53
( 84, 1),
-\-
we have
In this case, the terms
X= ca + a and b are
b.
said to be transposed
from the
first
member
to the second.
Hence, any term may be transposed from one equation to the other by chariging its sign.
86. It follows from
member of an
85 that
If the same term occurs in both members of an equation affected

with the same sign,
it
may
be cancelled.
87. Consider the equation
ax=b
Multiplying
c.
(1)
each term by 1 ( 84), x a = G b\
we have
which
is
the same as equation (1) with the sign of every term
changed.
Hence, the signs of all the terms of an equation without destroying the equality.
88. Clearing of Fractions.
may
be changed,
Consider the equation
-X
3
5 = -x
6
9 8
the denominators (Ax.
Multiplying each term by 24, the lowest 7, 9), we have
common
multiple of
16x-30 = 20x-27,
where the denominators have been removed.
Removing the
is
fractions
from an equation by multiplication
called clearing the equation of fractions.
54
ALGEBRA
SOLUTION OF INTEGRAL LINEAR EQUATIONS
89. To we put it
solve an equation involving one into a succession of forms,
unknown number,
finally leads to the
which
value of the root.
This process is called transforming the equation. Every transformation is effected by means of the principles of 84 to 88, inclusive.
90. Examples.
1.
Solve the equation

5a;
7 = 3a; + l.
member, and
l.
Transposing 3cc to the

^^^'^
first
to the second ( 85),
we
5x-3x = 7 +
2x
Uniting similar terms,

Dividing both members by
= 8. = 4.
2 ( 84, 4),
a;
To
verify the result, put
cc
=4
20
in the given equation.

7
Thus,
2.
12
which
is
identical.
Solve the equation

7
5_3
6''"3~5''"4'
Clearing of fractions by multiplying each term by 60, the L. C. M. of
6, 3, 5,
and
4,
we have
70
a;
100
= 36 X -
15.
Transposing 36 x to the
70
first
a;
member, and
100 to the second,
- 36 X =
34 x
100 - 15.
Uniting terms,
= 85. = = -.
34
Divided by 34,
3.
Solve the equation

(5
-3
a:)
(3
+4
ic)
= 62 - (7-3 a;)(l --4a;).

Expanding,
Or,
65
15 15
+
+
11 x
12
x'-^
11 X
12 x2
31 x + 12 x^). = 62 - 7 + 31 X - 12 x^
62
(7
Cancelling the
12 x^ terms ( 86), and transposing,

11
31 X
= 62 40.
- 15.
Uniting terms,
Dividing
20 x =
x
by 20,
= 2.
is
To expand an
algebraic expression
to perform the operations indicated.
From
the above examples,
we have
the following rule for
solving an integral linear equation with one
unknown number
Clear the equation of fractions, if any, by multiplying each term by the L. C. M. of the denominators of the fractional coefficients.
Remove
the parentheses, if any, by
performing
all the
opera-
tions indicated.
Transpose the unknown terms to the first member, and the to the second ; cancelling any term which has the same coefficient in both members.
known
Unite similar terms,
of
the
and unknown number.
divide both
members by
the coefficient
The
pupil should verify every result.
EXERCISE 23
Solve the following equations, in each case verifying the
answer
1.
8x + 7 = 95.
9x = 5x-S2.
7a?
8. 9.
6x-2S = 15x-lS.
19-13a; = 31-29a;.
2. 3.
>4.
5.
6.
V7.
+ 15 = 2a; + 45. 10a;-3 = 3a;-38. 6a; + 13 = lla;-7. 5-18a; = 83-12a;. lla;-3 = 4 + 3a;.
10.
11.
Ux-51 = 27 x-33.
13
+12 = 37 + 43.
a; a;
V12.
13. 14.
= 51 -16aj. lla; + 17 = 65a; + 47. 98-16a; = 23-41a;.

21a;- 23
56
15.
16.
17.
ALGEBRA
17 a;- 9
+ 47 = 41 a;- 35 + 27. 13x-39 = 48a;-29ic-81. 54 = 26 a;-31x + 19a;-9.

a;
V18. 2x-
^x + -x = l(),
3
7
21.
V19.
^x ^x
24.
<^20.
57
PROBLEMS LEADING TO INTEGRAL LINEAR EQUATIONS WITH ONE UNKNOWN NUMBER

91. For the solution of a problem by algebraic methods, the following suggestions will be found of service
:
1.
Represent the unknown number, or one of the unknown

if
numbers
2.
there are several, by some letter, as
x.
Every problem contains, explicitly or implicitly, just as many distiyict statements as there are unhiown numbers involved.
Use
3.
all
but one of these to express the other

x.
unknown num-
bers in terms of
Use the remaining statement
to
form an equation.
92. Problems.
1.
Divide 45 into two parts such that the less part shall be
the greater part and the less. suggestion of 91, we represent the greater
;
one-fourth the greater.

Here there are two unknown numbers
In accordance with the
part by
x.
:
first
The first statement of the problem is, implicitly The sum of the greater part and the less is 45.
The second statement is The less part is one-fourth the
:
greater.
In accordance with the second suggestion of 91, ment to express the less part in terms of x.
we
use the Jirst state-
Thus, the
less part is
represented by 45
x.
state-
accordance with the third suggestion, use the second ment to form an equation.
in
We now,
Thus,
58
ALGEBRA
Let X represent the number of dollars B had at first. Then, 2 x will represent the number A had at first.
Now
after giving
$28,
has 2
a;
- 28
dollars,
and
+ 28
dollars
we then have
the equation
2a;-28=:^(x + o
Clearing of fractions,
a;
28).
Expanding,
Transposing,
6 84 = 2(cc + 28). 6 x - 84 = 2 + 56.

a;
Dividing by 4,
and
3.
= 140. = 35, the number of dollars B had at first; x 2 X = 70, the number of dollars A had at first.
4
cc
is
as old as B.
3 times as old as B, and 8 years ago he was 7 times Eequired their ages at present.
X
Let
Then,
Also,
the
the
number
number number
number
7

of years in B's age 8 years ago, of years in
and
Sx= x S= 3ft 8 =
the
the
A's age 8 years ago.
But A's age 8 years ago was

Whence,
Expanding,
Transposing,
times B's age 8 years ago.
3x-8 = 7(x-8). 3x 8 = 7a;-56. ._ 4 x = 48.

4, = 12, = 36, 3x
x
the
Dividing by
number
number
of years in B's age.

of years in
Whence,
4.
the
A's age.
sum
coins, all
of money amounting to $4.32 consists of 108 dimes and cents how many are there of each kind ?
;
Let
X
108
= the number
of dimes.
Then,
x = the number
to 432 cents.
of cents.
Also, the X dimes are worth 10 x cents.
But the
entire
sum amounts
Whence,
Transposing,
10 x + 108 - x = 432.
Whence,
and
= 324. = 36, the number of dimes - X = 72, the number of cents. 108
9 x

EXERCISE 24
>/l.
59
The
difference of
smaller exceeds the greater by 30.
two numbers is 12, and 7 times the Find the numbers.
2.
The sum
of
their difference
3.
by
4.
two numbers is 29, and the smaller exceeds Find the numbers.
is
-J,
Find two numbers whose sum
and difference
-|-.
4.
The sum
of
two numbers
is
three-fourths the smaller number.
44, and their difference Find the numbers.
is
45.
as old.
6.
A
'
is
4 times as old as B; and in 22 years he will be twice

ages.
Find their
is
3 times as old as
ages.
B and 6|- years

;
;
ago he was 5 times
as old.
Find their
J 7. A has 3 times as much money as B but after B gives him $9, he has 6 times as much as B. How much had each
at first?
8. man has 21 coins, all pieces, valued in all at $3.30.
dimes and twenty-five-cent
9.
A is
will
25 years be t\ô-thirds
How many has he of each? of age, and B is 16. In how many years as old as A ?
^ 10. Divide 43 into two parts such that if the greater be added to 17, and the less to 30, the resulting numbers shall
be equal.
11.
that one-third the
Twice a certain number exceeds 35 by the same amount number exceeds 5. Find the number.
12. Divide $280 between A, B, and C so that A's share exceed | of B's by $96, and B's share exceed C's by $20. 13.
may
ago
is
22 years of age, and

?
is 18.
How many years

and
was A's age f of B's

14.
A man
has $4.10,
five-cent
?
all five-cent
fifty-cent pieces;
and he has 5 more

has he of each
than fifty-cent pieces.
How many
60
ALGEBRA
15. The sum of f and f a certain number exceeds f the number by |. Find the number. 16.
If
give
has i 5.50, in order that B
and B ^3.50, how much money must may have | as much as A ?
room is f as long as it is wide; if the width were 17. increased by 1^ feet, and the length diminished by the same amount, the room would be square. Find its dimensions.
18.
The sum
is J.
ference
of two numbers is {^ the Find the numbers.
greater,
and their
dif-
A boy buys a certain number of apples at 2 for 5 and double the number at 3 for 5 cents, and spent in
V 19.
cents.
20.
.
cents,
all
35
How many
of each kind did he
buy
receive
Divide $320 between A, B, C, and D so that A may $ 35 more than B, C f 15 more than B, and D $ 25 less
than C.
21.
is
The sum
B's,
of the ages of A, B,
is
and C
is
f of
22.
and he
8 years younger than C.
52 years A's age Find their ages.

;
In a certain school the boys are 15 fewer than | of the whole, and the girls are 33 more than ^. How many boys, and
how many
I
girls, are
there ?
The sum of $900 is invested, part at 4%, and the rest 5%, per annum, and the total annual income is $42. How much is invested in each way ?
23.
at
1^24.
In 9 years
as old.
was I
25.
What
will be f as old as are their ages ?
and 12 years ago he
Let X represent the number of years in A's age 12 years ago.
and
has f of a certain sum of money, B has ^5 C has f, has the remainder, $8. How much have A, B, and C ?
;
v/ 26.
bought 8 hens, 7 sheep, and 12 pigs for $ 269 each sheep cost -U- as much as each hen, and $3 less than each
pig.
A man
What
did each cost ?
27.
Divide 66 into two parts such that f the greater shall
exceed f the less by 21.

|/ 28. Find two numbers whose sum
29.
is 10,
61
such that the square
of the greater exceeds the square of the less
by
40.
Find two consecutive numbers such that ^ the greater

2.
exceeds I the less by
1^30. person attempting to arrange a certain number of counters in a square finds that he has too few by 12; but on reducing the number in the side of the square by 3, he has
21 left over.
31.
How many
has he
twice as
many
purse contains a certain number of 10-shilling pieces, 5-shilling pieces, and 5 times as many shillings,
the contents of the purse being worth 5. there of each coin ?
How many
are
32. The square of the third of three consecutive numbers exceeds the product of the other two by 13. Find the numbers.
33.
shall be as
34.
Divide 39 into two parts such that 3 times the smaller much below 58 as twice the greater exceeds 38.
product
^
Find two numbers whose difference is 3, and whose is less by 33 than the square of the greater.
35.
the
The total "number of persons at a certain factory is 196; number of women is f the number of men, and | the num-
ber of boys.
How many
of each are there ?
room is twice as long as it is wide, and it is found 36. that 50 square feet of carpet, 1 foot in width, are required to make a border around it. Find its dimensions.
37.
cents,
A purse
$
5.74.
contains a certain
bills,
and ^ as many $ 1
number of dimes, |- as many the value of the entire contents
being
38.
How many
starts to
are there of each ?
starts to
time that
end of 2 hours. what are their rates

39.
walk from P to Q, 12 miles, at the same walk from Q to P. They meet at the If A walks one mile an hour faster than B,
?
ceive
$ 10
Divide ^210 between A, B, C, and D so that B may reless than A, C y- as much as B, and D | as much as A.
62
ALGEBRA
40. The sum of $ 32 is divided between 7 men, 8 women, and 16 children each child receiving J as much as each man, and each woman 75 cents more than each child. How much is received by each man, each woman, and each child ?
;
41. A boy had a certain number of marbles. He lost 6 of them, gave away ^ the remainder, and then found that he had 5 more than i of his original number. How many had he at first ?
.
42.
There are two heaps of
coins,
one containing 5-cent
pieces and the other 10-cent pieces. The second heap is worth 20 cents more than the first, and has 8 fewer coins. Find the
number
in each heap.
43. In an audience of 435 persons, there are 25 more women than men, and 3 times as many girls as men and the number of boys is less by 195 than twice the number of girls. Find
;
the
{.
number
of each.
uct of the
Find four consecutive odd numbers such that the prodfirst and third shall be less than the product of the second and fourth by 64.
44.
sum of money, amounting to $19.30, consists of $2 25-cent pieces, and 5-cent pieces. There are 13 more bills, 5-cent pieces than $ 2 bills, and -J as many 5-cent pieces as
45.
25-cent pieces.
46.
tively.
Find the number of each.
Two
A
as
certain
barrels contain 46 aijd 45 gallons of water, respecnumber of gallons are drawn from the first,
and I
many from
.
the second, and the second
now
contains
f as many gallons from each ?

47.
as the first.
How many gallons
were drawn
tank containing 150 gallons can be filled by one pipe and emptied by another in 25 minutes. After the first pipe has been open a certain number of minutes, it is closed, and the second pipe opened; and the tank is emptied in 24 minutes from the time the first pipe was opened. How many minutes is each pipe open ?
in 15 minutes,
SPECIAL METHODS
63
VII.
SPECIAL METHODS IN MULTIPLICATION AND DIVISION

Any Power
of a
93.
Power.
Eequired the value of (a^y.
By
11,
(a'y
= a'xa'xa'=: a\
:
We will
integers.
now
consider the general case

(a"*)",
Eequired the value of
where
-"
and n are any positive

factors
We
have,
(a*")"
= ar xoT X
^m+m+'"
to
ton
n terms __ Qjnn
94.
Any Power
of
a Product.
Required the value of (abf.
By
11,
(ahf
= abxabxab = a^h\
:
We
will
now
consider the general case

(a&)",
where n
is
any positive
integer.
We haye,
{ahy =ab xab x-" to n

(abc
factors

= a''6".
In like manner,
"y
= a'^b^'c^
whatever the number of factors in

95.
1.
abc--*,
Any Power
of a
Monomial.
Find the value of {-baff.

31,
By
(-5a4)3=[(-5)xa4]3
= (2.
5)8
(4)8( 94)
=-
125ai2(93).
Find the value of (- 2 m^ny.

have,
(
We
m^Y = - 2)*
(
x (m^)* x n*
16 m^^n^.
64
.
ALGEBRA
From 93 and 94 and
the examples of
95,
96.
we have
:
the following rule for raising a rational and integral monomial ( 63) to any power whose exponent is a positive integer
Raise the absolute value of the numeyical

exponent of the required power. Give to every power of a positive
coefficient
letter
to
the
required power, and multiply the exponent of each
by the
teryn,
of a
7iegative term, the positive sign ;
and to every even power and to every odd power of
7iegative
term the negative
sign.
EXERCISE 25
Expand the following

1.
(a^y*z'y.
5. 6.
7.
(Ta^b^^y.
9.
(a^b^cy.
2. 3.
4.
(m\^py\
(-nV/)i.
{2m'x'y.
10. 11.
(a^^y^z^y\
(-ab'cy.
(-3mVa;)*.
(^llaffy.
8.
(~4:x'yzy.
12.
(-2amV)^
97.
Square of a Binomial.
it
Let
be required to square a-\-b.
a
a^
+b
+ ab
ab-{-b'
(1)
a-\-b
Whence,
That
of the
is,
(a -\-by = a^ + 2 ab + b\
the
square of
the
sum of two numbers
equals the square
first, i^lus
twice the product of the first by the second, plus
the square
1.
of
the second.
Square 3 a
have,
(3 a
+ 2 &.
+
2 6)2
We
Let
(3
aY +
2(3 a) (2 h)
(2 6)2
= 9 a2 +
it
12 a6
62.
be required to square a
b.
SPECIAL METHODS
a
65
h
b
a
a^
ah
(2)
the
Whence,
That
is,
- a6 + h\ {a-hf = a? -2 ah + h\
the square
first,
of the difference of two numbers equals
square of the
twice the product of the first by the second, plus the square of the second.
In the remainder of the work
ence of a and
minus
6"
to
we shall use the expression "the differdenote the remainder obtained by subtracting h from a.
also be derived
The
result (2)
may
a;^
by substituting
h for &, in equa-
tion (1).
2.
Square 4
have,
5.
5)2
We
(4 x^
= (4 x'^Y - 2(4 x^) (5) + = 16 X* - 40 + 25.

a;2
52
If the first term of the binomial is negative, it should be enclosed, negative sign and all, in parentheses, before applying
the rules.
3.
Square
- 2 a^ + 9.
(2 a^
^ J^
"
We have,
9)2
'
^ [(_ 2 ^3) + gp = (-2a3)2 + 2(-2a3)(9)4.92 = 4 a6 _ 36 a3 ^. 81.

EXERCISE 26
Expand
1.
the following
13.
14.
(4.
:x?- 11 yzy.
{5
ax
- 12 byf.
15.
(_3 7i^-Hl0ny.
(8a;^-h9a;y.
(7
16.
17. 18.
a^m^- 13 6V)l
{-e>oyy
-11 xzf.
20.
{2a^~â^)\
66
98.
ALGEBRA
Product of the
it
Sum
and Difference
of
Two Numbers.
Let
be required to multiply a
+b
by a b.
a+b ab
<j?
+ ab
-ab-b^ -b\
.
Whence, (a + &)((^-&) = a^
That
is,
the
product of the sum and difference of two numbers
equals the difference

1.
of their squares.
Multiply
the rule,
(6
6a + 563 by 6a-56l
5 63)
By
5 63) (6 a
(6 a)2
(5 63)2
= 36 a2 _ 25 66,
2.
Multiply
-a^ + 4 by
a;-2
-x^-L
4)
(_
+ 4) (-
x2
= [(- x') + 4] [(- a;2) - 4] = (_x2)2_42 = x4-16.
3.
Expand
(x
{x-\-y-\-z){x
z) (X
y-\-z).
z)
+y+
^ z) = {(x + z) +y'\\_(x + = (X + zy - y2 = x^ + 2xz + z^2/2.
- y'\
4.
Expand (a + 5 c) (a 6 + c). By 52, (a + 6 - c) (a - 6 + c) = [ + (6 - c)] [a - (6 - c)] = a2 - (6 - c)2, by the rule,
= a2 _ (-52 _ 2 6c + c2) = a2 _ 52 + 2 6c - c2.

EXERCISE 27
Expand the following

1.
(7a + 2b)(7a-2b).
N-3.
4.
2.
(9m2H-4)(9m2-4).
-8 +8 (3 a^ (-a3 + 6)(-a3-6).
(3
a;^
^/^^^
2/;^^.
SPECIAL METHODS
5.
67
12 b'c)(5 a'- 12 bh).
(llm'-{-5n')(llm'-5n').
7.
(5 a'
-\-
10.
w 11.
12.
m% - 13 a^). 13. (1 +a- 6)(1 -a + (a-b + c)(a-b-c). + x-\-l)(af-^x-l). ^'14. (a2 + 3a+l)(a2-3a4-l). 15. + + 3) - - 3). (x + y-^z){x-y-z). 16. + + 2/0 (a^ - + 2/^. 17. .(a' + 5a-4)(a2-5a + 4).
'
9.
(-10 m*7i+ 13
a^)
(- 10
2>).
(^x'
(a;
2/
(a;
2/
(aj^
aj2/
a;?/
18. 19.
(42_^3^_7)(^4^_3^_7>)^
(m^
+ 5mV + 2nO(m^-5mV-2%^).
Binomials having the Same First Term.
99.
Product of
it
Two
Let
be required to multiply x
+a
hj x +
b.
x-\-a
68
3.
ALGEBRA
Multiply ab
coefficient of
last
ab
4:
The The
is
the
by ab-{-7. sum of
4 and
7,
7,
or
3.
term
is
the product of
4 and
a^b"^
or
28. 28.
Whence,
4.
(ab
4) (a&
7)
+ 3 a6 -
Multiply a;2 + 6 2/^ by x^-\-Sy\ The coefficient of x^ is the sum of 6 y^ and 8 y^, or 14 y^. The last term is the product of 6 y^ and 8 y^, or 48 y^.
Whence,
{x^
6 y^) {x^
+ 8y^) = x*-^
14 x^y^
48 ^.
EXERCISE 28
Expand the following by

1.
inspection
(x
+ 3)(x +
4:).
ni. (x-y + 7)(x-y-6y

12.
1-2.
3.
(x-2)(x-{-5).
(a
+ 8a;)(a4-9a;).
(x-ll)ix-l).
13.
(a;-92/)(aJ-52/).
^4.
V 5.
6.
,J7.
(a-7)(a + 2).
-14.
%,
(m2-f6 7i)(m3-7 7i).

(a
+ 15)(a2 + 1). (m3-3)(m3 + 8).

(a'
15.
16. 17.
18.
(ar^'
+ & + 2)(a + 6 + 13). + 102/'")(c2--9y^).
(a;-2)(a;''-6).
(a'" + 10)(a'" + 2).
(a^-9b%a' -}-Sb').
(mn-14.xy)(mn-^xy).
8.
9.
(m7i-7)(m7i-3).
(ab + l){ab-S).
of
V19.
20.
(m-7i-3)(m -7l4-ll)
(a^^
VlO.
+ 11 c3)(a26- 12 c^).
100. Product
Two Binomials
:
of the
Form mx + n and px + g.
We
find
by multiplication
mx-{-n
px-\-q
X
4-f-
mpx^
npa;
mqx-\-nq
mpx^ -\- {np + mq) x-j-nq.
SPECIAL METHODS
69
The first term of this result, mpx^, is the product of the first terms of the binomial factors, and the last term, ng, the product of the second terms.
The middle term, (np -\- mq)x, is the sum of the products of the terms, in the binomial factors, connected by cross lines.
Ex.
The The
or
Multiply 3aj
first
+ 4by2a; 5.
x"^.
term
is
coeflicieiit of
the product of 3 x and 2 a;, or 6 x is the sum of 4 x 2 and 3 x
(
20.
5)
that
is,
8-15,
7.
The
last
term
is
the product of 4 and
5,
or
Whence,
(35c + 4)(2a;
5)
= 6x2 -
7ic - 20.
EXERCISE 29
Expand the following by

1.
(aj
inspection
9.
+ 6)(3a; + 2).
(2aa;-3)(5aa;
+ 6).
2 y),
2.
{2x-^l){lx-l).
(2a;-5)(4aj + 3).
10.
11.
12. 13.
(3x^2n)(10x-n).
(4.
3.
4.
- ^ y){^ x
-\-
(4a-3)(5a-3).
(7a- 2m)(7a-4m).
(6a;"
5. 6.
7.
(4m + l)(4m + 3).

(3n
+ 2)(57i-2).
14. 15.
+ 2/)(9" + (6a2 + ic2)(8a2-5a^).

2/)-
(2a2-l)(lla2-4)
(5a;^ + 6)(6a;4 + l).
{^m^ -2n%107n?-7 n").
8.
16.
{âx-^hy){âx + nhy).
17.
18.
[6(m4-w)-5][(m + ri)-2].
[3(a-&)+4][4(a-6)-3].
division^
101.
We find by
-
= a-5. ao
That
is,
~ = a + 6.
If the difference
sum of the numbers,
of the squares of two numbers he divided by the the quotient is the difference of the numbers.
70
ALGEBRA
If the difference of the squares oftivo numbers be divided by the difference of the numbers, the quotient is the sum of the numbers.
1.
Divide 25 2/V
96,
-9hj5yz^- 3.
;
By
26 y^z^
is
the square of 5 yz^
then,
by the second
rule,
2.
Divide
the
x^
(yzy by
^^
x + (y
z).
y
By
first rule,
" Cy - ^^ = x -(y - z) = x + iy-z}

EXERCISE 30
+ z.
Find, without actual division, the values of the following:
^1.
S6a'p-121b*'
225ai2_i00 6i8
SPECIAL METHODS
If
the difference
71
differeiice
of the cubes of two numbers be divided by the of the numbers, the quotient is the square of the first
number, plus
the product of the first by the second, plus the square of the second number.
1.
Divide l
96, 8 a^
is
+ Sa^
by l
+ 2a.
;
By
the cube of 2 a
then,
by the
^
first'
rule,
ll^ = ^+(^<^y =:l-2a + (2ay = l-2a + 4a^. ^

l+2a
l+2a
2.
Divide 27 x'the second rule,
64. y^
hj 3x^-4. f.
By
3x2-4^/3
3x2-4?/3
^^
^^^
^^
= 9 X* + 12 xV + 16
2/.
EXERCISE
31
Find, without actual division, the values of the following
^1.
^!A'.
a^
+ 62' +5
11
27a^-125i/
3x^-5y
*
7mw4-2p
^g
64a^6^
64a;^"-l
+ 216c^
jQ
cc22/4_23
343 m + n
'
Im^ + n
division,
^^g 729aV4-512y
'
da^x + Sy""
103.
We
find
by actual
a*-b'
72
ALGEBRA
a+b
^'~^'
a
a'
+ a'b-\-a'b' + ab^-\-b';
etc.
In these
I.
results,
we observe the following laws
The exponent of a in
its
1 than
the first term of the quotient is less by exponent in the dividend, and decreases by 1 in each
succeeding term.
II.
Tlie exponent
of b in the second term of the quotient
is 1,
and
increases by 1
m each succeeding term.

is
III.
If the divisor
ab,
all the
terms of the quotient are
positive;
if the divisor is a-{-b, the terms of the quotient are
alternately positive
and
negative.
A general proof of these laws will be found in 466.

1.
Divide a^
b''
hj a b.
By
the above laws,
a
2.
b
16x*-Sl hj 2x-{-S, 16 x^ - 81 ^ _(2 .)4 3^ 2a: + 3 2x + S = (2 x)3 - (2 x)2
Divide
have,
We
=8
a;3
12
a:2
4.
+ 2 X 32 - 33 18 X - 27.
.
EXERCISE 32
Find, without actual division, the values of the following
1
:
^*
~ ^* ab
'
^!^ll. x 1
oif
'
sc^
^ + y^'
m + n'
+ a'
^^
a'
-be''
74
ALGEBRA
VIII.
105.
FACTORING
is
To
Factor an algebraic expression
to find
two
or
more
expressions which,
when multiplied
we
together, shall produce the
given expression.
In the present chapter
consider only the separation of rational and
integral expressions ( 63), with integral numerical coefficients, into factors of the same form.
A Common
which
106. It
Factor of
two or more expressions
is
an expression
will exactly divide each of them.
is not always possible to factor an expression there however, certain forms which can always be factored; these will be considered in the present treatise.
;
are,
107. Case
mo7i factor.
1.
I.
When
the terms
of the expression have a com-
Factor 14 a6^- 35 a^^l

factor 7 ab^.
Each term contains the monomial

Dividing the expression by 7 ab^,
we have 2b^
7 ab^ (2 62
5 a\
Then,
2.
14 a6*
35 a%^
0.-2
_ 5 ^2).
Factor (2
m 4- 3)
+ (2 m 4-3)^.
m + S)y^=(2m + 3)
+ y^).
The terms have the common binomial factor 2 m + 3. Dividing the expression by 2 m + 3, we have x^ + y^.
Then,
3. (2
m + 3) x2 +
(2
{x^
Factor {a
52,
b)m-\-(b a) n.
b-a= -(a- 6). m -^ (b - a) n = (a - b) m b)
:
By
Then,
(a
(a
- b)n
= (a-b) {m-n).
We may
also solve Ex. 3 as follows
(a~b)m-\- {b- a)n
= {b-a)n-
(b
a)
m = {b-a)(n-' wi).
FACTORING
4.
75
Factor
5a(x y) Sa(x-{-y). 5 a (z- y) - 3 a(ix + y) = a[5 (x - y) - S (x + y)2
= a(^x 5y Sx Sy)
I
=a(2x-8y)=2aix-4:y).
EXERCISE 33
Factor the following

^
1.
63x^-54:x\
5.
6.
l
(a-2)b*-{a~2yd'.
2.
3.
a'-5a'-2a'-\-3a\
m^n^ + m V mn\ _ 40 24 _^ 55 ^Y
a:^^^^
7.
+ 5)m+ (3 x + 5). + m) (m
(3
a;
-î)
(a;
?/)
(ri
2;.
4.
3,2^^2
8.
a(a^-2) -\-3(2-a^.
^'9.
(a?
2/)
(m 4- ^)
(ic
+
(a
2/)
w).
^10.
a(6 + c)-a(5-c). ^1. 3aj2(a;-l)-(l-a;).

12.
13.
5(2x-y) -5(x + Sy).
14.
15.
+ m)2-3(a + m).
6(3a + 4&) + 6(5a-26).

16.
aj2(52/-2;2) -a^(22/
2;).
(m-ny-{-2m(m-ny.
3a2"+^-7a''+2^
17.
V
+ a".
18. 19.
(a-b)(m'-\-xz)-{a-b)(m^-yz).
(m ny-~2m(m nf -{.m\m nf.

so
ex-
The terms of a polynomial may sometimes be arranged as to show a common binomial factor; and the
108.
pression can then be factored as in
1
.
107.
Factor ab
107,
ay + bx a^.
ay
By
ab
The terms now have the common

Whence,
2.
+ bx~xy = a(h-y) + x{h factor h y.
2^).
ah
ay -\-hx
xy =
{a
x)(b
y).
Factor a3
+ 2a2-3a-6.
is
If the third
term
negative,
it is
convenient to enclose the last two

sign.
terms in parentheses preceded by a
76
Thus,
a8
ALGEBRA
+
2 a2
-3a -6 =
(a3
(72)
a2(a
2)
(3 a + 6) - 3(a + 2) =
(a2
- 3)(a + 2).
EXERCISE 34
:
1.
ac
-\-
ad
-\-
be
-{-
bd.
V"3.
mx + my nx ny,
2.
xy-3x-{-2y--6,
5.
4.
ab-a-5b + 5,
6.
7.
+ 15 ab. 42. m* + 6m^ 7m

Sxy-\- 12 ay -{-10bx
6-10a + 27a2-45a^
20 ab
8.
9.
- 28 ad\- 5 be m^ m^?i 4- mn^

63-\-S6x' + 56a^
-\-
cd.'
?i^.
11.
12.
48
i2/
+ S2x^. + 18 na; - 88 mi/ - 33 m>i.

-{-\-
13. 14.
,
mx + m^/ + nx-\-ny -{-px + pz/.
15.
V 16.
ay az bx by bz. 3 am Q an ^bm 8 bn + cm 2 en. ax -{-.ay az bx by-{-bz-\-ex-\-ey cz.

ax
-\-
109. If an expression can be resolved into two equal factors, it is said to be a perfeet square, and one of the equal
factors is called its square root. Thus, since 9 a^b^ is equal to 3 a^6
a^b,
it
is
a perfect
square,
and 3a^6
is
its
square root.
9 a*62 is also equal to ( 3 a^h) x ( 3 a%)', so that square root in the examples of the present chapter, the positive square root only.
;
3 a%
we
is also its
shall consider
110.
The following
rule for extracting the positive square

is
root of a
monomial perfect square
evident from
109
FACTORING
Extract the square root of the numerical of each letter by 2.
coefficienty
77
and
divide
the exponent
Thus, the square root of 25 a'*6V

111. It follows from
is
a^b^c.
97 that a trinomial
is
a perfect square
and last terms are perfect squares and positive, and the second term plus or minus twice the product of their
when
its first
square roots. Thus, in the expression 4:xr 12 xy -{-9 y^, the square root of the first term is 2 x, and of the last term 3 y and the second term is equal to 2 (2 x) (3 y).
;
Whence,
112.
4t
x^
12 xy
-\-
9 y^
is
a perfect square.
To
find the square root of a trinomial perfect square,
we
reverse the rule of
97
Extract the square roots ( 110) of the first and third terms, and connect the results by the sign of the second term.
1.
Find the square root of

the rule, the result
4:
x^
-i-
12 xy
-{-
y^.
By
is2x
Sy.
(The expression may he written in the form
(_2x)2 + 2(-2rK)(-3y) + (-3
2/)2,
which shows that (2x) + (Sy), or 2x~Sy, is also its square root but the first form is simpler, and will be used in all the examples
;
of the present chapter.)
2.
Find the square root of m^ 2mn-\- r?.

the rule, the result
is
By
m w.
2
(The expression
may also be written w^

is
mn + w^
in
which
case,
by
the rule, its square root
m.)
the expression is
113. Case II.

square.
1.
When
a trinomial
perfect
Factor 25 a^
+ 40 aV -^\
^> c\
-i-
h^
6a
By 112, the square root of the expression Then, 25 a? + 40 a62 + 54 ^ (5 ^^ 52)2.
is
+ 6^,
2.
Factor
m''
4 m%^ + 4 n*.
78 By
2 n2
ALGEBRA
112, the square root of
the expression
is
either
m^
2 w^,
oi
m2.
Then, m*
3.
- 4 m%2 + 4 w* =
(m2
2 n2)2, or (2 n^
- m2)2.
Factor
We have
a^- 2 %-;2) + (?/-)2. - zf a;2 - 2 x(y z)-{-(y

=[(y -
or,
;s)
- a5]2 =
(?/
- - jc)2,
4.
Factor
-9a*-6a2-l.
-9a*-6a2_i=_(9a4 + 6a2+i) = _(3ei2 + i)2.

EXERCISE 35
Factor the following:
1.
5c2_^8ic_î6;.
5. 6.
7.
2. 3.
9-6a4-a2.
m2 + 10mn4-25w3^
4a-4a'''6c2
V 9.
+ 14a;2/ + 49. 36 a^ - 132 a6 + 121 6^. - 16 a^ + 24 aa; - 9

a^2/'
ar^.
4.
+ 52c4.
10.
8. 81 m^ + 180 mn + 100 n^. - 60 x'fz^ - 36 i/V. 64 aV _ 240 ahxy + 225 6y.
- 25
aji*^
11.
12.
13.
49 m2
^14.
15.
+ 168 m"a;^ + 144 a^^. 100 a262 4- 180 a6c2 + 81 c^ 144a;V-312a^"2/^^ + 169". - 121 aV_|_ 220 a^ft^mn- 100 6V.
a62 _^
2/)2
169
(a^
364
(^4^c2^3 4.
195 (Aa\
^16.
17.
^18.
19.
'^20.
+ 22(x + ^) + 121.'': a2-8a(m-w) + 16(m-w)^ + + 2)'. 9x2-6a;(2/ + nf 2(m n)n + n^, (m 25(a4-6f + 40(a + 6)c + 16c2. +
;2)
(2/
FACTORING
21. 22.
79
36(a-a;)2-84(a-% + 49/.
49 m^ 4- 42
m(m + a;) + 9(m + a;)2.
v^3. (a
24.
+ &)' + 4(a + &)(a-&) + 4(a-5)2. 9(a5 + 2/)^-12(a; + 2/)(^-2/)+4(aJ-2/)^

III.
114.
Case
When
the expression is the difference of
two perfkct squares.
By
98,
a"-
b'
= (a + b) (a - b).
Hence, to obtain the factors, we reverse the rule of
98
Extract the square root of the first square, and of the second square; add the results for one factor, and subtract the second
result
1.
from
the first
for the other*

4:9
Factor 36 a'b^-
c^
is
The square
Then,
2.
root of 36 a^b^
ab'^,
and
of 49 c^ is 7
c^.
36 a'^
49
c^
= (6 ab"^ + - (x -
7 c^) (6 ab^
7 c^).
Factor
the rule,
(2x-Syy-{x- y)\
(2
By
3 y)2
y)^
= [(2x-3y) + (x-y)][(2x-3y)-(x-2/)] = (2x-3y + x-y)(2x-3?/-x + y) = (3x-4y)(x-2?/).
A polynomial of more than two terms may sometimes be expressed as the difference of two perfect squares, and factored by the rule of Case III.
3.
Factor 2
first,
mn
-\-
m^
- 1 + n\
may be grouped
112, is the
The
m^
second, and last terms

n^
;
together in the order
+ 2mn +
Thus,
which expression, by
1
square of
w + w.
2 mn + w2 -
+ w2 = (w2 + 2 mw + n2) - 1 = (m + w)2 - 1 = (m + n + 1) (m + w 1).
4.
Factor 12y
+ ic2-9/-4.
80
FACTORING
81
+ 6'-l-26. Z2.' y' + 2xy-4=-[-x^. 33/4:7)1^ mn-\-n^p^.

31.
a2
4:
34. 35.
36.
9 9
a^+ie 6^-25 0^+24 a6.
-a' -{-2ab -b\
Am^ p^ 9 n^ 6np.
37.
V 38.
39.
V40.
V/41.
42.
+ 16a:^-9z''-4.y\ + n^ a^ + 2a;2/ ^. a2H-2a?> + 62_^2_2c(^_(^2^ a2 + ar'-62-/ + 2aaj + 26?/. a^-/ + m2-l-2maj-22/.

12yz
m^ 2 m?^
a'-4ax-{-Ax'-b'-{-6by-9y\
43.
16a2_8a6 + ?>'-c'-10cd-25d2.
28a;2/-36z2
^"44.
+ 492/2 + 60;3-25 + 4a^.
115. Case IV.
When
the expression is in the form
x'^-\-axhf-\-y^.
Certain trinomials of the above form
expressing them
as the difference of
may be factored by two perfect squares, and
then employing
1.
114.
a262
Factor a4 +
?>^
a perfect square if its first and last terms are perfect squares and positive, and its second term plus or minus twice the
By
111, a trinomial is
product of their square roots. The given expression can be

its
second term
and
this
made a perfect square by adding a%'^ to can be done provided we subtract ^252 from the
result.
Thus, a^
+ a262 + 54 = (* + 2 ^262 + 54) _ ^252 = (a2 + 62)2 _ a262, by 112,
= (a2 + 62 =
2.
{oP-
1).
ah) (a^
^- ah),
62).
by
114,
a6
+ 52) (a2 -ah +
Factor 9
a;4
- 37V + 4.
be a perfect square
if its
The expression
will
second term
is
12
x"^.
82
Thus, 9x*-37ic2
ALGEBRA
+ 4=(9x4- 12x2 + 4)-25x2 = (3 x2 - 2)2 - (5 xy = (3x2 4-5x-2)(3x2-5iC-2).
also be factored as follows :
(The expression may

9
a;4
- 37 x2 + 4 =(9 a;4 +
12 x2
+ 4) - 49
a;2
= (3x2 + 2)2-(7x)2=(3.r2 + 7a; + 2)(3x2-7x+2)

Several expressions in Exercise 37
The factoring
of trinomials of the
may be factored in two different ways. form x* + ax^y"^ + y*, when the factors
involve surds, will be considered in 300.)
EXERCISE 37
I
:
1.
.ic\+524-9.
a'
''6.
9a;^
2.
3.
4.
-21 ani^ + ZQh\
6.
^^1.
16 a^ 64
+ 6a;y + 49^. - 81 a^ 16.

-f-
4-33a^ + 4a;\
-64^^ + 25 ml
a^
25m*-14mV + 7il
115)
:
8.
49
- 127 aâ^ + 81 a;l
Factor each of the following in two different ways (compare
Ex.
2,
9.
x'^-llx'^-n.
-ll.
12.
16m*-104mV4-25a;*.
36
10.
9-148a2 + 64a*.
When
a^-97aW + 36ml
form
116. Case V.
the expression is in the

x^
-{-
ax -{-
b.
99, that the product of two binomials of the and x -\- n, was in the form x^ -\- ax ^ b-, where the coefficient of x was the algebraic sum of the second terms of the binomials, and the third term the product of the second terms of the binomials. In certain cases, it is possible to reverse the process, and resolve a trinomial of the form op^ -\- ax -{- b into two binomial factors of the form x -\-m and x -{-n.
We
saw, in
-{-
form X
FACTORING
83
To obtain the second terms

verse the rule of
is the coefficient
99,
of x,
of the binomials, we simply re^ndjind two yiumbers whose algebraic sum and whose ijroduct is the last term of the tri-
nomial.
The numbers may be found by

1.
inspection.
Factor
find
a;2
14
a;
4- 45.
two numbers whose sum is 14 and product 45. By inspection, we determine that these numbers are 9 and
We
5.
Whence,
2.
a;2
14 x
45
(ic
9)
(ic
5).
Factor x^
find
5x-^4:.
two numbers whose sum is 5 and product 4. We Since the sum is negative, and the product positive, the numbers must
both be negative.
By
inspection,
we determine
cc2
that the
numbers are
4)(x 1).
4 and
1.
Whence,
3.
- 5x +
(x
Factor
find
r^
+ 6 a^ - 16.
;
two numbers whose sum is 6 and product 16. Since the sum is positive, and the product negative, the numbers must be of opposite sign and the positive number must have the greater abso-
We
lute value.
By
inspection,
we determine
x^ + 6x^ -
that the
numbers are
-f
8 and
2.
Whence,
4.
16
(x^
8) (x^
-2).
YsiGtoT
find
x'-abx"- ^2
a'b\
is
two numbers whose sum The numbers must be of opposite

have
tlie
We
sign,
and product 42. and the negative number must

are
greater absolute value.
By
inspection,
x^
we determine
that the
numbers
Whence,
5.
abx^
42 ^252
(a;2
7 a6)(x2
7 and + 6ab).
-|-
6.
Factor
find
l+2a 99a2.
is
We
By
two numbers whose sum
+ +
inspection,
we determine
1
that the
2 and product numbers are -f

11 a) (1
99.
11
and
9.
Whence,
If the x^
2 a
99 a^
(1
- 9 a).
negative, the entire expression should be enclosed in parentheses preceded by a sign.

is
term
84
6.
ALGEBRA
Factor 24:-\-5x-x^.
24
We have,
ic
a;2
==-
(a;2
5x
24)
3)
(X
8)(x
(8
a;)(3
x)
changing the sign of each term of the

(In case the numbers are large,
first factor.
we may proceed
as follows
Required the numbers whose sum is 26 and product 192. One of the numbers must be + and the other Taking in order, beginning with the factors + 1 x 192, all possible 192, of which one is + and the other we have pairs of factors of
,
.
+
'
192.
96.
64.
+
+
XX X X
+4 +6
Since the
48.
32.
sum
of
6 and
32
is
26, they are the
numbers required.)
EXERCISE 38
1.
:
x'
+ ^x + S.
'
13.
14.
x'-17x + 52.
2. x'-Tx-i-lO. 3. a2 + 7a-18.
4.
5.
6.
15. 16. 17.

18. 19.
m-- 14 m -15.
2/2-162/
x'
+ 18a + 56. S4. + 5x-xK if + 16 y- 57.

a2
+ + lQx + Sd.
55.
x'-lOx-TB.
m2
+ 19m + 90.
72
95-14
x^- 20
a2
n^.
8.
66-5n-n^.
a^- 14 a + 48.
ic2
20.
21. 22.
9.
+ + 21a + 98.
a;
96.
10.
+ 20aj + 51.
a?2_7^_78.
11.
12.
x'-12x-4.5.
yi2
23. 24.
105-8
m-?7i2.
104.
+ 14w-32.
c^-21c2 +
FACTORING
25.
26.
85
x^-23a^ + 76.
43.
27.
.28.
+ a'-llO. w' - 16 n^ - 80.

a^
a^*^
44. 45.
46. 47.
l-\-5a-Ua\ m^ - 17 mn + 66 n^.
+ 18 a" + 65.
+ ll^"-12.
+ 12 a6 + 27 - U mx AO m\ x^
a^
ftl
-\-
29.
30.
x2-
l-dx-SGx".
m' + S
cc^
c^-19c2^ + 88.
a^/-13a;2/3_3o;
a'b^- 23 ah' -^112.
48.
49^
mn - 54. n\
aî/
2/2.
/31.
32.
50.
51.
+ 20 a-V - 17 a6c + 60
_^
12
c^.
33. 34. 35.
nV + 25nx-hl54.
126
1-13 71-68^2.
a^
'
36.
'
37. 38.
+ 15 2/'-/. aV + 9aV-162. m<^" - 23 + 120. '^ (a + 6)2 + 14(a + 6)+24.

771^'^
52. 53. 54.

55.
(x-yy-15(x-y)-16.
(m-n)2+21(m-r6)-130.
56.
+ 15 aa; - 100 l+17mn + 70mV. - 17 aj^y^^ 4. 72 i/V. a^ + 6 a'^6 - 91 - 108 iy. 1 -3

a;^^
ft^.
ic?/
39.
57. 58.
59. 60.
a"
-32 abc + 112 b'c\
^0.
41.
42.
+ ic)2-28(a + a- + 6ax + 5x^,

(a
a;)
+ 192.
+ 29 a^ys; - 170 ^l y-(2m + 3n)a; + 6mn.

a;y
x'-Txy-Sy'.
Case VI.
x"- (a-b)x-ab.
is in the
117.
WJien the expression

ax^
form
+bx
-\- c.
We
form
the
saw, in
mx + n and px + q, was
100, that the product of two binomials of the in the form ax^ where 6a; c
term was the product of the first terms of the binomial factors, and the last term the product of the second terms. Also, the middle term was the sum of the products of the
first
terms, in the binomial factors, connected by cross lines. In certain cases it is possible to resolve a trinomial of the form ax^ -\-bx-{-c into two binomial factors of the form mx n
and px +
q.
86
1.
ALGEBRA
Factor 3
first
J
a^
+8
a;
4- 4.
The
is
ic2
terms of the binomial factors must be such that their product they can be only 3 x and x.
The second terms must be such that their product is 4. The numbers whose product is 4 are 4 and 1,-4 and 1,2 and 2, and
and
the possible cases are represented below
FACTORING
Thus, in Ex.
1,
87
numbers
we need not have

would have
left
tried the
and
4,
nor
and 2
this
only three cases to consider.

last
(b) If the last term of the trinomial is negative, the of the factoids will be one -{-, the other
.
terms
If the X-
term
is
negative, the entire expression should be enclosed in
parentheses preceded by a
sign.
is
If the coefficient of x^ of X divisible
pression
3.
may
a perfect square, and the coefficient the square root of the coefficient of x^, the exby be readily factored by the method of 116.
a;2
Factor 9
_ 13 ^
9 x^
_l_
5^
In this case, 18
is
divisible
by the square root

5
of 9.
+ = (3xy - 6(3 x) + 6. numbers whose sum is 6, and product 5. The numbers are 5 and 1. 9x2 - 18x + 5 = (3a; - 5)(3 - 1). Then,
We have We find two
-[Sx
ÊXERCISE 39W
V 1.
2.x'
:
>
+ 9x + 9.
1_2.
10a^-39x + 14.
>2. 3a:2_i-|^^_20.
3.
>13. 12
14.
4:x'-2Sx + 4.5.
6x'-\-7x-S.
5x'-36x-{-S6.
16aj2
+ 2. 20 a V - 23 ao; + 6.
a^^
_^
11 x
4.
5.
>
n5. 36 a^-j- 12
16.
a?
-35.
6.
7.
8.
+ 56ir + 33. 8n2 + 18w-5.
17.
18.
G-x-Wx". 5 + 9a;-18a:2^
72-\-7x-A9x\
28a^-a;-2.
21
o^"*
4.x^-Sx-7.
9x2
>19. 24:X^-17nx-\-S7A
20.
21.
9.
+ 12a;-32.
-10,
11.
6x'-^7ax-^2a\
+ 23 C'"/~ + 6 .y^
a'b'.
25x'-25mx-6m\
v23.
22.
tt^
IS
x^- 27 abx~ 35
24
+ 26 tt^- 5.
88
118. It
is
ALGEBRA
not possible to factor every expression of the form
x^-âx
+ hhj the
let it
method
of
116.
-\-
Thus,
be required to factor x^ -\-l%x
35.
We
must
find
two numbers whose sum
is 18,
The only
and 35 and
ax~ -\-hx-\-c
pairs of positive integral factors of 35 are 7 1 and in neither case is the sum 18.
;
and product 35. and 5,
It is also impossible to factor
every expression of the form
by the method of
117.
Thus, it is impossible to find two binomial factors of the 4 a; 1 by the method of 117. expression 4 a;^ In 298 will be given a general method for the factoring of
any expression of the forms
x^ -\-ax -\-h, or aoi? -\-hx-\-c.
tors, it is said to
is
119. If an expression can be "resolved into three equal facbe a perfect cube, and one of the equal factors
called its cube root.
o?b,
it
Thus, since 27 a%^ is equal to 3 a-5 x 3 a'b x 3 perfect cube, and 3 a^b is its cube root.
is
120. The following rule for extracting the cube root of a positive monomial perfect cube is evident from 119:
Extract the cube root of the numerical of each letter by 3.
coefficient,
and
divide
the exponent
Thus, the cube root of 125 a^6V

121. Case VII.
is
a^b^c.
When
the expression is the
sum
or difference
of two perfect cubes.

ible
sum or difference of two perfect cubes is divisthe sum or difference, respectively, of their cube roots by in either case the quotient may be obtained by the rules of 102.
By
102, the
1.
Factor
a^- 27
is
2/V.
is x^,
By
120, the
cube root of x^
x^
and
of 27
yV is 3 y^z.
is
Then one
factor
3 y^z.
a;^
Dividing a^
27 y^z^
by
X*
3 y^z^ the quotient
Then,
x^
+ 3 x'^y^z + 9 y^z-2 ( 102). - 27 y^z^ = (x^ - 3 y^z) (x^ + 3 xY^ + 9 y^z'^).
^-^^^^^^z FACTORING
2.
89
Factor a^
factor
is
+
+
?>^
h^.
One
a^
h^
::3
Dividing a^
by
(a2
a^
&'^,
the quotient
^525-2
is
a*
cC^h^
+ &*
Then,
3.
+ 56
_ 52) (^4
{x
+ ^4).
Factor {x +
of
of.
= [(ic + rt) - (x-a)][(x + a)2+ (a;+a)(a;-a) + (a;-a)2] = (5C + a - + a) (x2 + 2 ax + a2 + x^ - a2 + x2 - 2 aa; + a^)
a:
90
ALGEBRA
+
5^
Q
Dividing a^
by a
Then,
(a^
6^)
+ &, the quotient is a* - a^b + a2&2 _ ab^ + 6*. ^ (^t + 5) (a* - a^b + a^&s _
EXERCISE
41
( 103)
ab^
).

vl.
2. 3.
a^
+ /.
5.
1+xl
aj^
9.
32a^-6'^.
a^-1.
v6.
7. 8.
n^.
>10. 243a^
*^
1-mV.
a7-5^
123.
a^-1.
n^^4-32.
11.
mi^
4.
v 12.
+ + 128n^. 32 a^^^^n _ 243

2/^.
cIOp.
sion
By application of the rules already given, an expresmay often be resolved into more than two factors. If the terms of the expression have a common factor, the
of
method
1.
107 should always be applied

aoc^y^
first.
Factor 2
107,
8 axy\
8 axy^
By
2.
ax^y^
= 2 axy'^(x'^ - iy^) = 2 axy\x + 2 ?/) (x -
?/),
by
114.
Factor .a-6.
114, 121,
By
a6
56
= (^3 +
ah
53) (^3
53).
Whence, by
a^-h^ =
3.
(a
b){a^
&2)(a
b)(a^
-\-
ab
62).
Factor
114,
a^-/.
afi-y
By
= (x^ + y^)(xi - y^)

=
(x^
y*)ix^
+ y^)(.^ + y)(ix - y)-
4.
Factor 3 (m
+ w)^ _ 2 (m^ - n^).

n^)
3(m +
w)2
- 2(m2 -
= 3(m + n)2 - 2(m + w)(wi - n) = (m + w) [3(w + n) - 2(m - w)] = (m + w) (3 + 3 n - 2 m + 2 w) = (m + w)(n + 5n).

?7i
FACTORING
5.
91
Factor
a(a
a(a-l)-&(6-l).
1)
6(6
1)
= a2 - a - &2 + 6 = a2 _ 52 _ + 5
(3j
= (a + 6) (a -6) -(a -6) = (a-6)(a + 6-l).

The following is a list of the type-forms in factoring, considered in the present chapter
:
ax
-\-
ay
az.
92
21.
22.
23.
ALGEBRA
m'^-l.
a^'-l.
24. 25.
-121m+22m*-l.
36x^-\-24.a^-21x\
a'b^ -^
a%'- 30 a'bc^-{- 216 c\

27. 28.
26.
aY - b^x^ - x'f.
+ 2 6)2 + 8(a + 2 6) (2 a -6) +16(2 a -6)2. 4a;(a-6-c)+52/(6 + c-a). 29. (m + 7iy 2 (m + n)^ + (m + n)l 30. x^-16xY + 64.y^ 32. a;-26^3-27. 31. 81m^-256 7i^ 33. (x + 2yf-\- (Sx-yf. 34. (a + 2a;)2 + 10(a + 2x)-144. 35. 27 x''-75y^-120yz-4:Sz\ 39. 49 a'^^^ _^ 12 a^ft^ + 4 a^îo, 36. (a2 + 4a6 + 62)2_(^2_^^2)2^ 40. Ux'-25x-^6. 41. a''-x'\ 37. (16m" + n2)2_64mV. 42. aj^*-2a;^ + l. 38. 49a2 + 4-3662_28a. - 16 a'd' - 36 6V + 64 b'(P. 43. 9 aV 46. a^ + 128 6^ 44. mV-243mV. 47. 48 ar^ - 52 a.y - 140 45. _7aj2-26a; + 8. 81 into two factors, one of which is a 3. 48. Resolve 49. Eesolve x^ 64 into two factors, one of which is x-\-2. 50. Eesolve x^ y^ into two factors, one of which is x y.
(a
a;^/^
a'^
51.
Eesolve
a^ -\-l into
two
factors,
one of which
is
a+
1.
52. Eesolve l-\-x^ into three factors by the method of Case VII. 53.
Eesolve
a^
512 into
:
three factors.

54.
a^ m^
-{-
-}-
m.
55.
(x2^4a^)2-37(a^ + 4x)
711"
+ 160.
57.
56.
-1024.
m^
+ m + a^ +
a;.
FACTORING
58.
93
a2c3-4&V-8a2(i3-|-32 6W
59.
60.
61.
(m
7i) (x^
y^) -\-{x-{-y) {m? rv^.
(x-iy-{-6(x-iy + 9(x-l).
62.
64.
65.
66. 67.
68.
+ w) (jn? a^) (m-\-x) {w? n^. 63. a2-462_a-26. + 4 - ;2y - 16 a;y _ 9 ^)2 ^ 4 (^2 _ 9 _ 140. a^63 + 27 ay _ 8 6V - 216 y. (m^ + m)2 + 2 (m^ + m){m + 1) + (m + 1)^ 69. (4 a^ - 6^ _ 9)2 _ 36 (2a;2-3)2-ar^.
(m
(a;^
2/'
(a;2
a;)
52^
73. 74.
78.
79.
+ ^yf -x{o? -4.y''). 16a;24-2/2_25;s2_i^8x2/ + 10^. 72. (a2 + 6a + 8)2-14(a2 + 6a + 8)-15. _ ^2/ (x + 75. (a^ + + (1 + (1 4a*-9 + 2a(a2 + 3). 76. (a- 8 m)-a(a-2m)2. 77. 9a2(3a + 2)2 + 6a(3a4-2) + l. w?-m' + 32 w? - 32. 80. m^ (m +p) + n^ (n - p). 81. + 8 + + 8. a(a-c)-b{b-c). 82. (27m-a^)4-(3m + aj)(9m2-6mx + 83. (4a2 + 9)2_24a(4a2 + 9)4-144a2. 84. 16a2 + 962_25c2-4d2_24a6-20cd 85. m + m^-64m-64. 86. (x" -\-yy - 4:xy(x' -^y^.
70.
64aV + 8a3-8ar'-l.
71.
(x
ar^)
a;)3.
^/^^^
2/).
ic^
aj
o.-^
a;2).
87.
88.
a'-\-a'b-i-a^b^-{-a^b^-{-ab^-hb^.
(8n3_27)+(2n-3)(47i2-f-4n-6).
a^
89.
+ 2iB2 + 2a; + l.
+
2 X), or (x
(By
altering the order of the terms, this
x8
(2
a;2
l){x^
may be written - x + 1) + 2x (_x-\-
1),
and X
1 is
a factor of the given expression.)
94
90.
ALGEBRA
x^-3x''-\-3x-l.
92.
S a^
+ SQx'y + 54:xy' -}-27 f.
Additional methods in factoring will be found in 298 to

300, and in Chapter
XXXIV.
124.
By
54,
(+ a) x (+ 6) = -f ab, (+ a)x(-b) = - ab, ( a) X (+ 6)= - ab, ( a)x{b) = + ab.
Hence, in the indicated product of two factors, the signs of may be changed without altering the product; but if the sign of either one be changed, the sign of the product will be
both factors
changed.
If either factor is a polynomial, care must be taken, on changing its sign, to change the sign of each of its terms. Thus, the result of Ex. 3, 107, may be written in the forms
(b
a)(n m), (b a)(m n),
or
(a b)(n m).
factors, the signs of
In like manner, in the indicated product of more than two any even number of them may be changed
without altering the product; but if the signs of any odd
number
( 65).
of them be changed, the sign of the product
will be
changed
Thus,
b){G d)(e f) may (a
be written in the forms
ia-b)id-c){f-e),
(b-a)(c-d)(f-e),
(6 a)(d c)(/ e),
etc.
SOLUTION OF EQUATIONS BY FACTORING

125. Let
it
be required to solve the equation
(x-S)(2x-i-5) =
0.
It is evident that the equation will be satisfied when x has such a value that one of the factors of the first member is equal to zero for if any factor of a product is equal to zero,
;
the product
is
equal to zero.
FACTORING
96
Hence, the equation will be satisfied when x has such a value

that either
or
aj-3 =
0,
(1)
Solving (1) and
(2),
2a; + 5 = 0. we have x = 3
(2)
or
5 -
It will be observed that the roots are obtained
factors of the first
member
separately equal to zero,
by placing the and solving
the resulting equations.
126. Examples.
1
.
'^
Solve the equation a^
5 24 = 0.
a;
Factoring the first member, (x 8) (x Placing the factors separately equal to
+ 3) = 0.
( 125),
;
( 116)
we have
and
2.
= 0, whence x = 8 + = 0, whence x = 3.
8 3
Solve the equation 4 a^
2 = 0.
ic
Factoring the first member, 2x(2x 1)=0. Placing the factors separately equal to 0, we have
2X
= 0,
whence x
=
-
and
3.
2 x.
1=0, whence x =
ar'
a;
Solve the equation

first
+ 4a:^ 4 = 0.
108,
Factoring the
member, we have by
(x + 4)
(x2
1)
0, or
0,
Then,
x X
+4
1 1
and
4.
+ X
= 0, = 0,
+ 4) (X + whence x = 4 whence x = 1
(X
1)
;
(a;
-1)
= 0.
whence x
1.

first
- 27 - (a^ + 9 - 36) = 0.
a;
Factoring the
member, we have by 116 and

(X
121,
(x
Or,
3)(x2 + 3x + 9)
- 3)(x +
12)
= 0.
(x-3)(x2 + 3x +
Or,
9-x-12) = 0. (x-3)(x2 + 2x-3)=0.
96
Or,
ALGEBRA
(a:-3)(a;
Placing the factors separately equal to
+ 3)(x-l) = 0. 0, x = 3,
3,
or
1.
pupil should endeavor to put down the values of x without actually placing the factors equal to 0, as shown in Ex. 4.
The
EXERCISE 43
Solve the following equations
1.
2. 3.
:
+ 7a; = 0. 5a:3-4a^ = 0. 3a^-108a; = 0.

a;2
11.
'^
a;4
+ 18a^ + 32ar^ = 0.
-VSx'-^ZQî).
12.
13.
x'
4.
5.
(3a;-2)(4a;^-25)
= 0.
14.
6.
7.
8.
9.
+ 54 = 0. + 23ic + 102 = 0. a^ + 4:X-96 = 0. a^-a;-110 = 0. x^-\-ax-2a^ = 0.

a;2-15a;
a;2
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
10.
{5x-\-l){x^-6x-91)
21.
22.
23.
24.
25.
26.
= 0. 20. s(^-2cx-8x-\-16c = 0. x'^-{-3m-x 5m^x15m^ = 0. 27a^ + 18a;2_3^_2 = o. (a;-2)2-4(a;-2)+3 = 0.

(4
= 0. -' Q>x' + lx + 2 = 0. 3 or^- ma: - 4 m^ = 0. lOo^^ + T a;-12 = 0. 15x'-\- x-2 = 0. 12a;-29a^ + 15a; = 0. a^-ax + bx-ab = 0. x^ + mx -^ nx mn = 0.
8 a;2_i0a;4-3
-\-
x^-A9)(a^-3x- 10)(8 a;^ _^ 14 - 15)

a;
= 0.
(a'-2)(5a;2
27.
+ 3a;-4)-(x2-4) = 0. (a;2-l)(a^-9) + 3(a;-l)(a; + 3) = 0.
HIGHEST COMMON FACTOR
97
IX.
HIGHEST
COMMON FACTOR. LOWEST COMMON MULTIPLE
consider in the present chapter the Highest Common Factor and Common Multiple of Monomials^ or of polynomials which can be readily factored by inspection.
(We
Lowest
The Highest Common Factor and Lowest Common Multiple of polynomials which cannot be readily factored by inspection, are considered
in
439
to 443.)

127. The Highest
expressions
If several
is
their
Common Factor (H. C. F.) of two common factor of highest degree (
or
more
64).
that the
common factors are of equally high degree, it is understood highest common factor is the one having the numerical coeflBcient
term of highest degree. For example, if the common factors were 6 a; 3 and 2 a: former would be the H. C. F.
of greatest absolute value in its
1,
the
128.
Two
expressions are said to be prime
to
each other
when
unity
is
their highest
I.
common
factor.
129. Case
Highest
Common
Factor of Monomials.
d'bc,
Ex, By
Eequired the H. C. F. of 42 o?h\ 70
and 98 a'Wd\
the rule of Arithmetic, the H. C. F. of 42, 70, and 98 is 14. It is evident by inspection that the expression of highest degree which will exactly divide a%'^, a%c, and a%hP is a^h.
Then, the H. C. F. of the given expressions
is
14 0,%.
It will be observed, in the above result, that the exponent of each letter is the lowest exponent with which it occurs in any of the
given expressions.
EXERCISE 44
Find the H.
1.
C. F. of the following:
14a^2/^
21xy\
2.
Ua'b\ 112 6V.
98
3.
4.
ALGEBRA
m(x-yy,
7. 8.
S4:{x-y)\
5. 6.
72
a'b',
27a'b',
99 a'b\
a^fz'.
108 m^nY, 90 mhipl
44 x'yz% 88 x^z', 110
32 aV, 128a6V, 192 aVi/^.
ISGa^mV,
51 &%)i, 119c2mV.
9.
72xyz', IQSx^yh', 120xYz\

26(a-W'6)2(a-6), 91{a
10.
+ b)%a-by.
130. Case II. Highest Common Factor of Polynomials which can be readily factored by Inspection.
1.
Eequired the H.
5 x'y - 45 x^y
C. F. of
and 10 xY
5x^y
- 40 xY =
5x^y(x^
210 xy^
9)
(1)
By
and
107, 114,
and
116,
45x2?/
10 x^y^
40
xV
210 xy^
= 5x2^(0: + 3)(x- 3); = 10 xy^(x^ - 4 x - 21)

=:10x?/2(x-7)(x
3).
(2)
The H.
C. F. of the numerical coeflB.cienls 5 and 10
is 5.
It is evident by inspection that the H. C. F. of the literal portions of the expressions (1) and (2) is xy(x + 3). Then, the H. C. F. of the given expressions is 5x?/(x + 3).
sometimes necessary to change the form of the factors in finding the H. C. F. of expressions.
It is
2.
Find the H.
116,
C. F. of a^
a2
+2a-3
and 1
- al
+
a^).
By
By 121,
+ 2a-3 = (a-l)(a + l-a^ = (l-a){l +

first
3).
By
124, the factors of the
expression can be put in the form

a)-
Hence, the H. C. F.
is 1
-(l-a)(3 + <z.
EXERCISE 45
Find the H.
C. F. of the following
1.
:
30icy-fl0ary,
15xY-S0xf.

2.
99
2
4. 5.
+ Sab-\-16b\ m--14m4-45, m'-10m + 25.

a'-16b',
a-
:^-5a^-\-3x-15,
a3
4:x'-\-12a:^,
+ 64, a'-Ta-U. 6c ac? + bd, + 13x-^22,

d^
6.
7.
9-a^, a;2-a;-6.
ac
x^
cl
8. 9.
2a;2
+ 9a; + 10.
x"
a;2
3ac-4:ad-6bc-\-Sbd, a--j-7ab-lSb\
10. 11.
12.
13.
+ y^-z''-2xy, 3aj2-16a.-?/ + 5 2/^

x'
y""
- z" + 2 yz.
+ 10aj?/-75 2/^
lG.
m^-8m2, m^-f^m^ +
2aj2-7a;
14. 15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20. 21.
22.
23.
+ 6, Qx'-llx-\-3. 2ar'-13a.'?/ + 62/2, jc?/2-4a^. l-lla + 18a2, Sa^-l, 18a2-5a-2. - 10 a^b - 28 aft^ 12 8 a^ - 26 a^^ + 20 + 18a; + 77, _^ 22 + 121, a^ + i-110. 16m2-9w2, 16m2-24mw + 9n2, 9mn2-12m2n. ar5-27, a^-6x4-9, 2 aa;-6 a- 6a; + 3 6. 27a3+86^ 9a2-46^ 9aH12a6 + 46l a2-3a-18, 2a2-a-21, 3a2 + 4a-15. 2a^-12a^ + 16a;, 3 - 3 - 36 ;^, 5 a^ 4- 5 - 100 a^. 125m*-8m, 10 m^ m^ - 2 m, 25m3-20m2 + 4m.
afe^,
a=^
a;2
ic^
a;
a^^
a;^
a;^
-\-
24.
a^
+ 3a2-40,
a^-25,
25.
2a;3_aj2_g^_j_3^
+ a^-Sa-S. 6a;2-19aj + 8, 4a;2_^8^_5^

a^
2/3.
26.
27. 28.
a^-{h
8a^2/
+ cf,
(6-a)2-c2, 62_(^_^)2^
+ a;V, 64a;y + 2a;/, 24 a^?/ - 30 a^/ - 21 2a=^ + 17a4-36, 4a2-4a-99, 6a2 + 25a- 9.
}\\
^^
'^'^
100
ALGEBRA
LOWEST COMMON MULTIPLE
131.
Common
is
Multiple of two or
expression which
exactly divisible
more expressions by each of them.
is
an
132. The Lowest

expressions
If several
is their
Common common
Multiple (L. C. M.) of two or
more
multiple of lowest degree.
that the lowest
common multiples are of equally low degree, it is understood common multiple is the one having the numerical coeffi-
its term of highest degree. For example, if the common multiples were 4 a: 2 and 6x former would be the L. C. M.
cient of least absolute value in
3,
the
133. Case
I.
Lowest Common Multiple
of
Monomials.
Ex. Eequired the L. C. M. of 36
a%
60 ay, and 84 caj^.
By
is
the rule of Arithmetic, the L. C. M. of 36, 60, and 84 is 1260. It is evident by inspection that the expression of lowest degree which
exactly divisible by a%, aP'y'^, and cx^ is aHx^y'^. Then, the L. C. M. of the given expressions is 1260 aHx^y^.
each
It will be observed, in the above result, that the exponent of letter is the highest exponent with which it occurs in any of
the given expressions.
EXERCISE 46
Find the L.
1.
C.
M.
of the following
5. 6.
7.
5 a^y% 6 xy.
105
a%
70 b'% 63
c'a,
2. 3.
4.
IS
a%
4:5 b'c.
50 xY, 2i a^f, ^0 a^y\

21
ab*,
a'b^,
2Sa^,S6y\
42
35
b'c%
ba^,
91
a'(^.
m%^
98 ny.
9.
8.
a'bc',
56
84
48 xy.
60
75 a'b% 90 a'c'd\
66 m^ny, 165
10.
99
m'^naf,
nV/.
134. Case II. Lowest Common Multiple of Polynomials which can be readily factored by Inspection.
1.
Required the L. C. M. of
a^
5a; + 6,
c^
4a;-f4,
and
a^
9 x.
LOWEST COMMON MULTIPLE

By By
116, 113,
101
x2
a;
(X
3)
(a;
2).
By
114,
x2-4x + 4=(x- 2)2. x3 - 9 X = x(x + 3) (x by inspection that the L.

C.
3).
It is evident
M.
of these expressions
is
x(x-2)2(x + 3)(x-3).
It is
2.
sometimes necessary to change the form of the factors.

h^
Find the L. C. M. of ac-bc-ad-\- bd and

108,
- al
By
ac-bc-ad+hd =
(â- h) {c-d).
By By
114,
b^-a^=(h + a){h-a).
first
124, the factors of the
expression can be written
\b-a)(^d-c).
Hence, the L. C. M.
is
(6
a) (6
a)
(d-c),
or (62
a^)
(d-c).
EXERCISE 47
Find the L. C. M. of the following
:
2.
o?b^-2a^b\2a'b''
3.
4.
5. 6.
+ ab\ m2-6m + 9, m2-llm + 24. a* - 49 a'bS a' + 12 a^b + 35 o?b\

2a^ + 2a;2-84i, 3x^-3ar'-90a;.
o?-:x?,a^-o?x-\-ao?-:x?.
7.
8.
+ 27 l-5a;-24a:2 ac 3 ad - 2 6c + 6 6d, 3 ac + ad 6 6c 2 bd.

1
0.-3,
9.
x^-y'^-z'^^2yz,o?-y'^ + z^-{-2xz.
11. 12.
13.
+ 8, 4a;2_(a^ + 4y 2aj2 + 3a;-35, 2a^ + 19x + 45, - 27 n + 8, 3 - 2n - 16. 9

a^
71t?^
102
14.
15. 16.
ALGEBRA
17.
18.
19.
20.
21. 22.
23.
24.
25.
26.
+ 15 xy, 8 xy - 10 y\ x'~15x + 50,x^ + 2x-S5,x^-^x-10. a^ - 4 a6 + 4 a^ - 8 6^ a^ft + 2 a^ft^ + 4 a&^ m^ 10 mî + 21 n^, m^ 5 m?i 24 m'' 8l9i^. + 5x + 6, a^-2a;-8, a^ + 2 + 5 + lO. 9a5^-4a^6, 8 ac + 2 ad-12 5c-3 6d 4. 5 + 4 a. a^-16et, a^-3a3_4a, 27 + 64 n, 18 n^ - 32 n\ 9 n^ + 21 n' + 12 n^. 9a;2 + 30a? + 25, 6aj2^7a5-5, 10a:2-9ic + 2. n2-5n + 6, 9^2-^^ 10-n-2nl ^-f, o?-2xy + y\ x' + xY + y'ac-4.ad-2hc + %hd, ?>(?-llcd-4.d\ 3ac+ad-6 6c-2
16
x^
- 25 y^
12 x^
52,
?i^,
a;2
ic2
a^
a'^
a'^
?i*
6rZ,
2a;2-flj-15,
2aj2_7^^3^ ^x'-^x^^.
27. 28.
a2+462_9c2_4a6,a2-462_9c2+12&c,a2-462+9c2-6ac.
3 m^ 9 m^n
29.
+ m^ti 2 mn^, 6 m^n + 11 mn^ + 5 + 5 m^n^ 4 mn^. 32a + 4a^ 12 a4 + 12 a^ + 3 a^, 32a^ + 8a3 + 2a.
ti^,
FRACTIONS
103
X.
135.
FRACTIONS
by
h is written
The quotient
h
is
of a divided
( 6).
is
The expression
called a Fraction
the dividend a
called
the numerator, and the divisor h the denominator. The numerator and denominator are called the terms of the
fraction.
69, (3),
that
the
If the terms of a fraction he both multijMed, or both divided, by same expression, the value of the fraction is not changed. 137.
By
the Rule of Signs in Division
( 68),
-\-a_
+ 6""^"
a _
4-a
'^~
a
-i-b
That is, if the signs of both terms of a fraction be changed, the sign before the fraction is not changed ; but if the sign of either one be changed, the sigii before the fraction is changed.
ing
If either term is a polynomial, care must be taken, its sign, to change the sign of each of its terms.
on chang-
Thus, the fraction
^~ cd
by changing the signs of both
numerator and denominator, can be written
ba
d
c
( 51).
138. It follows from 124 and 137 that if either term of a fractio7i is the indicated product of two or more expressions, the signs of any even number of them may be changed without
changing the sign before the fraction; but if the signs of any odd number of them be changed, the sign before the fraction is changed.
Thus, the fraction
^^
(c-d)(e-f)
may
be written
a-b
b-a
b-a
(d-o)(/-e)'
^^^^
(d-c)(f-ey (d-c)(e-fy
104
ALGEBRA
EXERCISE 48
Write each of the following in three other ways without

changing
-
its
value
a
2
!?L?.
7
(^
2-x
4
in
2xl x+2
four
%x-^
(a:-3)(2/+4)
6.
Write
- ^) ( - ^)
other ways without
{x+b){y-2)
changing
its value.
REDUCTION OF FRACTIONS
139. Reduction of a Fraction to
its
Lowest Terms.
A fraction
is
said to be in its lowest terms
when
its
numerator
and denominator are prime
to each other ( 128).
(We consider in the present chapter those cases only in which the numerator and denominator can be readily factored by inspection. The cases in which the numerator and denominator cannot be readily factored by inspection are considered in 444.)
140. By 136, dividing both terms of a fraction by the same expression, or cancelling common factors in the numerator and denominator, does not alter the value of the fraction.
We then
have the following rule
Resolve both numerator and denominator into their factors, and

cancel all that are
1.
common
to both.
Eeduce
^ ^ !^. to 40 a^b^cH^
its
lowest terms.
We have
24
a'^b'^cx
2^ 23
40 a%^cM^
x 3 x a^h^cx X 5 X a^b^c^d^ x
a'^b^c.
^ 3 a^x
5 cd^'
by cancelling the common factor

2.
2^
Reduce
/v3_ 27
a^-2a;-3
xB
to its lowest terms.
By 121 and 116,'x2-2x-3 ^(x ^^^

_
3.
_.
27
3)(x^ + 3x + 9)^^^ + 3x + x+ 1 (x-3)(x + l)

.
.
9,
Reduce
ax bx
to b^
ay-\-by. to its lowest terms. a^?

,
, ,
FRACTIONS
By
By
108
138,
105
-b)(x
y)
and
ax-bx114,
ft-i
ay
a^
by
(a
(&
a) (6
a)
the signs of the terms of the factors of the numerator can be changed without altering the value of the fraction and in this way the first factor of the numerator becomes the same as the second factor of the
;
denominator.
men,
ax-bx~
ay
by
62_2
if all
_ -
(b
a)(y
x)
(î)â)(ib-a)~b
1
_ y -x + a'
remains to form a it is a case
If all the factors of the
numerator are cancelled,
numerator
the factors of the denominator are cancelled,
of exact division.
EXERCISE 49
Keduce each of the following

'
to its lowest terms
5 xYz'
3
-
54 mn^
'
3xfz^'
2
12
'
99
mV*
126 a^6V
'
'
14
'
aV
90 aV7i\ 36 am V*
88
x'y'z^
a'b^
63 a^j/V
S4.x'y'z''
42
g
6V*
d'b^c''
'
26 m^nV 130 mV/*

*
66x^yz''
120
75a6V
a^
'
^Q
'
15x'y-{-10xY 6ar^?/* 4-4^2/

,
12
^3
14
15
+ lla& + 28 6^ + 14: a'b + 4.9 ab'' 64a^ + 72a;^?/ + 8a;/ 64 Q(?y 81 ^^^ + i^^n 56 m^n^ m^ 64 mn^ ' + &'
a'
?/^
'
20
2^
+ x-12' 3a^-4a^-3a + 4
x''
a;^-9a;
'
+ 18
>
'
'
,^
no
16
a2-2a6-362* ac + 3d + 26c + 66(^
23
,
3ac-a(^ + 66c-26cZ* .8 0^-125
24
25
'
2aj3
+ a^-15a;*
/
+ 9 a2-16 a-16* 4m^ + 16mn + 15n^ ^w? mn 15 16 + 4 o^ + 1 8 o^ 1 fl^-9.^^-2^ + 6y2! o?-9 + z^ -2xz (a-2 6)^- (3 c -df (a + d)^- (2 6 + 3 cf* + 28a^6^ + 27 6 a^4-9 a^ft^ + Sl 6^
9 a3
ii^
a?'*
y""
ct
jg
a^ + a-12 3a2-13a + 12'
26
27
25 -a^
'
a^-lla; + 30'
*
19
(a?'-49)(a^-16a; + 63)
(a2_;I^4a,^49^^(^2_2aJ_63)*
9a;^-49/
28 a;/
- 12 a^2/
^.-i^^w-flc^^^^^r
106
FRACTIONS
12x3-8r.^
Thus,
4
x'^
107
.
+ 4a;-5^3^ +3
EXERCISE 50
4 x2
6x-l +3
Reduce each
1
of the following to a
.
mixed expression
ba^
i.
15m2 + 12m-4
om
9a;^+2
g
o ^.
30a-5a^4-15a2 + 7
14a^ + 39
a^
49a^
'
*3i-l*
a^-y3
+ 4a- 19
'
lx-\-^y
y
'
2a + 5
35
'
' +
?/
a^4-85^ a2b
+ 5^ b m^-nV
a^
^^
a?^-h
100.-4-3
5x + 2
3a''^
^^
m-\-n
'
+ 8a^-4 a^4-2a 3
4o^-2oj4-5
,,.^
12
150^^-60.-^-20 a;^-7
^3
24o^ + 21a; + 19
*
3o;2-4
j^
6a^-17a'^6-21a^6^ +
19a^>^
+ 22 6^
2a'-5ab-6b'
143. Reduction of Fractions to their Lowest Common Denominator.
To reduce
fractions
to
their Lowest
Common Denominator
(L. C. D.) is to express them as equivalent fractions, each having for a denominator the L. C. M. of the given denominators.
Let
.
it
lowest
common
- and to their be required to reduce 3a'b^' 2ab^' ^.d'b . denominator.
-,
The L.
By
same
C. M. of 3 a'b', 2 ab% and 4 a% is 12 a'b' ( 133). 136, if the terms of a fraction be both multiplied by the expression, the value of the fraction is not changed.
Multiplying both terms of ^^ ^
Sa'b^
^^,
by 4 a, both terms of -|^, ^

6^,
2ab^
by 6 a^&, and both terms of
4a^6
^ by 3
-,
we have
16 acd 18 a%m 12 a'b'' 12 a^b^'
^"^
15 b^n 12 a'b^'
108
It will be seen that the
ALGEBRA
terms of each fraction are multiplied
by an expression, which is obtained by dividing the L. C. D. by the denominator of this fraction.
Whence
Find
the following rule.
the L. C.
M. of
the given denominators.
Multiply both terms of each fraction by the quotient obtained

by dividing the L. C. D. by the denominator of this fraction.
its
Before applying the rule, each fraction should be reduced to lowest terms.
144. Ex. Eeduce
mon denominator. We have,

,
,
a^
^ to their 4 and a- ^ oa-{-6

^
lowest com-
a"^
-4 =
(a
+ 2){a-2),
and
a2_5^_^6=(a-2)(a-3).
is
it
Then, the L. C. D. is (a + 2) (a -2) (a - 3). 2), the quotient Dividing the L. C. D. by (a + 2) (a 2) (a 3), tlie quotient is a + 2. by (a
Then, by the
rule, the required fractions are
( 134)
;
dividing
4C-3)
(a
^^^
(a
+ 2)(a-2)(a-3)
Sa(a + 2) + 2)(a-2)(a-3)'
51
EXERCISE
Keduce the following

.
to their lowest
c "
common denominator
2
Tab 3bc 2ca

'
Aa^
10'
^
15'
^
7
4a2-9' 6a'-9a
1
2
o
*
g
m
' '
2m^n 5 7)i^n^^
3x-\-4:Z
mn^
mn
3yi
2 mhi^ mn 2(m n)^' 3(m n)^
6x 5y
33yz^
~22xf''
.
'
n^- 8' 71^-471 + 4

g 2 2
'
cV 9a'm Sbhi 12 a'b' Ub^c 21 (â

11
3a
2a
-\-
a^
+ 3 a'
6
-{-
6' a'
+ 27'
x + 2'
x-2'
ar^-3'
FRACTIONS
jQ
..
a;2
109
a
a4-36
2cH-3
36
+ 46
+ 3a;-10'
2a^
5 a;4-2 + 7a;-15' 2x'-Tx + 6

a;
ADDITION AND SUBTRACTION OF FRACTIONS

*
145.
By
72,
+ a _ ^ = *-ii^. a a
:
We
then have the following rule
To add or subtract fractions, reduce them, if necessary, to equivalent fractions having the lowest common denominator. Add or subtract the numerator of each resulting fraction,
according as the sign before the fraction is -\- or the result over the lowest common denominator.
, and
write
The
final result
should be reduced to
its
lowest terms.
146. Examples.
1
1.
Q.
Simplify
L. C. D.
is
V*
4a + 3 __I_
4a^6
12 ^253
.
+ __--. 6a6^
,
1-662
The
3
&2,
multiplying the terms of the
first
fraction
by
and the terms
of the second
by 2
_^
a,
we have
2 a
4a +
4a2&
-6&2 ^
6a63
12 a62
12
9 52
12
ah'^
a^fts
12 a2^3
_^
^ 12 a62
If a fraction
_|_
9 52
2 q
12 a&2
^ 9 ^2 ^
2 g
12a263
V2.a%^
whose numerator
it
by a
sign,
is
is a polynomial is preceded convenient to enclose the numerator in
parentheses preceded by a sign, as shown in the last term of the numerator in equation (A), of Ex. 2.
If this is not done, care must be taken to change the sign of each term of the numerator before combining it with the other
numerators.
2.
Simplify ^
'
5^-4y _7x-2y.
6 14
110
The
6
L. C. D. is 42
7
;
ALGEBRA
whence,
6x-4y
x-2y _ S5x-2Sy
14
21x-6y
42
42 35
a;
28 y
(21 X
6 y)
42
35
a;
.^. ^ ^
14
g;
- 28 y 42
21
a;
f 6y
42
22 y
_7 ~
a;
11 y
21
^
3.
^
a;
Simplify
x^
a^
a:
x^
a; = a;(aj 1). 1), and a;^ Then, the L. C. D. is a:(a; + l)(a: - 1), or x{y? - 1). Multiplying the terms of the first fraction by a: 1, and the terms of the second by a; + 1, we have
We have,
= x(a; 4-
1
a;2
x^^-x
_
X
x{x?-
-1 - 1)
l-(a;
x(a:2
+l - 1)
_ a;By
1) __
x-l-a;-l _
X(X2-1)
-2
X(X2-1)'
X(X2-1)
changing the sign of the numerator, at the same time changing the
sign before the fraction ( 137),

Or,
we may
write the answer
x(x2
by changing the
sign of the numerator,
and
2
of the factor x^
1) 1 of
the denominator ( 138),
we may
write
it
4.
Simplify
a^
4.
a2_3a + 2
1 _-L-____A__+ a^-Sa + G a'-4.a + ^
We have,
and
a2
Q^
Then, the L.
3 a + 2 =(a - l)(a - 2), a^ - 4.a-^^ = {a-l)(a-^), = (a - 2)(a - 3). C. D. is (a - 1) (a - 2) (a - 3).

^
Whence,
a2-3a + 2
a2-4a +
2,1
3
a2-5a + 6
a-3
(a-l)(a-2)(a-3)
2(a-2) (a- l)(a -2)(a -3)
a-l
(
_ i)(a-2)(a-3)
a-3-2(a-2)-t-a-l _ a-3-2a + 4 + q-l - l)(a - 2)(a - 3) - l)(a - 2)(a - 3) (a (a

0.
(a-l)(a-2)(a-3)
FRACTIONS
EXERCISE 52
Simplify the following
1
:
111
4a;
+7
6x 5
15
5
a
*
*
2m-\-5n
10
2 3
'
8mV
5a-7b
27a
^
3m + 4yi
6mn^
a+6b
36 6
'
2a'b^
Ta'b'
4(X
9
y
3a 8
12
x?/
2/
^^
\
3a;
_
'
2
'
2/2
2;a;
2(6n + 5)
11
3(n + 6) 22
4(5n-4)
44
3a-2
3a^
8a;
4a-7
7 a'
a-3
9a
'
+l
lOy-9
9^ + 8
21
z
'
7x
2a^ + 3
6 a'
Uy
Sa^'
jQ
+l
a^
Sa^-2
36
a'
12
6a;
11
4a;-3
5
+5
,
5x + 2
15
a;
-10
'
10
20
io 12.
3m-2 7m-8 + 9m + 4 lOm + 7 8 6^ -4 9'

2a;
13
^
'
+ ~8~~
?/
5a;
+ 4?/
16~"
8x 3?/lla; 2y
24~""^
18.
32
14.
5
15.
2m m 2 + + 3
-?^^
2x + y
^
2x y
^
^x-7
-i
1-.
4a;
,
+
.
19.
3a-9
5^
a;
5a-15
4a;^ a^
a;
16.
m "^ m+ +
a-\-3
2m
a3 a+3
^ 2
on 20.
y*
2i
a;
x 3y
+3
j?/
+ 3a; 1 + -12 A^ 3
a;
-y
x-\-3y
U-
112
22.
ALGEBRA
a
23.
24.
25.
33.
FRACTIONS
39
1
113
0?
x-1
41
x^-l^;!?-!
-Q
'
g-l g + l a + l"â-l
o?-l
a^
+1
42
43^
4yi 1 3n-hl 6w2-17n + 12 10n2-97i-9 a-4 3a-l 5a^-9a + ll 2a-3 a + 2 "^ 2a2 + a-6 a;-2 +4 a;4-3 i^-x-6 x'-lx-\-12 x'-2x-^
a;
^
'
/~~~
m^
mn + n^
m^
+ mn + w^
m"*
+ m^n^ + n* ~^ t*^ /
/^
.^
>/
147. In certain cases, the principles of 137 and 138 enable us to change the form of a fraction to one which is more convenient for the purposes of addition or subtraction.
1.
Simplify
^ -+ a^
'
Changing the signs of the terms in the second denominator, at the same time changing the sign before the fraction ( 137), we have
3
2& + a
a'^-b^
a-h
The
L. C. D.
is
now
a^
62.
rpjjgjj '
__3
a-b
2& + q ^ 3(fl + 6)-(26 + a^-h'^ a^-b^

a2
a)
_ 3a + 36-26-q ^ 2a+
62
b
52'
^2
2.
Simplify
138,
{x-y)(x-z)
(y-x)(y-z)
(z-x)(z-y)
;
the sign of the factor y a; in the second denomiand we nator, at the same time changing the sign before the fraction change the signs of both factors of the third denominator.
By
we change
The expression then becomes
1.1
(x-y)(ix-z)
{_x-y){y-z)
{x-z){y-z)
114
The
L. C. D.
is
ALGEBRA
now
(x
?/)
(x
z) (y
z);
then the result

z
^ _ ~
(y
z)-^ (X
- z) - (x -
y)
-h
{x-y)(x-z)(ii-z)
(x-y){x-z)(ti -z)
(x
2y-2z
(xy){x
_
-z)
z){y
2(y-g)
y)(x
2
z)
-z){y-z)~ (x- y)(x -
EXERCISE 53
:
a S
2o}
3a-3
2
a;^
2-2a
2 4
6
a;
+ a 3-a
"^
o?-^
2
3a;
3a;
16
ar^
a;l
+h
5
h
6-'
_1
n+^
1__,
n6
e-âh
*
y,
Sb'^-ab
o-
1_^'^2^3^_4
2b-a
r
,8m + -i-rz 2m-l l-4m2

7.
3a,2a,8a6 TTi+TT.
+ 26
1
x'
a^-Ab'
6a;^-8a;-32
9a;^-16a;
4-3a;
4-
10.
^ (x_y)(a7-2!)
(y-x){y-z)
3a
a2
i-11.
12.
2^
4 a6
+ 62
.+
^
. a;^
q3_53
+ a64-62
^
?,_
jQ
.+ 2 4 3m2 2m 4 3m4-l, m 4 3m-l 5-2m Gm^-lTm + S

a;^ 5a;4-6
a;
a;^
(a-5)(a-c)
(6-c)(6-a)
(G-a)(c-6)
148. Reduction of a Mixed Expression to a Fraction.
Ex.
Reduce 2x S
a;
4-1
to a fractional form.
FRACTIONS
We may regard
2x
3
115
1,
2
;
a;
3 as a fraction having the denominator
and
use the rule of 145
thus,
4x-5 ^ (2a;-3)(x + l)-(4x-5)

x
+1
_ 2x'^-x-S-^x + 5 _ 2x'^ -5x + 2
x+1
EXERCISE 54
Reduce each of the following
1.
a=
x+1
to a fractional
10.
form
+3+
^.
4a;
2x^-5x + 2(^112.
4a:
+9
2.
2a-5-^^^. 7a
^-^^ + 1.
a
11.
3a'
^ + S-^<^^-^). 7a-2
4.
+ 2m
13.
a-\-b
14.
-^ + -1
a
1.
^^ + y
+ q7,2 5 + 3/1 2a-T6

2f)
15.
m^-m\ + 7)in^-n^ ^ + ^^
a;-3+
2n^
16.
(^-2(^ +
<^
1.
8.
^ + 2.y + ,f + X 2y
^.
17.
(^^^+a^+2a+4. â-j-4:
^^ + ^5/
.
9.
a-46-^l+Mll
18..2a.+5y-
MULTIPLICATION OF FRACTIONS
149. Required the product of - and -.
Let
|x|
= ..
(1)
116
ALGEBRA
7, 9), 9),
1 Multiplying both members hy b x d (Ax. (Ax.
^X-Xbxd=xx bxd, d
Now
we have
X
6
or
(?X^)^('3X^)=^xZ>xrf;
for the factors of a product may be written in any order. since the product of the quotient and the divisor gives
the dividend
( 67),
-
= a,
x
and
{c)
-xd =
x
c.
Whence,
(a)
= x xb
cZ
d.
Dividing both members by 6 x
(Ax.
8, 9),
xd
x
From
(1)
and
(2),
=
^
^.
(Ax.
4, 9)
Then, to multiply fractions, multiply the numerators together for the numerator of the product, and the denominators for its denominator.
150. Since
c
1,
denominator
may be regarded we have, by 149,
as a fraction having the
-XC--X--Dividing both numerator and denominator by

c ( 136),
a
b
^,
a
c
b^c
Then, to multiply a fraction by a rational and integral expresdivide the denominator of the f-action by the expressi07i; otherwise, multiply the numerator by the expression.
sion, if 2ôssible,
151. Common factors in the numerators and denominators should be cancelled before performing the multiplication. Mixed expressions should be expressed in a fractional form ( 148) before applying the rules.
FRACTIONS
1.
117
Multiply
3^^
^^
Sb'a^
by
10 a^y 9 bx^
3 b^x^
4
aV
^2
3--2
x 5 x 3 x a^h^x^y x 22 x a^ftarV
&,
a;^,
_ 5 6%
q^
'
The
factors cancelled are 2, 3, a^,
and
y,
2.
Multiply together
aj^
f + 6 2-^^, a3 +
, flj
^^
and
a^-4
a;2
+ x-6
V
a;2
x-3y
^^
a;2
4 4
^^
_ ^
a;2
+2X + x-6
a;(a;
2a;-6-a; +
a;2-9
x-3
a;
2)
2
^^
^^
(x
(x
(x
3)(a;-2)
x
x-3
x2-4 + 3)(x - 3) ^ x + 2)(x-2) x-2
The
factors cancelled are
2,
2,
+ 3,
and x
3.
3.
Multiply
^^^
m mn
by a -6.
Dividing the denominator by a
^ a2
&,
a2
+ "^
62^^^^ x
62
(a ^
^^
6) '
= a2.52 a + 6
4.
Multiply
by m-\-n.
Multiplying the numerator by
m + n,
x (m
+ n) = ^
"^
^^
'
EXERCISE 55
.
:
8 am'
Sot'
15
2/^
28
2^^
o
*.
21 a^6^
4c^d^
"
8cd
5 a^
9
35a36^*
&3
c^
14 6^c 15a
28 m^
5c^
126^
,
6a^
7c**
5 21
a^
^ 7
c*
6^
10
6 a*
25
nV
15 w 14
mV
mV
118
ALGEBRA
7.
^^x(2a-5). a-26
'
9.
'-'
^-^
a;^
"*
9^-16''
V ^'''' + 1^ (3x ^Î
10 ^^'
+ 7i-^2 '-2a-35 4a^-9a 2a3-3a^ a-7

n'
""
*
î!fl|5x 4.n'
j^
+ 9a^y + 18.v^
^.^
a;y^-4y
a;^
a^-9i2/H-20/
+6
ic?/
+9
2/^
a^-27
4a2-20a + 25
j^
25
16
17
4m^ + 8m + 3 6m^-9m 2m2-5m + 3 4m2-l m^ + mx -{-nx-\- mn x^ mx nx-^ mn ^ v? ~ 2 a6 + 5^ c^ a + ^ c a2 + 2a6 + &'-c2 OL-h-\-c 16a;-4 20a;4-5 + 2a; + l â;^
tc^
on^
<^^
^^^
ci2
18.
_ 11 a + 30
a^
_3^
a2
^2
_9
a_6a2 + 9a
V
a2-25
+ 3a-54
J
19.
f3a + ^^^-^^-^^Y2a-^^^-^^^-^Y ^^-^
2a+3
20
\ n.
^ + 8y^
a;3_32/3
a;
a:-2y + 2y
A
V
a;2
;r
a;y
x^-^xy-V^y")
3/
X.
9^M-i2ax + 4a2 X
x^
a^
22
2n^-n-3
n*_8n2 + 16
+ aa;^/ 2a^ + 2aa;-a' X 2ax-a^ 3x + 2a / \ n^4-4n + 4 n^-yi-2 w^ + w 27i2-3n'

3x-{-2a
DIVISION OF FRACTIONS
152. Required the quotient of ^ divided by |<
FKACTIONS
Let
119
1^1
( 67),
= ..
(1)
Then
quotient
since the dividend is the product of the divisor
and
we have
a
h
c
d
7, 9),
Multiplying both members by (Ax.
-x- = -Xxx- = bed

c
,
d
c
x.
/ox
(2)
From
Then,
(1)
and
(2),
= X ^ -^ a ^ c
(Ax.
4, 9)
to divide
one fraction by another, multiply the dividend
by the divisor inverted.
153. Since
c
1,
may
we
be
regarded as a fraction having the
denominator
have, by
152,
a
b
1 a -^c = -x- =
a
b
be
( 136),
Dividing both numerator and denominator by c
a-i-c
Therefore, to divide a fraction by a rational and integral
expression
If possible, divide the numerator of the fraction by the expression

;
otherwise, multiply the denominator by the expression.
154.
Mixed expressions should be expressed

148) before applying the rules.
in a fractional
form
1.
Divide
i^ by
6^25
'
li^.
9^253
Wehave
6^25
^
iPa^y
^ci^b^
4y
dx^y^
lOa^V
5a;V
^b^
120
Divide
ALGEBRA
2.
2-^Hy3-?|5f^
^ 2x + 2-2a; + 3
X
5
.
3a;2
x2
- 3a;2 + -1
13
^
1
x^-l _ 5(x + l)(x-l) _x-l^

10
2x5x(x+l)
3.
Divide '^l~'^\jm-n.
Dividing the numerator by
m - w,
6.
^^
~
^^
-h
^'^ (m - n) = "^.^^ t
^'^
'
4.
Divide îA' by a + a6
Multiplying the denominator by a
a2 4-7)2
6,
^-
(a
&)
= a^ + _
a^
62
52
If the numerator and denominator of the divisor are exactly contained in the numerator and denominator, respectively, of the dividend, it follows from 149 that the numerator of the
quotient
may
the
he obtained by dividing the numerator of the divi-
dend by
numerator of
the divisor.
the divisor;
the quotient by dividing the
and the denominator of denominator of the dividend by the
denominator of
5.
Divide iînil-' by 3^2J?. * x ar y^ y

9x2
We have,
-4y2 ^ 3x + 2y _3x
x2-2/2
x-y
EXERCISE 56
+y
Simplify the following:

*
'
'
'
'
4.fn
55(^d'
22c'd'
FRACTIONS
'
121
a-3
4.x-i-y
a2
+ 6a + 9
\5y
x^
a-\-3
^
,
*
^^
n^
\^y^3j
5n
^^
2J
n^-3n-40
4?^
+ 4n-5
0^-3 xy
'
x^
y^
. '
x'-10xy-^21y^
-\-
xy
.^
^
-\- y"^
a2_^5_262
'
^
'
w'-âb'
7
9a;^-4j/^
. '
a-26 a + 36* 9x^ + 6xy

^^-^
9-x^
^^
4a?^
'
+ 12a; + 5
4.X-3
^+
.^
>
^g
8yi
'
+l
4n^-2n + l
n2
'
iex^-25y^
13.
Sxy-lOy^'
2n^-\-4.n
+ 4n4-4
(2-^ +
(a;2-2/2
^-{'-W).
14.
+ 22/^-;22x^Îll^.
*
15
m^ + 2m^ + m + 2 m^ m^ m + l
m"*
m^4-3m^ + 2 2m^ + l
jg
2a^-a6-36^
9a2-2562
3a^ + &-26^ 9a2_30a6 + 25i
COMPLEX FRACTIONS'
155.
It is
Complex Fraction
is
a fraction having one or more
fractions in either or both of its terms.
being the dividend, and

1.
simply a case in division of fractions its numerator its denominator the divisor.
;
Simplify
h-
^^
^=
axj-am)= bd"^ bd
c
^
It is often advantageous to simplify a complex fraction by multiplying its numerator and denominator by the L. C. M. of their denominators ( 136).
122
a
2.'
ALGEBRA
Simplify
ab
a__
'
a+b
+
b)(a
The
of a + & and a - 5 is (a both terms by {a -\- b)(a Multiplying
L. C.
M.
&).
b),
we have
a-b
h
a-i-b a
_^
ab
3.
_ a(a + ~ & (a +
?^)- a (a
6)
a (a
&)
6)
_ a^ + ab ab + +
b'^
a^ \- ab
a^
2 ab
a^
ab
b^'
a+b
Simplify
i+-i
X
a;
(B
+l
i+i X
In examples like the above, complex fraction.
Thus,
-+i
it is
best to begin
1
by simplifying the lowest

X
we
first
multiply both terms of

1
by
4-
x,
giving
_ ^
1, giving "=
and
"T i
then multiply both terms of

J
X x
by x
1
X+1 x+ 1 +x
EXERCISE 57
:
^
a;
^
2/
^
^^
x-\-y
FRACTIONS
3a ^ 46 + + 3^ 46
.
123
g^
r>
27
14.
h^
a
^'
6.
-+! a
^,
^
^+3+a
b
6
y_
15.
%! + ^ + 4:X^ y^
a?-4y
2a;-2/
'
xY a^2/^
a;y
i
J
+ a^y^
^^^
16.
a;
+4
1
5a;
1-a^y
j
+
1
a;?/
xy
1
0^4-4 1 5a;
4 +1 4 5a; + l
ic
5a;
ic
'
x^
\ x
9.
y^ z^
2yz
^
'
\-\-x
17.
o^
+f
2xy
<
1
a-2
10.
a;
18.
+2+
+ + 2)^ a + 2 2a^ + 2a-l a a^ 4 a

(a
3a
11.
119.
(x-yy
X
a;
x-y
2/
1+a
10
20.
+
2/
^-y
-y /2a;-9;:
^_ty_f x+y x+ t
x-\ry
13.
^>1
ha
a^-f-1 aj%>>4^
4a-l 1- 2a + 5 3a-2
>aSs-L,
.1
^^
124
ALGEBRA
a
oi
a^
a^
ax a + a;
a^
a?-\-iii?
MISCELLANEOUS AND REVIEW EXAMPLES

EXERCISE 57
a
:
Reduce each of the following

J
to a
mixed expression
3
'
a;^
-2
a:^
- 20
*
m'-\-n\
'
12 a^
mn
12 a^-3 a^-22 a + 8
3a^ 5
6-
;TTT;'^^'* + ")2 ma;
a;<-2a^ + 8a;-16
o \
13.
7.
4a;4-om
8.
""^;
^(2m-3a;).
.
/n
(a_6)2_(c-d)
(6 4. d)2
_ (a 4. cV
ar^-5g^-84 27a;3-8
3a;
I
x-\-l
14.
3a;-2
'^
-
^^ +
2
a;
-3
/^
15
J^ 1_ J_ 3a; 2y 2a;"^3y 42-92/^"^9 a;2_4y2a'6d - a6^c - acd^ 4- hcH

b'cd
-\-
J_
'
abc"
- ab(P - d'cd
16
+2
Y
8
3_\
17.
a;3_2ar^4-2a;-l x*-\-x'+l
jg
'
_J_ ,_4
a
a
. '
a-\-b
lla-56 W a?
19
27a;^+l 25x'-4:
15a;^-a;-2
25a;2-20a;
+ 4*
FRACTIONS
20
(l
^
125
1
+ 4a;-21 \
2c
(x +
x-^\
c
2j
d + 4:bd
2
+ 2d
ac-^2ad-\-2bc
22.
ac-ad+Abc -2bd
^2.-l+ ^^-;^ Ur. + 3- ^"+n

g+ 2 a+3 + 3a + 2)"â2 + 4a-h3 4(a2
,
23
+1
4(a2+5a + 6)'
25.
y-=^
^-=^
x^-{y-zf
26
(x-zf-y^
- (2 a- 3b -cf (3a + b-2cy-(2a + 6b-{-2cy

(a-^ 2 b -{-S cf
27.
1-1-^^ +
3
4:
4:
(First
combine the
first
two
fractions, then the last two,
and then add
these results.)
28
27i
29.
3
J
+ l'2?i-l
5n2 Sn^ + l
71^
8 71^-1
\f^_iy(^î\ypjt=^^.
^-^
(a-b)(a-c)
30.
'-^
-f
^-^
{c-d){c-b)
(b-c){b-a)
,
3.
(2a;^ + 5a;-2y-25 (3x'-4x-3y-16'
32
'
a+3
1
I
a'-\-2a
'
a-3
a'-9
a'-\-9
and
(First add the first two fractions, to the result to this result add the last fraction.)
add the third
fraction,
33
3q
3a
Go"
a^
12
a*
a*
a+b
a-b
b''
+6*
126
Xj
FRACTIONAL AND LITERAL LINEAR EQUATIONS 127
XI.
FRACTIONAL AND LITERAL LINEAR EQUATIONS

SOLUTION OF FRACTIONAL LINEAR EQUATIONS
156. If a fraction whose numerator is a polynomial is preceded by a sign, it is convenient, on clearing of fractions, to enclose the numerator in parentheses, as shown in Ex. 1.
If this is not done, care each term of the numerator
1
must be taken
when
to change the sign of the denominator is removed.

4a;
1.
C11
4.1, 4.Solve the equation
Sec
1
4
5
5
= .,7a7 +
4 H 5
--^
10
The
L. C. M. of 4,
5,
and 10
is 20.
Multiplying each term by 20,
we have
Whence,
Transposing,
15a;_5_ (16X-20) =:80 + 14x + 10. 15 - 5 - 16 x + 20 = 80 + 14 + 10. - 16 x - 14 x = 80 + 10 + 5 - 20. 15

aj
a:
a;
Uniting terms,
Dividing by
15 x
15,
2
= 75. = 5.
5 2
2.
Solve the equation ^

L. C.
x-2
2,
x
x2
+ 2 af-4
4
is
= 0.
The
M.
of
2,
and
4,
x2
4.
Multiplying each term by x^

2 (X Or,
we have
2)
5 (x
2)
2X
+ - 5X +
10
2 = 0. - 2 = 0.
12,
Transposing, and uniting terms,
3x =
and x
= 4.
If the denominators are partly monomial and partly polynomial, it is often advantageous to clear of fractions at first
partially multiplying each term of the equation of the monomial denominators.

;
by the L. C. M.
128
o
ALGEBRA
6x-\-l a 1 the ^ 4.Solve 4.1, equation -^ 15
3.
2x-4. = 2x-l -
7
a;
-16
5
5,
Multiplying each term by 15, the L. C. M. of 15 and
6x+l-- x-lQ =6jc-3. 1

Transposing, and uniting terms, 4
'
^ ~ X IQ
a;
28
ic
- 64 = 30 2 x = 4,
60.
Then,
and x
= 2.
EXERCISE 58
In Exs. 5, 11, 22, and 32, of the following set, other letters than X are used to represent unknown numbers. This is done repeatedly in the later portions of the work.
.
:
l__l==i
2
9a;
L
Qx
a;
2
7
'
bx
lOx
'
^ = -1..
15a;
12*
A_ J__ 8^ 12 3
a;
a;
24
7.
a;
^11 8
+2
4.
4^ + ^Î = -^.
^2
15
a;-i^ + ^^^ = -2.

3fi^
'38
8
5.
^ + 3_2l3 =
5
7a;
2v.
*
* 8.
5a;-6 ^5
4
5
a;
8a;-9
7
^^
4
-Q
14*
8a;-ll 9
7a;+4 12
3a;-8
8
_Q
5(a;-l)
6
2(a;
+ 2) ^^
3
5a;-15
4
12
lli)
+ 12
4p-6
ll'a;-7
5
18
9^4
5j?-9 ^
8a;-l
3
13 a;4-3 10
^ 14 + 38
a;
15

13
,.
5a;
+4
3
3(a;-f7)
16 x-{-5 9
7a;
^ lOx-9
5
4(3a;-2)
15
'
7x
..
Sx
+ 10 ^ 4a;-7
6
2(7x-l)
21
(3a;-4)(3a; 2
^
+ l)
-
(8 a;- 11) (x
+ l) ^ (5 a;- 1)(4 -3)

a;
16
130
32
ALGEBRA
^-3
3
a-
+ 4._
St
+ lS
a;
03
a;
34.
5 _ 4a; + 2 _ 15 1 7 10 3a; + 2~ 5* + l _ + 2 _ x-\-5 _ x-\-6 x-\-2 x-\-8~x-j-6 x + t'

2
a;
(First
add the fractions in the
first
member
x7 x5
then the fractions in the
second member.)
35.
x
36.
2
5
a;4-l x 1
x x
4:
4:
4x + 7
8a;
12ic
+l
5a;-l
9(5a;4-2)
15
1
J
45
37
Q
^+3
2(0^-8)
2a;-l
3(a;2
,
6(a;-2)
1
,
39
2x-l x-2 2a; + l

'
2a;
3a;
+ + 10
3
(a;
+ 2a; + 4) 5a^ + 30a; - 2) (3 + 10)

a;
3a;-5
5a;-6 ^2
2a;
23fl^-10
6x^
+7
+ llx-S5
Equations.
157. Solution of Special Forms

1.
of Fractional
Solve the equation
|^^ + ^^ =
its
2.
We divide
l
each numerator by
corresponding denominator
then
Clearing
= o. + -^-+l-^+l = 2, 2x-3 cc2 + 4 2x-3 a;2 + 4 of fractions, 2 5c2 + 8 - (2 a:2 + 6 x - 12) = 0.

2x2
or-A__^
Then,
+ 8-2a;2_5a; + 12 = 0;
whence,
a;
= 4.
We reject a solution which does not satisfy the given equation. ~ 2. Solve the equation x-S + x-2 x^-5x-{-6
Multiplying both members by (x
3) (x
2)
or x2
jc
+ 6,
x-2 + a;-3
= 3ic-7.

If
x 1,
X
or x
2.
we
substitute 2 for
aj,
the fraction
becomes
2
Since division by
the given equation,
is
and we
impossible, the solution aj = 2 does not satisfy the equation has no solution. reject it
;
"3.
Solve the equation

aj
3 H + lO
-
4
x-\-^
=
ic
2^
+
a;
+8
+9
Adding the fractions in each member,
we have
58
7x +
(x
+ 10)(x + 6)
all
^
(x
7a; + 58 + 8)(x4-9)*
first
Clearing of fractious, and transposing
terms to the
member,
(1)
(7x + 58)(x + 8)(x + 9)-(7x + 58)(x + 10)(x + 6) = 0. - (x + 10) (x + 6) ] = 0. Factoring, (7 x + 58) [ (x + 8) (x + 9)

Expanding,
Or,
(7
+ 58) (x2 + 17 x + 72 - x2 (7x
16 x
- 60) = 0.
12)
+ 58)(x-f
= 0.
This equation
Placing 7 X
may be
solved by the method of 125.
+ 58 = 0, we
have x have
Placing
+ 12 = 0, we
=^ x = - 12.
we should solve equation (1), in Ex. 3 of both members by 7 a; + 58, we should have dividing
158. If
157,
by
Then,
In this
r
I
+ 8)(a; + 9)-(a; + 10)(a; + 6) = 0. a^ + 17 + 72-a^-16 ic-60 = 0, = is lost. way, the solution

(x
a;
or
a;
= -12.
ic
-^^-
from this that it is never allowable to divide both members of an equation by any expressio7i which involves the unknown numbers, unless the expression be placed equal to and
It follows
this
\the root preserved, for in
way
solutions are
lost.
EXERCISE 59
132
3
ALGEBRA
_8
a;+3
3_^J^
a;-7
a;
5_ x+9 x-2
*
2x-\-S
'
2a;-3
2x^-'^
36
2x-6
x^l
4a;2-9~
^^
aj
+2
3
+3
a;
+4
4
_
x^^^x^l
a^+3a;-7 ^^ a^+3aj+l
4
A.x-\-\
a;4-9
a;+4
2^1 a;+3
5
ic
a^_2a;4-5
'
a;+18*
1
6a;
a.-2-2a;-3
10
3a;
+5
SOLUTION OF LITERAL LINEAR EQUATIONS

159.
Literal Equation is
one in which some or
all
of the
known numbers
are represented
2a;
by
letters
as,
+ a=62 + io.
xa
Ex. Solve the equation

Multiplying each term by
aj^
^-^ = ^^1'. ar a^ x-\-a,
a2^
- a) = a2 + 62, x{x + a) (x + 2 6) (x - (a;2 + 2 6a; - ax - 2 6) = a2 4. 52^ a;2 + aa; or, + ax - x2 - 2 6a; + aa; + 2 a6 = a2 + 62, or, 2 ax - 2 6x = a2 - 2 a6 + or, 2 x(a 6) = (a 6)2. Factoring both members,
a;2
62.
Dividing by 2(a
6),
^^^^
In solving fractional literal equations, we must reject any solution which does not satisfy the given equation. Compare Ex. 2, 167.
EXERCISE 60
1.
:
3a;
= h{a^-'b\ 2. (aj_2a-6)2=(a; + a + 26)2. 4a; + 3a x~2n _fy

{ax-h){})x^d)
a
'
6ct
2x + n
2x
4a; 3a
+ 56 _q 6a 5b

.
+ + -- = a + & +
ao
be
c.
ca
7.
+ 4:6) b^ xb _ x+_a^ a^ b^ a+b ab m^x 4- n _ n^x-\-m _m n

^(<^
mx
nx
^
I
mnx
^ a
2
c
^~^
b
^
c
_ be (x-\-b) ab^ a?c + abx

abc
9.
3m
6a^H-7ma7 20m^
2x + 6m
<^
cf
I
3aj
4m
10
+^ 'a;
^^
11
'a
x
26 _ (2a 6)a; + 3a6 x^ o? +a b) g^ + ^^ _ g^ (g "

a;
a;
'
o?
b^
12.
a
b
a
o;
b c
ic
14.
15.
jg
17.
+ 6)(a;-g + 6)-(g-6)a; + a2-62 = 2g(a; + a-6). (a;+i> + g)(a;-p + g) + ^^=(a;-i>)(a; + g). 4a? + 3n 4:X 5n 10 n^ 3n x x^ nx 6n^ x-{-2n Sx _ 5 ax 2 b ^ g + 3 5a; _ ax-{-2a^ ^h
(g
^
2
18.
4g
b
86
16a6
a
x-\-b
x-{-a
a;
ic
a b +g+6
2ga;
19
a;
+g
20.
a;
117
2g
x
ic^
g + 3g
19g^
+ gaj 6g^
8g
_^
3
2g
6a;
+g
3a;
2a;
3a
134
21.
ALGEBRA
1
22
4:n x-{-n ^ 2 go; + x^ 2ax 3a'^

x
ft^
x-\-4:n
,
x-\-3n
x^-\-ax
x^
-\-
2a^ _ q
-\-
ax
2 o?
23
24.
ah_o x-\-a x-\-h xa xb x-i-a + b x'-{-(x-ay+(x-by = 3x(x--a)(x-b).

x
SOLUTION OF EQUATIONS INVOLVING DECIMALS

160. Ex.
Solve the equation
.2
a;
+ .001 - .03 = .113 - .0161.

a; 0^
Transposing,
.2
a:
.03
a;
Uniting terms,
Dividing by .057,
.113 x = - .0161 .057 x = .0171. x = - .3.
.001.
EXERCISE
1.
:
61
2.
3.
- 3. 75 = .23 -f .125. 3 + .052 -7.8 = .04 -5.82 -.0696. .05v-1.82-.7'u = .008v-.504.

7.98
a; oj a; a;
a?
(Here, v represents the

4.
unknown number.)
a;
.73
a;
+ 8.86 = .6(2.3
-.4).
5.
.07(8a^-5.7) = .8(5a: + .86) + 1.321.

3.2
6.
X-. 84 + -^^ ^--^^^ = .9

.9
a;.
6.15 x
67
.6aj-.81
Sx
.Sx-6.52 .8a;-(
.5
V8
9.
-^^-^'^^ -2.84
.3
^r^^
-3.1 201x-Il^^^^^^ = ^-^-.135.

.6
.03

PROBLEMS INVOLVING LINEAR EQUATIONS
161. The following problems lead both to integral and fractional equations; the former being than those of Exercise 24.
1
.
somewhat more
difficult
in 10 days.
can do a piece of work in 8 days which B can perform In how many days can it be done by both working
together ?
Let
X
_
= the number = the

= the
of
days required.
Then,
X
8
part both can do in one day.
Also,
part
A can do in one day,
and
= the part B can do in one day.

10
the conditions,
By
8
5
ic
=
10
0!
4-
oj
= 40,
= 4|,
or 9
ic
= 40.
Whence,
2.
if
x
digit of a
the numbfer of days required.
The second
number exceeds the
first
by 2
and
the number, increased by 6, be divided by the Find the number. digits, the quotient is 5.
Let Then, X
sum
of its
= the
first digit.
x
2
itself is
a;
-\-
2 2
= the second
= the sum
digit,
and
of the digits.
first digit,
The number
Then,
10
a;
equal to 10 times the

a;
plus the second.
+ (a; +
2), or 11
+
2
= the
number.
By
the conditions,
lla;
+6^^
+
8
2
2x +
11 x
Whence,
Then,
10 a:
10,
and x
= 2.
11 x
= 24,
the
number
required.
136
ALGEBRA
3. Divide 44 into two parts such that one divided by the other shall give 2 as a quotient and 5 as a remainder.
Let
Then,
44
since the dividend
11
= =
the divisor. the dividend.
?i
Now
is
equal to the product of the divisor and
quotient,- plus the remainder,
we have
44
+
n
5,
whence
3 n
39.
Then,
13, the divisor,
and
4.
44
31, the dividend.
Two
persons,
and B, 63 miles
apart, start at the
same
time and travel towards each other. A travels at the rate of 4 miles an hour, and B at the rate of 3 miles an hour. How far will each have travelled when they meet ?
Let
Then,
4X
= the number of miles that A travels. Sx = the number of miles that B travels.
4x
7
By
the conditions,
a;
63.
Then,
= 63,
the
and x
= 9.
of miles that
Whence,
and
It is
4x
= 36,
number
A travels,
B
travels.
3x =
27, the
number
of miles that
number
often advantageous, as in Ex. 4, to represent the by some multiple of x instead of by x itself.
unknown
5. At what time between 3 and 4 o'clock are the hands of a watch opposite to each other ?
Let X
the
number
of minute-spaces passed over
by the minute-hand
from 3 o'clock
to the required time.
hand
Then, since the hour-hand is 15 minute-spaces in advance of the minuteat 3 o'clock, X 15 30, or x 45, will represent the number of
minute-spaces passed over by the hour-hand. But the minute-hand moves 12 times as fast as the hour-hand.
Whence,
Then,
12 (x
45), or x
12 x
540,
a;
= -
540,
and x
49^^
Then the required time
is 49^^^
minutes after 3 o'clock.
FRACTIONAL AND LITERAL LINEAR EQUATIONS 13T

EXERCISE 62
of a fraction exceeds twice the numerar numerator be increased by 14, and the denominator decreased by 9, the value of the fraction is ^. Find the
1.
The denominator
If the
tor
by
4.
fraction.
2.
Divide 197 into two parts such that the smaller shall be
contained in the greater 5 times, with a remainder 23.

3.
in
4i hours
in 2f hours, and by B piece of work can be done by in how many hours can the work be done by both
;
working together
4.
The second digit of a number of two figures exceeds the by 5 and if the number, increased by 6, be divided by the sum of the digits, the quotient is 4. Find the number.
first
;
5.
At what time between 12 and 1
o'clock are the hands of
a watch opposite to each other ?

6.
of a
At what time between 7 and 8 o'clock is the minute-hand watch 10 minutes in advance of the hour-hand ?
7.
in 10 days. finishes the
A piece of work can be done by A and B working together After working together 7 days, A leaves, and B work in 9 days. How long will A alone take to
?
do the work
8.
be 3 times as
143.
Divide 54 into two parts such that twice the smaller shall much above 29 as 4 times the greater is below
9. At what time between 8 and 9 o'clock are the hands of a watch together ?
of a fraction exceeds the denominator by numerator be decreased by 9, and the denominator increased by 6, the sum of the resulting fraction and the given fraction is 2. Find the fraction.
10.
5.
The numerator
If the
11.
At what time between 2 and 3

of a
o'clock is the minute?
hand
watch 5 minutes behind the hour-hand
138
12.
first;
ALGEBRA
and
The second digit of a number of two figures is i the if the number be divided by the difference of its
and the remainder
3.
digits, the quotient is 15,
Find the
number.
13. A garrison of 700 men has provisions for 11 days. After 3 days, a certain number of men leave, and the proHow many men leave ? visions last 10 days after this time.
14.
A woman
finds that 7 eggs cost as
buys a certain number of eggs for $ 1.05 she much more than 18 cents as 8 eggs
;
cost less than 27 cents.

15.
How many
is
eggs did she buy ?

If the
The width
of a field
its
length.
width were
increased by 5 feet, and the length by 10 feet, the area would be increased by 400 square feet. Find the dimensions.
16. After A has travelled 7 hours at the rate of 10 miles in 3 hours, B sets out to overtake him, travelling at the rate of 9 miles in 2 hours. How far will each have travelled when B
overtakes
17.
A?
first digit
The
of a
number
If the second, and exceeds the third digit by 2. divided by the sum of its digits, the quotient is 38.
of three figures is f the number be
Find the
number.
18.
A, B, and
5,
as
A takes
together.
takes
divide coins in the following way as often takes 6, C takes 7. 4, and as often as
:
After the coins have been divided,
has 29 fewer than
and
How many
coins were there ?
19. A can do a piece of work in 3^ hours, B in 3| hours, and C in 3f hours. In how many hours can it be done by all working together ?
20.
A man walks 13|- miles, and returns in an hour less time

is
by a carriage, whose rate

Find his
21.
f as great as his rate of walking.

o'clock are the
rate of walking.
At what times between 4 and 5
hands of
a watch at right angles to each other?

borrows a certain sum, paying interest at the After repaying $180, his interest rate on the 5%. balance is reduced to 4J%, and his annual interest is now less by $ 10.80. Find the sum borrowed.
22.
A man
rate of
23.
The
digits of
a certain
If the
is
number
is
are three consecutive
numbers, of which the middle digit

first digit
the least. the quotient
its digits,
the greatest, and the number be divided by the sum of Find the number. ^-p-
24.
certain
first
number
boys.
The
of apples were divided between three received one-half the entire number, with one
apple additional, the second received one-third the remainder, with one apple additional, and the third received the remainder, 7.
How many
apples were there ?
25. freight train runs 6 miles an hour less than a passenger train. It runs 80 miles in the same time that the passenger train runs 112 miles. Find the rate of each train.
half as
and B each fire 40 times at a target A's hits are onenumerous as B's misses, and A's misses exceed by 15 How many times does each hit the the number of B's hits.
26.
;
target ?
27.
A freight
train travels from
to
at the rate of 12
has been gone 3^ hours, an express for B, travelling at the rate of 45 miles an hour, train leaves and reaches B 1 hour and 5 minutes ahead of the freight. to B, and the time taken by the Find the distance from
miles an hour.
After
it
express train.
28. A tank has three taps. By the first it can be filled in 3 hours 10 minutes, by the second it can be filled in 4 hours 45 minutes, and by the third it can be emptied in 3 hours 48 minutes. How many hours will it take to fill it if all the
taps are open ?

29.
A man
;
at
4|%
after
income
is
sum at 3f %, and \^ this sum an income tax of 5%, his net annual paying $ 195.70. How much did he invest in each way ?
invested a certain
140
ALGEBRA
30. train leaves for B, 210 miles distant, travelling at the rate of 28 miles an hour. After it has been gone 1 hour
and 15 minutes, another train starts from B for A, travelling an hour. How nmny miles from B will meet ? they
at the rate of 22 miles
do a piece of work in | as many days as B, and as many days as C. Together they can do |the work in 3^^ days. In how many days can each alone do
31.
A can
it
can do
in
the work ?
32.
A vessel
runs at the rate of 11| miles an hour.
It takes
just as long to run 23 miles up stream as 47 miles stream. Find the rate of the stream.
33.
down
man
starts
from his home to catch a train
at the rate
If he had of one yard in a second, and arrives 2 minutes late. walked at the rate of 4 yards in 3 seconds, he would have been
3^ minutes too
early.
Find the distance
to the station.
34. crew has bread for a voyage of 50 days, at IJ lb. each After 20 days, 7 men are lost in a storm, and the a day. remainder of the crew have a daily allowance of li lb. for the
balance of the voyage.

35.
Find the
at 4^
original niimber of the crew.
A man invests
$ 230
%.
He
then invests a certain
part of a like sum at S^%, and the balance at 5J%, and obtains the same income. How much does he invest at each
rate ?
36.
a watch
37.
At what times between 5 and 6 make an angle of 45 ?

At a
is
o'clock do the
hands of
certain time between 12 noon
and 12.30
it is
p.m., the
distance between the hands

later.
f as great as
10 minutes
Find the time.
38.
She then
an egg more than half her eggs. an egg more than half her remaining eggs. third time she does the same, and now has 3 eggs left.
sells half sells half
A woman
How many
had she
at first ?
FRACTIONAL AND LITERAL LINEAR EQUATIONS

39.
-g-
141
He
A merchant increases his capital annually by of itself. adds to his capital $ 300 at the end of the first year, and $350 at the end of the second; and finds at the end of the
is
third year that his capital

his original capital. 40.
|f of his original
capital.
Find
A and B together can do a piece of work in 5| days, and C together in 6| days, and C and A together in 5f days. In how many days can it be done by each working alone ?
73
41.
her
own
pursued by a hound, and has a start of 77 of The fox makes 5 leaps while the hound makes leaps.
fox
is
many
42.
but the hound in 5 leaps goes as far as the fox in 9. How leaps does each make before the hound catches the fox ?
puts a certain sum into a savings bank paying At the end of a year he deposits the interest, At the end of a interest on the entire amount. receiving second year and a third year he does the same, and now has
A man
interest.
$ 2812.16 in the bank.
What was
his original deposit ?
PROBLEMS IN PHYSICS
1.
The
density of a substance
is
is
defined as the
total
grams in one cubic centimeter.

grams, M, in any body
its
Hence the
its
number number
of
of
volume, F;
density, D, multiplied or, to state this relation algebraically,
equal to
by
M=DV,
V
in grams. being given in cubic centimeters, and Two blocks, one of iron and one of copper, weigh the same
number
of grams; the iron has a volume of 10 cubic centimeters and a density of 7.4 the copper has a density of 8.9. Find the volume of the copper block.
;
2. When 100 grams of alcohol, of density .8, is poured into a cylindrical vessel, it is found to fill it to a depth of 10 centimeters. Find the area of the base of the cylinder in square
centimeters.
3.
A cylindrical
TT
mass of 3 kilograms.
Let
iron bar, 2 centimeters in diameter, has a Find the length of the bar.
3}.
142
ALGEBRA
4. When a body is weighed under water, it is found to be buoyed up by a force equal to the weight of the water which it
displaces. If a boy can exert a lifting force of 120 pounds, how heavy a stone can he lift to the surface of a pond, if the density of stone is 2.5 and that of water 1 ?
5.
When
a straight bar
is
sup1),
ported at some point, o (Fig.
and masses mi, ma, etc., are hung from the bar as indicated in the
figure,
it is
mi
^
"
(_j
m*
found that when the

îQ-
^*
bar
is in equilibrium, the followrelation always holds, ing
mi X ao
+ m^
x
is
ho
m^x co
-\-
m^x
do
-\-
m^ x
eo.
10 feet long, where must the support be in order that a 70-pound boy at one end may balance a placed 60-pound boy on the other end plus a 40-pound boy 3 feet from
If a teeter board
the other end ?
bar 40 inches long is in equilibrium when weights of 6. 6 pounds and 9 pounds hang from its two ends. Find the position of the support.
7.
and if mi = 40, mg = 60, mg = 60, m^ = 15, and m^ = 5, where must a mass of 100 be placed in order to produce equilibrium ?
8. A gas expands ^rs of its volume at 0 centigrade for each degree of rise in its temperature i.e., the volume, Vt, at any temperature, t, is connected with the volume, Vo, at the
;
If in Fig. 1, ao
= 100,
bo
= 40,
co
= 30,
do
= 60,
eo
= 110,
temperature 0 centigrade by the equation

F,
= F + ^^F,
air at 0
or
V,= V,(l+^\^t).
expand
To what volume will 100 cubic centimeters of when the temperature rises to 50 centigrade ?
9.
centigrade contract
To what volume will 100 cubic centimeters of air at 50 when the temperature falls to 0 centigrade ?

10. To what volume will 100 cubic centimeters expand when the temperature changes to 75?
11.
of air at 50
When
momentum
its
of the first
a body in motion collides with a body at rest, the body (i.e., the product of its mass, m^, by
original velocity, v-^ is found to be in every case exactly equal to the total momentum of the two bodies after collision
{i.e., to the product of the mass, mg, of the second body times the velocity, ^2, which it acquires, plus the product of mj by the velocity, 'Ug, which it retains after the collision). The alge-
braic statement of this relation
is
billiard ball, the
mass of which
is
50 grams, and which
was moving
at a velocity of 1500 centimeters a second, collided with another ball at rest which weighed 30 grams. In the
collision the first ball
centimeters per second. the collision.
imparted to the second a velocity of 1600 Find the velocity of the first ball after
PROBLEMS INVOLVING LITERAL EQUATIONS

162. Proh.
first shall
Divide a into two parts such that

b.
times the
exceed n times the second by

X a
Let
one part.
other part.
Then,
x = the
mx =
n(a
By
the conditions,
x)
b.
mx = an
nx
b.
b.
mx \xijn
nx
n)
=
=
an
an
6.
Whence,
= 9l!1A
m-\-n
r, a
the
first part.
(1)
A^ And,
^= x
an^b = am + m+n am b the other

wi
an
7n
an b +n
(2)
part.
144
The
results
ALGEBRA
can be used as formuloe for solving any problem of the
be required to divide 25 into two parts such that 4 times the
above form.
Thus,
first
let it
shall
exceed 3 times the second by 37.
Here, a
25,
m=
4t,
yi
= 3,
and
37.
Substituting these values in (1) and (2),
the
first
part

by two taps in a and h minutes, and emptied by a third in c minutes. How many respectively, minutes will it take to fill the tank if all the taps are open ?
9.
vessel can be filled
10.
Divide a into two parts such that one shall be

h as the other lacks of
c.
m times
as B,
as
much above
11.
A can
can do
do a piece of work in one-mth as

it
many days
and
do the work in p days, working together, in how many days can each alone do the work ?
in one-nth as
many
as C.
If they can
12.
was
times as old as
in 6 years.
times as old as
13.
B a years ago, and will be n Find their ages at present.
How many
minutes after n hours after 12 o'clock will
the hands of a watch be together ?
A and B together can do a piece of work in a hours, and C together in h hours, and A, B, and C together in c In how many hours can each alone do the work ? hours.
14.
15.
of a
How many minutes after 2 o'clock will the minute-hand watch be n minutes in advance of the hour-hand ?
16. A and B together can do a piece of work in m days, B and C together in n days, and C and A together in p days. How many days will it take to do the work if all work
together ?
17.
sum
of
entirely of quarters
quarters.
money, amounting to m dollars, consists and dimes, there being n more dimes than
are there of each ?
How many
146
ALGEBRA
XIL
SIMULTANEOUS LINEAR EQUATIONS

UNKNOWN NUMBERS
unknown numbers
of sets of values of
CONTAINING TWO OR MORE

163.
An equation
by an
containing two or more
is satisfied
indefinitely great
number
these numbers.
Putting = 1, Putting x = 2,
a;
Consider, for example, the equation x-{-y
we have we have
1 -{-y
= 5,
+ i/=5,
= 5. = 4. or y = 3; etc.
or
?/
Thus the equation
is satisfied
by the
4:,
sets of values
and
= l,y = x = 2, y =
x
S',
etc.
An equation which is satisfied by an indefinitely great number of sets of values of the unknown numbers involved, is
called
an Indeterminate Equation.
164. Consider the equations
+ y = 5, \2x + 2y=10.
r
(1)
(2) (2)
Equation
(1)
can be made to take the form of

;
by
multi-
plying both members by 2 then, every set of values of x and y which satisfies one of the equations also satisfies the other.
Such equations are called
equivalent.
Again, consider the equations

|a^
+ = 5, [x-^y = S.
2/
(3)
(4)
In this case, it is not true that every set of values of x and y which satisfies one of the equations also satisfies the other; thus, equation (3) is satisfied by the set of values x =3, y = 2, which does not satisfy (4). If two equations, containing two or more unknown numbers,
are not equivalent, they are called Independent.

165. Consider the equations
147
+ y = 5y x-\-y = 6.
(1) (2)
It is evidently impossible to find a set of values of
x and y
which shall satisfy both (1) and (2). Such equations are called Inconsistent.
166. system of equations is called Simultaneous when each contains two or more unknown numbers, and every equation of the system is satisfied by the same set, or sets, of values
of the
unknown numbers
thus, each equation of the system
is satisfied
by the
+ y = 5, \x-y = 3, = 1. set of values = 4,

(x
2/
Solution of a system of simultaneous equations is a set of values of the unknown numbers which satisfies every equation of the system
;
to solve a
system of simultaneous equations
is
to find its solutions.
independent simultaneous equations of the form be solved by combining them in such a way as to form a single equation containing but one unknown number. This operation is called Elimination.
167.
ax-{-by = c may
Two
ELIMINATION BY ADDITION OR SUBTRACTION

168.
1.
Solve the equations

4,
3,
5x-3y = 19.
Multiplying (1) by
Multiplying (2) by
Adding
(3)
and
(4),
Whence,
Substituting x
2 in (1),
Whence,
The above
is
an example of elimination by addition.
15x + 82/=
1-

'
149
(7x-Sy= 10. [Sx-5y = -5.
)0

151
152
ALGEBRA
1.
Solve the equations
\ 3
a;
y-\-4:
=0.
-f
(1) ^^
[x{y-2)-y(x-5) = -13.
(2)
Multiplying each term of (1) by (x

7
+ 28
+ 3) (?/ + 4), - 3 X - 9 = 0, or 7 y - 3 X = - 19.

or
(3)
From
(2),
xy
-2x- xij + 6y = -13,

2,
3,
by -2 x = -lS.
2/
(4) (5)
Multiplying (3) by Multiplying (4) by
Subtracting (5) from (6),

Substituting in (4)
,
14 _ 6 x = - 38. 16y-6x = - 39. _ 1. y
(6)
Whence,
_ 5 _ 2 x = - 13. - 2 x = 8,
or x
= 4.
In solving fractional simultaneous equations, we reject any solution which does not satisfy the given equations.
(2x-\-Sy
2.
=13.
1
(1)
,p>,
Solve the equations
1
]
[x-2
Multiplying each term of (2) by (x
?/
y^~
2) (y
'
^"^
3),
we have
6.
-3
4-
0,
or y
=-X+
x
5
(3)
Substituting in (1), 2 x
Substituting in (3),
-3x+
15
13, or
= 2. =
3.
y
the
first
= -
This solution
it
satisfies
given equation, but not the second
then
must be
rejected.
if
EXERCISE 67
:
Solve the following
2x_5j^_l
5
a?
2'
3.
4:X
Sy
14
x 6y _
5y_5
T"2*
*
2x + Sy = -10.
8
11
4.
\e-2t-3
[
l'
8a;-52/ = l.
5e + 2 = -7.

'
153
Sx-4:y
2
x-{-5
2/
11.
X
6.
^ 11
= 5.
-3
2/.
5.
+1
= 0.
9 2
+5
3
Û2x-l){y-4.)-(x-5)(2y + 5)
I
= 121. 4aj-32/ = -29.

' '
8
ic
= 0.
12.
y-5
5
32/4-4:
2a; 32/ 4a;+62/ _ ~ "*" 4 3
1
2*
= 0.
5^+2^ "^ 7^-3^ ^39

2
5
2/ 2/
^2a;-l
7
~10*
fa^4-ll_^.V^^_4
5
9.
a^ cc
+ ^
1
.
10
13.
iC-1
2
2/
+ 4 = -45.
10
1
5*
3^-1-8
2/-4
^ 6jr-J. 22/ + 3*
cZ-2n
10.
Sd-{-7i-\-3
-{
15.
5a;-i(3a;-22/ + 5)=ll.
5(^_42/)-K^-2/)
^^
= 16.
c^+4n_7
.08a;
11.
I 1
ii'
3
,
2/
5_ 3 ~6
2/
+ .9i/ = .048.
.3
a;
-.35 2/ =.478.
16.
;(i>-^)-Kp-3g) = g-3.
f(i>-^)+l(P+^)
16
5
= 18.
^
3^
'6^+5^_3^-4^^
17.
5X
5a;
2fl;
4 _
2/
+ 42/
13
+ 52/ + l
a;
3x + 2/-3 _
^,
o,,
18.
a;
4 +6 -2 -18
2/ 2/
154
ALGEBRA
3x-y-l19.
^
5x-7y-\-2
20.
i
g;
4y+7
= + 4.
2/
a;
3 +4
?/
6x 5y-\-7 _ x-2.
X
3
23
5
21.
ic
2
7
-i/
Sy
2"
2.
12 4
2/
3"
U-2 + 4(2a;-^)=0.
ri4.74-l
22.
'21.^
10-^-3
+1
5^
+ 2 ^ 63.(7-130^
3
21
2
3a;
23.
+l
2x-^y
2
4a;
x-\-2y
8
5^7
^^
'
^3
24.
+ 4, _ y
?/
a.'
~~5~'
17
+3 H2/ + 5.
2a;
t
= 0. + 5)(62/ + 7) (a;_l)(2/H_2)-(a; + 3)(2/ + 4) = 12. .13 + .29 .32 + .17 + .21. r.08a;4-35
62/
3a!4-4
2(42/
,^
a;
15
.9
2/
.6
25.
.02a;
+ .17
.08^-.47 ^q
.3
172. Solution of Literal Simultaneous Equations.
In solving
of
literal simultaneous linear equations, the method elimination by addition or subtraction is usually to be
preferred.

Ex. Solve the equations
Multiplying (1) by b\
Multiplying (2) by
Subtracting,
&,
155
(1)
J
I
ax + by =
a'x + h^v =
c.
c'.
(2)
ah'x
a'bx
iab>
+ +
= = a'b)x =
bb'y bb'y
h'c.
be'.
b'c
be'.
Whence,
Multiplying (1) by
b'c,
be'
ab'
a'b
a',
aa'x
Multiplying (2) by
a,
aa'x
(ab'
+ a'by = + ab'y a'b)y =

y
ca'.
(3)
da.
c'a c'a ab'
(4)
ca'.
Whence,
ca'
a'b
In solving fractional literal simultaneous equations, any solution which does not satisfy the given equations must be
rejected.
(Compare Ex.
2,
171.)
EXERCISE 68
Solve the following
i
5x6y=Sa.
ax-\-by
1.
mxny=mn.
m'x-\-n']y=m'n.
\4:X+9y=7a.
-^ + mi
X=
97i2
J:..
mg
ng
^2
1/3.
l. cx-{-dy = 1. aiX-{-a^ = \. I a^ a-^=h2.

(
'
2ax
a
by
+ Wo
1.
\
i-
5.
hxay=h^.
(ab)x-{-by=a^.
m
J
\n-\-y
8.
1
[w
^ +
o;
>/ll
= 2 a. n ^ 9. b^y = a^-{a^x mx 2)y = S a. n (a + T)x -\-(a VIO. y m 4)?/ = 7 a. (a + 3)a; + (a 6)a; + ab(a + 5)?/ =â? -\-2ab W. a6(a ax-\-by = 2.
ax + by
b'i
,
156
r
ALGEBRA
12.
\
= 2. n^(x y^ = m 7nr(x -{-y)

(a
m(x -\-y)+ n(x y)
n.
13.
+ b)x + (a - b)y = 2(a^ 4- b^). b a _ a-\-b xab y
16.
+ b)x -\-(a-b)y = 2 a^ - 2 b\ 14. X _ 4:db y a b a + b o? b^ bx-\-ay = 2. 15. ab(a b)y = a^ b\ ab{a + b)x a-{-b _y a y 61 x-\-b x-\-a-\-b ay bx = d^ 17. x __. = 2a?-2 b\ a b '[(a {a-\-b)x + {a-b)y y-b a
(a
-\-\*
[{p? -b'')x-\- {o?
-W)y =^2a^ + 2b\
173. Certain equations in Avhich the unknown numbers occur in the denominators of fractions may be readily solved
without previously clearing of fractions.
15-9 = 8.
X
,Ex.
(1)
Solve the equations
y
(2)
X
Multiplying (1) by
5,
y
40.
50_45
X
y
Multiplying (2) by
3,
Adding,
Substituting in (1), 5
= 37,
74
37 X, and x
= 2.
= 8, - - = 3,
and
y=-S.

EXERCISE 69
Solve the following
157
[6 X
1.
+ - = -1.
12
y
3.
\
a X
a'
2
3a;
5.
,
A=i
4^
3y
3
12*
y
c'.
y
^
[X
9
b' -+-=
^
4.x
L^13
72*
14__11
89
30*
d"^
10
6
s~
2
6.
X
^5
by
a;
2.
+ 2y:
f
21
s
3'
-7.
\p
9.
i
6^_59^
y
18*
ld~^
a
&ic
_ a-\-b
ah
b^
ay
_a
b_
ax
by
a'b'
2pq q^ y p(p + q) P P-hq^ 2pq q\ X y p{p + q)
q
X
p'^
a + y -\-b
b
,
= 1.
10.
2x
-\-y
x x
4:y = -2.
-
24
+ xa
a
y
= 1.
16
2x-\-y
4ty
= -3.
SIMULTANEOUS LINEAR EQUATIONS CONTAINING MORE
THAN TWO UNKNOWN NUMBERS

174. If
containing
of
we have three independent simultaneous equations, thrêe unknown numbers, we may combine any two
them by one of the methods of elimination explained in 169 to 171, so as to obtain a single equation containing only two unknown numbers.
may then combine the remaining equation with either of the other two, and obtain another equation containing the same
two unknown numbers. By solving the two equations containing two unknown numand substituting them in bers, we may obtain their values
;
We
either of
unknown
the given equations, the value of the remaining number may be found.
158
ALGEBRA
proceed in a similar manner when the number of equaand of unknown numbers is greater than three. The method of elimination by addition or subtraction is usually the most convenient.
tions
In solving fractional simultaneous equations, any solution which does not satisfy the given equations must be rejected. (Compare Ex. 2, 171.)
We
Qx-
42/

EXERCISE 70
Solve the following
:
159
(4.x-3y=
1.
1.
O-i
^x lly ^z
10.
9.
3^ = ^15.
8a;+4?/
il6a;+
[4.z-3x=
(
10.
7 2/4-62
= 11. = 64.
4.
6.
22. f8aj4-4^+ 32 =-52. 4:X i)y 6z = \bx- y^l2z = -52. 11. X y+ z = 6. 9 + 7 - 6 2 = - 36. 22. z= [^x 4+ 3 2= 42. 3x y z = 14 <j^)l) 6a;^" 2 = 16. 12. 10a;- 5 2/- 2= .2. x-\-3y 6 -172/ + 4 2 = 46. 3 2 = 10. x-\r2a; + 5 2/+32 = -7. ^+ h-k = 2L 13. 22/- 4 2 = 2-3 + 3/,_A: = 6L j4^ 5a;+9 = 5 + 7 2. [6^-5/i-A; = ll. r5_8 = -3. + 52/= 1. [3a; 9a;+52 = -7. 8_3 = 1. 14. 2. l92/ + 32= ^ y 4:2 = 5. f5aj + 25 ^^ 2 3a; + 52/ + 62 = -20. |3x ccH-32/-82 = -27. ^-^ + i = 10' 3 = -26. f2x-52/ T_ 7a; + 6 2=-33. 15.
-
a;
2/
'
-f-
2/
a;
2/
a;.
2/
a;
2/
2/
a;
2/
2/_4
2a;
a;
^4 +
2
2/
42/
2*
2;
30'
J^
+ 42/ 2 = 2. - 8 + 4 2 = - 25. 18 [10ic4-42/-92 = -30. 3p-|_4g + 5r = 10. 4p_5g_3r = 25. 5p_3g_4r = 21.
152
a;
12*
ax-\-hy
=
ahc
16.
by
-\-
cz
b^
+ c^
+ g^
ahc
cz
-\-
ax =
c^
160
ALGEBRA
4.e-12t-20w = 9.
17.
18.
+ 10?^ = 5. [12e-lSt- 5 IV = 13. u x-\-y= 15. x y-}-z = 12. 13. y z-{-u= [Z U-\^X =
8e6^
(
riî = a. -+a;
24.
1+1
2/
2;
= 6.
- + - = c.
L2;
iC
14:.
r5 a;
+-=
2/
c.
riî
X
19.
1
z
y
z
25.
1^1
y
iz
a c ~+~= z X
.y
c
-f-
b.
b z
= a.
c a
1^11
X
y
20.
\
by = a^ ah^. hz = a^h ay [az hx = ab^ a^b. 3 u-]-x = 5.

(ax
If.
(
0 c
26.
c a +^=6+c+2a. a 6
^
ab -h^=:c-\-a-^2b. bG
21.
5y
4:X-y= 21. + z=-19.

39.
[6z-u=
x+y xz
27.
y -\--=-3. 3
22.
z_
_6
4
5_ = i
5
2.
2;
31
a;
+
2;
3'^4
3
?/
12*
8a;+ 9?/+15^ = -29.

4
2
28.
17
a;
-10 2/4-13 = -12.

2;
a?- y 3
23.
^
lla;-152/+
72=
15.
y-z
3
z
z+x _
5 5
13
15"
t*-j-3a;_22/
29.
2=
3.
2w-a;-y-f-32=
[3u-2x-{-y-\-z=
23.
+ x _ X y _ 43
2
u-\-x-\-3y-2z = -12.
22.
~io'

(x-[-y
30.
]
161
= 0. 4- (c + a) + (a + 6) = 0. (6 + c) bcx 4- cay + abz = 1.

-\-z
05 2/
;2
'
6x-{-5y
3
31.
y4:Z _
5
14 5
^ 4
+ 1-1= 6 3
4
28.
g 5 a;
32.
7a;+3y ~ _
'
4
9'
6^3
4y+6g "^ Sz-\-x ^

3
15
2*
PROBLEMS INVOLVING SIMULTANEOUS LINEAR EQUATIONS WITH TWO OR MORE UNKNOWN NUMBERS
175. In solving problems where two or more letters are used to represent unknown numbers, we must obtain from
the conditions of the problem as many independent equations 164) as there are unknotvn numbers to be deter rniyied.
1.
Divide 81 into two parts such that three-fifths the greater
shall exceed five-ninths the less
by
7.
Let
162
3.
ALGEBRA
of
sum
$1
money was divided
number
received
of persons.
less
;
equally between a certain there been 3 more, each would have had there been 6 fewer, each would have re-
Had
ceived $ o more. How much did each receive ?

Let
X
many
persons were there, and
how
and
Then,
= the number of persons, y = the number of dollars received xy = the nuijiber of dollars divided.
by each.
Since the sum of money could be divided between x + 8 persons, each whom would receive y 1 dollars, and between x persons, each of whom would receive y + 5 dollars, (x + S)(y 1) and {x 6)(2/ + 5)
of
(3
also represent the
number
of dollars divided.
-{-
Then,
(x
S)(y
- 1)=
xy,
and
Solving these
4.
6){y + B) = xy. (x x = 12, y = 5. equations,

of the three digits of a
8,
The sum
number
is
13.
If the
be divided by the sum of its second and third digits, the quotient is 25 and if 99 be added to the number, the digits will be inverted. Find the number.
number, decreased by
Let
X = the
y
z
first digit,
and
Then,
and
= the second, = the third. 100 x + 10 + = the number, 100 z + lOy x = the number with
?/
2;
-\-
its digits
inverted.
By
the conditions of the problem,
and
Solving
+ z = 13, 100 X + 10 y + g - 8 _ t)r ~ +^ 100x-^10y-\-z + 99 = 100z + 10y + x. these equations, x = 2, y = S, z = 3 and the number is
x-i-y
2/
;
283.
5. A crew can row 10 miles in 50 minutes down stream, and 12 miles in li hours against the stream. Find the rate in miles per hour of the current, and of the crew in still water.

Let
X
y
163
= number
= number
of miles
an hour of the crew
in still water,
and
Then, x
of miles an
hour of the current.
and
+ y = number of miles an hour of the x y = number of miles an hour of the

of miles
crew down stream, crew up stream.

is
The number
an hour rowed by the crew
equal to the dis-
tance in miles divided by the time in hours.
Then,
+ = 10 -- = 12,
?/
and
164
ALGEBRA
io~io'^
^'
^^
TR
71
'
^^^^ê, y
75.
EXERCISE
1.
less shall be less

2.
Divide 79 into two parts such that three-sevenths the by 56 than four-thirds the greater.
If the numerator of a fraction be increased by 4, the
is
value of the fraction

creased by
3.
while
if
the denominator
is |.
is
de-
3,
the value of the fraction

of the
Find the
is
fraction.
The sum
two
digits of a
number
14
be added to the number, the digits will be inverted.
and if 36 Find the
number.
4.
A's age
is
f of
ages.
B's,
and 15 years ago his age was if of
B's.
5.
Find their
the
If the two digits of a number be inverted, the quotient of number thus formed, increased by 101, by the original number is 2 and the sum of the digits exceeds twice the excess of
;
the tens' digit over the units' digit by 5.

6.
Find the number.

fraction,
;
If 3 be
added to the numerator of a
and 7 sub-
tracted from the denominator, its value is ^ and if 1 be subtracted from the numerator, and 7 added to the denominator, Find the fraction. its value is -|.
two 7. A's age is twice the sum of the ages of B and C years ago, A was 4 times as old as B, and four years ago, was 6 times as old as C. Find their ages.
;
8. If the greater of two numbers be divided by the less, the quotient is 1, and the remainder 6. And if the greater, increased by 14, be divided by the less, diminished by 4, the quotient is 5, and the remainder 4. Find the numbers. 9. If 8 yards of silk and 12 yards of woolen cost $ 27, and 12 yards of silk and 8 yards of woolen cost $ 28, find the price per yard of the silk and of the woolen.
10.
Find two numbers such that one shall be n times as
much
greater than a as the other is less than a; and the quotient of their sum by their difference equal to b.

11.
165
certain
number
of
sum
of its digits by 4.
two digits exceeds three times the If the digits be inverted, the sum of
the resulting number and the given number exceeds three times the given number by 2. Find the number.
12.
The sum
of the three digits of a
number
is
16
the digit
;
in the tens' place exceeds that in the hundreds' place by 4 and if 297 be added to the number, the digits will be inverted.
Find the number.
A rectangular field has the same area as another which 6 rods longer and 2 rods narrower, and also the same area as IS a third which is 3 rods shorter and 2 rods wider. Find its
13.
dimensions.
14.
Find three numbers such that the
first
with one-half the

;
second and one-third the third shall equal 29 the second with one-third the first and one-fourth the third shall equal 28;
and the third with one-half the

shall equal 36.
first
and one-third the second
15. The circumference of the large wheel of a carriage is 55 The former makes inches more than that of the small wheel.
many revolutions in going 250 feet as the latter does in going 140 feet. Find the number of inches in the circumference of each wheel.
as
16.
the
is
sum
;
If the digits of a number of three figures be inverted, of the number thus formed and the original number
1615 the sum of the digits is 20, and if 99 be added to the number, the digits will be inverted. Find the number.
for B, 112 miles distant, at 9 a.m., and 17. A train leaves one hour later a train leaves B for A; they met at 12 noon. If the second train had started at 9 a.m., and the first at 9.50
A.M.,
18.
they would also have met at noon.
Find
their rates.
has $ 1.50 with which he wishes to buy two kinds of note-books. If he asks for 14 of the first kind, and 11 of the
second, he will require 6 cents more and if he asks for 11 of the first kind, and 14 of the second, he will have 6 cents over.
;
A boy
How much
does each kind cost ?
166
ALGEBRA
19. A man invests $10,000, part at 4^%, and the rest at S^%. He finds that six years' interest on the first investment exceeds five years' interest on the second by $658.
How much
does he invest at each rate
20. A man buys apples, some at 2 for 3 cents, and others at 3 for 2 cents, spending in all 80 cents. If he had bought j as many of the first kind, and f as many of the second, he
would have spent 99
cents.
How many
of each kind did he
buy?
21.
An
money at 3%. at 3%,

vested
is obtained in part from and in part from money invested 3^%, If the amount invested at the first rate were invested and the amount invested at the second rate were inat 3i%, the annual income would be $825. How
annual income of $800
invested at
much
22.
is
invested at each rate ?
A tank containing 864 gallons can be filled by two A and B. After the pipes have been open together for pipes, 9 minutes, the pipe A is closed, and B finishes the work of
filling in
pipe
How
23.
had elapsed before the have finished in 2 J minutes. many gallons does each pipe fill in one minute ?
15| minutes."
closed,
If 15 minutes
was
B would
The contents
of one barrel
wine.
How many
gallons
is f wine, and of another -| must be taken from each to fill a
barrel -whose capacity is 24 gallons, so that the mixture
may
be I wine ?
A boy spends his money for oranges. Had he bought more, each would have cost a cents less if n fewer, each would have cost b cents more. How many did he buy, and at
24.
what price
25.
A vessel
contains a mixture of wine and water.
If 50
;
gallons of wine are added, there is J as much wine as water if 50 gallons of water are added, there is 4 times as much
water as wine.
at
first.
Find the number of gallons of wine and water

26.
167
buys 15 bottles of sherry, and 20 bottles of If the sherry had cost j as much, and the for ^38. claret, Find the claret f as much, the wine would have cost $38.50.
cost per bottle of the sherry,
27.
A man
and of the
claret.
If a field
were made a feet longer, and
b feet wider, its

if its
area would be increased by
square feet
but
length
width d feet less, its area would n square feet. Find its dimensions. be decreased by
c
were made
feet less,
and
its
28.
If the
numerator of a fraction be increased by

b,
a,
and the
if
denominator by
is
and
d,
the
numerator be decreased by c, and the denominator by

of the fraction is
29.
the value
m
71/
Find the numerator and denominator,
digits.
certain number equals 59 times the sum of its three The sum of the digits exceeds twice the tens' digit by and the sum of the hundreds' and tens' digits exceeds twice
6.
the units' digit by

30.
Find the number.
by
B
.
A piece of work can be done by A and B in 4|- hours, and C in 2| hours, and by A and C in 3 hours. In how
each alone do the work ?
of a fraction has the
;
many hours can

31
The numerator
same two
digits as
the denominator, but in reversed order the denominator exceeds the numerator by 9, and if 1 be added to the numerator
is |.
Find the
fraction.
32. A man walks from one place to another in 5^ hours. If he had walked ^ of a mile an hour faster, the walk would have taken 36| fewer minutes. How many miles did he walk, and
at
what
33.
rate ?
A man
invests a certain
sum
of
money
at a certain rate
of interest. rate 1
If the principal had been $ 120l) greater, and the greater, his income would have been increased by
had been $3200 greater, aiid the rate income would have been increased by $ 312. % What sum did he invest, and at what rate ?
118.
If the principal
greater, his
168
34.
ALGEBRA
A sum of money at simple interest amounted to $ 1868.40

and
to
in 7 years,
$ 2174.40
in 12 years.
Find the principal
and the
35.
rate.
If
A
36.
A and B together can do a piece of work in 3| hours. works I as fast, and B | as fast, they can do it in the
In how
same time.
many
hours can each alone do the work
?
;
Two men
together can do a piece of work in 30 hours
they can also do it if the first man works 25^ hours, and the second 32|- hours. In how many hours can each alone do the
work
37.
crew row 16J miles up stream and 18 miles down They then row 21 miles up stream and 19 J miles down stream in 11 hours. Find the rate in miles an hour of the stream, and of the crew in still water.
stream in 9 hours.
38. A train travels from A to B, 228 miles, and another from B to A. If the trains start at the same time, they will meet 3f hours after. If the first train starts 3 hours after the second, they will meet 2 hours after the second train starts. Find the rates of the trains.
has quarter-dollars, dimes, and half-dimes to the and has in all 12 coins. If he replaces the quarters by dimes, and the dimes by quarters, the value of the coins would be $ 1.55. How many has he of each?
39.
man
$
value of
1.40,
the
The middle digit of a number of three figures is one-half sum of the other two digits. If the number be divided by the sum of its digits, the quotient is 20, and the remainder 9
40.
;
and if 594 be added Find the number.
to the
number, the
digits will be in verted..
41. A certain number of workmen receive the same wages, and receive together a certain sum. If there had been 9 more men, and each ha*d received 30 cents less, the total received would have been increased by $ 12.30. Had there been 8 fewer men, and each had received 40 cents more, the total received would have been decreased by $ 13.20. How many men were there, and how much did each receive ?

42.
169
66 gallons.
merchant has three casks of wine, containing together He pours from the first into the second and third he then pours from the secas much as each of them contains ond into the first and third as much as each of them then conThere is now 8 times as much in the third cask as in tains. the second, and twice as much in the first as in the second. How many gallons did each have at first ?
;
43.
certain majority.
In a meeting of 600 persons, a measure is defeated by a It is afterwards successful by double this
majority, and the number of persons voting for it is | as great How as the number voting against on the former occasion.
many
44.
voted
for,
and how many against, the measure on the
former occasion?
I bought apples at 3 for 5 cents, and oranges at 2 for 5 spending in all $ 1.70. I sold three-fourths of the apples and one-half of the oranges for $ 1.10, and made a profit of 5 cents on the latter transaction. How many did I buy of each ?
cents,
45.
A gives
to
and C as much money as each of them has;
then gives to A and C as has C then gives to A and
then has.
46.
much money as each of them then as much money as each of them Each has now $ 8. How much had each at first ?
has one-half as many dimes as dollars, and B eightmany dimes as dollars. They have together 3 more dollars than dimes, and B's money is 60 cents less than A's. How much money has each ?
sevenths as
47.
A man buys
1200.
a certain
number
of
$ 100 railway
;
shares,
when
for
at a certain rate per cent discount, for f 1050 and at a rate per cent premium twice as great, sells one-half of
when
them
How many
B
shares did he buy, and at what cost ?
48.
A
A
and
can do a piece of work in |4 hours,

in ^^ hours,
it
in
i^'
hours,
A and D
How many
49.
hours will
A and C and C in ^f- hours. take each alone to do the work ?

and
and B run a race of 280 feet. The first heat, gives The second a start of 70 feet, and neither wins the race. heat, gives B a start of 35 feet, and beats him by 6| seconds.
How many
feet can each
run in a second ?
170
ALGEBRA
50. A, B, C, and play at cards. After B has won onehalf of A's money, C one-third of B's, one-fourth of C's, and one-fifth of D's, they have each f 10, except B, who has $ 16.
How much
51.
had each
at first ?
The sum
of the four digits of a
number
is 14.
The
sum
the
of the last three digits exceeds twice the first by 2. Twice the sum of the second and third digits exceeds 3 times
sum
of the first
and fourth by
3.
the number, the digits will be inverted.

52.
If 2727 be added Find the number.
to
and B run a race of 210 yards. The first heat, a start of 8 seconds, and beats him by 20 yards. The second heat, gives B a start of 70 yards, and is beaten by 2 seconds. How many yards can each run in a second ?
gives
53.
sum
of
money
is
half-dimes.
Its value is as
its
consists of half-dollars, dimes, and many dimes as there are pieces of
money; and
dimes
value
also as
many
half-dollars as there are

is
less 1.
The number
ber of half-dollars.
54.
5 more than the numFind the number of each coin.

of dimes
of a carriage
The fore-wheel
makes a revolutions more
than the hind-wheel in travelling b feet. If the circumference of the fore-wheel were m times as great, and the circumference
of the hind-wheel n times as great, the fore- wheel would make c revolutions more than the hind-wheel in travelling d feet.
Find the circumference of each wheel.

55.
which delays
then proceeds at a rate one-nth of Had the acciits former rate, and arrives Sit B b hours late. dent occurred c miles nearer B, the train would have been d hours late. Find the rate of the train before the accident,
It
train running it a hours.
from
to
meets with an accident
and the distance to
B from
the point of detention.
56. A man buys 60 shares of stock, each having the par value ^100, part paying dividends at the rate of 3|%, and the remainder at the rate of 4^%. If the first part had paid dividends at the rate of 4^%, and the other at the rate of 3|%,
the total annual income would have been

shares of each kind did he buy ?
^12
less.
How many

176. Interpretation
1.
171
of Solutions.
The length of a field is 10 rods, and its breadth 8 rods; how many rods must be added to the breadth so that the area
may
By
be 60 square rods
Let
the conditions, 10 (8
= number = 60. = 60,

or
of rods to be added.
+ x)
10a:
Then,
This
signifies that 2
80
x=
-2.
rods must be subtracted from the breadth in order
that the area

If
may
be 60 square rods.
(Compare
16.)
:
we should modify
the problem so as to read
" The length of a field is 10 rods, and its breadth 8 rods rods must be subtracted from the breadth so that the area
square rods
?
"
how many may be 60
and
let
x denote the number of rods to be subtracted,
we should find x = 2.
is
negative result sometimes indicates that the problem
impossible.
2. If 11 times the number of persons in a certain house, increased by 18, be divided by 4, the result equals twice the number increased by 3 find the number.
;
Let
X
the conditions,
'^'^^+'^^
= the
number.
By
4
lla;
= 2x + S. = 8a; +
12,
Whence,
18
and
is
a;
= -2.
The negative
result
shows that the problem

also be impossible
impossible.
A
3.
problem
may
when
the solution
is
fractional.
A man
has two kinds of

of coins is 23, of each ?
total
number
money dimes and cents. and their value 37 cents.

:
The
How
many has he
Let
Then,
X = number
23
of dimes.
of cents.
= number
The X dimes are worth 10 x
cents.
172
ALGEBRA
+ 23 x = 37
;
Then, by the conditions, 10 x
and
is
x=
14
The
fractional result
shows that the problem
impossible.
EXERCISE 72
Interpret the solutions of the following
1.
:
If the length of a field is 12 rods,
and
its
width 9 rods,
how many rods must be subtracted from area may be 144 square rods ?
2.
the width so that the
A is 44 years of age, and B 12 years; how many years was A 3 times as old as B ? ago 3. The number of apple and pear trees in an orchard is 23 and 7 times the number of apple trees plus twice the number
;
of pear trees equals ^2.

4.
How many
are there of each kind ?
of silver coins in a purse exceeds the number of gold coins by 3, and 5 times the number of silver coins exceeds 3 times the number of gold coins by 3. many
The number
How
are there of each kind ?

5.
A's assets are double those of B.
When A
has gained
250, and B $ 170, A's assets are 5 times those of B. the assets of each.
Find
6.
cistern has
;
in 7i hours
two pipes. When both are open, it is filled and the first pipe alone can fill it in 3 hours.
fill it
How many
7.
hours does the second pipe take to

of a fraction
is
The numerator
if
and
by
15,
4 times the denominator; the numerator be diminished by 9, and the denominator the value of the fraction is f Find the fraction.
.
8. and B are travelling due east at the rates of 41 and 3| miles an houi^ respectively. At noon A is 5 miles due east of B. How many miles to the east of A's position at noon will
he overtake
A has ^ 720, and B f 300. After A has gained a certain "9. sum, and B has gained two-thirds this sum, A has 3 times as much Jiioney as B. How much did each gain ?
GRAPHICAL REPRESENTATION
173
XIII.
of a Point.
177. Rectangular Co-ordinates
A
Ms
3f
Mi
-X-
l/i
A.
Let
XX' and YY'

0;
let
angles at
Pj be any point in the plane of
be straight lines intersecting at right XX' and YY',
XX'. and J/iPi are called the rectangular co-ordinates, Then, OMi or simply the co-ordinates, of Pi OM^ is called the abscissa, and MiPi the ordinate.
and draw
line P^Mj^ perpendicular to
;
178. It is understood, in the definitions of 177, that are positive, and to the abscissas measured to the right of from XX' left, negative; also, that ordinates measured upivards
are positive,
and downwards,
negative.
Thus, let Ps be to the left of YY', and above XX', and Pg and P4 below XX', respectively to the left and right of YY, an^^
draw
Let
lines PyiWa? P^^^z^ ^"^^
P^M^ perpendicular
to
XX'.
0Mi = 5, M,0 = 3, M,0 = 5, 0M^ = 2, M,P^ = S, M,P, = 5, P,Ms=S, P,M, = Then, the abscissa of Pi is + 5, and its ordinate + 3 the abscissa of P, is 3, and its ordinate + 5 the abscissa of P. is 5, and its ordinate 3 the abscissa of P. is 4- 2, and its ordinate 4.
4..
174
179.
axis of
ALGEBRA
The
lines of reference,
XX' and
;
YY', are called the

the origin.
X, and axis of Y, respectively
and
express the fact that the abscissa of a point is b, and its ordinate a, by saying that, for the point in question, x b and more concisely, we speak of the point as the point y a\ or,
We
where the first term in parentheses is understood to be (h, a) the abscissa, and the second term the ordinate.
;
If a point lies upon XX', its ordinate is zero upon YY', its abscissa is zero.
and
if it lies
The
co-ordinates of the origin are (0, 0).
180. Plotting Points.
To
plot a point
when
its
co-ordinates are given, lay off the

-2,3)-
abscissa to the right or left of 0, according or and then draw a perpenas it is , in length to the ordinate, dicular, equal
above or below XX', according as the
-^ Thus, to plot the point (2, 3), lay off 2 units to the left of O upon XX', and then erect a perpendicular 3 units in length above XX'.
ordinate
is
or
EXERCISE 73
Plot the following points
1.
:
(1, 4).
(2,
6. 7. 8.
(-4, -3). (-1,

(4,
11. 12.
13.
(5, 0).
2.
3. 4. 5.
-2).
6).
2).
(0, 4).
(-3,
-6).
(-2,
(0,
0).
(-2, -4).
(3, 1).
9.
(r, 3).
14.
1).
-3).
10.
(-6,
GRAPH OF A LINEAR EQUATION INVOLVING TWO UNKNOWN NUMBERS

181. Consider the equation y
= x + 2.
If
175
we
relation y
U x = 0,
If X If
give any numerical value to x, we may, by aid of the .-\- 2, calculate a corresponding value for y. -p-^ -
'
V=2.
2/
{A)
,
= 1,
= 3,
x=:2,
a;
2^
If
If
If If
2^
a;=-l,
a;
a:
2/
= - 2, = - 3,
2/
2/
= 3. = 4. = 5. = l. = 0. = 1
(B)
.
(C)
(X)
() (F)
;
etc.
(6^)
;
Now
let
let these
be regarded as the co-ordinates of points
and
the points be plotted, as explained in 180. Thus, to plot tlie point A^ lay off 2 units above
will be
The points
is
found to
lie
on a certain
line,
upon YY\ QD^ which
called the Graph of the given equation.
By assuming
fractional values for x,
we may
obtain intermediate
points of the graph.
EXERCISE 74
Eind by the above method the graphs
equations
1.
2/
:
of the following
2.
2/
= 2a; + 3. = -3x-4.
We
shall
3.
4?/
4.
+ = 6. ?>y-2x = -Vl.
cc
5.
?/
= 5a;.
6.
3a;-f-2?/
= 0.
182.
linear equation, involving line for a graph.
always find (and it can be proved) that a two unknown numbers, has a straight
is
Then, since a straight line

it is sufficient,
determined by any two of
its
when finding the graph of a linear equapoints, tion involving two unknown numbers, to find two of its points,
and draw a straight line through them. The points most easily determined are those in which the
graph intersects the axes. For all points on OX, y = 0; hence, to find where the graph cuts OX, put y = 0, and calculate the value of x. To find where the graph cuts OY, put x = 0, and calculate
the value of
y.
176
Ex.
Put y
ALGEBRA
Plot the graph of 2x-\-^y
= l,
7
=
.
^',
then 2
cc
= 7,
2
and x
Then ofO.
Put X
plot
A
;
on OX', - units
to the left
X-
=
plot
then 3 y
and y
= - J.
0.
is
Then
Draw
3 the straight line
on OT', - units below
AB
this
the re-
quired graph.
The above method cannot, of course, be used for a straight line passing through the origin, nor for the equations of 183.
183. Consider the equation y
= 5.
This means that every point in the graph

has
ordinate equal to 5. the graph is the straight line parallel to XX', and 5 units above it.
its
Then
AB,
is
In like manner, the graph of x
=3
the straight line CD, parallel to YY', and 3 units to the left of it.
The graph
axis of Y.
of y
is
the axis of
X, and the graph
of x
is
the
EXERCISE 75
Plot the graphs of the following equations
1.
:
3x-^2y =
x-4.y =
6.
4:.
3. 4.
2.
= 2. y = -4:.
a;
5.
16x-27y = -72.
Sx-\-15y
6.
= -6.
Let
177
Since
AB and CD intersect at E. E lies on each graph, its co-ordinates must satisfy both
;
given equations hence, to find the co-ordinates of E, we solve the given equations. In this case the solution is x 3, y 2; and it may be verified in the figure that these are the co-ordinates of E.
We then
have the following important principle
If the graphs of two linear equations, with two unknown

hers, intersect, the co-ordinates
num^
of the point of intersection form a
solution of the equations re'presented by the graphs.
EXERCISE 76
Verify the principle of
184 in the following equations

3.
'
+ 5 = 24. \3x-2y = - 5. + 72/ = 5. |3a.' [Sx-\-3y = 18.

r
4 07
2/
(5x-4.y=
i
0.
7x + 6y = -29.
(9x-\-Uy = -25.
'
[Sx-
4.y
22.
As additional examples, the pupil might verify graphically the solutions of Exs. 3, 8, 11, and 12, Exercise 65, and of
Exs.
7, 8, 9,
and
16, Exercise 66.
185. Graphs
of Inconsistent
Linear Equations with
Two
Un-
known Numbers.
Consider the equations
(3x-2y= 5. \6x-Ay = -7.

The
bers
first
(AB) {CD)
6x 4:y =
by
2.
10,
equation can be put in the form by multiplying both mem-
Then, the given equations are inconsistent ( 165), and it is impossible to find any values of x and y which satisfy both equations.
178
ALGEBRA
We shall always find that two inconsistent equations, with two unknown numbers, are represented by parallel graphs; for if the graphs could intersect at any point, the co-ordinates of this point would be a solution of the given equations ( 184).
186. Graphs of Indeterminate Linear Equations with
Two
Un-
known Numbers.
3a;-22/=
The
5.
first
of the second,
equation can be put in the form by multiplying both members
by 2, and the graphs coincide. The given equations are not independent in any similar case, we shall find that the graphs are ( 164)
;
coincident.
EXERCISE 77
Verify the principles of 185 and 186 in the following
equations:
r3aj-f42/=
3a;
12.
{2x- 7y = U.
4aj-14?/ =
5x-\28.
2.
+ 42/ = -12. 2x- 5y= 0. 6x-15v = S0.
2/
= 15.
'( 15x-\-lSy = ^5.

of Linear
187. Graphical Representation One Unknown Number.
Expressions involving
Put
Consider the expression 3 a; + 5. = 3 a? + 5 and let the graph of 2/

;
this equation be
Putting y
cuts
found as in 183, -^; then the graph 0, x =
gs
I units to the left of 0. Putting x = 0, y = 5; then the graph cuts YY' 5 units above 0.
XX'
The graph
is
the straight line
AB.
GRAPHICAL REPRESENTATION"
188. Graphical Representation of Roots
Ill
179
( 81).
of
Equations
order to find the abscissa of the point A ( 187), where the graph of 3 a? 5 intersects XX', we solve the equation
3a;
+o=
is,
( 182).
That
the abscissa of
^ is a root of the equation 3 a;+5=0.

which the graph of the
first
Hence,
the abscissa of the point in
member of any linear equation, with one unknown number, sects XX', is the root of the equation.
EXERCISE 78
inter-
Plot the graphs of the first members of the following equations, and in each case verify the principle of 188
:
1.
2a;
+ 7 = 0.
2.
5a;-4 = 0.
180
ALGEBRA
XIV.
INEQUALITIES
> <
,
and are read " is greater 189. The Signs of Inequality, than " and " is less than," respectively. " a 6 is read " a is greater than 6 6 is read " a Thus, a
>
<
is less
than
6."
190. One number
is
said to be greater than another
when
the remainder obtained by subtracting the second from the first is a positive number.
One number
is
said to be less than another
when
the remainfirst
is
der obtained by subtracting the second from the

negative number.
if
Thus,
is
a positive number,
a>b; and
if
&
is
negative number,
a<b.
two expres-
191.
sions
is
An
Inequality is a statement that one of greater or less than another.
The
First Me^nber of an inequality is the expression to the
left of the sign of inequality,
and the Second Member

is
is
the
expression to the right of that sign.
Any term
of either
member
of an inequality
calle^ a term
of the inequality.
Two
or
more
first
when the
Thus, a
member
and
inequalities are said to subsist in the same sense is the greater or the less in both.
>6
G>d
subsist in the
same
sense.
PROPERTIES OF INEQUALITIES
192.
An
same number has been added

members.
inequality will continue in the same sense after the or subtracted from, both to^
For consider the inequality a'>b. By 190, a 6 is a positive number.
INEQUALITIES
Hence, each of the numbers
181
c) (6 c) is positive, since each is equal to a h. a + c>h -{-c, and a c>h Therefore,

(a
+ c) (6 + c),
and (a
c.
190)
193. It follows from from one member of an

sign.
If
192 that a term
may
he transposed
its
inequality to the other by changing
the same term appears in both

it
members
of
an inequality, affected
with the same sign,
may
be cancelled.
the sign
194. If the signs of all the terms of an inequality be changed of inequality must be reversed. ^
For consider the inequality a

Transposing every term,
That
is,
h>c d. d c>b a. b a<d c.
193)
195. An inequality will continue in the same sense after both members have been multiplied or divided by the same positive
number.
For consider the inequality a > b. By 190, a 6 is a positive number.

Hence,
if
is
a positive number, each of the numbers
m(a
b)
and
or
ma mb and
mm
is positive.
Therefore,
ma > m6, and >
m m
an inequality
ber, the sign
196. It follows from 194 and 195 that if both members of be multiplied or divided by the same negative num-
of inequality must be reversed.
197. If any number of inequalities, subsisting in the same

sense, be
also subsist in the
added member to member, same sense.
the residting inequality will
182
ALGEBRA
Each
For consider the inequalities a>h, a^ > b', a" > b", . of the numbers, a b, a' b', a" b", , is positive.
Then, their sum a
bâ' b'-\-a"-b"-\
(&
or,
is
+ a' + a"-\
+ &' + &"+ )>
a positive number.
Whence,
+ a' + a" + .> 6 + 6' + b" +
If two inequalities, subsisting in the same sense, be subtracted member from member, the resulting inequality does not necessarily subsist in the same sense. Thus, if a > & and a' > b', the numbers a b and a' b' are positive. But (a b)-(a' - b'), or its equal, (a - a') - (6 - b'), may be posiand hence a a' may be greater than, less than, tive, negative, or zero
;
or equal to 6
b'.
198. If a
6', is
>6
b',
and
a'
>b', and each of the numbers

^^,
a, a', b,
positive, then
a'
^ ^^,^
(1)
Since
>
and a
is positive,
aa'>ab' (195).
Again, since
a>b, and
b' is
positive,
(2)
ab'>bb'.
From
(1)
and
(2),
aa'
>
56'.
199. If we have any number of inequalities subsisting in the same sense, as a>6, a' >b', a"> b", , and each of the numbers a, a', a", -, b, b\ 6", , is positive, then
aa'a"...>66'&"..-.
For by 198,
Also,
aa'>bb'.
a">&".
aa'a">bb'b".
Then by 198,
obtain finally
Continuing the process with the remaining inequalities,
we
INEQUALITIES
200. Examples.
1.
183
Find the limit of x
in the inequality
Multiplying both members by 3 ( 195),

21
a;
we have
15.
23
<2 +
a;
Transposing ( 193), and uniting terms,

19 X
< 38.
Dividing both members by 19 ( 195),
cc<2.
[tMs
2.
means
that, for
any value
ofa;<2,7x-^<^ + 5.
in the following
:
Find the limits of x and y

|3a^ l2a;
Multiply (1) by
3, 2,
a;
+ 22/>37. + 32/ = 33. + 6 y > 111.

+ 6y= m.
(1)
(2)
Multiply (2) by
4a;
Subtracting (192),
5x>
6x
6x
45,
74.
and a;>9.
Multiply (1) by
Multiply (2) by
Subtracting,
2, 3,
?/
>
Divide both members by
+ 9 y = 99. 5 > 25. 5, ?/< 5 ( 196).

?/
(1),
(This means that any values of x and y which satisfy (2), also satisfy 9, and y provided x is 5.)
>
<
3.
Between what limiting values of

we have
ic
is a^
4 < 21 ?
a;
Transposing 21,
x2
4X
is
< 21,
if
x2
- 4 X - 21
is
< 0.
7
;
- 7) is negative. is, if (x + 3)(x Now (x + 3) (x - 7) is negative if x is between - 3 and < - 3, both X + 3 and x - 7 are negative, and their product if X is > 7, both x + 3 and x 7 are positive.
That
Hence, x^
for
if
;
positive
x is and
4x
is
< 21,
if
is
>- 3,
and
< 7.
184
ALGEBRA
EXERCISE 79
Find the limits of x in the following

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
+ 5)(2aj + 3). + 2) + 3) - 4 > (3 X - 2) - 3) + 36. + 4) (5 - 2) + (2 - 3)^ > (3 + 4)^ - 78. - 3)(a; + 4)(aj _ 5) < + l)(a5 - 2)(x - 3). {x a2(a;-l)<2 6=^(2a;-l)-a&, if a-2h is positive.
(4a;+5)2-4<(8a^
(3
a;
(ic
a;
oj
(a;
a;
(a;
ic
(a;
^~^ + 2 > ^"^^

n
if
and w are
positive,
and m<,n.
Find the limits of x and y in the following

-
(5x-\-6y<4:5. l3a;-42/ = -ll.
'
42/>41. J7aj [3x + 7y = 35.

a;
9.
Find the limits of x when
3a;-ll<24-lla;, and
10.
+ 23<20 x + 3.
If 6 times a certain positive integer, plus 14, is greater
than 13 times the integer, minus 63, and 17 times the integer, minus 23, is greater than 8 times the integer, plus 31, what is
the integer ?
11.
If 7 times the
number
of houses in a certain village,
plus 33, is less than 12 times the number, minus 82, and 9 times the number, minus 43, is less than 5 times the number,
plus 61,
12.
how many houses

a
3, is less
are there ?
number, plus
of cows such that 10 times their than 4 times the number, plus 79 and 14 times their number, minus 97, is greater than 6 times the Dumber, minus 5. How many cows has he?
;
A farmer has
number
13.
14. 15.
Between what limiting values of a; Between what limiting values of x
is
is
ar'H-3a;<4?
x^<Sx 15.
3 a;^ + 19 x< 20
?
Between what limiting values
of
a;
is
201. If a and b are unequal numberSj

a^
+ b^>2ab.
INEQUALITIES
For
185
(a-6)2>0;
2ab,
or,
cv"
-2 ab + b^>0.
3,
Transposing
1.
a^-\-b^>2ab.
Prove
that, if
a does not equal

(a
+ 2)(a-2)>6a-13.
if
By
the above principle,
a does not equal

a2
3,
> 6 a.
+ 2)(a - 2) >6 a 13.
Subtracting 13 from both members,
a2_4>6a-13,
2.
or (a
Prove that,
if
a and
b are
unequal positive numbers.
a^-{-b^>a'b
+ b'a.
ab
We have,
a^
b'^>2 ah, or ^2
+ b^> ah.
Multiplying both members by the positive number a
+ 6,
a^-\-h^> a^b
h'â.
EXERCISE 80
1.
Prove that for any value of
x,
except
f,
3aj(3a;-10)>-25.
2.
Prove that for any value of
x,
except
|,
^x(x-5)>Sx-A9.
3.
Prove that for any values of a and
6, if
4 a does not equal
^'
- 3 6) > 6 6 (4 a - 3 6). (4 a + 3 6) (4 a
Prove that for any values of x and y,if
4.
5x
does not equal
^^^
5x(5x-6y)>2y(5x-Sy).
that, if
Prove
5.
a and
6 are
unequal positive numbers,

6.
a'b
+ ab'>2a'b'.
^-h->2. b a
7.
a^-\-a'b
+ ab^-^b^>2ab{a-^b).
186
ALGEBRA
'^
202. Involution
XV. INVOLUTION
is
power whose exponent
the process of raising an expression to any is a positive integer.
We
203.
gave in
whose exponent
is
96 a rule for raising a monomial to any power a positive integer.

of a Fraction.
Any Power
Wehave,
and a similar
axaxa
b b b gy=^x?x^ bxbxb
b^'
result holds for
any positive integral power of
Then, a fraction may be raised to any power whose exponent a positive integer by raising both numerator and denominator
the required power.
J.
is
to
2 x'Y
(2
xW.
...
(2 x'Y
32
..
q^.
EXERCISE
6
1.
:
81
a^by
3aV ^^
^'2/
f_2mJcfy
V 6
'
cwy
V
.
'
ny
J
*
/9
mny
(_A^X
V
/^Jf^\
\3l b'cny
[Sp^j'
204. Square
52/V;*
of a Polynomial.
:
We find
by actual multiplication
a
-\-b
+c
ab
ab
-\-
-\-b -\-c
-\-
a^-\-
ac
+b^-{ac
-\-
be bc
+ c^ a" + 2 ab -^2 ac + b^ + 2bc + c"
INVOLUTION
The
result, for
187
convenience of enunciation,
may be
written
(a
+ b + cy = a' + b' + c'-{-2ab-{-2ac + 2bc.

:
In like manner we find

(a
+ b-{-c + dy = a'-\-b'-\-c'-\-d'
-{-2ab-{-2ac
+ 2ad-{-2bc-\-2bd + 2cd',
:
and so
on.
We
its

is
The square of a polyywmial
equal to the
sum of
the squares
terms, together with twice the product of each term by each of of the following terms.
Ex.
Expand (2x''-^x- 5)2.
of the terms are 4 x*, 9 x^, and 25. Twice the product of the first term by each of the following terms gives the results - 12 x^ and - 20 x^. Twice the product of the second term by the following term gives the
The squares
result 30 x.
Then,
(2 x^
-3 sc
5)2
= 4 x* + 9 + 25 - 12 jc^ - 20 ic^ = 4 x* - 12 aj3 _ 11 aj2 30 + 25.

a:^
_j. a;
-j.
30 x
EXERCISE 82
Square each of the following
1.
:
ab-{-c.
x + y-z.
10. 11.
ic^
4a^ 5 2/^
2.
3.
Q>a^
+ ab-Zb\
?i2_3^_i.
12.
13.
2a^-8a4-9.
6aj^-4a.V + 52/*.
4. 5.
6.
7.
^x + y + 2z.
l
+ Zx-4.0?.
14.
2a'"- 5a"- 1.
15.
16.
17. 18.
44-3m3 4-2m.
77i3_n2 +
2aj
'
a^b-c-d. a-6 + c + d a^ + a^â-Z.

2a;3-4a;2-3a; + l.
8.
6.
9.
+ 32/ + 5.
3-2a + 4a2-5a^
188
10 19.
ALGEBRA
^ m+4 m
,
aft 20.
4 a^
ox
, 1
2 -.
oar
205. Cube
of a Binomial.
We find by
actual multiplication
(a + by = a' + 2ab + b^ a +6
a^^2d'b+ aW
o?b + 2ab^-\-b^ = a^ -{-^ o?b -\-^ ab^ -\-b^ {a-\-bf
That is, the cube of the sum of two numbers is equal to the cube of the first, plus three times the square of the first times the second, plus three times the first times the square of the second,
plus the cube of the second.
Again,
(a
by a^ 2ab + 6^ a -b
a^-2a'b-\-
aW
- a% + 2ab''-W = a'-3a'b + 3ab'-b^ {a-by

is, the cube of the difference of two numbers is equal to cube of the first, minus three times the square of the first times the second, plus three times the first times the square of the second, minus the cube of the second.
That
the
1.
Find the cube of a

(a +
+ 2 6.
ft*.
We have,
2b)^ = =
a^
+ 3a%2b)+ Sa(2by +(2by a^-\-6a^b + 12 ab^ + 8
2.
Find the cube of 2 a^ - 5 2/^

(2
a;8
y^y
= (2 x^)^ - 3(2 x3)2(5 y^) + 3(2 x^) (5 y2)2_ (5 ^2)8 = 8 ic9 - 60 x6?/2 + 150x32/4 -125^6.
The cube
if
of a trinomial
two of
its
may be found by the above method, terms be enclosed in parentheses; and regarded
as a single term.
INVOLUTION
3. (X2
189
Find the cube
oix^-2x-l.
- 2 X - 1)8 = [(X2 - 2 X) - 1]3 = (x2 - 2 x)3 - 3(x2 - 2 x)2 + 3(x2 _ 2 x) - 1 = x6 - 6 x5 + 12 x* - 8 x3 - 3(x* - 4 x3 + 4 x2) + 3(x2 - 2 x) -1 = x6 - 6 x5 + 12 X* - 8 x3 - 3 X* + 12 x3 - 12 x2 4- 3 x2 - 6 X - 1 = x6 - 6 x5 + 9 x* + 4 x3 - 9 x2 - 6 X - 1.
EXERCISE 83
Cube each
1.
of the following
7.
a'b-ab\
a + 3.
2x-{-y,
2. 3. 4.
5.
6.
a-5b.
6a^+l.
m4
71^.
190
ALGEBRA
XVI.
EVOLUTION
206. If an expression when raised to the nth. power, n being a positive integer, is equal to another expression, the first expression is said to be the nth Root of the second.
Thus,
if a"
= b,
is
the
nth. root of b.
Evolution
expression.
is
the process of finding any required root of an
207.
The
sion, indicates
Radical Sign, ^, when written before an expressome root of the expression.
Thus,
Va indicates the second, or square root of a; Va indicates the thircl, or cube root of a Va indicates the fourth root of a and so on.
;
;
The index
of a root
is
the
number written over the
radical
sign to indicate what root of the expression is taken. If no index is expressed, the index 2 is understood.
An
root
even root
is
is one whose index is an even number one whose index is an odd number.
an odd
EVOLUTION OF MONOMIALS
208.
We will
is
now show how
to find
any root of a monomial,
which
a perfect power of the same degree as the index of
the required root.

1.
Required the cube root of a^6V.

(abH^y
206,
We have,
Then, by
2.
a%'^c^.
v/o^&V
fifth root of
(
ab^c\
Required the
-32a^
= - 32 a^.
=2
qj.
We have,
Whence,
2 a)^
y/
32 a^
EVOLUTION
3.
191
Required the fourth root of

have either
a*.
We
(+
)* or
( ay
equal to
a.
a*.
Whence,
,
Vc^ =
The sign called the double sign, is sion when we wish to indicate that it is
209.
prefixed to an expreseither -f- or
From
208,
we have
the following rule
Extract the required root of the absolute value of the numerical coefficient, and divide the exponent of each letter by the index of
the required root.
Give to every even root of a positive term the sign every odd root of any term the sign of the term itself.
1.
and
,
to
Find the square root of 9

the rule,
a'^ftV".
By
2.
VOa*^^ =
a:^b^<^.
Find the cube root of
64 x^y^.
The
resolving
3.
root of a large number may sometimes be found it into its prime factors.
by
Find the square root of 254016.

\/254016
We have,
4.
= VWxWxV' =23x32x7=
504.
Find the value of

y/n X 76 X
V72 X 75 X 135. 136 = \^(28 x 32) x (3 x 52) x (38 x 5) = V28x 36 X 53 = 2 X 32 X 5 = 90.

EXERCISE 84

1.
V36^.
V64a^263c.
4.
v'Sl
n%^y
7. 8.
-Û a'7i'\
2.
3.
5. 6.
V121
a^^^^c^
V-243
a)^2/''-
-sZ-xy^z"".
-\/-216afyz''.
9.
Vl69 x^y'
192
10.
ALGEBRA
^/'128 m^'n'K
13.
V2916.
V30625.
16.
17.
18.
11.
12.
V343 ic^+^^z"^.
^/625 a^'^b*^
19.
14.
15.
VSlx 64x324. V84x 54x126.

^5832.
V86436.
S3
Vl5 xy X
yzx 55 zx.
23.
24.
20. 21.
22.
-^21952.
^104976.
a/59049.
V627264.
-v/112
X 168 X
252.
25.
a/135 x 375 x 625.
26.
V(a2 _ 5 a + 6)(a^ + 2 a - 8)(a2 + a - 12).

of
210.
Any Root
from
a Fraction.
It follows
each of whose terms
is
203 that, to find any root of a fraction, a perfect power of the same degree as
the index of the required root, extract the required root of both numerator and denominator.
Ex.
3/
27a^b'
</ 27 a^b^
64
c^
-</64?
Sab\ 4 c^
'
EXERCISE 85 Find the values of the following:

.
/64^
49
2*
5/
32 g^
6'c^
V
\256iis
^
.
*
"
27 a
3/
125
6*
7/_128^
2/''
e/
'
g^^"*
"^729 6^*
211.
â;.
We
have
V(o^ =
Va"'"
= g*" =
=
16

have,
v^(32 aio)*
V (32 a^y.
(2 a2)4
a^.
We
32
= ( ^32 aio)* =
This method of finding the root is shorter than raising g^" to the fourth power, and then taking the fifth root of
the result.
EVOLUTION
EXERCISE 86
:
193
SQUARE ROOT OF A POLYNOMIAL

212. In 112, we showed how to find the square root of a trinomial perfect square. The square roots of certain polynomials of the form.
a2
+ 62 + c2+2a6 + 2ac4-26c
can be found by inspection.
Ex.

9 x^
-\-y^-\4.
z^-\-
6 xy
12 xz
:
4:
yz.
We
I
can write the expression as follows
(3a:)2
+ 2/2+(_2^)2 +
2(3ic)y
+ 2(3x)(-2^) +22/(-20).
204, this is the square of Sx -{- y Then, the square root of the expression
By
+(2 z).
is
3x +
z.
(The
result could also
have been obtained in the form 2z
y Sx.)
^<y.
EXERCISE 87
Find the square roots of the following:

1.
a'-{-b'-^c'-2ab-2aG + 2bc.
o(^
2.
3.
+ 4:y'-\-9 + 4:Xy + 6x-\-12y.
4. 5.
l+25m2 + 36n2-10m + 12n-60m7i. a2 + 8162 + l6 + 18a6-8a-72&.

9x^-{-y^-\-25z'-6xy-S0xz-{-10yz. 36 m^ + 64 n^ 4- ic^ + 96 mn 12 mx 16 nx,
16 a^
6.
7.
8.
25
a;
+ 49
+ 9 5^ + 81 c^ + 24 a^"" + 72 aV + 54 6V'. + 36 - 70 a^2/^ + 60 ^z" - 84 /^^

2/''
;^
194
213. Square Root
of
ALGEBRA
any Polynomial Perfect Square.
By
204, (a
+ & + c)2 = a- + 2 a6 + &' + 2 ac + 2 5c + c^ = a'-\-(2a + b)b + (2a-\-2b-{-c)c.

:
(1)
Then, if the square of a trinomial be arranged in order of powers of some letter

I.
The square
a.
root of the first term gives the first term of
the root,
II.
If
from
(1)
we
(2a
subtract
a^,
we have
..
+ 6)6 + (2a4-2& + c)c.

this,
first
b.
(2)
ah-, if this
The
first
term of
when expanded,
term of the
is
2 2
be
the
divided by twice the next term of the root,

III.
root,
a,
we have
If
from
(2)
we
subtract (2a
+ b) b,
we have
(3)
(2a
+ 2 6 + c)c.
The
first
term of
this,
first
divided by twice the term of the root, c.

IV.
If
when expanded, is 2ac; if this be term of the root, 2 a, we have the last
from
(3)
we
subtract (2a-\-2b
+ c)c,
there
is
no
remainder.
Similar considerations hold with respect to the square of a polynomial of any number of terms.
214. The, principles of 213 may be used to find the square root of a polynomial perfect square of any number of terms.
Let
it
be required to find the square root of
4:x'-j-12x^-7x'-24.x-\-16.
4:x'-\-12x^- 7a^-24a;
a'
+ 16
|2ar'+3a;-4
= 4.x'
EVOLUTION
The
195
first term of the root is the square root of 4 a^, or 2 x'^. Subtracting the square of 2 x^, 4 x*, from the given expression, the first remainder is 12x^-1 x:^ - 24 x + 16. Dividing the first term of this by twice the first term of the root, 4 aj^^
we have
the next term of the root, 3 x ( 213, II). this to 4 x^ gives 4 x^ + 3 x multiplying the result by 3 x, and subtracting the product, 12 x^ + 9 x-, from the first remainder, gives the
Adding
second remainder,
Dividing the
16 x^ 24 x + 16. term of this by twice the first term of the root, 4 x^, we have the last term of the root, - 4 ( 213, III). 4)( 4), or If from the second remainder we subtract (4x2 + 6x 16 x2 - 24 X + 16, there is no remainder then, 2 x^ + 3 x - 4 is the
first
required root ( 213, IV). 4 x2
The expressions 4 x^ and 4 x^ + 6 x are called + 3 X and 4 x^ + 6 x 4 complete divisors.
trial-divisors^
and
We
then have the following rule for extracting the square

:
root of a polynomial perfect square
the expression according to the powers of some letter. Extract the square root of the first term, write the result as the the given first term of the root, and subtract its square from
Arrange
expression, arranging the
remainder in
the
same order of powers
as the given expression.
Divide the first term of the remainder by twice the first term of
the root,
and add
the quotient to the
part of the root already found,
and
and
also to the trial-divisor.
Multiply the complete divisor by the term of the root last obtained, subtract the product from the remainder.
If other terms remain, proceed as before, doubling the part of

the root already
found for
the next trial-divisor.
215. Examples.
1.
Find the square root

9 x*
of 9
aj^
+ 30 aV + 25 a\
|
30 a3x2
30 a^â 30 aH"^
4.
25 a^
3 x^
5 a
I
;
9x4 6x2 + 5a3
+ 25 a^
It is usual, in practice, to omit those terms, after the first, in each remainder, which are merely repetitions of the terms in the given expression thus, in the first remainder of Ex. 1, we leave out the term 26 a^.
196
ALGEBRA
work the
multiplier of the
It is also usual to leave out of the written
complete divisor.
f^'
2.

9 x6
x,
|
we have
12 x5
28 X*
22
a:3
+ 20 x2 -
8 X
3x^-2x2 + 4x-l
9x6
6x3-2x2
EVOLUTION
12.
13. 14.
197
- 16 rv^x" + 36 n^x^ - 40 n^x^ + 25 a^. 30 xy - 24 a^y - 31 xY + 25 + 16 /.

4
n''
4a;2
+ 20a; + 29 + 4-A+ 12i + 8a^-22a^ + 16a;6 + 4.

136^
46^ ,46^
15. 16.
a^-2a^-a^ + 6a^-3a2_4a4-4.
5a^-23a;4
17 17.
a.2
2a&
+^
,
9^
5n
~6"
+ 9^25
16'
18
19.
n^
_ w^ _ 41^
3"
"36"
9 a + 6 aâ; + 31 aV - 14 o?ci? 4- 17 aV - 40 aic 4- 16 x\
"
16 21
42/
202/'
5/25/
3a^
2
63
25
15a
6
a^^^
'4
44
41a^ 4 &2
6
a^
16
64*
22.
- 30 a'h + 4 a'^^ + 25 a^ - 16 ah' - 31 a*6^
SQUARE ROOT OF AN ARITHMETICAL NUMBER

216.
The square
root of 100
is
10
of 10000
is
100
etc.
Hence, the square root of a number between 1 and 100 is between 1 and 10; the square root of a number between 100
and 10000 is between 10 and 100; etc. That is, the integral part of the square root of an integer of one or two digits, contains one digit of an integer of three or four digits, contains two digits and so on.
;
;
Hence, if a point
he placed over every second digit of
an
the
integer,
heginning at the units' place, the of digits in the integral part of
numher ofpoints shows

its
numher
square root.
217. Square Root
of
any Integral Perfect Square.
The square root of an integral perfect square may be found in the same way as the square root of a polynomial.
Required the square root of 106929.
198
ALGEBRA
106929 300 + 20 + 7 = 90000 = a-\-b-\-c
-
a^ a
2a-{-b=
600
-h
20 20
16929 12400
2a+26 + c = 600 + 40 + 7
4529 4529
Pointing the number in accordance with the rule of 216, we find that there are three digits in its square root. Let a represent the hundreds' digit of the root, with two
ciphers annexed; b the tens' digit, with one cipher annexed; and c the units' digit.
less
Then, a must be the greatest multiple of 100 whose square than 106929 this we find to be 300.
;
is
is
Subtracting 16929.
a^,
or 90000,
from the given number, the result
a, or 600, we have the quotient which suggests that b equals 20. Adding this to 2 a, or 600, and multiplying the result by b, or 20, we have 12400 which, subtracted from 16929, leaves 4529.
Dividing this remainder by 2

;
28+
Since this remainder equals (2a can get c approximately by dividing
+ 2 6 + c)c ( 213, III), we it by 2 a + 2 &, or 600 + 40.

the quotient
Dividing 4529 by 640, suggests that c equals 7.
we have
7+; which
Adding this to 600 40, multiplying the result by 7, and subtracting the product, 4529, there is no remainder. 20 Then, 300 7, or 327, is the required square root.
218. Omitting the ciphers for the sake of brevity, and condensing the operation, we may arrange the work of the example of 217 as follows
:
106929 |_327
9
62
EVOLUTION
The numbers 600 and 640
are called trial-divisors,
199
and the numbers
620 and 647 are called complete divisors.
We
then have the following rule for finding the square root
:
of an integral perfect square
Separate the number into periods by pointiyig every second beginning with the units'' place.
digits
Find the greatest square in the left-hand period, and write its square root as the first digit of the root; subtract the square of the
first root-digit
from
the left-hand period,
and
to the result
annex
the next period.
Divide
of
this
remainder, omitting the
last digit,
by twice the part
the root already
found, and annex
the quotient to the root,
and
also to the trial-divisor.
Multiply the complete divisor by the root-digit last obtained, and

subtract the product from the remainder.
If other periods remain, proceed as before, doubling the part of

the root already
found for
the next trial-divisor.

that,
Note
by the
1.
It
sometimes happens
digit of the root last obtained, the
on multiplying a complete divisor product is greater than the

is
remainder.
less
In such a case, the digit of the root last obtained must be substituted for it.
too great,
and one
Note 2. If any root-digit is 0, annex to the trial-divisor, and annex to the remainder the next period. (See the illustrative example of 220.)
219. Ex.
Find the square root of 4624.

4624 L68 36
128
1024 1024
The greatest square in the left-hand period Then the first digit of the root is 6.
Subtracting
this
6^,
is 36.
or 36, from the left-hand period, the result
is
10
to
we annex
the next period, 24.
part of the root already found, or 12, the quotient the root, and also to the trial-divisor.
Dividing this remainder, omitting the last digit, or 102, by twice the is 8 ; this we annex to
200
ALGEBRA
8,
Multiplying the complete divisor, 128, by from the remainder, there is no remainder. Then, 68 is the required square root.
and subtracting the product
220.
We
will
is
now show how

not integral.
to find the square root of a
number which
Ex.
Find the square root of 49.449024.
EVOLUTION
4.
5.
201
12.
8427.24.
.165649.
.133225.
8.
7974.49.
.30316036.
9.
.00459684.
13.
39.375625.
6.
7.
10. 11.
22014864.
1488.4164.
14.
15.
.000064272289.
889060.41.
54.4644.
221. Approximate Square Roots.
number has no exact square the operation by annexing periods root but we may continue of ciphers, and obtain an approximate root, correct to any desired
If there is a final remainder, the
;
number
Ex.
of decimal places.
Find the square root of 12 to four decimal

12.00000000
.3.4641
places.
9 64
202
Find the
13. 14.
|. first
ALGEBRA
four figures of the square root of
If.
i.
:
15. 16.
17.
f.
19.
if.
21.
If
|.
18.
|.
20.
a.
22. i|.
CUBE ROOT OF A POLYNOMIAL

223. The cube roots of certain polynomials of the form
a^
+ Sa'b + Sab^ + b^
of 8 a^
can be found by inspection.
Ex.
Find the cube root
- 36 w'b^ + 54 a&* - 27 b\
:
We can write the

By
expression as follows
(2 a)2(3 62)
-3 (2 ay
205, this is the cube of 2 a Then, the cube root of the expression
+ 3 (2 a) (3 - 3 &2.
is
&2)2
_ (3 5238.
2 a
3 52.
EXERCISE Find the cube roots

1.
91
of the following
a^-{-6a^
+ 12a-\-S.
2.
3.
l-9m-^27m'-27m^
647i3-48n2 + 12n-l.
125ix^-j-75x'y
a
4.
5. 6.
7.
+ 15xy^ + f.
59.
125 m + 150 m^n
+ 18 a^6^ + 108 a^^^H- 216 + 60 mn^ + 8 n^

a^ft^c
27 a^ft^- 108
4.
144 a&c^- 64 c^.
8.
m-21mV + 147mV-343a;i2
of
224. Cube Root
any Polynomial Perfect Cube.
By205, (a + 6 + c) = [(a + 6) + c] = (a + 6)3 + 3(a + 6)2c + 3(a + 6)c2 + c3 = a^ + 3 a'b + 3 ab'' + b^ + 3(a + byc-\-3(a -\-b)c^ -[-(^ = a3 4- (3 a2 + 3 a& + b^)b + [3(a + bf + 3(a + &)c +
c'^Jc.
(1)
EVOLUTION
Then,
if
203
the cube of a trinomial be arranged in order of

letter
:
powers of
I.
some
The cube
root, a.
root of the first term gives the first term of the
cube
II.
If
from
(1)
we
subtract
a^,
we have
-f- c''\c.
(3 a^
+ 3 a6 + b')b + [3(a 4- bf + 3(a + b)c

term of
this,
(2)
The
first
when expanded,
is
3 a^b
if
this be
divided by three times the square of the first term of the root, 3 a^, we have the next term of the root, b.
III.
If
from
(2)
we
subtract (3 a^
+ 3 ab + b^b^ we have
(3)
is
[3(a
+ 6)2 + 3(a + b)c + c']c.

when expanded,
3a^c;
if this
The
first
term of
this,
be
divided by three times the square of the 3 a^, we have the last term of the root, c.
first
term of the
root,
IV. If
there
is
from (3) we subtract [S(a + bf + S(a + no remainder.
b)c
c'']c,
Similar considerations hold with respect to the cube of polynomial of any number of terms.
225. The principles of 224 may be used to find the cube root of a polynomial perfect cube of any number of terms.
Let
it
be required to find the cube root of

a;
y
.^.
'
+ 6ar^ + 3a;*-28a^-9x2 + 54a;-27.

a^
^C
x8+6a;H 3x*-28x3-9x2+54ic-27
= x^
204
Dividing the
first
ALGEBRA
root, 3
term of this by three times the square of the first we have the next term of the root, 2 x ( 224, II). Now, Sab + h^ equals 3 x ^2 x 2 x + (2 x)2, or 6 x^ + 4 x^. Adding this to 3 x*, multiplying the result by 2 x, and subtracting the product, 6 x^ + 12 X* + 8 x^, from the first remainder, gives the second
term of the
a;*,
remainder,
- 9 x* - 36 x^ - 9 x2 + 54 x - 27
first
( 224, III).
first
Dividing the
term of the
root,
term of this by three times the square of the 3x2, we have the last term of the root, 3.
Now, 3(a+&)2 equals 3(x2 + 2x)2, or 3 x* + 12x3+ 12x2; 3(a equals 3(x2 + 2 x) ( - 3), or - 9 x2 - 18 x and d^ = 9. Adding these results, we have 3 x* + 12 x^ + 3 x2 18 x + 9.
;
+ 6)c
9 X* 36 x^ 9
is
Subtracting from the second remainder the product of this by 3, or 27, there is no remainder then, x2 + 2 x 3 x'-^ + 54 X the required root ( 224, IV).
;
The expressions 3 x* and 3 x* + 12 x^ + 12 x2 are called trial-divisors, and the expressions 3 x* + 6 x^ + 4 x2 and 3 x* + 12 x^ + 3 x^ - 18 x + 9
complete divisors.
We then have the
following rule for finding the cube root of

:
a polynomial perfect cube
powers of some letter. Extract the cube root of the first term, write the result as the first term of the root, and subtract its cube from the given expression; arranging the remainder in the same order of powers
Arrange, the expression according to the
as the given expression.
of the first term of the

of the
root.
Divide the first term of the remainder by three times the square root, and write the result as the next term
Add
to the trial-divisor three
times the product of the term of
the root last obtained by the part of the root previously found,
the square of the term of the root last obtained.
and
obtained,
Multiply the complete divisor by the term of the root last and subtract the product from the remainder.
the square
divisor.
If other terms remain, proceed as before, taking three times of the part of the root already found for the next trial-
226. Examples.
1.
Find the cube root oiSx^- 36 x'^y + 54 xy - 27 f.
EVOLUTION
Sx^-S6x^y +
8 x^ 12 X*
54 x^y^
205
- 27 y^ 2x^-Sy
\
18
x'^y
?/2
ii6
x^y
3e> a:4y
54
a;V
- 27 y^
It is usual, in practice, to omit those terms, after the first, in each remainder, which are merely repetitions of the terms in the given expression and also to leave out of the written work the multiplier of the com;
plete divisor.
2.
Find the cube root of 40 a^ - 6 ar' - 64
+ - 96
x,
a;.
we have
206
ALGEBRA
CUBE ROOT OF AN ARITHMETICAL NUMBER
227. The cube root of 1000 is 10; of 1000000 is 100; etc. Hence, the cube root of a number between 1 and 1000
is
between 1 and 10; the cube- root of a number between 1000 and 1000000 is between 10 and 100 etc. That is, the integral part of the cube root of an integer of one, two, or three digits, contains one digit of an integer of and so on. four, five, or six digits, contains two digits
; ; ;
Hence, if a point he placed over every third digit of an integer, heginiiing at the units' place, the number ofpoints shows the number of digits in the integral part of its cube root.
228. Cube Root
of
any Integral Perfect Cube.
The cube
the same
root of an integral perfect cube may be found in way as the cube root of a polynomial.
Required the cube root of 12487168.

12487168 200 + 30 + 2 = 8000000 = a + 6 + c
as
EVOLUTION
207
kp
is
Subtracting 4487168.
a^,
or 8000000,
from the given number, the result
Dividing this by 3 a^, or 120000, we have the quotient 37+ which suggests that b equals 30. Adding to the divisor 120000, 3 ab, or 18000, and b% or 900, we have 138900. Multiplying this by b, or 30, and subtracting the product 4167000 from 4487168, we have 320168. Since this remainder equals [3(a + 6)^ + 3(a4-6)c4-c^]c
;
( 224, III), we can get c approximately by dividing it by 3(a + by, or 158700. Dividing 320168 by 158700, the quotient is 2+ which sug;
gests that c equals 2. Adding to the divisor 158700,

4,
3(a
+ b)c,
2,
we have 160084
Then, 200
multiplying this
is
product, 320168, there
by no remainder.
or 1380, and c", or and subtracting the
+ 30 + 2,
or 232, is the required cube root.
229. Omitting the ciphers for the sake of brevity, and condensing the process, the work of the example of 228 will stand as follows
:
12487168 8 1200
1^
208
ALGEBRA
Find the greatest cube in the left-hand 2)eriod, and write its cube root as the first digit of the root; subtract the cube of the first rootdigit
from
the left-hand period,
and
to the result
annex
the next
period.
Divide
this
remainder by three times

root.
the square
of the part of
the root already
found, quotient as the next digit of the
tvith ttvo ciphers
annexed, and write the
Add
to the trial-divisor three times the
digit by the
product of the last rootpart of the root previously found, ivith one cipher
last root-digit.
annexed, and the square of the
Multiply the complete divisor by the digit of the root last obtained, and subtract the product from the remainder.
the square
If other periods remain, proceed as before, taking three times of the part of the root already found, with two ciphers
annexed, for the next trial-divisor.
Note Note
divisor,
1.
Note
If
1,
218, applies with equal force to the above rule.

to the trial-
any root-figure is 0, annex two ciphers and annex to the remainder the next period.
2.
230. In the example of
228, the first complete divisor is

(1)
3a2-|-3a6H-6l
The next
This
trial-divisor is 3{a-{- by, or 3 a^
+ 6 a6 + 3 61
it
may
is,
be obtained from
its
(1)
by adding to
its
second
term, and double
third term.
That
required
if the first
number and
the double
of the second number

to the
to
complete any
trial-divisor be
added
complete
divisor, the result, with two ciphers annexed, will give the next
trial-divisor.
This rule saves

231. Ex.
much
labor in forming the trial-divisors.
Find the cube root of 157464.

157464 [54
125
7500
EVOLUTION
232.
209
cube root of a
We
will
is
now show how

not integral.
to find the
number which
Ex.
Find the cube root of 8144.865728.

v^8144. 865728
We have,
8 144865728 ^^ 1000000
^
|
V8144865728
^1000000
2012
8144865728
8
120000
144865
600
1
120601
120601
600
2
24264728
12120300
12060
4
12132364
Since 1200
24264728
in the
as the second root-digit, is not contained in 144, we write above example we then annex two ciphers to the trial-divisor (Note 1, 229.) 1200, and annex to the remainder the next period, 865. The second trial-divisor is formed by the rule of 230.
;
Adding
to the complete divisor 120601 the first
number, 600, and twice
the second number, 2, required to complete the trial-divisor 120000, have 121203 annexing two ciphers to this, the result is 12120300.
;
we
Then, v'8144.865728
^
600
1
= 20. 12.
as follows
:
The work may be arranged
8144.865728
20.12
120000
120601
210
It follows
ALGEBRA
from the above
that, if
a point he placed over every
third digit of miy number, beginning with the units'* place, ayid extending in either direction, the rule of 229 may be applied to
the result, the root.
and
the decimal point inserted in its
proper position in
EXERCISE 93
Find the cube roots of the following
1.
:
54872.
6.
2.
3.
262144.
103.823.
.884736.
4.
5.
.000493039.
16. 17.
4. 9.
or
233. If the index of the required root is the product of two more numbers, we may obtain the result by successive ea>-
tractions of the simpler roots.
For by
206,
v^)-" = a.
members,
(1)
(1),
Taking the nth root
of both
(VS)"=-e^.
Taking the mth root of both members of
Hence, the mnth root of an expression is equal to the mth root of the nth root of the expression. Thus, to find the fourth root of an expression, we find the
square root of its square root to find the sixth root, the cube root of the square root, etc.
;
we
find
EVOLUTION
EXERCISE 94
Eind the fourth roots of the following
1.
2.
:
211
a'
-16 a%' + 96 a'b' - 256 a'b' + 256 b"^.
81 a'
- 108
a;
a'
-\-
162
a'
- 120 a' + 91 a* - 40 a^+lS a'-4. a
+ 1.
3.
16
+ 32 - 72 a^ - 136 a^ + 145 a;^+204 ar^-162 oj^-lOS x'
81a^.
4.
.011156640625.
Find the sixth roots of the following

5. 6. 7.
+ 240aj + 160a^ + 60a;^ + 12a;2 + la - 18 a^ + 135 a' - 540 a' + 1215 a' - 1458 a + 729.
64a;i2_^192a;io
34296.447249.
234.
Also,
By 206,
{\/aby
= ab.
(Va X Vby = ( Va)" X ( V6)" = ab.

(-v/a6)
Then,
Whence,
= v^ x a/&)". Voft = -v/a x "Vb.

(
212
ALGEBRA
XVII.
THEORY OF EXPONENTS
235. In the preceding portions of the work, an exponent has been considered only as a positive integer.
Thus,
if
m is
a positive integer,
a*^
=aX
a X aX
to
m factors.
( 11)
The following
results have been proved to hold for any-
positive integral values of

a*"
m
a"
and n
= "*+" ( 56). = a"*" ( 93). (a'^y

X
(1)
(2)
236. It
is
necessary to employ exponents which are not

;
and we now proceed to define them, positive integers the rules for their use. prove
will be convenient to
and
In determining what meanings to assign to the new forms, it have them such that the above law for multiplication shall hold with respect to them. We shall therefore assume equation (1), 235, to hold for all values of m and n, and find what meanings must be attached
in consequence to fractional^ negative,
and
zero exponents.
237. Meaning of a Fractional Exponent.
Let
it
be required to find the meaning of a^.
If (1), 235, is to hold for all values of 5 5 5 5,5,5
m and n,
_
a^
Xa^ xa^ = a^^^ = a\

a^.
Then, the third power of a^ equals Hence, a^ must be the cube root of
a^,
or a^
= -\/a^.
p
a^,
We
Let
will
it
now
be required to find the meaning of
where p and q
are any positive integers.
THEORY OF EXPONENTS
If (1), 235,
>'
213
n,
is
to hold for all values of
and
i-
a'
'
X
p
a'
to q factors
= a*
^+^+^+... to? terms

' *
^X? = a* = a^
Then, the gth power of a* equals

Hence, a' must be the gth root of
.
a^.
p
a^,
or a*
= Va^.
Hence,
a fractional exponent,
root.
the
numerator denotes a
power, and the denominator a
For example, a^
= -\/a^
b^
= V&^
x^
= -y/x
etc.
EXERCISE 95
Express the following with radical signs
1.
:
aK
ic^.
3.
7mK
5x\
5.
ahK
icV'"-
7.
8aW.
lOn'a;'^^.
9.
x^yk^.
2a^b^c'^.
2.
4.
6.
8.
10.
Express the following with fractional exponents

11.
12.
^'.
â.
19.
13.
14.
Vt^'.
15.
3</F.
17.
18.
9Vm^^.
^n\
16.
4^/.
^^^/.
iâ-y/'.
20.
-J/^V?â/^'.
^^^
iyv>^f
.238. Meaning of a Zero Exponent.

-l^^
(^)^
2^^>
is
^^ ôl^ ô^ ^^^ values of

a"*
m
=
and
w,
''-
we have
a^
= a'"+" = a. = = 1.
a"*
Yf
Whence,
We
must then
define a^ as being equal to 1.

of a
239. Meaning
'jet it
Negative Exponent,
a~^.
be required to find the meaning of If (1), 235, is to hold for all values of
a-'
and
n,
a^
a-^+^
= = 1
( 238).
214
ALGEBRA
,-3
Whence,
now consider the general case. be required to find the meaning of a~% where s represents a positive integer or a positive fraction. and n, If (1), 235, is to hold for all values of
will
it
We
Let
a-'
a'
= a-*+' = a = 1
a~'
( 238).
Whence,
=
by
a*.
We
must then define
a~' as being equal to 1 divided
For example, a-2 =

a~^
^x-^y~^
--,
etc.
239 that
Any
to
the
factor of the numerator of a fraction may be transferred denominator, or any factor of the denominator to the
its
numerator, if the sign of
exponent he changed.
Thus,
^^_V_^^^^^^ ^^_
EXERCISE 96
:
Express with positive exponents

1.
THEORY OF EXPONENTS
17
^"^
215
on
iQ
2m^
j^Q
7 ah-^
9w-V]^^
Transfer all literal factors from the numerators to the denominators in the following:
21
^^
^.
23
^~^^^~^
25
^ a~^6^
07
9 m-^n~^
22.
24.
^.
26.
^.
28.
A^^.
obtained the definitions of fractional, zero, and negative exponents by supposing equation (1), 235, to hold for such exponents.
241.
We
Then, for any values of
and
n,
a'^xa''
= ar+\
(1)
of this result for positive or negative, integral or and n will be found in 445. fractional, values of
The formal proof
1.
Find the value of

a^
a^
a~^.
We have,
2.
x a~^
= a^-s q-s^
Find the value of a x Va^

237,
a x\/a^
By
3.
a X a^
= a^+^ = a^.
Multiply a
+ 2 a*- 3 a^
by 2
- 4 a"^ - 6 a"^.
2-4 a~^-6 a'^

2a
+ 4 a^ _ ^_ 4 l
6 a3
8 a^ + 12 - 6a^ -12 +
IS
a^
2 a
It
20 a^
+
>
18 a ^
must be
power
of
carefully observed, in examples like the above, that the
zero
any number equals
( 238).
216
ALGEBRA
EXERCISE 97

1.
a^
by
a^.
4.
by n-\
7.
a;"*
by 7 x\
-l^^.
a^.
2.
3.
x-^
a^
by x-l
a~^.
5. 6.
3 a-' by a'l
8. 9.
x-'
by
by
m
.
by 4
^'.
\^
by
/^
\j
10.
m^ by
A.
^
13.
y 14.
3x-V'
by
4x-iy^
11.
12. 16. 17. 18. 19.
SVF^by </^^
6 a26 by a-^^"^.
a;^
'i
a-"^*^ by a-Va;*.
15.
, ^
Hi
"by
3 m~'n^
2 a;3^^ + 4 2/^
by x^-\-2y^.
2n-^-5-6ri^ by 3n-?-4.
20.
^^
21.
22.
23.
24.
+ 10a-2 + 25 by 2a-2-5. a^ - ah^ + &^ by + ah^ + 6^ a;"^ a;~%^ + 2 ic"^2/^ by x~^y^ x~^y^ -\-2y. - 4 a"^^-^ - 3 &-. orh'' + 4 a-i + 3 a~?6-3 by a~^ a;^-4a;^-5 + 6x-Hy 2x-^ + a;-t-3aj-l a"^ - 2 a-i^-i + 3 a^n-'' by 2 a-^n-^ + 4 a'^Ti-^ - 6 n-^. 2 aâ;^ a^x 5 aâ;^ by 4 a~%"^ + 2 a-'^x~^ + 10 a"i
4a-''
a^'
242.
To prove
240,
=
a
oJ^-""
for
all
values of
m and n.
By
and
^ = a- X a-" = a^-% by
where
given in 70.
(1),
241.
The proof
of this result in the case
m > n,
m and n are positive integers,

<
is
1.
Find the value of
a-2
We have,
= oi+2âi
THEORY OF EXPONENTS
2.
217
Find the value of
Vd'
^
3.
.2
-JLZ
.1
Divide 18 xy-""- 23
+ x~Hj + 6 a;-y
by 3
x^y~'^
1
+ cc^ 2
_1
a;~^2/.
18 18
xy-"^ a;y-2
-2Z +
^2/
+
12
x-i?/2
6 x^y-i
6 x??/-i
-2a; ^-3a; ^y
-6ccV^-ll+ x^?/ + 6x-V - 6 x^w-i 2 + 4 X î 9 - 3 X ^y + 6 X- V

9-3x"
6
x-12/2
It is important to arrange the dividend, divisor, and each remainder in the same order of powers of some common letter.
EXERCISE 98
1.
:
x^
hj
x^.
4.
by Vwi.
^
7.
8.
V^^ by -yF"^
S-y/mT'
2.
a^ by a\
5.
a-3
by .
by 2 m'^.
'â^ 6.
a;^
3.
n by n~K
aj"2 2 a;"' 8
x^ by x~^.
9.
9a-%-Hy3a'b-l
10. 11. 13.
by x~^
4:X^.
12.
7?.-
a-i-&-i by a-^-5-l
7
af-1 by
a;^
+ l.
+ 71-^
by
71^
+3+
^14. a~^
ul5.
16.
17.
+ 4a-^-2a-^-12a-^4-9 by a-* + 2a~^-3 8 m^ + 12 m^w^ + 6 7n^n^ -^-n^ by 2 m^ + ni x^y-^^-llx'y-^ + 1 by a^V' + 3 orV' - a^2/"'. a-J + 2 a-^6-2 + 9 1)-' by a-^ + 2 a-'fe-^ + 3 a-^&-2.
218
18. 19.
ALGEBKA
4a
V^ - 17 a^x" + 16 a'ôif
10 m^7i^ + m~*n
now show how
will
by 2 a^
by 3 m-?i^
a^
- 4 a~^^
-f-
9 m^n~^
4 mri^
m%.
243.
for
We
to prove equation (2), 235,
any values of
and
n.
We
any
I.
will consider three cases, in each of which may value, positive or negative, integral or fractional.
have
Let
71
The proof given

Let w
be a positive integer. in 93 holds if n
is
a positive integer, what-
ever the value of m.

II.
=
If)
where p and q are positive
integers.
Then, by the definition of

(pj-y
237,
III.
= -V(oFy = -VaFp ( 243, I) = a^. where s is a positive number. Let n =

s,
Then, by the definition of

(a-)-
239,
= -1- = i
( 243, I or II)
= a""".
Therefore, the result holds for

1.
all
values of
m and n.
Find the value of
(a^)-^
(a2)-5
We have,
2.
a2x-5
= ^-lo,
Find the value of
(a-^)"^.
(a-3)-*
3.
a"^^-^
= a.
Find the value of (Va)l
EXERCISE 99
1.
:
(a^)-".
2.
(x-y.
3.
(x^)i
4.
(a-'yK
THEORY OF EXPONENTS
5.
219
(m-^y.
8.
(a^)-^^.
11.
(Ô"'-
14.
,^\'
6.(nl)-.
7.
M^')*.
"
V^;'
12.
(^.
i5.[(ti)irl.
16.
(a-ri
244.
13. (^'')'".
(a'^-'r';
The value
of a numerical expression affected with a
fractional exponent may be found by first, if possible, extracting the root indicated by the denominator, and then raising the
result to the
power indicated by the numerator.
Ex.
Eind the value of (-8)i

(8)^
By
243,
[(- 8)^]2
(^/38)2
100
:
= (_ 2)2 = 4.
EXERCISE
1.
27l
lel
5. 6.
7. 8.
SrK
(-32)1
36-1
9.
256-4.
13.
14.
243-^
2.
3.
10.
(-512)-^.
(-128)1
729-^
.
64l
64l
11.
12.
9k
^^
15. 16.
4.
(-216)1
(-S)"^.
512i
245.
We
will
now show how
to prove the result
for
any fractional or negative value of

of this result in the case
in 94.
n.
The proof
integer,
I.
where n
is
any positive
was given
Let n
^,
where p and q are any positive
integers.
By
243,
l(ahyj = (ahy = a^b'
( 94).
(1)
By
94,
(ahly = (a^y(b^y = a^bK

and
(2),
(2)
From
(1)
[(abyj = (a'b^y.
220
Taking the gth root of
ALGEBRA
botli
members, we have
II.
Let
7i
s,
where
s is
any positive integer or positive

94, or 245, I)
fraction.
Then, (a6)-
= -1- = J-(
(aby
a^b^
= a-6-
EXERCISE
1.
:
101
(ah-y.
(m-^n^)-^
3.
(x-^y^)i
(aâ?^)"*-
5. 6.
(n-V^)"".
2.
4.
(^\/6^.
^"miscellaneous examples
exercise
102
Square the following by the rule of

'
97
1.
3a^ + 4 6"l
Square a^b~^
2.
5m-V-8m2n-*.
rule of 204.
3.
-2a^ - ar'^b^
by the
4.
Expand
(4:
x^y'^ -^ 7 z-^) (A x^y~^
- 7 z-^)
by the rule of
98.
Find the value of

^
5.
25a--49m^ ^ ~y by 5 a~^ 7 m?
8
a.-2
.t.
the rule of
101.
...
+ 27 ?r^
2
7 '
a;*
+3 2/"^
a?-"
_
_^,
-,
a;
-;;
z^'
8.
a^_5-|
J,
by the rule of
103.
9.
(Sx^-Ay-fy.
10.
(a-2^)3_j_ 2^36-2)3.
THEORY OF EXPONENTS
Find the square roots
11.
221
of the following
12.
16a-^mK
A9 x^yz'i
13.
^?
14.
9x^-6xi-{-25-Sx-^ + 16x-\
1^15. 4a-^ + 20a-5

t-16.
+ 21a-^-10a-^ + l. aV3-6aV2 + 5 6-i + 12a"* + 4a-^6.

:
Find the cube roots of the following

17.
8a^r'-
18.
-64.a-'bh-i.
19.
?1^^!l^, ^
x^y
20.
27x^-\-54.xiy~^-\-36x^y~^-\-Sy-^.
x^
21.
-6
x^^
-^21 x-i -Ux'^^
+ 63 x~^ -54:X~^ + 27 x~^.

all
Simplify the following, expressing

:
the results with posi'
tive exponents
25.
(^^xo^Ô^.
31.
^
y^m+\
2wi
/y^2m\
mn
32.
+ ^ _a^ + &\ a-6 a^ + b^

"^
l^j
w 1 n 1
a^
+ 6^
I
-^
+ 6-^
n+l
27.
(a"-^--a^)"2^.
33.
Sm
^:î+^!::i
30
^^
+ y^
^-\-y
35
g^
+ 2 6^
7 a^6^
+ 6 &^
222
ALGEBRA
(k,
^^Â^
'
XVIII.
SURDS
/)
246.
A
is
which
Surd is the indicated root of a number, or expression, not a perfect power of the degree denoted by the index
;
of the radical sign

/v.oJb>wX.
as
is
V2, V5,
or -\/x
+ y,
when
it is
247.
monomial
said to be rational
rational
or else a fraction ^^^^j^^ ^ând integral ( 63),

,
whose terms are rational
ijult ^"d
c tA..'-'
integral.
w^wT
polynomial
is
said to be rational
when each
of its terms is
rational.
An expression
as 2
is
said to be irrational
when
it
involves surds
a positive or negative integer, or a positive or negative fraction. An irrational number is a numerical expression involving surds as 3, or 2 + V5.
;
+ V3, or Va + 1 Va. 248. A rational number is
249. If a surd
of the surd,
is
in the
form bVa,
b is called the coefficient
and
7i
the index.
is
250.
is
The
degree of a surd
denoted by
its
index
thus,
V5
a surd of the third degree. quadratic surd is a surd of the second degree.
REDUCTION OF A SURD TO
'{
ITS
SIMPLEST FORM
form when the
251.
surd
is
said to be in its simplest
expression imder the radical sign is rational and integral ( 63), is not a perfect power of the degree denoted by any
factor of the index of the surd, and has no factor perfect power of the same degree as the surd.
which
is
252. Case
I.
When
the expression
under
the radical sign is
a perfect power of
Ex.
the degree denoted by
a factor of
the index.
Reduce
have,
V8
\/8
to its simplest form.
We
\/2^
=2
'^
( 237)
= 2^ = \/2.
SURDS
^^XERCISE
Keduce the following
1.
223
103
to their simplest
9.
forms
</25.
a/16. \/i2i.
5.
a/49.
a/243.
13.
14.
a/216 aV.
2.
6.
7.
^8l.
a/64.
10.
11. 12.
^^343.
a/64^^.
Vs^^^'.
a/625 a^^y.
3.
4.
a/144 a^y.
-\/27
15.
16.
a/125.
8.
^81.
nV.
under
253. Case
rational
II.
When
the expression
the radical sign is

is
of the
1.
and integral, and has a factor which same degree as the surd.
a perfect power
Eeduce a/54
\/64
We have,
2.
= ^27 x2 =
v^ X \/2
( 234)
= 3^2,
simplest form.
Reduce a/3 a^b
12 a^b^ + 12 ab^ to its
V3 a3& - 12 a262 + 12 a^^ = v (a2 _ 4 a6 + 4 6^)3 a6
= Va2-4a6 + 462V3^ = (_26)V3^.
We then have
the second
the following rule
Resolve the expression under the radical sign into two factors, of which contains no factor which is a perfect power of
the
same degree as
the surd.
Extract the required root of the first factor, and multiply the
result by the indicated root
of the second.
If the expression
factor
under the radical sign has a numerical which cannot be readily factored by inspection, it is
it
convenient to resolve
3.
into its prime factors.
Keduce a/1944
v'lQii

35
= V2^
= v/28 X 38 x\/32 = 2x3xv/9 = 6v^.

72
4.
Reduce a/125 x 147

X 147
\/l25
= V63,x
72
= V52 x
x y/bx^ =
5x1
X ViS
=;
35 VI6.
224
t/
ALGEBRA
EXERCISE
104
Eeduce the following

1.
to their simplest
forms
V90. V72.
V96.
5.
-\/56.
a^l9^.
a/432.
a/256.
13.
V242 afy^.
2. 3.
^6.
7.
tVW. ^Vo.
'
14. 15.
-VMO^W.
^162mh^'.
9^81.
a/48.
11.
4.
V75.
8.
12.
V500
19.
a'bl
16.
A/i60^^.
2/').
17. 18.
V75 a^/ - 100 xYa/128 a^63_|_320 a^b\

21.
V(3a;
+ 2?/)(9ar2-4
20.
a^b -^
V3a-24a2+48a.
50 ab\
-VIS
60
a^b^ i-
N
23.
24.
'896.
22.
V(2 x'-\-x- 15)(2 a^ - 19 a; + 35).

26. 27.
28.
V98X196.
V432x504.
-v^l372.
29.
30.
\/7875.
V2268. V5145.
32.
a/375 X 405.
25.
^31. a/54x 63x336.
a/63 xy'
x 175 2/2' x 875 zx".
When the expression under the radical sign a fraction. In this case, we multiply both terms of the fraction by such an expression as will make the denominator a perfect power of the same degree as the surd, and then proceed as in 253.
254. Case III.
is
Ex.
Reduce \/-
^8a^
Multiplying both terms of the fraction by 2
a,
we have
8^3=/i||r=Vi^^=Vi^, X
EXERCISE
Reduce the following
1.
^
:
=i^.v^-
105
to their simplest
3.
forms
V|.
2.
Vf.
a/^-
4.
^^.
5.
Vf|.
SURDS
23
*
225
^7. ^.^-^^^
3/T
12-
A'32a^*
</\'-'
25 6
20.
13.
VJ.
</^-.
,.
^/llaV
*:
14.
^20W'
x^-5^.
^^^2/V
a;3
22.
/3
or^
x^ 5 x-\-6
_ 18 + 27
a;
a^
255. To Introduce the Coefficient

Sign.
of a
Surd under the Radical
The
Ex.
^^^^'
coefficient
of
a surd
it
may
radical sign
by raising
to the
be introduced under the power denoted by the index.
Introduce the coefficient of 2-\/3 under the radical
2^3 =
X v/3
^5^81^3 ( 234)
= \/24.
of
247) may be expressed in the form of a surd any degree by raising it to the power denoted by the index, and writing the result under the corresponding radical sign.
A rational expression (
A
signs
1.
:
EXERCISE
106
Introduce the coefficients
O^B^following under the

^^JP"^
5.
radical
3V7.
6^6.
10
3.
4^/5.
5-V/7.
4^5. 2v8.
7.
2^/3.
2.
4.
6.
8.
9xV2^.
9.
a'bWe^,
!*
10.
11.
6xy'''s/4^^.
(2 + l)V4i=-i-
5an^^/2a^n. 5an^^/2^r
12.
13.
Sa'b'Vs^'.
(a
+ + "" + l>'a2-4a + 3
/
a-1
g^
3 a
-6)^-^.
16.
^,_2^;2-^--^^.
226
ALGEBRA
ADDITION AND SUBTRACTION OF SURDS
differ
256. Similar Surds are surds which do not differ at only in their coefficients as 2 Vaa.*^ and 3 Vic^;
all,
or
Dissimilar Surds are surds
which are not
similar.
257. To add or subtract similar surds

tract their coefficients,
and multiply the
( 256), add or subresult by their common
surd part.
1.
Required the sum of
V20 and ViS.

form
( 253),
Reducing each surd
to its simplest
V^ + V45 = VT^^ + V9^ = 2 \/5 + 3 V5 = 5 Vs.

2.
Simplify
VJ + V|-V|.
= lV2+lV6_V^ = lV6-lV2.
2
We then have
Add
the following rule

to its simplest
Reduce each surd
form.
or subtract the similar
S2irds,
'
and
indicate the addition or
subtraction of the dissimilar.
EXERCISE
:
107
^1.
2.
7.
3. V300-VI47. 5. -2/135-^40. V8+V32. V28-V63. 4. a/2 + -^128. 6. ^S0-h</iO5, 8. V250 - V90 - Vm. V3+V192-V243.
9.
12.
lAO. V| + V^ V99-V275 4-V396.

-v/56
V^ + Vf.
14. 15.
^1-^^. VS-V-^ + VVvll.
Vl3.
16.
4-î89-f-^162.
V||+V||-V-^.
V72^-a;V98^4-a;V200^.
SURDS
17.
1-18.
227
a V80
+ ab V270 a'b' + b' V640 a'b. V27^M^36^ + V48aj/ + 642/.

a'b'
21.
v/128
22.
^23.
24.
+ ^250-^432-^88. V50 a' + V72 6^ _ V50 a^ + 120 a& + 72 b\ ^96 + ^486-^^6.
^25.
26. 28.
V294-V2I6+V405-V600. V52^2_^^]j7^_yj26a^ + aV56a^.

27. V|f-VS-V| + V?. VI + VI-VS-VS. V50a; + 40a;2^_8^_y32^_48a^_l_18a,. Vl25a^-150a;2/ + 452/2 + V5a;2^_g()^2/ + 180/.
y 29.
^30.
(^
+ ,)J^+(a.-2/)V^-^(|^^^ x^ ^x
y
^x-\-y
y^
TO REDUCE SURDS OF DIFFERENT DEGREES TO EQUIVALENT SURDS OF THE SAME DEGREE

258. Ex.
Reduce V2, ^3, and -^h to equivalent surds of
the same degree.
By
237,
V2 = 2^ = 2t% = v^2^ ^ '^64.
^ = 33=3t\=^^3J = ^ = = = ^^P =
5?
^^8T.
^^/l25.-
5T2
We then have the

Express
their
the
following rule
surds with fractional exponents, reduce these to

express
the
lowest
common denominator, and
resulting
expressions with radical signs.
The relative magnitudes of surds may be determined by reducing them, ^necessary, to equivalent surds of the same degree. in the above example, \/125 is greater than \/8T, and v^Sl than f/ Thus,
I
*^64.
\
Then,
v^ is
greater than \^,
and
\%
than V2.
228
ALGEBRA
EXERCISE
108
Kednce the following

^1.
v2.
3.
to equivalent surds of the

6.
same degree:
V2 V3
-v/2
and
-^7.
a/^,
i/hc,
and ^ca.
and Vl.
"^. V2^, "^36, and -^Sc.

8.
and and
-v/3.
a/2^, -^5/, and -^'O?.
\ 4.
5.
^4 V3
a/5.
9.
^M^
-yx y
and -x/^^^T.
and
\/a;
and V6.
is is is
10.
2/.
11.
Which
the greater,
12.
13.
Which
Which
the greater,
V6 V2
or
Vl4?
v^S ?
or
the greater, a/3 or a/7 ?
14.
Arrange in order of magnitude V2, Vl3, and V31.
\15. Arrange in order of magnitude v/4, a/6, and a/15.

Clfi,
Arrange in order of magnitude a/2, a/3, and a/IO,
MULTIPLICATION OF SURDS
259.
1.
Multiply
V6
by VlS.
By
2.
234, \/6
X VTB = VC'xTS
= V2x3x3x6 = \/32x2x5 =1 VlO.
Multiply a/2^ by a/4^^

( 258),
3^0
(2 a)^
Reducing to equivalent surds of the same degree
V2a
y/TcC^
(2 a)^
(4 a^)^
(4 a2)^
= v^(2^ x
v^(4 a2)2
= v^28 a8 X 24 a* = \/26 a6
2 a
= 2a\/2^.
We
sary,
I
then have the following rule:

together two or
To multiply
more
surds, reduce them, if neces-
tosimis of the same degree.
the expressions under the radical signs, JoT^^îgZy jtogether write the result under the common radical sign.
and
The
result should
be reduced to
its
simplest form.
SURDS
3.
229
Multiply
237,
V5
by
\/5.
By
VS = 5^ = 5^ = \/P.
Then,
4.
V5xv'5 = v'Pxv^ = v^ = 6^ = 5^ = \^=^^.
Multiply2V3
+ 3V2by3V3-V2.
+ 3V2
\/2
2\/3
3\/318
+ 9V6
-2V6-6
18
+ 7\/6-6 = 12 + 7\/6.
itself
To
multiply a surd of the second degree by

;
simply removes the
radical sign
thus, \/3
V3 = 3.
a;
5.
Multiply 3
VlT^ - Wx by VI + + 2V^.
+ a;)-4\/ x+^ + 6Vx + x2-8a; 8(1 + ) + 2 Va; + aj2 -8ic = 3-5ic + 2Va; +
3(l
a;2.
EXERCISE
1.
:
109
,/./:/
10.
V5 by
V20.
V?byV||.
^/98 by a/343. a/63 by -v/lM.
V?.
3.
A/i92 by
VTx.
11.
12.
Vl5 by V27.
4. _.
Vi8 by V42. ,
.
13.
^5. Vl08 by V192. ll^V^^T^^M. ^ 3 :^15 \. ^72 by -v^Sl.

7. 8. 9.
V6^by-y2^. V6 by v^.
\/3 xy by -VTyz.
a/55 xy by a/66 2/2.
^\
16.
v/44byA/i2.
a/135 by ^^45.
a/35 by a/75.
a/84 by a/180.
17. 18.
V20by^.
230
V
19.
ALGEBRA
</5d' by ^/I25^.
.
23.
24.
</^,
-yjjz,
and
^^.
20.
21.
\/9by^27.
V20,'^/25, and \/5.
VS by -^?.
25.
^4, ^6, and
-^6.
22.
vx27. 6
V| by ^5^ _k26. + 3V2and4 + 5V2. 28. 4Va-3V6and7Va + 2V&. "^29. 2V5-8^/3and9V5-4V3.

30.
V15, -^^, and ÎT^:.
31.
5V2 4-6V6andl0V2-7V6. 2^9 + 9^7 and 8-^-3^49.
32.
33.
^34.
/ 35.
36.
37.
'.38.
4V^-V^ + 3\/ând4V^H-Vy-3V^. 3 Va + 2 + 4 Va - 1 and ^\/a + 2 + 5 Va^^. V2+V5+V7and V2-V5-V7. 4Vf - 3 VS and 2 Vf - 9V^. 3V3 + 2V6-4V8and3V3-2V6 + 4V8. ^^"^ - 5 V7 - VlO and 6 V5 + SVf + VlO.
8VT2 + 7V20-4V24and5V3-3\/5 + 2V6.
,39.
6V| + 8V| + llV|and3V|-4V|-5V|.

DIVISION OF
MONOMIAL SURDS
260.
By 234,
\/^ = VaxV6.
-Xiild
Whence,
= ^.
:
We
To divide
surds of the
monomial same degree.

tivo
surds, reduce them, if necessary, to
the expression
Divide the expression under the radical sign in the dividend by under the radical sign in the divisor, and write the
result
under
the
common
radical sign.
its
The
result should be
reduced to
simplest form.
SURDS
1.
231
Divide
have,
7405 by
\/405
</5,
We
2.
^5
Divide
:î^=.^8i
= </2r^ = sn.
v^ by V6.
same degree
</'2^
Reducing
to surds of the
( 258),
_(2^
V6
3.
6^
(2
X 3)^
v^2^^r3
^23x33
^SS
>/
36
Divide
have.
VlO by
VlO =
v'iO.
10^
We
10^
103
= ^(2
5)8.
Then,
:^=-;/2i>iA = ^ 23 X 5
vp = 5t = 5^ = V5.
110
^40
EXERCISE
1.
:
2.
7.
V90 by V5. V24 by Vl8. ^32 by \/2.

-^486 by </2.
3. 4.
70 by V63.
5. 6.
</3 by ^/192.
^144 by ^9.
16.
^48 by </U. Wab' by ^96 bd

a^
8.
\7. V3
18. 19.
1^20.
by V2a.
by
V9.
10.
V7
by v^49.
V27^
V|
^36^.
-v/42^ by -v/56^.
-^^686
by 7||.
11. 12.
by by
-^63.
-^"25^.
^H
by V|.
V25^
21.
22. 23.
24.
\ 13.
14.
\/12^^ by A/r^.
by by
VH 7M
1.
by V?|.
Vi:^ by V5|.
by
^. ^.
V405 n^x.
15.
^S-
Vl5na;^ by
INVOLUTION OF SURDS
261.
Eaise v^l2 to the third

12^ ( 243)
povsêr.
(v^)8 =(12^)8 =
= 12^=VT2 = 2VS.
232
2.
ALGEBRA
Eaise
V2 to
(
the fourth power.

\/2y
(2^)4
= 2^ = W^= Vi^.
Then, to raise a surd to any positive integral power,

required power
If possible, divide the index of the surd by the exponent of the ; otherwise, raise the expression under the radical
sign to the required power.
The rules of 97 and 98 should be used to find the value of any product which comes under them.
3.
Expand
V6 - VS)^.
By 97,
(V6-V3)2 = (V6)2_2\/6 X V3+(\/3)2 = 6 - 2 V32 X 2 + 3 = 9 - 6 V2.

(4
4.
Expand
98,
+ -v^S) (4 - -J/5).
</5)
By
(4+ v^)(4i^
=42- (^5)2=16- v^, by
the above rule.
^\^
EXERCISE
:
III

1.
"
(^2/.
(y/4.x + 3yf.
6.
7.
(5a/5)2.
vll.
12.
(Sa'V2E0Vy.^.
(4^/729).
(7
/2. (Vey.
3.
(v/^^=^)^
^8. (^72^^)^
9.
13.
+ 2V2)2.
4.
(</32y.
//,'
(y/M^f.
(v/5)^
"V18.
V14.
Vl5.
(4V5-5)l
v5.
16.
17.
(V2î^y.
10.
(9V7-4Vll)2.
^/20.
'/
V19. (V5x + 2-V3x)\ (4Vi^ + 3V^^=3)(4Va-3Va^^).
(3V6 + 6V3)2. + SV'^^Tby. (4:V^r^ (6 + 6V2)(6-5V2).
21.
22.
(V2a; + 2/ + V2a;-2/)(V2a; + 2/-V2a;-y).
^'23.
25.
26.
+ 4V5a;-2)(5V3a; + 4-4V5-2). ^4 + 2V3x^4-2V3. '24. (^4 + ^9)(v'4--v/9). V3V5 + 2V7 X V3V5-2V7. Expand (2 V2 + V6 - V3)2, by the rule of 204.,
(5V3iB + 4
SURDS
EVOLUTION OF SURDS
262.
1.
233
Extract the cube root of y/27a^,
2.
Extract the
fifth root of
V6.
Then, to extract any root of a surd,

]
If possible, extract the '-equired root of the expression under the radical sign ; otherwise, multiply the index of the surd by the index of the required
root.
If the surd has a coefficient which is not a perfect power of the degree denoted by the index of the required root, it should be introduced under the radical sign ( 255) before applying the rule.
Thus,
v^(4V2) = ^(V32) =
\/2.
234
Ex.
ALGEBRA
Eeduce
- 3A
5
to
an equivalent fraction having a
rational denominator.
Multiplying both terms by y/9 a,
we have
5v^9^
\/3a^\/9a
\/27a8
</3a^
â
EXERCISE
113
Reduce
each, of the following to

:
an equivalent fraction hav^
ing a rational denominator

1.
A.
V5-
3.
-^.
</6a'
5.
V25
_
V27
.
4.
1
V49a;
6.
^^^ 6aty_
VSa^?/^^
ft 8.
-T
Vl2^
264. Case
II.
V4a26c*
a binomial contain-
When
the
denominator
is
ing only surds of the second degree.

1.
Reduce
_ to an equivalent fraction
having
Multiplying both terms by 5
V2, we
have
*
5+V2
2.
(6+V2)(5-V2)
25-2
^^
'
23
Reduce
^^ V 2Va 3Va 6
^^j^
equivalent fraction having
a rational denominator.
Multiplying both terms by 2\/a
3 Vg - 2Va 6
+ 3Va -
6,
2Va-3\/a-6
- 2V'^^^)(2Va + 3v^Î"6) (3 V^ (2Va - 3V^Î^)(2Va + 3Va^^)

6q
+ SVa Vo"^ - 6(a 4a-9(a-6)
5)
_ 6 & + SVa^ 96
ab
-5a
SURDS
235
:
We then have the following rule
Multiply both terms of the fraction by the denominator with the sign between its terms reversed.
EXERCISE
114
Keduce each of the following to an equivalent fraction having a rational denominator

:
"
^
2
V6 +
2
7
V^+Vy V^-V^
* 7^
3V5-V3 4V5 + 5V3

3^-V^^=3
V10-6V2
V10H-2V2
3V2
V^
m-\-Vn
10.
^g^
2V7H-3V3
2V7-3V3
13,
V9a2_2-3a V9a=^-2 + 3a
VVll + 3-VVll14.
236
Then
4
ALGEBRA
- \/3 - V7
^ 16 -(10 + 2\/2l) ^ 6 2\/21 ^ 3 V2l 6 + 4V3 12 + 8V3 4 + V3-V7 19 + 8\/3-7 4 V3, Multiplying both terms of the latter by 6
4 4
_ V3 _ V7
^ (3
- V2T) (6 - 4 V3)
3\/21
18
4.V3_V7 62-(4V3)2 - 6 V21 - 12\/3 4- 4 V63 - 9 + ^ - 12

also be solved
+ 6 V3 6
6\/7
'
The example may

fraction
by 4
- \/3 + V7,
or by 4
- >/3 - Vf,.
115
by multiplying both terms of the given
':^^
EXERCISE
Eeduce each of the following to an equivalent fraction having a rational denominator

:
1.
12
3.
2+V2 + V3
2
6
4
.
3+V5-V2*
The reduction
V5-V3-V2 V6+V3-3V2 V6-VB + 3V2'

denominator to an
of a fraction having an irrational
equivalent fraction having a rational denominator, when the denominator is the sum of a rational expression and a surd of the nth degree, or of two surds of the wth degree, will be found in 446.
is
266. The approximate value of a fraction whose denominator irrational may be conveniently found by reducing it to an
equivalent fraction with a rational denominator.
Ex.
Find the approximate value of

2 4-'v^
of decimals.
^ ~ ^^
to three places
_2+V2_2 +
4
1.414...
1.707
....
2-V2
(2-V2)(2H-\/2)
EXERCISE
116

1
to three places of decimals
4.
SURDS
237
4.
_A_.
23
^%,
V7-V2
V7 + V2 2V6 + V3 2V6-V3'
'
^-^^49
//5
f;
'
,7 *
4V5-5V3 4V5 + 5V3* 4 V7 + 7 V3

3V7-5V3*
(250)
rational
'
V5-3V2'
/^
PROPERTIES OF QUADRATIC SURDS
267.
quadratic surd cannot equal the

surd.
sum of a
expression and a quadratic
For,
if possible, let is
Va b-\- Vc,
where 6
surds.
a rational expression, and
Va
and
Vc
quadratic
Squaring both members, a

or,
Whence,
= b^-{-2 6 Vc + 2 6 Vc = a b^ a Wc Vc =
c.
c,
26
That is, a quadratic surd "equal to a rational expression. But this is impossible whence, Va cannot equal h -\- Vc.
;
268.
If
aH-V6 = c4-Vc?,
and
where a and
are rational ex-
pressions,
V6
and V<^ quadratic

a = c, and
surds, then
^b = ^/d.
ic
;
If
a does not equal
c,
let a
=c+
then, x
is
rational.
Substituting this value in the given equation,

c
+ + V6 = cH-Vc^,
ic
or
x-\-Vb=^/d.
But
this is impossible
Then, a
c,
by and therefore V&
267.
= V^.
269. If V a
expressions, then
+ -y/b = -y/x + Vy, where a, b, x, and y are rational Va V^ = Vic V^.

a -I-
Squaring both members of the given equation,
V5 = + 2y/xy + y.
a;
238
ALGEBRA
Whence, by
and
Subtracting,
268,
a^x + y, V6 = 2-\fxy. a V& = x 2^'xy + y.
Extracting the square root of both members,
V a V6
= Vie V^.
270. Square Root of a Binomial Surd.

principles may be used to find the square roots of certain expressions which are in the form of the sum of a rational expression and a quadratic surd.
The preceding
Ex.
Find the square root of 13
VlBO.
Assume,
SURDS
We
The
then separate 8 into two parts whose product
parts are 6
is 12.
239
and 2
-f
whence,
2
V8
2.
Vi8 = V6 + 2 Vl2 +
= V6 + V2.
Extract the square root of 22

3 \/32
into
;
- 3 V32.
=
2 \/72.
is 72.
We have,
The
= \/9
x 8 x 4
We then separate 22
two parts whose product

whence,
2\/72
parts are 18 and 4
V22-73V32 = V 18 -
= Vl8 - V4 = 3 V2 - 2.
117
Vh
V,.0
1.
^^
EXERCISE
Find the square roots of the following

15
+ 2V54.
7.
30-V500.
13-fVl68.
24
13.
14.
45-5V80.
34-fl2V8.
61
2. 3.
21-2V80.
8. 9.
53-2V52.
23
+ 2V140.
15. 16. 17.
+ 28V3.
;4.
>5.
6.
+ 6VI0.
10.
11. 12.
44-4V72.
53-V600.
38-10V13.
29 4-2V54.
19.
55- 20 V6.
55
60-5VI08.
54
+ 3V24.
20.
18.
+ 3Vi28.
^
4a-2V4a2--9.
4:(2x-y)
+ 2Vl5x'-12xy.
+3;K
Solution of Equations
having the
Unknown Numbers under
Radical Signs.
272.
1.
Solve the equation
Va^ 5 a; = 1.
Transposing
cc,
vx^
x^
=x = x^
1.
Squaring both members,

Transposing,
2 x
-\-
1.
2x =
6; whence, x
= 3.
(Substituting 3 for x in the given first member, and taking the positive value of the square root, the first member becomes
V 9^r5 -3 = 2-3 = -l;

which shows that the solution
oj
=3
is
correct.)
240
ALGEBRA
:
We
Transpose the terms of the equation so that a surd term may stand alone in one member ; then raise both members to a power
of the same degree as the surd. If surd terms still remain, repeat the operation.
The equation should be simplified as ing the invohition.

2.
much
as possible before perform-
Solve the equation
Transposing
Squaring,
V2x
1,
V2a; l-h V2fljH-6 = 7. \/2a; + 6 = 7 \/2 x 1.

2a;
Transposing,
Squaring,
14
\/2x
2x
+ 6 = 49-14A/2a;-l+2x 1 = 42, or v2 x 1 = 3.
1
=9
whence, x
5.
3.
Solve the equation Va?

x
2 -yjx =
Vaj-2
2 x
2 v x^
1.
Transposing,
Squaring,
Vx"^ 2 x = 3 x. x^ 2 x = 9 6 x +
x^.
Transposing,
(If
4x
= 9,
and x
q = -. 4
we put X =
-,
the given equation becomes
If
we take
the positive value of each square root, the above
is
not a true
equation.
But a square root may be taken as either positive or negative
and
if
we
take the negative value of

of (1)
-v/
and the positive value of -J -
the
first
member
becomes
3 ^
-,
or
then the solution x
or 2, and the second 9 -
member becomes
is
correct.)
~2
4.
Solve the equation
V2 3a; + Vl + 4a; = V3 +
a;.
SURDS
Squaring both members,
2
241
3X
-i-
V 2 - 3 X Vl + 4x + l + 4a; = 3 + x.
2
Whence,
*
V2 -3a;Vl + 4x =
^/2^^^Tx^/TTTx = 0.
(2
or,
Squarmg,
Solving as in 126,
- 3x)(l +
4x) =
0.
2-3x = 0, orx = 2 -;
H-4x = 0,
EXERCISE
118
and
or x
-|.
Solve the following equations:
^1. V4a; +
:
2.
3.
l+5 = 0. -^7aj-8-2 = -6.

Vl6"^Tl-4aj = 3.
^8a^ + 36a;2-3 = 2ir.
V5.
6.
7.
V + V + 9 = -2.
V3-2-V3T=l.
Va;
+ 13- Va7-5 = 3.
v4.
8.
V5a;-19- V5a;+14=-3.
yo
Va;
v^
+4
J^ = V3-2a?. V3-2a;
10.
-= =
-:'
11.
Va; 5 4-Va;=
Vl2. V6a;-V6a;-ll
=
V6a;-ll
10
13.
V2s-V2s + 5 =
Vic 3
V27+5
-^cu^-r^-
4.-
14.
V^+~21 = 2 V^.
2Vl + 2a;-5
V
^
V 15.
3VTT2^ + 4_ VTT2^ + 6
6Vl4-2a;-l
-
17.
.c lb.
3Vaj4-4_3Va;4-5 1=
5V-2 5Va;-3
;=::
V2 a -a; + V2 a + _^ * V2 a-x-V2 a-\-x

a;
-
242
18.
ii'19.
ic
ALGEBRA
20.
V2n V n = 3Vn. - 4 + Va^ - 3 + 1 = 5. -y/x" + 7 y/x-2a+^x =

iK ic a;
1U^'^^.'4-
Vic
2ct
i
v21.
22.
23.
24.
+ + V + 2 a = V4 4- 5 a. Va-a;+V6-a; = V2a + 26. Va;4-v5-2a; = V5

Va;
ic
a;.
V4a;-3-V3a;-l=V7a;-4.
V4i)
25.
26.
- Vp - 8 = VOj? - 83. Va; 2 a Va; 6 a = 2 Va; 5 a.

4- 1
27. 28.
V(3a + V3aa; + a^=V^-V3a.
29.
'30.
V+V4a4-a;=V46 + 4a;. V2 aa; + & + V2 - 6 = 2 V2 aa; - 3 &. Va + V6 = Va + 6 2

a; a;
a;.
31.
32. 33.
+ 4& = V5aj + 5a + 4 6. V2a;-l+V3a; + 2 = V3a;-2-)-V2a^4-3.

V2a; + 5a + V3a;
V2a;
+ 5 + V3a5-2=V(5aj + 3+V24aj2_^15).
IMAGINARY NUMBERS
(XÛ
-vmK
''^^^'^
273. It
is
number;
for
impossible to find an even root of a negative no number when raised to an even power can
( 96).
is
produce a negative result
An
Imaginary Number
;
number
as
2,
or
an indicated even root of a negative

3.
In contradistinction, rational and irrational numbers are called reed numbers.

274. An imaginary number of the form pure imaginary number, and an expression a + &V 1 a complex number.
248)
V a
of
is
called a
the
form
SURDS
275. Meaning of a Pure Imaginary Number.
243
as an expression such real ( 273), we define raised to the second power, the result is a ( 206). that, To find what meaning to attach to a pure imaginary number,
If
is
Va
Va
when
we assume
the above principle to hold
when
Va
is
imaginary.
raised to that, Thus, the second power, the result is 2 that is, (V 2)^ = 2. In like manner, (V 1)^ = 1 etc.
;
V 2
means an expression such

;
when
OPERATIONS WITH IMAGINARY NUMBERS

276.
Also,
By
275,
(V^'= (
5.
(1)
(2)
From
(V5V^2 = (V5)2(V^2^5(-l)=-5. = (V5 V^l (1) and (2), V^'
Whence,
V 5=V5V V
the imaginary unit;
1.
Then, every imaginary square root can he expressed as the 1., product of a real number by
1 is called
it is
usually represented
by
i,
277. Addition and Subtraction
of
Pure imaginary numbers may

the same
1.
Imaginary Numbers. be added and subtraxited in
manner
as surds.
Add
276,
V-4 and V^^36.

x/ir4+v^Z^=:2V^ + 6V=3=8'
By
2.
Subtract 3
- V-9
from 1
+ V- 16.
In adding or subtracting complex numbers, we assume that the rules for adding or subtracting real numbers may be applied without change.
Then,
+ V^^Tie _(3 _ ^179)= i + 4V^n: - 3 + 3a/^ = _2 + 7V^T.

EXERCISE
119

1.
V^ +
V^^^25.
>
2.
v:r54-V-45.
244
3.
ALGEBRA
f^
""
4.
V^27-V-12. m i IL 6. V-64 + V-100 + V-121. V-(a; + l)'-V-ar^. 7. 2V-16-5V-49 + 3V-81.

...
\r''
^^^
.9. V^r24-V^=^4-V^^^.
10.
V-a'-2a-l-V-a2 + 2a-l.
Add Add
5
11. 12.
13.
14.
+ V^^^
to 3
+ \/"^^16.
1-V349.
J
,
/H
6-V^^
to
Subtract 2
Subtract
+ V^^ from 8-V^25. 4-V-81 from 7+V^==^,
278. Positive Integral Powers of
V 1.
By 275,
Then,
(V=^)^ = -l.
(V^ri)3 =
(V3T)2x VZTi
=(_i)xV3i = _v3ij
etc.
(V=^)^=(V^)^x(V:^)^ = (-i)x(-i) = i; = 1 xV^=V^:^; (V^riy = (V3T)4x
v^
Thu s,
the
first
and 1; and for higher powers these terms recur in the same order.
1,
1,
V 1,
four positive integral powers of
V 1
are
279. Multiplication
of
Imaginary Numbers.
two or more imaginary square roots can be obtained by aid of the principles of 276 and 278.
of
1.
The product
Multiply
V^^
by
V"^.
By 276, V^::2x\/::3
= x/2VZlx\/3\/3T
= V2V3(V:n:)2 = V6(-l) (278)=-V6.
^
''
245
SURDS
2.
'-%and
Multiply together
V-9, V-16,
V-25.
3.
Multiply 2
+ 5V^5
by
4-3V^^.
In multiplying complex numbers, we assume that the rules for multiplying real numbers may be applied without change.
2+5' 4-38
+ 20V- 5 _ 6V^l
15(-5)
8
4.
14
V- 5
75
83
+ UV^.
Expand
(V^^ + 2V^^)' by
the rule of
97.
2 =( + 4 V5 V^T X V3 V^^ + 4 ( V'^2 ( -v/ZTs + 2 \/^)2 = - 6 + 4vl5(\/^^)2 + 4(- 3) = - 5 - 4 VT5 - 12 = - 17 - 4Vl5.
V^
EXERCISE
^1.
120
2.
3.
V-3 by V-5. V^^^ by -V^=^.

_ V-81aj2by -V-121x2.
_V^ri5
9.
5. 6.
7.
V-14
5
by
V-56.
-V^^^HT by -V^^45.
4.
by
V-6.
8.
3V^^-2V^
8V-"7-7V"=^
by
10. 11. 12. 13.
by
+ 4 V^^ by 2 - 3 V=^. 6 + V-3 by 7 + 4V^3. 9V^^ + 6V^. V^^-5V^=^.

-V^^^Tgi.
V^=^^ V^^^4F, and -V'=^^9^.
V^,
-V^^27, and
by
V-274-V-18
Si4.
15.
,
2V^^-V^6
V^=l6,
by V^:ri4 + 4V^^.
and V^ÎOO.
16.
^ V^ V-3, -V-6,
V^=^, V=^64,
and
-V-10.
~~
246
ALGEBRA
the following by the rules of 97, 98:
20.
Expand
17.
(5
4-V^l
(3V-5-2V-2)2.
21.
(7+2V^(7-2V^.
(^/^^ + b){V^^-b).
19.
(4V^^ + 3V^)l
24.
25.
22.
(8V^=2
+ 3- :r5)(8AA=^-3V'=^). (3V^:^+V^^ + (3V^=^-V^^.

following by the rules of
Expand the
^26.
28.
205
(1-V^^.
Expand
27. (2 + V"=5). - V=^ - 2 V^S)^ by the rule of 204. (3 V^^
280. Division of Imaginary Numbers.

1.
Divide
276,
V-40
-5
By
V^^^^lO
V-5. V40 V^^ \/40 vsv^n V5

by
\/8
= 2\/2.
2.
Divide
Vl5 by
V^.
( 278)
\/l5
^ -VT5(-l) ^ -\/l5(V^
= - vs \/^n; = - \/^.
3.
Reduce
V3-V^:^
to
V3+V-2
real denominator.
an equivalent fraction having a
We
sign between
multiply both terms of the fraction by the denominator with the its terms reversed 2, multiplying both terms by VS
;
V3+V'32
(V3)2-(V^r2)2
_ (V3)2-2V3
V^+(^
6
2)2
3-(-2) 3-2\/ir6-2 _ l-2\/^r6 _

3
(97)
+2
SURDS
EXERCISE
Divide the following :
^1.
121
247
V^=35 by V^^.
by V^=r3. by
7.
4.
"5.
-V^Qxy
by ^2yz.
^. -V48
^3.
Vi80 by -V^ÎO.
V=^
6. -Vi32 by -V^=^. -V-8. V343-V-63 by V - 288 - V300 by - V- 6.
each_of_ilie following to an equivalent fraction hava real denominator ing
Eeduce
9.
11.
1-V10.
3V-3-2V-6 3V-3+2V-6
2V:^ + 7V^3 4V^=^-3V^^
and a
6
3-V3+
12.
281. The complex numbers a

called Conjugate.
+ 6 V 1
V 1 are
We have
Also,
+ 6 V^^) + (a - 6 V^l) = 2 a. - 6 V^^) (a 4- & V^^) X (a

(a
= a^ Hence,
are real.
the
62<(
V'^)2 = a2 + 52 (
275).
sum and product of two
conjugate complex numbers
248
ALGEBRA
XIX.
282.
QUADRATIC EQUATIONS
A Quadratic Equation is an equation of the second degree with one or more unknown numbers. A Pure Quadratic Equation is a quadratic equation involving only the square of the unknown number as, 2 a^ = 5.
( 83),
;
An
Affected Quadratic Equation is a quadratic equation involvfirst
ing both the square and the
power of the unknown number

forms
c
2is,2x'-3x-5 = 0.
In
126,
we showed how
to solve quadratic equations of the
ax^
bx
= 0,
ax^
+ c = 0,
x^-\-ax
+ b = 0,
and ax^-{-bx +
= 0,
when
the
first
members could be
resolved into factors.
PURE QUADRATIC EQUATIONS

283. Let
it
be required to solve the equation

052
=4
Taking the square root of each member, we have
x=2',
But the equations x = 2 and x= 2 are the same as x = 2 and x = 2, respectively, with all signs changed. We then get all the values of x by equating the positive square
root of the first
for the square root of a
number may be
either
or
( 208).
member
to
the square root of the second.
pure quadratic equation may be solved by reducing necessary, to the form x^ a, and then equating ic to the square root of a ( 283).
284.
if
it,
1.
Solve the equation 3 a^
+7=
12
a;2
+
28
x^
35.
+
.7
= =
5 x^
140.
112, or x^
16.
Equating x to
the square root of 16, x
= 4.
QUADRATIC EQUATIONS
2.
249
Solve the equation 7
oc^
5=5
2
oc^
IS.
=
8,
a;^
or
a;2
= _ 4,
Equating x to
db
the square root of
4,
a;
= V 4 = 2\/^
;
(276).
In this case, both values of x are imaginary ( 274) it is impossible to find a real value of x which will satisfy the given equation.
satisfy the given equation
In solving fractional quadratic equations, any solution which does not must be rejected. Thus, let it be required to solve the equation
x2-7
x^-\-x-2
x
+2 +
x-1
2)
(aj
Multiplying both members by (x
1), or x^
a;
2,
x^-7 = x-l-x-2,
The
or
a:2
= 4.
the only
Extracting square roots, x=2. solution oj = 2 does not satisfy by the given equation
is
solution
2.
EXERCISE
1.
:
122
2a;2
+ 27 = 7a^-53.
3.
2.
A_15- = _?.
4a;2
3^
5(2x-3)+2aj(4a; + l)=12a;-7.
2(3a;-5)2
9
4.
+ 3(x+10)2 = 434.
^g
'
3
6.
9.
4:x
Ax
6-V5ar^-9 = 12.
(2
a; -j-
V?^^
aj a;
7) (5
a;
- 6)- 24 = (4 a;- 3) (7 + 5) -59.

1
14*
10
4^^
+
7
8f^-l ^
2
^j
3a a;-56
a; + 56 ^^ 3a + 106
250
Vil2.
ALGEBRA
*
7
13.
14
35
(x-{-a){x-\-b)-{-{x-a)(x-b)=x' + a^-{-bK
14.
3V^+1+V3a^ + 7 = 1.
lOa^-3
18
gc
15.
5x^-i-6 9
(A:
6a^-l 9x'-2
(A;
16.
+ 1) (k - 2)
4a;^
- 3) 2x^
- 1)
l.
(A;
+ 2)
(A;
+ 3) = - 52.
^17. 2a;V^^+3-2Wa;2 + 2 =
18
3a;^-4
+3
+ 12 ^-^
' '
19
'
+ 3a^-l ^ + 3 ^q ^--x2_^x-S^^ x-2 x+3 + l 2ar^-5* _ y^ = a(l + V3). 21. Va' + ax +.aj2 + Va^ - aa; + (^
a;^
a;^
2a;^-5a;2
a;^
22
_1
x
+3
x-5
^^-17
0^-2x^15
/\
>
{^
//''
i^^
^.
^^
/
AFFECTED QUADRATIC EQUATIONS

285. First Method
of
^^
^^
/
V* By transposing the terms involving x to the first member, and all other terms to the second, and then dividing both members
by the coefficient of reduced to the form
x^,
Completing the Square.
any affected quadratic equation can be
x^-{-
px = q.
We
make
Ex.
then add to both members such an expression as will

the
first
member a
is
trinomial perfect square ( 111)

the square.
an
operation which
termed completing
a?
+ 3 = 4.
trinomial is a perfect square when its first and third terms are perfect squares and positive, and its second term plus or minus twice the product of their square roots ( 111).
Then, the square root of the third term is equal to the second term divided by twice the square root of the first.
QUADRATIC EQUATIONS
261
to a^ -{-3x to
Hence, the square root of the expression which must be added make it a perfect square is 3 a) -^ 2 o^, or -|. to both members the square of f we have Adding
,
a^
+ 3x+ (1)2 = 4 + 1 = ^5-.

first
Equating the square root of the

root of the second (compare
283),
member to we have
the square
Transposing
f,
a;
= f + |or f J = lor 4.
:
We

the equation to the
Reduce
form
op^
-{-px
q.
members
the square of
Complete the squai-e, by

one-half the coefficient of x.
adding
to both
Equate the square root of the first member to the square root of the second, and solve the linear equations thus formed.
286.
1.

3,
aj^
8 x = 4.
Dividing by
a;2_^^_|,
x"^
which
is
in the
form
+px=:q.
4
of -,
Adding
to both
members the square
we have
\3y/
first
9
to
Equating the square root of the
member
the square root
Transposing
-|,
||
2or|.
term must
If the coefficient of x^ is negative, the sign of each
be changed.
2.
Solve the equation
9 a^ 21 = 10.
a;
Dividing by
9,
x2
^ = -^9
o
252
ALGEBRA
QUADRATIC EQUATIONS
If the coefficient of o^
is
253
it
not a perfect square,
may be made
so
by multiplication.
2.
Solve the equation 8 ar'

2,
15 = 2.
a;
16 x^
30 = 4.
a;
Adding
to both
members
the square of
2x4
16
16x^-30x +
(^y
15 4
225^ = 4 + ?^ = ^.
16
17 - 4
Extracting square roots, 4 x
- =
4
Then,
4a;
==
4
8 or
-1, and x =
2
2 or
-i.
4
If the coefficient of x^ is
negative, the sign of each term must be
changed.
EXERCISE
1.
:
124
4a;2_7a; = -3.
9a^
8.
'
36 a;^
- 36 = 7.
or
2.
3. 4. 5. 6.
7.
+ 22a; = -8. 16a^-8a; = 35. 8a^-f-10a^ = 3. 3x2-8a; = 3.

18x2_5^^2.
25a;2
9.
\2x^-^x=^\.
49;i2
10.
11.
/12.
13. 14.
+ 49 7i4-10 = 0. 64 x^ + 15 = 64 12 = 23e-5e2.
a;.
28a;-32x2_3^0.
25a;
+ 15aj = 4.
= -50aj2-2.
form
288. Second Method of Completing the Square.
Every
a'y?
+ 6aj + c = 0,
affected quadratic equation can be reduced to the or a^ -\-hx c.
Multiplying both members by 4
a,
we have
4 0^7? + 4 ahx =
4 ac.
We complete the square by adding to both members the square

of
~-
( 287), or 6.
254
Then,
4a
ALGEBRA
V + 4 ahx +
Extracting square roots,

Transposing,
^ 52 _ 4 ^^^ 2ax-{-b = \b^ 4 ac. 2ax = b V&^ 4 ac.

52
Whence,
x
following rule
=
:
=^^
2a
6ic
We then have the

Reduce
the equation to the
form
ax^
-f-
c.
of ic^, and Multiply both members by four add to each the square of the coefficient of x in the given equation.
times the coefficient
The advantage
of this
method over the preceding
is
in
avoiding fractions in completing the square.*

1.
Solve the equation 2a^ 7ic Multiplying both members by 4 x 2, or
= 3.
8,
16a;2-56a:=-24.
Adding
to both
members
16x2
the square of
72 7
7,
- 56x +
-
=- 24 + 49 = 25.
= =
7
5.
Extracting square roots, 4 x
Then,
4x
12 or
2,
and x
= 3 or
i.
may
If the coefficient of x in the given equation is even, fractions be avoided, and the rule modified, as follows
:
Multiply both members by the coefficient of

the square
2.
x^,
and add
to
each
of half the
coefficient
of x in the given equatimi.
Solve the equation 15 a^^ _^ 28 a; = 32. Multiplying both members by 15, and adding to each the square
152x2
of 14,
15 (28 X)
+ +
142
480
196
676
Extracting square roots, 15x
14
= =
26.
Then,
15 x
=-
14
26
12 or
- 40,
and x
=6
or
- -
3
The method
is
of completing the square exemplified in the present section
called the
Hindoo Method.
QUADRATIC EQUATIONS
EXERCISE
^ 1.
2.
:
255
125
x\7x=18.
3aj2-2x = 40.
9.
12x'-llx = -2.
10.
-3.
4.
4:x'-3x = 10.
11. 12.
13.
14.
6x'-13x = -6. 2r2-15r + 25 = 0.
4.x^-8x = 4.5.
5.
^.
7.
V8.
= 3. 9a^ + 18aj = -8. 9x2 + 4iK = 5. 7g2 + 20g = -12.

8a;2
4.2a;
15.
16.
+ 26x-\-7 = 0. 5a;2+ 48 = -32a;. 13x = 10a;2-3. 3 = 6a;2 + 17a;. 27i-9 -8a^ = 0.

15x'
289. Solution of Affected Quadratic Equations by Formula.

It follows
from
288 that,
if
ax^ -{-bx-{-G
= 0,
t^,^^^^
Sv^^w^^^
(1)
then
^^ -6V6--4 ac.
may be used
as a
This result
affected quadratic equation in the

1.
formula for the solution of any form ax^-{-bx-^c = 0.
0. 5 a? 18 Solve the equation 2 cc^ Here, .a = 2, 6 = 5, and c = 18 substituting

;
in (1),
_5i:V25 +
4
2,
144
^ -5 13 ^^
4
a;
P^
9 2
Solve the equation
5
=
3
;
a?^
+ 1 4 + 3 = 0.
14
Here, a
=
^
6,
=
14
14, c
J:
substituting in (1),
V196
60
-10
16 ^ -10
a^
1
^j.
3.
a;^
_ 21 = 1.
then,
Here, a
= 110,
^
= - 21,
j-
21
V441
220
- 440
^ 21zbl ^ i.
220
10
or J-.
11*
Particular attention must be paid to the signs of the coefficients in
making the
substitution.
256
ALGEBRA
EXERCISE
126
Solve the following by formula

1.
2.
3. 4.
5.
6.
7.
8. 40- 17a;-5a^ = 0. a;2_i2a;-f-32 = 0. 9- 36y + 36p = -5. a^ + 7a;-30 = 0. ^r'"" 2a;2-3a;-20 = 0. H^.^' 10. SOa;^ + l = -17a;. 3x'-x-4. = 0. t -/ ^11- -19a; = 8iK2_^6. 4a;2-5a;-21 = 0^ 3^-7 1^- 15 + 22 - 48 = 0. -^ 13. 15a^H-26a; = - 8. 20a;2 + a;-l = 0. .^. 9a,-2-18a; + 8 = 0. ^ ,, 14. 37a; = 6a^ + 6.
a;
ar^
EXERCISE
127
The following miscellaneous equations may be solved by either of the preceding methods, preference being given to the one best adapted to the
example under consideration. In solving any fractional equation, we reject any solution which does not satisfy the given equation. (Compare last example, 284.)
1.
^
6a;
13
9a;2
1
18*
4
5.
A4_l^ = _l.
^r
6.
7.
= (4a;-l)2-14. (3a; + 2)(2a;-3) = (2a; + 5)l a;(5.T + 22)+35

(x
+ 4)(2a;-l) + (2a;-l)(3a; + 2) = (3a; + 2)(4a;-l)-49.
x
9
12.
13.
14.
(?
2x
'
5 a;8
a;
+ 3 d + 4 ^3 6a;H-5 ^ 4a; + 4 j^ d-2 d 2 4a;-3~ a;-3 + l)(a; + 3) = 12 4-(a5 4-7)V2. V5a;2-3a;-41 = 3a;-7. 3a; 4-5a; _ ~ 4-5a; 3a; = 217. -4)3 -(a; + 3)3
*
(a;
5
6*
(a;
QUADRATIC EQUATIONS
16.
257
17.
+ 11 =V3-fl + 2. V754-8- V5s-4 = 2.

V5a;
19.
18.
x2
aj
+S
0^
x + 4. x3
V8a^-35a;2+55a;-57
4
2x-Z.
^x-\
21
2a;
_^
4
'
22
'
28(3
+ 10)
1
a^
25
Saf-27
1
=0.
14
a;(2x-3)
+l
24.
3ir-2 ^17
2a;
3a;-2
+l
1
23.
x'-Sx
15
+4
a?
15
a;^
a;-2
5
7x
24(a; + 2)
a^-4
25.
2^4-3
26.
+ 3?;-4
.
8v2_i3^
6
v^
64
+ V - 12
r
l
1/ 1 3V4a:-l
2V3.T + 4
2J
\3a; +
3 8
27.
+ 3V3a; + 7 =
V3a; + 4
28.
2a^-4a;-3 ^ a^-4a; + 2
2x^-2x-\-3
x^-3x-\-2
.
29.
2
_4
3(x + 2)
+ 2-a;
.
30.
J^^+J^^ = ^, \x-\-5^ylx-^4t 2
V2 + 2V2a; + 5 = 2V6a; + 4. V8x4-7 = V4a; + 3 + V2a;H-2. V2a;2 + 7a;4-7 = 6-V2a^-9x-l. V6-5a; + V2-7x = Vl2 + 6a;.
x1 XZ x6
3.
31.
32.
33.
34.
(Compare Ex.
Q/j
1,
167.)
X2 x
x-\-2 x-\-S
4:
X = -1. x6
XV
258
g-
ALGEBRA
X X
38.
X\_y?-\-X
\.
x^
X x+2
a;
39
+4
X
first
x_ _ x^-\-2x~2 + 3~~x^-\-5x-{-6' X x5 x _q x5 X +4 X
fractions,
(First
combine the
two
and then the
last
two.)
290. Solution of Literal Affected Quadratic Equations.
For the solution of literal affected quadratic equations, the methods of 288 are usually most convenient.
1.
-\-
ax bx ab
b)x =
= 0.
x^^
We may write the equation x^ ah. Multiplying both members by 4 times the coefficient of
4ic2
-{-(a
h)x
+ 4(a+ (a -
Adding
to both
members
4(a
the square of a
&)2
= âb. b,
=
=
4 a6
ic2
b)x
a2
2 a6
62.
b'^
Extracting square root,

Or,
2 x + (a
a2 + 2 a& + = (a + b). b)
2ic
*
= -(a-6)(a +
6).
Then,
or
2x=:-a + b + a + b = 2b, 2x = a + b-a-b = -2a.'

a;
Whence,
If several
6 or
-a.
terms contain the same power of x, the coefficient of that power should be enclosed in parentheses, as shown in Ex. 1.
thus,
The above equation can be solved more easily by the method by 108, the equation may be written
ix
of 126
Then,
+ a)(x-b)=0. x + a = 0,
6 = 0,
w
or x or
a;
= =
6.
a;
and
QUADRATIC EQUATIONS
Several equations in Exercise 128
259
may
be solved most easily by the
method
2.
of 126.
Solve the equation (m Multiplying both members by
1) y? 2 m^x = 4cm^.
w
l)a:
1,
and adding
to both the square
of m2,
(m - 1)%2 _
2 TYi^^m
+ w* = 4 7rfi{m - 1) + m* = m* 4 m^ + 4 m\
Extracting square root,
(m V)x m^ = (m^ 2m).

or
Then,
(w
l)x
= m^ {- m^ 2 m = 2m(TO 1) or =2m
or
m^
m^ -{ 2 m
2 m.
Whence,
^. m
1
In solving any fractional equation, not satisfy the given equation.
we
reject
any solution which does
EXERCISE
:
128
X 1.
2.
/^,
= 1 m^. xP 2ax = 6a-\-9. b) X = ab. x^ (a

a^ 4-
2 mic
y 4.
^5.
,6.
oc^ -{
-}-
n. x^ m^nx mn^x = m^n^. 40 a. a^ 4 ao; 10 :^

nx -{- x =
-\ic
^
S.
6x'-\-âx-15bx = 10ab.
amx^
anx bmx
-{-
bn
= 0.
>9. V^+^-V2^=-^^yil.
(a
/lO.
^'^
+ x)3 + (6 -a;)3 =( + &)'. = x-U. yi2. ^(a + 2b)x-2ab mIS. (a^-a-2)x^-(5a-l)x = -6.. (w p) = 0. y^4. 0^ (m p) + (m = -2a. ^15. (a + &)aj'+(3a-U6)aj /16. (ft4-c)ir^-(a + c)aj = 6-a.
ic
'
'^"^
'
7i)
260
Vic
Vic
ALGEBRA
^^j^7. 5^
/
18. 19.
Voj + a a + v2a! + 3a = V5a.
+ a + 2Vx + 6a
16 a
X
a
+6
a;
a^
20.
ahx
^
x-\-a
21.
\ c + x-\-o c = 2.
22
23.
^^ ^^
Sx-\-n
ci'cXl
+ a;)2
3a; + n ^ 10^ 2x Sn 3 _ ^y ^ 0.
62(|2^-L
,24.
a;'-!
4a6
Vma; + VCm
^^^
2a;
+ l ^ 2n + l
n) + m?i = 2 m. ^~^ ^ + ^ 3= a^ 5 g^ ^^-^ *i<^ ^ i>-o.^ CV^ V 27. 'rc + aa; (Xic^ a^ 4 g^ 3a; 2a _ 21 ^ + _ 1^ -/< V 28 3g 3a; + g 6a;2 7ga; 3g2 2 T <u\ 6 + c)aj = -a-264-c. + 2c)a;2_(2a + ^3j9. (g-&
26.
a; eta;
'
a;
30.
^ l^g
-^ + lt^ + i = a M-\-h
a;
0.
g-f
PROBLEMS IN PHYSICS
Iowing equations
Solve in the
first
occur in the study of physics.
six equations for the
number which appears
to the
second power.
^-
1.
St^\gt\
3.
F='^-
-^^^^
iJ
2.
E^^mvK
s=cm.
6.
= M.
QUADRATIC EQUATIONS
7.
261
Solve the following equation for

g-,
= ttV-V^t-^-^
gt^.
8. 9.
t\
S=

;
V=^2gs.
;
In problem 1 solve for g in problem 7 solve for I in in problem problem 2 solve for m in problem 4 solve for
10.
;
6 solve for
l.
PROBLEMS INVOLVING QUADRATIC EQUATIONS WITH ONE UNKNOWN NUMBER

291. In solving problems which involve quadratic equations, there will usually be two values of the unknown number only those values should be retained which satisfy the conditions of
;
the problem.
1.
A man
as the
watch cost
sold a watch for $21, and lost as many per cent dollars. Find the cost of the watch.
X x
Let
Then,
= number of dollars the the per cent of loss,
watch
cost.
and
X X -^, or
100
the conditions,
= number
100
of dollars lost.
By
-^^ 100
2\.
Solving,
= 30
or 70.
^ ;
Then, the cost of the watch was either $ 30 or $ 70 answers satisfies the conditions of the problem.
2.
for either of these
farmer bought some sheep for $ 72. If h^ had bought for the same money, they would have ddfet him f 1 How many did he buy ? apiece less.
6
more
Let
n n
= number bought.
Then,
72 = number of dollars paid for one,
and
72
^
"^
=
^
number
of dollars paid forg)ie
if
there
had been 6 more.
262
ALGEBRA
the conditions,
72 =
By
72
+6
h 1.
Solving,
18 or
24.
Only the positive value is admissible, for the negative value does not satisfy the conditions of the problem.
Therefore, the
number
of sheep
was
18.
words "6 more" had been " 1 $ apiece less" to "|1 apiece more," we changed to "6 fewer," and should have found the answer 24.
If, in the enunciation of the problem, the
3. If 3 times the square of the number of trees in an orchard be increased by 14, the result equals 23 times the number find the number.
;
Let
X
the conditions,
By
Sx^-\-14
a;
= number = 23x. =
7 or |.
of trees.
Solving,
Only the
first
value of x
is
admissible, for the fractional value does not

is 7.
satisfy the conditions of the problem.
Then, the number of trees
4. If the square of the number of dollars in a man's assets equals 5 times the number increased by 150, find the number.
Let
X
the conditions,
cc^
= number = =
5
aj
of dollars in his assets.
By
150.
Solving,
15 or
10.
This means that he has assets of $
15, or liabilities of
$ 10.
EXERCISE
1.
2.
129
What number added
to its reciprocal gives
2^?
Divide the number 24 into two parts such that twice the square of the greater shall exceed 5 times the square of the
less
3.
by
45.
Find three consecutive numbers such that the sum of
their squares shall be 434.
QUADRATIC EQUATIONS
4.
263 and the

differ-
Find two numbers whose difference
is 7,
ence of their cubes 721.

5.
Find
the
first
five consecutive numbers such that the quotient of by the second, added to the quotient of the fifth by
the fourth, shall equal ^|.

6.
Find four consecutive numbers such that
if
the
sum
of
the squares of the second and fourth be divided b}^ the sum of the squares of the first and third, the quotient shall be i|.
7. The area of a certain square field exceeds that of another square field by 1008 square yards, and the perimeter of the greater exceeds one-half that of the smaller by 120 yards.
Find the side of each

8.
field.
train,
A fast train runs 8 miles an hour faster than a slow and takes 3 fewer hours to travel 288 miles. Find the
its
rates of the trains.

9. The perimeter of a rectangular field is 180 feet, and area 1800 square feet. Find its dimensions.
i^
10.
per cent as the goods cost dollars.

u-
merchant sold goods for $22.75, and lost as many What was the cost ?
merchant sold two pieces of cloth of different quality He received for the 105, the poorer containing 28 yards. finer as many dollars a yard as there were yards in the piece
11.
for
and 7 yards of the poorer sold for as much as 2 yards of the Find the value of each piece. finer.
12.
A
A
merchant sold goods for $

has five-fourths as
is
65.25,
and gained as many

the cost ?
per cent as the goods cost dollars.

13.
What was
much money as B. After giving equal to A's multiplied by a fraction whose numerator is 15, and whose denominator is the number of dolHow much had each at first ? lars A had at first.
$
6,
B's
money
A and B set out at the same time from places 247 miles and travel towards each other. A's rate is 9 miles an apart, hour; and B's rate in miles an hour is less by 3 than the number of hours at the end of which they meet. Find B's rate.
14.
264
ALGEBRA
15. man buys a certain number of shares of stock, paying for each as many dollars as he buys shares. After the price has advanced one-fifth as many dollars per share as he has shares, he sells, and gains $ 980. How many shares did
he buy
16.
The two
the
square of
digits of a number differ by 1; and if the number be added to the square of the given
number with
number.
17.
its digits
reversed, the
sum
is
585.
Find the
gives
persons.
112, in equal amounts, to a certain number of gives the same sum, in equal amounts, to 14 more
persons, and gives to each
$4
less
than A.
How much
does
give to each person ?

18.
The telegraph
intervals.
If the intervals
poles along a certain road are at equal between the poles were increased by
mile.
22
feet, there
would be 8 fewer in a
How many
are
there in a mile ?
19. A merchant bought a cask of wine for $ 48. Having lost 4 gallons by leakage, he sells the remainder at $ 2 a gallon above cost, and makes a profit of 25% on his entire outlay.
How many
gallons did the cask contain ?
20. The men in a regiment can be arranged in a column twice as long as it is wide. If their number were less by 224, they could be arranged in a hollow square 4 deep, having in each outer side of the square as many men as there were in
the length of the column.
Find the number of men.
21. The denominator of a fraction exceeds twice the numerator by 2, and the d,ifference between the fraction and its Find the fraction. reciprocal is ||.
walk 3 miles, intending to arrive at a After walking a mile, he was detained 10 minutes, and was in consequence obliged to walk the rest of the way a mile an hour faster. Find his original speed.
22.
A man
started to
certain time.
QUADRATIC EQUATIONS
265
23. A regiment, in solid square, has 24 fewer men in front than v/hen in a hollow square 6 deep. How many men are there in the regiment ?
24.
long.
The
rectangular field is surrounded by a fence 160 feet cost of this fence, at 96 cents a foot, was one-tenth
dollars as there are square feet in the area of the
field.
as
many
field.
Find the dimensions of the
25. A tank can be filled by one pipe in 4 hours less time than by another and if the pipes are open together li hours, the tank is filled. In how many hours can each pipe alone fill
;
it ?
Interpret the negative answer.
crew can row down stream 18 miles, and back again, Their rate up stream is IJ miles an hour less in 7^ hours. than the rate of the stream. Find the rate of the stream, and
26.
of the crew in
27.
still
water.
A man
rate of interest.
put $ 5000 into a savings-bank paying a certain At the end of a year, he withdrew $ 375, leav-
At the end of another year, the ing the remainder at interest. amount due him was $ 4968. Find the rate of interest.
A square garden has a square plot of grass at the censurrounded by a path 4 feet in width. The area of the garden outside the path exceeds by 768 square feet the area of the path and the side of the garden is less by 16 feet than Find the dimensions of the three times the side of the plot.
28.
tre,
;
garden.
merchant has a cask full of wine. He draws out 6 and fills the cask with water. Again he draws out 6 There are now 25 galgallons, and fills the cask with water. How many gallons does the lons of pure wine in the cask.
29.
gallons,
cask hold ?
30.
and
sell
a quantity of corn for

If
f 22,
selling 10
bushels more than B.

did,
had sold
;
as
many
bushels as
he would have received $ 8 while if B had sold as bushels as A did, he would have received f 15. How bushels did each sell, and at what price ?
many many
266
31.
ALGEBRA
employed to do a certain piece of work. and the second, who works 6 fewer If the second had worked all the time, and days, receives $ 27. the first 6 fewer days, they would have received equal amounts. How many days did each work, and at what wages ?
are
Two men
The
first
receives
$ 48
carriage-wheel, 15 feet in circumference, revolves in If it revolved in a time longer of seconds. one second, the carriage would travel 14400 fewer feet in by an hour. In how many seconds does it revolve ?
32.
a certain
number
PROBLEMS IN PHYSICS
1.
When
a body falls from rest from any point above the
earth's surface, the distance, S, which it traverses in any ber of seconds, t, is found to be given by the equation
num-
which g represents the velocity which the body acquires The value of g is 32.15 feet, or 980 centiin one second.
in
meters.
stone fell from a balloon a mile high elapsed before it reached the earth ?
2.
how much time
If a body is
thrown downward with an

t
initial velocity, Vq,
then the space it passes over in by the equation
seconds
is
found to be given
S = Vot-îgf.
If the stone mentioned in Problem 1 had been thrown down from the balloon with a velocity of 40 feet per second, how many seconds would have elapsed before it reached the earth ?
3.
In the equation
= 7r\/-,
represents the time required
by a pendulum to make one vibration, I represents the length of the pendulum, and g is the same as in Problem 1. Find the length of a pendulum which beats seconds.
4.
If a
pendulum which beats seconds
is
found to be 99.3
g.
centimeters long, find from the above equation the value of
QUADRATIC EQUATIONS
5.
267
In the equation
F = ~,
M and m represent the masses

F
of any two attracting bodies, as, for instance, the earth and the the moon, d represents the distance between these bodies, and
force with which they attract each other. If the moon had twice its present mass
and were twice as far
at present, how much greater or less would the force of the earth's attraction be upon it than at present ?
from the earth as
represents the energy of a \ mv^, and the velocity is v. the mass of which is moving body, the energies of two bodies, one of which has twice the Compare
6.
In the equation
E=
mass and twice the velocity of the

7.
iS,
other.
v,
^
When a bullet is
which
it
to
rises is given
shot upward with a velocity, by the equation
the height,
rise to the height of the
Find with what velocity a body must be thrown upward to Washington Monument {^Bb feet). Problem 1.) (See
268
ALGEBRA
XX.
EQUATIONS SOLVED LIKE QUADRATICS
292. Equations in the Quadratic Form.
An equation is said to be in the quadratic form when it is expressed in three terms, two of which contain the unknown number, and the exponent of the unknown number in one of
these terms is twice
its'
exponent in the other;

o^ -\-x^ -12 = 0;
as,
a;6-6a:^=16;
etc.
293. Equations in the quadratic form by the rules for quadratics.

1.
may be
readily solved
Solve the equation
a?^
6ic^ = 16.
+
9
3
Completing the square by the rule of 285,

x6
a;3
16
+
5.
25.

'
a;^
Then,
Extracting cube
roots,
x^ = 3 5 = 8 or - 2. x = 2 or v^2.
There are
also
four imaginary roots, which
may
be found by the
method
2.
of 301.
Solve the equation 2x-\- 3 V^
= 27.
Since
Vx
is
the
same
8,
as x^, this
is
in the quadratic form.
Multiplying by
and adding
16
cc
3^ to
both members ( 288),
24\/^
4 Vx
+ +
9
3
= 216 + = 15.
3
= 225.
=
-
Then,
4Vx = -
15
12 or
18.
Whence,
3.
Vx =
3 or
- -,
2
and x
9 or
Solve the equation 16 x~^
22 x'^ = 3.

Multiplying by 16, and adding
162 x~2
ll'-^
269
to both
11-2
members,
121
16 X 22 x~* 16 a; ^
11 _3
= 48 +
169.
Extracting scLuare roots,
11 ==
Then,
16 x~^
13
= 24 ~
(
or
i 13. - 2, and ~
i*
x~^
=-
or
Extracting cube roots,
x'^
^ ^
9
)
Raising to the fourth power, x-^

l
.
"
(9 j^
^^
ia*
(?)Url,and. (|)nrl6.
=
P solve an equation of the form x* a, first extract the root corresponding to the numerator of the fractional exponent, and afterwards
To
raise to the
power corresponding to the denominator must be given to algebraic signs see 96 and 209.
;
careful attention
EXERCISE
:
130
3. 4.
0^^-100^*4-9
a;^+33oj^
^
= 0.
7.
5a;-^
= -32.
8.
+ 7a;-^ = -2. 4.-y/x' + 6 = 11^^^.

/
'
>~^^>î:"
11. 12.
+ 2)(2x'-3)-lSa^=(x' + S){2x'-A). '^t"û 10. 9(x-' + If = (x-^ - 4)2 + 11 X-' - 5. \ )i"\ )(" 6h-2 = lWTi. ,17. 32V^-33 = ^. + 244o;-^ = -243. vl8. 161 a^ + 5 = - 32
9.
{Sx'
^-r>:
'
ir
a;-3-
a;^^
13. 14. 15.
3x'-4.x'=W.
2s--35.- + 48 = 0.
27;'
-
19-
^-308
x'>
= 640.1
+ 46 = g.
16.
16a:-33a^-243 = 0.
' _^,^^
::^
+ V5 = V^ + Vft. V Va; Vft Va
270
21.
ALGEBRA
V6 + Vi + V4-Va; =
V3Va; +
12
y^22.
V4-V^ = V4Va;+5. l+Vv^_4
294.
to
An equation may sometimes be solved with, reference an expression, by regarding it as a single letter.
.
Solve the equation {x 3(a; 5)^ 5)^ Multiplying by 4, and adding 3^ to both members,
4(a;
= 40.
=
169.
5)3
\2{x
+ 32 = 160 + 2(x 5)^ 3 = 13.

5)*
3
Then,
2(x
5)5
or
13
Whence,
Squaring,
(x
(cc
5)^
5)^
=8 =2
=4 =
or
= 16 - 5. VE.
or
10.
or v'25.
Whence,
9 or 5
+ v'25.
be solved by, the.
Certain equations of the fourth degree

rules for quadratics.
2.
may
Solve the equation x*
+ 12a^ + 34.a^- 12 x-S5==0.

+
36 x2)
The equation may be written

(x*
12 x3
(x2
- 2 x2 -
12 X
= 35.
Or,
Completing the square, (x2

6 x)2
+ 6x)2-2(x2 + 6x)=35. - 2(x2 + 6 x) + 1 = 36. - 1 = 6. (x^ + 6 x)
Then, Completing the square,

Then, x
=-3
4 or
= 1,
= 7 or - 5. 9 = 16 or i. x^ + Qx x + 3 = 4 or i 2. - 7, - 1, or - 5.
x2
6x
-\-
In solving equations like the above, the first step is to complete the square with reference to the x* and x^ terms by 287, the third term of the square is the square of the quotient obtained by dividing the x^ term by twice the square root of the x* term.
;

3.
271
Solve the equation

to both
(x2
oc^
6x-{- 5Vx^ 6 + 20 = 46.

a?
Adding 20
members,
6 X
20)
+ 5Vx2 - 6 X + 20 = 66. + ?^ =
4
-
Completing the square,

(a;2
6 X
+ 20)H-5Vx2-6x +
20
66
+ ^ = ^.
4 4
17
Vx^ 6x +
20
+ =
2i
Then,
Squaring,
^
Vx^ - 6 x + 20 = 6 or - 11. x2 - 6 x + 20 = 36 or 121.

x^
Completing the square,

6 x + 9 = 25 or 110. x S=5 or VUO.

x
Then,
In solving equations of the
8,
2,
or 3
vTIO.
above form, add such an expression to both members that the expression without the radical sign in the first member may be the same as that within, or some multiple of it.
4.
Solve the equation

/V.2
ar
- = - h xx'^ 3 2
Representing
x2
X
y
by
y,
the equation becomes
272
ALGEBRA
3.
x^-12a'3 + 14a.'24-132aj-135
= 0.
a^'-3
*
2a.-
aj2-3
+.1
2x ^ 17 '~
aj
4*
+ 3^5 + 1 = 10. 7. 3x^ + x + 5VSaf-{-x-{-6 = S0. - 1 + 6 a;V8 - 1 = - 8 a^. 8. 8 9. a5*-2aa.'3-17aV+18a3a; + 72a* = 0, AO. (7x-6)^-5(7x-6)i = -6,' d^ + 2 2d-5 ^35 jj 2 d-5 d^ + 2 6 + 7Va;2-4a) + ll = 4aj--23. ^2. ^. Vaj2-3a;-3 = a;2-3a;-23. 14. (2a;2_3^_l^^3_7(2a^_3aJ-l)t = 8. 3â^-12aj-7â^-12a.- = -2. yl5. ''^16. A;^-18A:3 + 109A;2-252A;-f-180 = 0. 17. 2a^ + 4a; + Va;2 + 2a;-3 = 9. - 1, 18. 7 (a^ - 28)-^ 4- 8 (a^ 2S)-^ = 19. (3 ^ + 15)-^ - 5 (3 ^ + 15)-^ = 24. 20. 9aj^ 12aj3-35a;2 + 26a; + 40 = 0. ^-5^ + 1 a^-2a; + 2 ^ 8 21 aj2-2a; + 2 a^^-Sa^ + l" 3* 22. 9(a; + a)^-2262(a; + a)* + 86* = 0.
6.
V5
a.-^
ic
a;^
'
a;2
23. a^ 24.
+ l+Vaj2-8a; + 37=8(a; + 12). 25 + l)-i - 15 + 1)~* = - 2.

(a;
(a;
25
^'a^^-3
3 2
THEORY OF QUADRATIC EQUATIONS
273
XXI.

of Roots. !u^^(^,
295. Number
o-rvXyTIr* quadratic equation cmtnot have more than two different roots. Every quadratic equation can be reduced to the form
^TZwrr-
GI
A^rri^
'^
ti possible, let this
have three different

ar^^
roots,
rj, rg,
and
'
rg.
+ hr^ + c = 0, ari-{-hr,^-c = 0, and ari-\-hr^-\-c = 0. ri) + 5 (r, r^ = 0. Subtracting (2) from (1), a (rf a (r^ + r^) (r^ - rg) + b (rj - rg) = 0, Then, rg) (ar^ + a^s + 6) = 0. (ri or, Then, by 126, either rj r2=0, or ari+ar2+6=0. But ri r2 cannot equal 0, for, by hypothesis, rj and
Then, by
81,
(1)
(2)
(3)
rg
are
different.
Whence,
a7\
+ arg + 6 = 0.
(3)
(4)
(1),
In like manner, by subtracting

ar^
from
we have
(5)
+ ars + 6 = 0.
arga? 3=0, or rg r3=0.
Subtracting (5) from
(4),
But this
is
impossible, for, by hypothesis,
different; hence, a quadratic equation cannot two different roots.
and rg are ?'2 have more than
296.
Sum
?-i
of
rg
Roots and Product of Roots.
Let
and
denote the roots of ax^
+ 6aj + c = 0.
By 289, ^^^
-fe^Vi''-4ac ^^ ^^^
J
^
_&_ Vft2-4ac
^
(X
CI
274
ALGEBRA
values,
7\
Adding these
+ rg = - = 2a
Multiplying them together,
^
4a^
4a^
the
Hence, if a quadratic equation is i7i the form ax^ + 5ic -f- c = 0, sum of the roots equals minus the coefficient of x divided
"
coefficient of a^, and the product of the roots equals the independent term divided by the coeffi.cient of ccl t
by the
1.
Find by inspection the sum and product of the roots of
The sum
of the roots
is -,
and
their product
^^^^7,
or
6.
is
^^
|;
t*
2.
One
root of the equation 6a^4-31a;
= 35
find
the other.
The equation can be written 6 a:^ 4.

Then, the
31 x
+ 35 = 0.
sum
of the roots is
31
6
31
is
Hence, the other root
/
(
by
7\
),
or
31
7
}--,
2/'
2'
-I-
"We
"^
may
also find the other root
dividing the product of the roots,
^,by-I. 6 2
may find the values of certain other expressions which are symmetrical in the roots of the quadratic.
3.
We
If
ri
and
rg
are the roots of ax^
+ 6ic + c = 0,
find the value
of r^
+ r^r2-\-ro\
n^
We have,
But,
+ r^r^ + r^^ = (n + r^y - rir2.
n + ra =
rv'j^r,r,i-r,^
b
,
and
rirj
c =
Whence,
= ^^-^ = ^^^.

EXERCISE
132
:
275
Find by inspection the sum and product of the roots of

>
1.
a;2
>2.
3.
4.
/ 9.
,
10.
111.
If
of:
12.
5. 2x-Ux' = 7, = 0.'l.~ -- 6. 10 4-12 05-150^ = 0. J x'-hx-20 052-605 + 1 = 0.0 -! >7. 8o52-2 = -o5. - ^ = 0. 4052-05-5 = 0.4^ -^/ 8. 9mV4-21w;4)4-5n2 " ^ = 98 is 7 find the other. ^ = > One root of 4- 7 One root of 28 15 = is f find the other, s j^ One root of 5 - 17 4- 6 = is | find the other. ^^ \~V^ "V
4-8054-7=0. -^/
"^
05^
o;
05^
05
05^
05
't\
and
ck"--^
7*2
are the roots of
aoi?
+ hx-{-c = 0,
14.
find the values
a^
13.'i4-i-
Tlll,
1 + -1.
15.
r,
+ r/.
297. Formation
of Quadratic Equations.
By
aid of the principles of 296, a quadratic equation
may
be formed which shall have any required roots. For, let ri and r^ denote the roots of the equation
aa52
4-6o;4-c
= 0,
oro52
4-- + - = 0.
a a
rg,
(1)
Then, by
296,
= - rj
and -
= r^r^.
Substituting these values in (1),

05^
we have
r205
ri05
Or,
by
108,
(05
4- r^r^ = 0. - ri)(o5 - n) = 0.
Therefore, to form a quadratic equation which shall have
any required
roots.
Subtract each of the roots

resulting expressions equal
from
x,
and place
the
product of the
to zero.
Ex,
Form
the quadratic whose roots shall be 4 and
J.
276
By
the rule,
{x
ALGEBRA
4){x
-\--]
= 0. =
;
Multiplying by
4,
(x
4)(4a;
7)
or,
4x2
9a;
- 28 = 0.
EXERCISE
133
:
Form the
1.
quadratic equations whose roots shall be

3.
5,8.
2.
-4,
9.
3.
4.
-1, -f. 6, -L3.
5.
,
i,
-|.
0.
^7.
8.
-h-h
-i,j\.
6.
^,
a + 26,
3
a-25.
.11.
V 10.
m^...
^
71,
m+4
/^
,
71.
s.l2.
-4-5V3. Vm_+2Vn V^-2Vii

_4-|-5V3,
2
, '
/^
,^
FACTORING
298. Factoring of Quadratic Expressions.
quadratic expression
is
an expression of the form
aoc^
-^bx
c.
In 117, we showed how to factor certain expressions of this form by inspection; we will now derive a rule for factoring any
quadratic expression
;
we
a
have,
ax'-\-bx-hc
= afa^-h -\-^
\
aj
4:a^
|_
\2aJ
aJ
LV
2aJ
4:a'
2a^
2a
aa;^
J\
^ 2a
are
2a
by
J'
114.
But by
289, the roots of

_6_
,
+ 6a; + c =
b
vV-4ac
2a
2a
^^^
yJW-4.ac
2a
2a
277
Hence, to factor a quadratic expression, place it equal to zero, and solve the equation thus formed. Then the required factors are the coefficient of x^ in the given expression, x minus the first root, and x minus the second,
1.
Factor 6 0^2^ 7
^_ 3^
a;2
Solving the equation 6
= 0,
by
289,
^^
Then,
-7:fcV49T72 ^
12
6a;2
-7ll ^l
12
^^
3_
- 3 = efx
+
-^Vx + -^
+ 3).
=
2.
3(x-|)x2^x
4-
|U(3a:-l)C2x
Factor 4
13
a?
- 12 a^.
+
13 x
Solving the equation 4
12 x2
= 0,
13
by
289,
13
\/l69 + -24
192
19 ^ _ 1 -24 4
4
^j.
3*
Whence,
13x - 12x2
=- 12^x + ^Wx --\

=.(..l)x(-a)(.-|) = (l+4x)(4-3x).
3.
Factor 2ar'-3aJ2/-2/-7a;
2 x2
+ 42/ + 6.
+4^
4
_1_
We solve
By
289,
- x(3y + 7)-
2 ^2
_ 0.
^ 3y +
j:V(3y-h7)2
+ 16y2-32y-48
l)
^ 3y + 7zfcV25y2-H0y + i ^ 3y + 7(5y +
4
==8y8o, -2y + 6^^

4
4^2
4?/
^^^-y + 3.
Then,
2x2-3x?/-2i/2-7x +
+6
= 2[x-(2 +
2,
2)][x-^li^]
2/-3).
= (x-2?/-2)(2x +
278

Then,
q
x'^
279
-9 x-4: = 9
x'^
-9 x + lf\^---4:= /'Sx-'-V-(U4)
3-M)(8-M)
= (3cc4-l)(3x-4).
If the ct^ term is negative, the entire expression should be enclosed in parentheses preceded by a sign.
2.
Factor
3-12x-4:x'. _ 12 X - 4 = -(4 + 12 - 3) 3 = - (4 _^ 12 X + 9 - 9 - 3)
a;2 a:2
a;
a^2
= -[(2x + 3)2-l2] = (2x4-3 + VT2) x(-l)(2x + 3- VT2) = (2 V3 + 3 -f 2 x)(2\/3 - 3 - 2 x).

EXERCISE
1.
:
135
4a^-12a;-7.
9a^-21a; + 10.
7.
l-{-2x-x'.
16 x" - 16 x
-\-
2.
8.
9.
1.
3.
4.
5. 6.
+ x-12. 16aj2 + 40ic + 21. 9x' + 24.x-2. 42-f-20a; + 19.

ar^
6-5x-25a^,
AxF-j-9x-9.
36 25
a^
10.
11.
12.
a^
+ 72 + 29. - 10 - 11.
0^
a;
300.
surds.
1.
We
will
now take up
-\-
the forms
x'^
+
a^
ax^y^
2/^
or x^
the factoring of expressions of y*, when the factors involve
(Compare
115.)
Factor
a*
+ 2 a'b^ + 25 b\
_|.
2 a262
+ 25 64 = (a* + 10 a252 25 64) - 8 a2&2 = (a2+5 62)2_(a6V8)2
= (a2 + 5 62 + a6\/8)(a2 + 5 62 - ahVS) = (a2 + 2 a6\/2 + 5 62) (^2 _ 2 a6 V'2 + 5 62).
280
2.
ALGEBRA
Factor
iC*
+ 1.
= (X2+1)2-(XV2)2
= {x^-\-xV2 + l){x^-xV2 + l).

EXERCISE
136
this can be
1.
In each of the following obtain two sets of factors, when done without bringing in imaginary numbers
:
a;^-7a^ + 4.
a'-{-b\
4.
4.a*
2.
5. 6.
3.
9m^-llm2 + l.
of
+ 6 a" -\-9. 36a;^-92a;^ + 49. 25m^4-28mV + 16n^

whose
first
301. Solution
Equations by Factoring.
to solve equations
In
126,
we showed how
mem-
bers could be resolved by inspection into first degree factors,
and whose second members were
zero.
first
We
will
now take up equations whose
members can be
resolved into factors partly of the first and partly of the second, or entirely of the second degree.
1.
Solve the equation

first
ic^
+ 1 = 0.
(x
-\-
Factoring the
member,
1) (x^
-^ I)
= 0.
Then,
ic+l=0,
jc
;
and
2:
x2
- +1=
whence, by
289,
= -l; -4 1 1 ^1 ^ x=
ora;
V- 3
Solve the equation x^-\-l

2, 300, x^
-\-
= 0.
+
1) (x^
.By Ex.
+ l={x^ +
1
a;\/2
- xV2 + 1).
Solving x^
xV2
^
-{-
= 0,
2
we have
^
_ -V2V2~^^ _ -V2 V^^

2
Solving
a;2
iCv/2
= 0, we have
j:\/2"34
2
\/2
\/2
V^^
2

of
281
The above examples illustrate the important principle that the degree an equation indicates the number of its roots thus, an equation of the
; ;
;
of the fourth degree, four roots third degree has three roots etc. The roots are not necessarily unequal ; thus, the equation x^ 2 x+l
may be
written
(a;
1)
(aj
1)
0,
and
its
two roots are
and
1.
EXERCISE
"^l.
y/2.
)/Z.
:
137
5a:3-3ar'-9a; =
0.
11.
12.
a?^
- 6a.-2 + 1 = 0.
(a;-|-4)(2a;2_^5aj-h25)=0.
x^-ox' + l^zO.
(9x2-4)(llar^+8-4)=0.
13.
14.
64^^-125 = 0.
o^*
4.
5.
a;*-llaV-12a* = 0.
6.
1/7.
(^.
9.
10.
= 0. a;^-f 2a;2 + 2a; + 4 = 0. ^-1 = 0. a^*4-8aj = 0. 5a^-4a.2 + 60a.-48 = 0. 27a^ + 8a3 = 0.

a;^-81
20.
21.
15.
16.
17.
18.
'
- 10 + 9 = 0. - 20 + 16 = 0. 9a?^ + 5a;2 + 4 = 0. a;6_729 = 0. a;-256 = 0. a^^4-2a; + 4 ^4

a;^ a;^
a.-^
a^-2ic-4
x"
^x^-x^-\-^
Va;^4-l
Qi.
+ V9a;4-x = 2a5-l.
+ 6a? + c =
are
302. Discussion
of General Equation.
By
289, the roots of aa^
2a
2a
We
of a,
I.
will
now
c.
discuss these results for all possible real values
b,
and
6^
4 ac
positive.
In this
IT.
case, Vi
and
rg
are real and unequal.
b^-4.ac=:0.
case, r^
In this
and
7-2
are
7'eal
and
equal.
III.
6^
4 ac
rj
negative.
In this case,
IV.
6
and
^2
are imaginary ( 273).
^^v
^'*-^V>'^-<mL.
= 0.
case, the equation takes the
In this
form
;
ax^ -^c
If
= 0;
whence,
a;
= -v
a and
are of unlike sign, the roots are real, equal in absosign.
lute value,
and unlike in
c
If a
and
are of like sign, both roots are imaginary.
V.
= 0.
case, the equation takes the
In this
form
^
a
"
^^ H^V
^
*^
aa^4-6x
= 0;
whence,
real,
a;
or
zero.
Hence, the roots are both

VI.
6
one being
^^
= 0,
and
= 0. = 0.
'^
In this case, the equation takes the form ax^ Hence, both roots equal zero.
^^
'^
The
6^
4 ac is,
Ex.
roots are both rational, or both irrational, according as or is not, a perfect square.
Determine by inspection the nature of the roots of

& = - 5, 4âc is positive, the roots are h^ 4iac is a perfect square, both
;
Here a =2,
Since h^
2a^_5c-18 = 0. c = - 18 and 62 _ 4 ac = 25 +
real
144
169.
and unequal.
Since
roots are rational.
EXERCISE
138
Determine by inspection the nature of the roots of the

following
1.
:
2.
3.
4.
5.
- 19 + 125 = 0. -^ (v^ 7. 5a^-4a; = 0. ^^'tS -^ 9a^ + 6a;-l = 0. "7^ 4a^-28a;^-4^tfe^^^'^Â8. 24 + 9 = 0. 12a^-19aj4-4 = 0. >^^. 16 _ 39 ^ ^^ ^^ ^ 25a;2-4 = 0. 30 ^xL..Ô.
6a^
+ 17:-f 5 = 0. 6a^ + =V:''
/61
6.
a^
a;
a;^ _f_
^^
<
a;^
>,
283
GRAPHICAL REPRESENTATION OF QUADRATIC EXPRESSIONS WITH ONE UNKNOWN NUMBER

303. The graph of a quadratic expression, with one unknown number, x, may be found by putting y equal to the expression, and finding the graph of the resulting equation as in 181.
1.
Find the graph of
a^
- 2 - 3.
a;
Put y
= ic2 -
a;
3.
If
a;
0,
284
ALGEBRA
The latter expression has its 1 when X being then equal
negative value of greatest absolute value 25

to
8
(
Then, the lowest point has the co-ordinates
t?
')]
304.
The
of
principle of 188 holds for the graph of the first
member
any quadratic equation, with one unknown number. 3 ( 303) intersects the axis the graph of a^ 2 x Thus, XX' at points whose abscissas are 3 and 1, and the equation
ic^
2cc 3 =
has the roots 3 and 3 intersects Again, the graph of 2 x^-{-x
1.
XX'
at the point
whose abscissa is 1, and between the points whose abscissas are 1 and 2 and the equation 2 ic^ + a? 3 = has one root 1 and 2. equal to 1, and one between
;
EXERCISE
139
Find the graph of the first member of each of the following equations, and verify the principle of 188 in the results
:
1.
x2-5a; + 4
= 0.
5.
4.x'-{-Tx
= 0.
2.
3.
x^-\-x-6 = 0.
6.
7.
2a^-lla;-6 = 0.
6x^ + 50^-6
4.
+ 70^ + 10 = 0. 3o^-4a; = 0.
0^2
= 0.
8.
8o^-14o;-15 = 0.
Equations hav-
305. Graphs
of the First
Members
of Quadratic
ing Equal or Imaginary Roots.

1.
o^
4 + 4 = 0.
oj
We may
Then, by
write the equation 126, the roots are 2 and
2)(x 2)=:0. (cc

2.
To
y
If
If
find the graph of the first

2)2.
member, put
y
y
= (xx x
= 0, = l,
y
is
= =
4.
l.
If
If
x x
= 2, = S,
= 0. = 1]
etc.
The graph
the curve
ABC, which
extends
to an indefinitely great distance

tive
from XX'.
Since (x 2)2 cannot be negative for any value of x, y cannot be negaand the graph is tangent to XX'.
;

It is evident
285
from
unknown number, has equal

is
this that, if a quadratic equation, with one roots, the graph of its first member
tangent to XX'.
2.
ic^
+ + 2=0.
a;
Solving,
- 1 V- 7
graph of the
first
To
y
find the
member, put
+ X + 2. Ifx = 0,y = 2. If X = 1, y = 4.
x2
ltx=-l,y = 2.
If
=-
2,
=4
etc.
to
The graph is the curve ABC, which extends an indefinitely great distance from XX'.
We
have,
x2
+
]
=
(x^
+ ^^ - ^ + 2 = (x + ^V + ^.
x,
Since
(x
V
2/
+4
cannot be zero or negative for any value of
cannot be zero or negative, and the graph does not intersect XX'.
It is evident
from this
that, if a quadratic equation,
with one
its first
unknown number, has imaginary roots, the graph of member does not intersect XX'.
EXERCISE
Find the graphs of the
first
140
members
:
of the following,
and
in each case verify the above principles

1.
x'-6x-\-9 = 0.
aj2
3.
4:x'-\-4:X-^l=zO.
2.
3a;
+ = 0.
4
4.
2x^-4lx + 5 = 0.
286
ALGEBRA
XXII.
SIMULTANEOUS QUADRATIC EQUATIONS

of the double signs
306.
If
On
the use
and
two or more equations involve double
signs, it will be
;
understood that the equations can be read in two ways first) reading all the 2qyper signs together; second, reading all the
lower signs together. Thus, the equations x
aj
= 2,
= + 2,
2/=-f3,
= 3, can be = -2, = -3. ora^

y
2/
read either
Also,
the equations
x=2, y=:f
3,
can be read either
x
307.
= -{-2,y = -3,orx = -2,y = -{-S.

(
Two
equations of the second degree

will generally produce,
83) with two
unknown numbers
by elimination, an
equation of the fourth degree with one

Consider, for example, the equations
unknown number.
'X^-^y
=a.
(1)
(2)
\x-\-f = b.
From
(1),
x^; y=a
x-\-a^
2 ax^
-\-x'^
h-,
an equation of the fourth degree in x. The methods already given are, therefore, not sufficient for the solution of every system of simultaneous quadratic equations, with two unknown numbers. In certain cases, however, the solution may be effected.
308. Case
I.
When
each equation
ax^
is
in the form
+ hy^ =
c.
In this case, either

subtraction.
x"'
or y^ can be eliminated
by addition
or

.
287
1.
^ . Solve the equations

-.
i
1
f3a^'+
3
^ 2/2
4/ = 76. ^^ = 4. 11
^ ic^
288
ALGEBRA
3x'-2xy = 24..
4.x'-5xy =
4/^2+
9A;2
'
(llx'-6y^ = S4:.
1
4.6,
ar^
+ lo = 204.
2/'
= 13.
'
(2x'-xy-Sy'=:0.
1
4.
iSh^-27k^ = 6.
(5xy-\-y'=-75. [xy-3y' = -95.
'
'
+ Sy^ = 27. (2x' + Sf-\-x = 67. I a^-2/ = 17.

x^-{-xy
Ux'-y^ = Sa' + 10ab + 3h\

309. Case. II.
When
one equation
is
of the second degree,
and
the other of the first.
unknown numbers
solved by finding one of the from the first degree equation, and substituting this value in the other equation.
Equations of this kind
may be
in terras of the other
x^
Ex, Solve the equations
= 6 y. x+2y = 7'.
xy
x, ox y
(1) (2)
-
From
(2),
2y =
'^-^^^
(3)
2x^-x{ '^-^^^ \ =
4:x'^
6
(
1=^
)
Solving,
7x-\-x'^
= 42 6x, or x = S or
.
x^- a; =42.
Substituting
in
(3),
= ^-^
2
or
^ = 2 or ^.
2
. '
10
The
solution isa;
3, v , y
2:or, a;=
5
y ^
10
-
Certain examples where one equation is of the third degree and the other of/the first may be solved by the method of Case II.
yy
^
EXERCISE
:
142
1Solve the following equations
/^
{^^3f = Z7.
lie 2?/ =9.
'
p+
1
2/
ic?/
= _4. = 45.
289
= 97. ic = 5. xy -\-2 y~ = S. 0? 3 + = 10.

0^
0^2/
4-
2/'
?/
[2^
3
10.
3^
2
2.
12a;
,.
f
32/
a;
?/
Vx
x^
-\-
=7.
-\-y'^
xy=a^-{-a 2. l3a; + 4:2/ = 7a4-2.

r a;
xy
x
= 124.
=8.
12
^
y
X
x
a;
+y
_ 40
21
2y-\-Sx=:-l.
2e-3^ = 5. = 344. ar*^,

7/3
^
13.
L = ??
2t
3p 24* 4j9-^=-2.
a;
-2/ =8.
a;
= a + 2 5.
?/
2x-3y = -l.
14.
!
a;2,
32
310. Case III.
15
When
the given equations are symmetrical
with respect to x and y ; that is, without changhig the equation.
when x
arid
y can be interchanged
Equations of this kind may be solved by combining them in such a way as to obtain the values oi x-\-y and x y.
1.
Solve the equations

x^
x^y = 2. 15. xy =
4.
(1) (2)
Squaring (1), Multiplying (2) by 4

Subtracting,
x^
= - 60. 4 xy 2xy + y- = 64. x y = S.

2
+ 2xy + y^=
(3)
Adding
(1)
and
(3),
Whence,
= 2 8 = 10 or - 6. = 5 or 3. x 2 y = 2 =F 8 = - 6 or 10.
a;
?/
Whence,
=r
3 or
3,
5.
The
solution
is
cc
5,
=S;
or,
5.
290
In subtracting
ALGEBRA
8 from
2,
we have
8, in
accordance with the notato
tion explained in 306.
ever
In operating with double signs, -H should be changed to

.
is
changed
T and T
,
to
when, ;
the symmetrical
(The above equations may also be solved by the method method is shorter and neater.)
^2
of
Case II
but
2.
Solve the equations

2,
Multiply (2) by
= 50. xy = -7. 2xy =- 14.

7/2
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
Add
(1)
and
(3),
x^
Subtract (3) from (1),
x^
+ 2xy + -2xy
-\-
Add
(4)
and
(5),
= S6, y^ = 6i, =6 2
y^
a;
Whence,
a;
2y
2^
=Q. or x - y =8. - 6 8. 8, or 1, 1, or 7. = 7, = 6 T 8, or - 6 T 8.
or x'+ y
(5)
Whence,
= 1,
=
1,
7,
7,
or
1.
The
solution
is
ic^
7,
2/
= q= 1
or,
=T
7.
Certain examples in which one equation is of the third degree, and the other of the first or second, may be solved by the method of Case III.
3.
Solve the equations
(a^-f
i
,
=56.
(1)
Divide (1) by (2),
x-y = 2.
= ^. Sxy = 24, or xy = 8. (2), x^ + 2 xy + y^ = 36, or x + y = 6. 23c = 26 = 8 or -4. = 4 or 2. 2y = 6-2 = 4or-S. (6), y = 2 or 4. x = 4, y = 2 or, x = 2, y = i.
x"^
(3)
(4) (5) (6)
Squaring (3)
2 xy
-^
y"^
Subtract (4) from
Add
(2) (3)
and
and
(5),
(6),
Add
Whence,
Subtract (3) from
cc
Whence,
The
(If
'
solution
is
we
interchange x and y in equation (1),

y'^
it
becomes
y^
x^
56, or
x^
56,
which
is
not the same as (1).

;
291
Thus, the equation (1) is not symmetrical with respect to x and y but method of Case III may often be used when either or both of the given equations are symmetrical, except with respect to the signs of the terms.)
the
We may
advantageously use the method of Case III to solve
certain equations which are not symmetrical with respect to x and y\ as, for example, the equations
cc
-2
2/
= - 4.
EXERCISE
143
:
Solve the following equations by the symmetrical method

a;2
+ / = 29.
=-3.
10.
x'-xy-^y^ = a^ +
3b'\
X +2/
2.
3.
x y = W. xy = -2^. = 130. g2 4.^2 -s =-8. g
11.
4.
xy
5.
= 12. = 7.
m:
I
x-^y = 2a. = 280. a^ + [a^_a;2/ + / = 28. a^ + + = 7. .x^ xy-{-y'^ = V^. = 407. ^3 +

2/^
a;2/
2/2
71^
-\-n=ll.
a^-2/3^35^
ix^-\-xy-\-y^
ar^-2/3
6.
a^
= 26. -V =2. y x-\-y = 2n 1. 7. n 2. xy = n^ x^ y^ = 63. xy 8 1 x-y = S.

\
Xx
-\-
-\-
16.
+ 92/' = 50. a;-3?/ = 0. xy = 16. 2 + = 14. 36a^4-64/ = 85. 6 + 8 = 11. = 189. 0)3-8 -2y =9.
a;
2/ a; 2/
2/^
a;
When each equation is of the second degree, 311. Case IV. and homogeneous; that is, ichen each term involving the uyiknown numbers is of the second degree with respect to them ( 65).
292
Certain equations of (See Exs.
of Case
I
tliis
ALGEBRA
form
308,
may
and
be solved by the method of Case

310.)
or Case III.
1,
2,
The method
IV should be used only when
the example cannot
be solved by Cases
or III.
Ex.
Solve the equations
{x'-2xp =5.
I
(1)
x2
+ / = 29.

Placing y
293
12 X
= 0,
ic2
y=-12x;
4-
24 x2
5,
or x^
= -
5
Then,
x=
-i-,
V5
and
?/
= - 12 = =F -
a:
V6
EXERCISE
144
Solve the following equations:
2.
5.
+ 3x?/ = -5. l2a;?/-/ = -24. 5a^-y^ = 9. [xy-3y^ = -90. (x' + xy + y' = 19. 2x' + xy =-2. Aa^_xy-y^ = -16. Sxy + y^ = 2S.
^
a;2
'
= -41. = 5S. [x''-5xy + Sy^ 2x'-\-7 xy -{-4.y' = 2. [Sx' + Sxy -4.y' = -72.
raj2_2a^2/_42/2
(
Ua^-2xy -y' =^-16.

I
,.
10.
5x'-7xy = -36. Sx^- a;2/-40/ = 30.
[5x'-3xy-72y' = SS.
of
312. Special Methods for the Solution

tions of Higher Degree.
Simultaneous Equa-
No
come under the cases

experience.
1.
general rules can be given for examples which do not just considered; various artifices are
employed, familiarity with which can only be gained by

[
Solve the equations

3,
i
[
xy xy^ = 6.
^
^-f = 19. ^
3
cc2y
(1)
/n
{^)
18.
l.
Multiply (2) by
= xy'^
(3)
Subtract (3) from (1), x^-Sx'^y
Z xy^
-y^ =
Dividing (2) by (4),

Solving equations (4)
xy
= 1. = 6.
we
find x
(4)^
(5)
and
= 2;
or,
=-
(5)
by
the method of 310,
S,
2,
=-B.
294
^
2.
r.
1 ,
.
ALGEBRA
(
i
[
Solve the equations
af-{-y^
= 9xy. = 6. x-\-y
9(^2
= u + V and y = u v, - vy = 9(w + v) (u - v), or 2 m3 + 6 uv^ = (u + vy + (w v) = Q, 2 u = 6, or w = 3. and (u + v) {u

Putting X
-\-
- ^2)
(i)
Putting w
3 in (1),
54
18
Whence,
Therefore,
and
The
solution
is
= 4,
x= u = =2 y
2/
;
i(
= 9(9 _ -yS). = 1, or = 1+ v = Sl=4:or2', v=:3=Fl=2 or 4.

??2
^2
-w
or,
2,
i.
artifice of substituting + v and w v for cc and ?/ is advantageous any case where the given equations are symmetrical ( 310) with See also Ex. 4. respect to x and y.
The
in
'
3.
Solve the equations

2,
x"^
\
[
xy = 6.
(2)
(3)
Multiplying (2) by
Add
Or,
(1)
and
(3),
-^
= 12. + 2y = S5. 2xy + y^ = S5. (^x + yy-{-2(x-hy)

2xy
-\-
2 x
Completing the square, (x
Then,
,
(x
+ ?/)
+ ?/)2 + 2(ic + ?/)+ 1 =36. + 1 = 6 and x + = 5 or - 7.

;
?/
(4)
Squaring (4) Multiplying (2) by

Subtracting,
x2
4,
a;^/
?/2
= 25
=24.
or 49.
4xy
x^-2xy + y^=l
and
or 25.
Whence,
Adding
(4)
(5),
Whence,
Whence,
x-y = l or 5. (5) 2 x = 5 1, or - 7 5. x = 3, 2, -1, or -6. 2 = 5 T 1, or - 7 T 5. = 2, 3, -6, or -1.

2/
2/
The solution is.x=3, yz=2; x=2, ?/=3; x=-l, y=-6', or x=-6, = ~l.
4.
Solve the equations
[x -fy
= 1.

Putting x
295
= u-v, (u + vy -\-(u- vy = 97, =u+v

and y
or 2 m*
2z<
12
wV + 2 = 97,
tj*
(1)
and
") = !, (?t + v) + (w
= 1,
or u
Substituting value of u in (1), --\-Sv^ o
+ 2v^ = 97.
^^^
^,
Solving
this,
^,2
= 25
4
^j.
_31
4
= i^
2
2,
or
V-31
Then,
a;
+ v = -l|,
or
-^^ ^ =
3,
-3, or
and,
y-u-. = -\T\or-\^
solution
is
a;
^ = _
3, 2,
or
The
y
= 2,
?/
31
1-
81
y = 2; x^ - 1 + V^sT
296
ALGEBRA
14.
llx^ xy y'^ = 45.
ar
12.
xy
2/
X
a;4-2/
15.
2xy + ^y'' = ^l.
= 35.
. ^
16.
I
13.
3x-22/=-13.
"(
18.
x + y = S{a-b),
+ 2y 3a;-2^
3a;
+ 22/ 20* 82/' + 3a^ = 29.

3a;
.
3a;-2y ^41
'y~^'x~~^'
*
=6a
19.
xy
.x-\-y
= 5 axy.
'3af-\-3y^
27.
= 10xy.
^ + 4 = -l^'' ar
20.
y^
+ xy = 3
1+1=1. 6
ic
2/
^y + y^x = 42.
28.
^
62
+ = - a.
-
21.
22.
23.
r
25.
+ 9^2 _^4e = 9. = 2. ei + 2 a^ + 2/3^2a^. + 24a. + xy^ = 2a^ 8a. V2x V2a^-9 = Sy-\-6. I 17/ = aj2-5. Sa^xy xz = 5x-2y = l. 4:X-\-Sz = 5. x^y 4- xy^ = 56. + = -l.
^
a;^^/ 4:,
30.
LX
2y^
-fgs-3s2 = 27.
g^_4gs + 3s2 = 72.
y^-\-4:Xy~3y = 4:2.
xy + 5y = 10,
i-2/
16 a^y- 104 a;?/ = -105.
3,.{
a;4-f-a;y
j32.*
= -2.
+ = 481. x^-xy + y^ = 3T,

2/4
33.
'9a^-13ajy-3a;=-123.
a^2/+4 2/2+2 2/=125.
a;
2/
* Divide the
first
equation by the second

34.
297
39.
xy-(x-y) = -9.
xy (x y)
(x^-\-y^
= 20.
35.
| + xy + 4 y^
or
= 44.
40.
lî = -12.
xy
y^
= xy-l-l. = x^y' + l, [x' + y^

ra;^
I
41.
36.
37
2i^-^y^-z^ = 4:S. x 3y + z = 17. 3z = 13. x-{-y x'-xy + y' = -^j. I ^-2/ = tV

(x
42.
OCpy
+ = 211. x + y = l. X = 6, ^ = -12.
2/^
11
01?
1
y^
^ a'-\-a^h^+h\
a^W
a^h^
38
I (x
+ y)-{-xy + yy + x^f = 61.

=11.
43.
.
xy
cc^
xy
y^
PROBLEMS
1.
IN
PHYSICS
From
g.
the equations
v = gt
and
\ gf, find V in terms

TT EG=
of
S and
2.
From
the equations
t.
(7
V =
and
find
in
terms of C, B, and
3.
find
From the equations E = FS, F = ma, S = \ af, ^ in terms of m and v.
and v
= af,
313. Problems involving Simultaneous Equations of Higher

Degree.
In solving problems which involve simultaneous equations

of higher degree, only those solutions should be retained which satisfy the conditions of the problem. (Compare 176.)
EXERCISE
^r^^
146
1. The difference of the squares of two numbers is 56, and the difference of the numbers is |- their sum. Find the numbers.
2.
The sum
product of their squares
of the squares of two numbers is 61, Find the numbers. is 900.
and the
298
3. is 21,
ALGEBRA
The product
of the
sum
of
and the product
of their difference
two numbers by the smaller by the greater is 4.

is
Find the numbers.

}
4.
The sum
of the cubes of
two numbers
224
and
if
the
product of the numbers be subtracted from the Find the numbers. squares, the remainder is 28.
5.
sum
of their
Two numbers
reverse order.
the
sum
are expressed by the same two digits in of the numbers equals the square of of the digits, and the difference of the numbers equals
The sum
5 times the square of the smaller digit.
Find the numbers.
6. The square of the sum of two numbers exceeds their product by 84 and the sum of the numbers, plus the square root of their product, equals 14. Find the numbers.
;
7.
The
difference of the cubes of
two numbers
is
342
and
the product of the numbers be multiplied by their difference, the result is 42. Find the numbers.
if 8. Had there been party at a hotel spent a certain sum. 5 more, and each had spent 50 cents less, the bill would have been $24.75. Had there been 3 fewer, and each had spent 50 cents more, the bill would have been $9.75. How many
were there, and what did each spend

9.
interest of $700, for a certain number of If the time were 4 years less, years, at a certain rate, is $ 182. and the rate li% more, the interest would be $ 133. Find the
The simple
time and the

10.
rate.
If the digits of a number of two figures be inverted, the quotient of this number by the given number is If, and their product 1008. Find the number.
11.
The square
of the smaller of
two numbers, added

;
to twice
their product, gives 7 times the smaller number and the square of the greater exceeds the product of the numbers by 6 times
the smaller number.

12.
Find the numbers.

piece of cloth,
A rectangular
when
wet, shrinks one-sixth
and one-twelfth in its width. If the area is diminished by 12| square feet, and the length of the four sides by 6J^ feet, find the original dimensions.
in its length,

13.
299
rates,
and
travel
from
to Q, 14 miles, at
uniform
taking one-third of an hour longer than A. to perform the On the return, each travels one mile an hour faster, journey.
and
B now
takes one-fourth of an hour longer than A.
Find
their rates of travelling.

14.
A and B
minutes.
and
B winning by two speed by two miles an hour, diminishes his by the same amount, and A wins by two
run a race of two miles,
inct'eases his
now
minutes.
15.
Find their original
rates.
A man ascends
the last half of a mountain at a rate one-
half mile an hour less than his rate during the first half, and On the descent, his rate is one reaches the top in 3J hours.
mile an hour greater than during the
first
half of the ascent,
and he accomplishes it in 2i hours. Find the distance to the top, and his rate during the first half of the ascent.
16.
The square
of the second digit of a
number
of three
The digits exceeds twice the sum of the first and third by 3. sum of the first and second digits exceeds 4 times the third by 1 and if 495 be subtracted from the number, the digits will be
;
inverted.
17.
Find the number.
ship has provisions for 36 days. If the crew were 16 and the daily ration one-half pound less, the provisions greater, would last 30 days if the crew were 2 fewer, and the daily Find the ration one pound greater, they would last 24 days. number of men, and the daily ration.
;
lends f 2100 in two amounts, at different rates of and the two sums produce equal returns. If the first interest, portion had been loaned at the second rate, it would have produced $48; and if the second portion had been loaned at the first rate, it would have produced $ 27. Find the rates.
18. 19. A can do a piece of work in 2 hours less time than B and together they can do the work in l^- hours less time than A alone. How long does each alone take to do the work ?
;
A man
300
ALGEBRA
GRAPHICAL REPRESENTATION OF SIMULTANEOUS QUADRATIC EQUATIONS WITH TWO UNKNOWN NUMBERS

314.
1.
x^-{-y'^
= 25.
This means that, for any point on the graph, the square of the abscissa,
plus the square of the ordinate, equals 25. But the square of the abscissa of any point,
plus the square of the ordinate, equals the square of the distance of the point from the
for the distance is the hypotenuse of a right triangle, whose other two sides are the
origin
;
abscissa
and ordinate.
of Then, the square of the distance from any point on the graph is 25 or, the distance of any point on the graph is 5. from Thus, the graph is a circle of radius 5, having
;
its
centre at 0.
^j
(The graph of any equation of the form

2.
a;^
y2
is
circle.)

?/2
2/^
= 4 + 4.
a?
IfrK=^0,
If If
= 1, x = -\,
X
?/2
= 4, = 8,
=Q.
or
?/=2.
{A, B)
(O,
ov y
2 V2.
D)
(E)
etc.
The graph extends
indefinitely to the right of
YT.
If X is negative, and 1, i/2 is negative, and therefore y imaginary ; then, no part of the graph lies to the left of E.
<
2^.
of the
(The graph of Ex. 2 form y'^ = ax or
is
y^
parabola ; as also ax -{- b.
is
the graph of any equation
The graphs
3.
of 303
and 305 are parabolas.)

a;^
+ 4 = 4.
?/^
In this case, it is convenient to first locate the points where the graph intersects the axes.
If
2/
= 0,
x2
= 4,
or
a;
= 2.

- 2, y'^ is negative, and y imaginary If X has any value >2, or no part of the graph lies to the right of A, or left of A'. - 1, x^ is negative, and x imaginary If y has any value 1, or no part of the graph lies above B^ or below B'.
301
;
< <
then,
>
then,
of the 4.
(The graph of Ex. 3 form ax^ -}- by^ =
is
an
ellipse ; as also is the
graph of any equation
c.)
oc^
2y- = l.
Here, x2
If
- 1 = 2 ^^
or y^
= ^^^
2/2=0, or y=0. {A, A') X has any value between 1 and 1, y^ is negative, and y imaginary. Then, no part of the graph lies between A and A'.
x=l,
If
li
x=2, y^=l,
or y
= 'yM^
(B,C,B',C')
each of which extends
The graph has two branches,

to
BAC and B'A'C,

from 0.
is
an
indefinitely great distance
of the
(The graph of Ex. 4 is a hyperbola ; as also form ax^ by'^ = c, or xy a.)
the graph of any equation
EXERCISE
Plot the graphs of the following
1.
147
:
xy
= -Q.
3. 4.
:^-{-y^
2/2
=L
of
5.
4aj24.9/=36.
2.
x'^^^y.
= 5a;-l.
6.
4a;2_^2^_4
of
315. Graphical Representation

Quadratic Equations.
1.
r
Solutions
Simultaneous

of
?/2
= 4:X. {3x y = o.
y^
The graph The graph
of 3 x
= 4 x is the parabola A OB. = 5 is the straight line AB,

?/
intersecting the parabola at the points

respectively. To find the co-ordinates of
and
J5,
A and
;
B,
we proceed x-
as in 184
that
is
is,
we
solve the given equations.
The
solution
= 1,
=2
or,
= -, y=
^
( 309).
302
It
ALGEBRA
may be
verified in the figure that these are the co-ordinates of
A and
B, respectively.
Hence, if any two graphs intersect, the co-ordinates of any point of intersection form a solution of the set of equations represented
by the graphs.
2.

(a^
[
The graph of is the circle y'^ AD, whose centre is at 0, and radius VlT. The graph of xy = 4 is a hyperbola,
having
its
+ f = 17. xy = =n x^ +
4:.
branches in the angles

respectively,
XOY
Y'.
and intersecting the circle at the points A and B in angle XO F, and at the points C and D in angle X'
and X'OT,
The
ic
solution of the given equations

?/
is (
310),
= 4,
may
= !; x=l,
i/
= 4;
cc
1,
?/=
4;
and
ic
= 4, y = l.
It
be verified in the figure that these are the co-ordinates of A, B,

respectively.
C,
and D,
EXERCISE
148
Find the graphs of the following sets of equations, and in each case verify the principle of 315
:
ra;2 4-42/2 = 4. x y 1.
9a^-f/=148.
2a;2-f.5/^53.
xy=S.
ic2
3aj2_42/2=-24.
r
X^-Ay=-7.
[ 2
4.
ic -1-3
=4. 2/
+ = 29. xy = 10.
2/2
x'
+ f==is. 92/ = 6.
316.
1.
r
= 4. = -5. [2x + 3y
0^2-1-42/^
(1) (2)
ellipse
The graph of x^+4:y'^=4: is the AB. The graph of 2x + Sy = 6

straight line
is
the
CD.

To
solve the given equations,
303
we
have, from (2), x
3y-5
9 y^
30 y
25
+4
?/
?/2
= 4.
?/
Then,
25
^/^
+ 30 y +
= 0,
or (5
3)(5
+
?/
3)
is
This equation has equal roots; the only value of
= 0. q 5
and x =
is
O --'
The
to
it.
line
has but one point in
common
with the
ellipse,
and
tangent
Then, if
the equation obtained by eliminating

roots, the
known numbers has equal

2.
graphs are tangent
one of the unto each other.

r
- = - 9. x-2y = ~2.
a;2
2/2
(1)
The graph
having
its
of 9
a;^
1/2
=9
is
a hyperbola,
re-
branches above and below XX',

of
spectively.
The graph
2y =
'l
is
the straight line
AB. To
a;
= 2?/ -2
Then,
solve the given equations, in (1).
we
substitute
9(4
y2_
?/
or
35 ^2
72 ^
+ 4)-?/2 = -9, + 45 = 0.
This equation has imaginary roots, which shows that the line does not
intersect the hyperbola.
In general, if
the equation obtained by eliminating one

roots, the
of the
unk7iown numbers has imaginary
graphs do not
intersect.
Exercise
i49
Find the graphs of the following sets of equations, and in each case verify the principles of 316
:
p^-f-
2/2
= 4.
3
I
^^-.^ =
9.
y
2.
l5a;-4.'?/ = -9.
x+
2y = -2.
'
l2i/2-3a: = 5.
304
ALGEBRA
XXIII.
VARIABLES AND LIMITS
317. A variable mimher, or simply a variable, is a number which may assume, under the conditions imposed upon it, an
indefinitely great number of different values. constant is a number which remains unchanged throughout the same discussion.
318.
limit of
a variable
is
ence between which and the variable
a constant number, the differmay be made less than
any assigned number, however small.
towards Suppose, for example, that a point moves from under the condition that it shall move, during successive
first
-f
equal intervals of time,
from A to C, half-way between ^ L__L__f A and 5 then to D, half-way between C and B then to E, half-way between D and B and so on indefinitely. In this case, the distance between the moving point and B can be made less than any assigned number, however small. Hence, the distance from A to the moving point is a variable which approaches the constant value AB as a limit. Again, the distance from the moving point to 5 is a variable which approaches the limit 0.
;
319. Interpretation
of -
Consider the series of fractions -,
3' .3' .03' .003
Here each denominator
after the first is one-tenth of the
preceding denominator. It is evident that, by sufficiently continuing the series, the denominator may be made less than any assigned number,
however small, and the value of the fraction greater than any assigned number, however great.

In other words,
305
If the numerator of a fraction remains constant, while the denominator approaches the limit 0, the value of the fraction
increases without
It is
liinit.
:
customary to express this principle as follows
a
The symbol
simply stands for that which
oo
is
called Infinity
it
is
greater than any number, however great, and has no fixed value,
320. Interpretation of
GO
Consider the series of fractions

3' 30' 300' 3000'
Here each denominator
after the first is ten times the pre-
ceding denominator. It is evident that, by sufficiently continuing the series, the denominator may be made greater than any assigned number,
however
great,
and the value of the fraction
less
than any
assigned number, however small.
In other words.
If the numerator of a fraction remains constant, while the denominator increases without limit, the value of the fraction
approaches the limit
It is
0.
:
customary to express this principle as follows

-^
= 0.
321.
No
literal
meaning can be attached to such results as

a -
= 00,
or
a - = 0;
p,
00
for there can be

definite
no such thing as division unless the divisor
is
number.
must be interpreted as indicated in 319 and

pare
If such forms occur in mathematical investigations, they 320. (Com420.)
306
ALGEBRA
THE PROBLEM OF THE COURIERS
322.
The following
discussion will further illustrate the
form
-, besides furnishing an interpretation of the form

of the Couriers.
The Problem
couriers, A and B, are travelling along the same road in. and n miles an hour, the same direction, RR', at the rates of If at any time, say 12 o'clock, is at P, and B respectively.
Two
a miles beyond him at Q, after how many hours, and many miles beyond P, are they together ?
is
how
B
I
P
J
Q 1
RI
Let
and
meet x hours
after 12 o'clock,
and y miles
beyond P.
They
Since
will then
meet y a miles beyond Q. travels mx miles, and B nx miles, in x hours, we

y = mx, a = nx. \y
f
^^^
Solving these equations,
we
,
obtain
mn
and y =
7i
We will now discuss these results under different hypotheses. 1. m>n.

In this case, the values of x and y are positive. This means that the couriers meet at some time after 12, at some point to the right of P.
This agrees with the hypothesis made for if m is greater than w, A is travelling faster than B and he must overtake
; ;
him
at
some point beyond
their positions at 12 o'clock.

2.
m <n.
12, at
In this case, the values of x and y are negative. This means that the couriers met at some time before some point to the left of P. (Compare 16.)

;
307
is less than This agrees with the hypothesis made for if A is travelling more slowly than B and they mnst have been together before 12 o'clock, and before they could have advanced as far as P.
71,
;
3.
a=
0,
and
m>n
or
m<n.
and y = 0. In this case, x = This means that the travellers are together at 12 o'clock, at
the point P.
This agrees with the hypothesis made for if a = 0, and m and n are unequal, the couriers are together at 12 o'clock, and are travelling at unequal rates and they could not have been together before 12, and will not be together afterwards.
; ;
4.
m=
71,
and a not equal to
0.
In this case, the values of x and.?/ take the forms - and
respectively. It n approaches the limit 0, the values of x and y increase without limit ( 319) hence, if 7i, no fixed values can be
m=
assigned to x
and
y,
and the problem
is
impossible.
indicates that the giveri
In this
case, the result in the
form -
problem is impossible. This agrees with the hypothesis made for if m n, and a is not zero, the couriers are a miles apart at 12 o'clock, and are
;
travelling at the same rate and never will be together.

5.
and they never could have been, and a =
m = n,
0.
In
this case, the values of x
and ^ take the form y
If a = 0, and m = n, the couriers are together at 12 o'clock, and travelling at the same rate. Hence, they always have been, and always will be, together.
In this
for
case, the
number
of solutions
is
indefinitely great
any value of x whatever, together with the corresponding

y, will satisfy
value of
the given conditions.
In this
case, the result in the

is
form -
indicates that the
number
of solutions
indejinitely great.
808
ALGEBRA
XXIV. INDETERMINATE EQUATIONS

323. It was shown, in 163, that a single equation involving two or more unknown numbers is satisfied by an indefinitely great number of sets of values of these numbers. If, however, the unknown numbers are required to satisfy other conditions, the number of solutions may be finite.
We shall consider in the present chapter the solution of indeterminate linear equations, in which the unknown numbers
are restricted to positive integral values.
324. Solution of Indeterminate Linear Equations in Positive

Integers.
1.
Solve 7 cc 4- 5
5,
2/
= 118
23
in positive integers.
Dividing by
the smaller of the two coefficients,
+ ^+y =
+ |;
or,
^J^=2^-x-y.
x and y must be positive
inte-
Since, 2 x
gers,
by the conditions
3
of the problem,
must be an
5
this integer
integer.
Let
be represented by p.
Then,
Dividing (l) by
Since x and
JO ^^-
^^~^ =
5
2,
p,
or2x-3 = 5p.
2
i?
(1)
-1 -i=
+|
or,
-1-2p= ^-^.
integer
;
are integers, x
integer.
1 2j3isan
and therefore
4- 1
must be an
this integer
Let
be represented by
q.
Then,
^-^ = q,
2x
or
p = 2q -1.
5.
-3=
10 ^
Whence,
x-hq-\.
(2)
INDETERMINATE EQUATIoSiS
Substituting this value in the given equation,
309
35 g
5y
118
or,
25
7 g.
(3)
Equations (2) and (3) form the general solution in integers of the
given equation.
By
shall obtain sets of integral values of
giving to q the value zero, or any positive or negative integer, we x and y which satisfy the given
zero, or
equation.
any negative integer, x will be negative. any positive integer >3, y will be negative. Hence, the only positive integral values of x and y which given equation are those obtained from the values 1, 2, 3 of g.
If
is
If
is
satisfy the
That
2.
is,
a;
4,
18
9,
11
and x
14, y
= 4.
Solve 5 x
5,
7 = 11
?/
in least positive integers.
Dividing by
the coefficient of smaller absolute value,
^_j,_2j?^2+l;or, ;-j,-2 = 2lJll. 5 5 5

O
7/
Then,
^
I
must be an
integer.
Let ?J^-^
5
=p
2,
or,
?/
5;).
Dividing by
i/+- = 2p+^;
integer.
or,
y-2j) = ^-=
Then, Let
"~
must be an
1
^~ =
or,
p=
g-
1.
Then,
y^ 5;>-1 ^ 10g +
5-l
^^^_^^_
Then, from the given equation, x
^
"}"
=7^ +
;
5.
The
3.
solution in least positive integers is
when ^-=0
that
is,
a;=5, y =2.
In
dollars, half-dollars,
equal to
Let
the sum of $15 be paid with and dimes, the number of dimes being the number of dollars and half-dollars together ?
X
how many ways can
= number = number
of dollars,
half-dollars,
y = number of
and
of dimes.
310
By
,
^.
.
ALGEBRA
the conditions,
riOx+5?/+0=15O,
1
I
x^y =
?/
z.
(1)
Adding,
or,
11 x + 6 +^= l\x + Qy =
6,
150
150.
25.
2r,
(2)
Dividing by
5 X
++
6
;
2/
Then,
must be an
6
integer
or,
x must be a multiple of
6 j9,
6.
Let
Substitute in (2), Substitute in (1),
66;)
X =
where p
ij
is
an
integer.
The only
Then,
20 dimes
;
positive integral the number of ways

or,
= 150, or = 2b-\\p. z = Qp + 2b -lip = 2b solutions are when j? = 1 or 2.

+
6
?/
bp.
is
two
either 6 dollars, 14 half-dollars,
and
12 dollars, 3 half-dollars, and 15 dimes.
EXERCISE
150
:
Solve the following in positive integers

1.
2.
V
3. 4.
5.
6.
+ 52/ = 29. 7a; + 22/ = 39. 6a; + 292/ = 274. 4ic4-3l2/ = 473. 42 + 11 = 664. 10a.- + 72/ = 297.
3a;
a; 2/
7.
8.
'
^^
+ 92/ = 15L 8 + 71 = 1933. 8aj-ll2/ + 2^ = 10. 2a;-92/ + = -8. r3a^-32/H-7;3 = 101. U + 22/-32 = 5.
23a;
cc
2/
f
2;
.'c
Solve the following in least positive integers

11.
îl2.
13.
"^
6a;-72/ = 4. 5a;-8?/ = 17. 14a;-52/ = 64.
14.
15.
Sx-^ly = 10.
16.
- 13 = 115. 15 a;-38 = -47.

30
a;
?/
2/
In how many different ways can f 1.65 be paid with quarter-dollars and dimes ?
17.
18. In how many different ways can 41 shillings be paid with half-crowns, worth 2\ shillings each, and two-shilling
pieces ?
INDETERMINATE EQUATIONS
J
19.
311
7,
Find two fractions whose denominators are 5 and
respectively, whose numerators are the smallest possible positive integers, and whose difference is ^l.
20.
In how many different ways can ^7.15 be paid with
fifty-cent,
twice the
number
twenty-five cent, and twenty-cent pieces, so that of fifty-cent pieces, plus twice the number of
twenty-cent pieces, shall exceed the number of twenty-five cent pieces by 31 ?
farmer purchased a certain number of pigs, sheep, and f 138. The pigs cost f 4 each, the sheep $ 7 each, and the calves $9 each; and the whole number of animals purchased was 23. How many of each did he buy ?
21.
calves for
22.
In
how many ways can f 10.00 be paid with
twenty-five
cent, twenty-cent, and five-cent pieces, so that 3 times the number of twenty-five cent pieces, plus 15 times the number of
twenty-cent pieces, shall exceed the number of five-cent pieces by 33 ?
312
ALGEBRA
XXV. RATIO AND PROPORTION

RATIO
325. The Ratio of one number a to another number &
quotient of a divided by
b.
is
the
Thus, the ratio of a to 6

In the ratio a:h, a
If
is
is
it is
also expressed
h.
called the first term, or antecedent,
and
b the second term, or consequent.
a and
b are positive
if
numbers, and
a>b, is
is
called a ratio
of greater inequality;
inequality.
is
<b,
it
called a ratio of less
326.
each of
A ratio of greater inequality

its
iriequality is increased,
is decreased, and one of less by adding the same positive number to
terms.
Let a and b be positive numbers, a being number.

Since
> b, and x a positive

(
a>b,
to both
ax> bx.
members
( 192),
195)
Adding ab
ab
ax >ab-\-
bx, or a(b
-\-
+ x)> b(a 4- x).

we have
(195)
Dividing both members by b{b
x),
^>^^. b b +x
In like manner,
if
is
< 6,
'
< ^^^^.
b-i-x
PROPORTION
327.
ratios.
Proportion
is
an equation whose members are equal
RATIO AND PROPORTION

Thus,
ii
313
a:b and
d are equal
ratios,
a:o
is
= c:d,
or b
= -.
d
a proportion.
328. In the proportion a:b
b the second, c the thirds
= c:d, a is called the and d the fourth.
Jirst term,
and third terms of a proportion are called the anteand the second and fourth terms the co7iseqiients. cedents, The first and fourth terms are called the extremes, and the second and third terms the means.
first
The
called the
329. If the means of a proportion are equal, either mean is Mean Proportional between the first and last terms,
is
and the last term and second terms.
called the Third Proportional to the first
Thus, in the proportion a 6 = 6 c, 6 is the mean proportional between a and c, and c is the third proportional to a and b. The Fourth Proportional to three numbers is the fourth term of a proportion whose first three terms are the three numbers taken in their order.
:
Thus, in the proportion a:b

tional to a,
b,
= c:d,
is
the fourth propor-
and
c.
330.
which each consequent
Continued Proportion is a series of equal ratios, in is the same as the next antecedent j as,
a:b
= b:c = c:d = d:e.
PROPERTIES OF PROPORTIONS
331. In any proportion, the product of the extremes product of the means.
is
equal to
the
Let the proportion be
a:b
= c:d.
Then by
327,
a_c
b~d ad = be.
314
332.
ALGEBRA
From
a
the equation ad
be = ,
.
= be = ad,
deb
b
( 331),
we
obtain
.
= ad
and a
-,
be =
That
is,
any proportion,
either extx^rne_eguals^thej^T^
of the means dividedb^Jh^]jr_extrmMj^QMdîtJ^
tM^^ducôfthejtxtrejims-dm^
331.) If the product of ttvo numbers be product of two others, one pair may be made the extremes, and the other pair the means, of a proportion.
333.
(Converse of
equal
to the
Let
T^
-!
1
ad =
7
bc:
ad
1:7 bd
Dividing by
bd,
he = i^'
^^"
hd
a c = ;^7 b d
Whence, by [327j
In like manner, we
a:b = c:d.
may
prove that
a:
c:
= b: d, d = a:b,
c
etc.
nation
334. In any proportion, the terms are in proportion by Alterthat is, the means can be interchanged.
;
Then by 331,
Whence, by
changed.
333,
it
= c d. ad = be. a:c = b:d.

:
In like manner,
may
be proved that the extremes can be inter-
^;'\^^^'
sion
335. In any proportion, the terms are in projoortion by Inverthat is, th,e second term is to the first as the fourth term is
;
to the thirds

Then, by 331,
a:b
= c: d.
ad=bc.
Whence, by
333,
b:a = d:c.

It
315
as the extremes,
follows from 335 that, in any proportion, the and the extremes as the means.
means can be written
336.
The mean proportional between two numbers

of their product.
is
equal
to
the square root
a:b
b:c.
b
Then by
331,
b" = ac,
and
= Vac.
337. In ajiy proportion, the terms are in proportion by Composition; that is, the sum of the first two terms is to the first
term as the
sum of the
last
two terms
is to the
third term.
Let the proportion he
a:b
Then,
= c: d. ad = be.
or a(c
Adding each member

ac
-\-
of the equation to ac,

-{-
ad
= ac
a
be,
-f-
d)
c.
= c(a
-|-
b).
Then by
333,
a+
b
b
a
:
= c-{-d:
=c+
d
:
We may
that
also prove
d.
338. In any proportion, the terms are in proportion by Division; is, the difference of the first two terms is to the first term as
of the
last tivo
the difference
terms
:
is to the third
:
term.
Then,
Subtracting each
= c d. ad = be.
b
member
of the equation
from
ac,
Then,
ac ad = ac be, or a(c d) = c(a b). a b a = c die.

:
We may
339.
also prove
=c
d.
I7i
any iwoportion,
;
the terms are in proportion by

is,
Com-
position and Division

to their difference
that
the
sum of
the first tivo terms is
as the
sum of
a 6
:
the last two terms is to their
difference.
=c d
:
316
ALGEBRA
Then by
337,
^^^
a
= --^.
c
(1) ^ ^
And by
338,
^^^ = ^^^^^
a
a
-\-b
(2),
c
c-\-
(2) ^
Dividing
(1)
by
Whence,
ab cd a-\-b: a b = c-{-d:c d.
340. In any propoHion, if the first two terms be multiplied by any number, as also the last two, the resulting numbers will be in
proportion.
b
;
=d
then,
^ = ^. mb
nd
or w may be unity that is, the terms of either ratio (Either multiplied without multiplying the terms of the other. )
may be
any proportion, if the first and third terms be multiplied by any number, as also the second and fourth terms, the proportion. resulting numbers will be
341.
I7i

(Either w or n may be unity. )
=d
then,
T^^^T^,
nb
nd
342. In any number of proportions, the products of the corresponding terms are in proportion.
Let the proportions be ^ ^
= -,
d'
and - = ^.
Multiplying,
^x^ = ^xf, or^^ = f. b dh f d h bf

may
be proved for any number
In like manner, the theorem

of proportions.
343. In any proportion, like powers or like roots of the terms are in proportion.

317
-=-
then,
=_
T T1 In like manner,
Va = VC Vh ^d
ratios,
all the
344. In a series of equal

sequent as the
consequents.
any antecedent
is to the
is to its con-
sum of
antecedents
sum of
all the
Let
a:b = c:d = e:f

ad =
bc,
Then by 331,
and
Also,
af=he.
ah
a{h-{-d-\-f)
= ha.
= h{a + c-\-e).
= a + c + e:& + d+/.
may
(333)
be proved for any number
Adding,
Whence,*
a:&

of equal ratios.
345. If three numbers are in continued proportion, the

to the third
first is
as the square of the first
is to the
square of the second.
a: b
=b
b
c; or
- = -b
c
Then,
X^ = !5x2, or5 = '.

b
c
b^
346. If four numbers are in continued proportion, the

to the
first is
fourth as the cube of the first
is to the
cube of the second.

or
a: b
=b
= c: d;
= = bed
b^
-.
Then,
^x^x^ = ^X^X^, b c d b b b
or^ d
= ^.
818
347. Examples.
1.
ALGEBRA
x:y =
mean
It
(x-}-zy: (y
y.
-{-
zy, prove z the
proportional
between x and
From
the given proportion,
by
331,
Or
Transposing,
x'^y
= x(y + zy. + 2 xyz + yz^ = +2 + xy^ = xz"^ yz^. x'^y

y(x
^)2
a;^/^
ic?/;s
xî^.
Dividing hy x
Therefore, z
is
y,
xy
= 0^.
the
mean
proportional between x and y ( 336).
The theorem
of 339 saves
work
in the solution of a certain
class of fractional equations.

^.
Solve the equation ^
^^1 = ?^:=^. 2a;-3 2b-\-a

we have by composition and
:
Regarding
this as a proportion,
division,
= -2a
6
3.
or
=
S
whence, x
=
a
Prove that
if
- = t, then b d
Let 6
=-=
d
x,
whence,
yir^2
6x
then,
3.2
^2
^2
_ 52 _ 3 ^(5
a^
52^2
_ 52 _ 3 52a; _
3 ^5
x'^
_1 -3X d^
:
c2_^
d^
c;^
C2
_ 3c
d
c2
- ^2 - 3 c(^
d^^
Then,
62
a2
c^
c2 - 3 C(Z.
EXERCISE
1.
151
Find the mean proportional between 18 and
32.
first,
2. Find the third term of a proportion whose and fourth terms are 24, 32, and 20, respectively.
second,
3. 4.
Find the third proportional to J^ and ^.

Find the mean proportional between 1^^ and
24|^.

5.
319
1-f.
Find the fourth proportional to
4|,
5f and
,
6.
7.
Find the third proportional
to a^
+8
and a +
2.
Find the mean proportional between

x5
x-\-3
:

'
3g;-8 ^ 2a;-5 3a; + 4~2ic + 7'
^q
'
x' -{-2x-S a;2_2a;_3

a^'
^ 3x + 2
3a;-2
^
iÎ = I^l
4a;-7
11.
'
5a-3*
a;
+ V3a^-l ^ a^-V2TT a^-V3a;-l a^+V2a; + l

2/
12.
_a6 a+& a^ _ b^-\-y x If y x-{-a^

a;4-?/
13.
Find two numbers
in the ratio
4 to
3,
such that the
dif-
ference of their squares shall be 112.

14. Find two numbers such that, if 9 be added to the first, and 7 subtracted from the second, they will be in the ratio 9:2; while if 9 be subtracted from the first, and 7 added to the second,
they will be in the ratio 9 11.

:
15.
Find two numbers

c,
in the ratio
h,
such that,
:
if
each be
increased by
16.
is \7.^
they shall be in the ratio
n.
in continued proportion whose sum such that the quotient of the first by the second shall
Find three numbers
be|.
17.
6,
What number must

c,
and
be added to each of the numbers a, so that the resulting numbers shall be in continued
proportion ?
18. Find a number such that, if it be subtracted from each term of the ratio 8 5, the result is ^-Q- of what it Avould have been if the same number had been added to each term.
:
320
19.
ALGEBRA
The second
of two numbers is the mean proportional beThe third number exceeds the sum of the other two. tween the other two by 20 and the sum of the first and third exceeds
;
three times the second by 4.

20.
Find the numbers.

c,
If
8a 56:7
46 = 86 5c: 7 6 4
6.
prove
the
third proportional to a and

21. 22.
If
li
ma
qb = mc -\-nd:pc qd, prove a:b = c:d. y^ V/ prove y the mean x-{-y:y -]-z = Vxr
-{-
nb pa
:
z^,
proportional between x and
z.
23. Given (2 a'~{-2ab)x-}-(a^-{-2b^)y=(a^-b')x-\-(2a''-\-b^)y, find the ratio of x to y.
24.
If 4 silver coins
and 11 copper coins are worth as much
as 2 gold coins, and 5 silver coins and 19 copper coins as much as 3 gold coins, find the ratio of the value of a gold coin, and the value of a silver coin, to the value of a copper coin.
TO If
a c - = -, prove
6
25. 26.
3a4-46:3a-46 = 3c + 4d:3c-4d
a''-5ab:2ab-\-^b^ = c'-5cd:2cd + 7d^
a'
27.
28.
+ 6ab':a'b-Sb'=c' + 6cd':c'd-8d^
A
of two vessels contains a mixture of wine and mixture consisting of equal measures from the two vessels is composed of wine and water in the ratio 3:4; another mixture consisting of 2 measures from the first and 3 measures
Each
water.
from the second, is composed of wine and water in the Find the ratio of wine to water in each vessel. 3.
:
ratio
VARIATION
321
J^XXVI. VARIATION
348. One variable number ( 317) is said to vary directly as another when the ratio of any two values of the first equals
the ratio of the corresponding values of the second.
It is
usual to omit the

varies as another.
if
word "directly," and simply say that one

receives a fixed
number
Thus,
workman
number
of dollars per
will be to the
diem, the number of dollars received in number received in n days as is to n.
m days
Then, the ratio of any two numbers of dollars received equals the ratio of the corresponding numbers of days worked. Hence, the number of dollars which the workman receives
varies as the
number
of days during
which he works.
a ccb
is
349. The symbol

" a varies as 6."
is
read
^^
varies as^' ; thus,
read
is said to vary inversely as another varies directly as the reciprocal of the second. Thus, the number of hours in which a railway train will traverse a fixed route varies inversely as the speed; if the
350. One variable number

the
first
when
speed be doubled, the train will traverse

the
its
route in one-half
number
of hours.
is
351. One variable number
said to vary as
two others jointly
when
varies directly as their product. Thus, the number of dollars received by a workman in a certain number of days varies jointly as the number which he
it
receives in one day,
and the number of days during which he
works.
352. One variable number is said to vary directly as a second and inversely as a third, when it varies jointly as the second and the reciprocal of the third.
322
ALGEBRA
of matter,
Thus, the attraction of a body varies directly as the amount and inversely as the square of the distance.
353. If XQC
y,
then
x equals y multiplied by a constant number.
Let
X and
x'
y,
and y' denote a fixed pair of corresponding values of and x and y any other pair.
'
By J
the deiinition of 348, -
= -7;
y"
01. '
= ,y.
y'^
y
x'
,
Denoting the constant ratio
by m, we have
x = my.
354. It follows from 350, 351, 352, and 353 that
1. 2.
3.
:
If X varies inversely as
y,
x=
z,
x = myz.
Zj
If X varies jointly as y and If X varies
directly as y and inversely as
x=
my
355. If XQcy, and

xccy, By 353, And if yocz,
ii
yt^nz,
then xc^z.
x = my.
(1)
Substituting in
(1),
Whence, by
353,
is constant,
356. If xccy when z

then xccyz when both y
and xccz when y

z,
is
constant,
and
z vary.
Let
y'
and
z'
be the values of y and
respectively,
when x
has the value

to
x'.
Let y be changed from y' to y", z remaining constantly equal z', and let x be changed in consequence from a;' to X.
Then by 348,
^=-^.
(1)
Now
let z
equal to y'\
and
be changed from z' to z", y remaining constantly let x be changed in consequence from to oj".
VARIATION
Then,
323
|=i
(2),
(2)
Multiplying (1) by
^=y 15.
X
z
(3)
Now
z
if
from z' to z", x from y'z' to 2/"2!".
both changes are made, that is, y from y' to 2/" and is changed from a;' to x'\ and yz is changed
Then by
(3),
the ratio of any two values of x equals the
ratio of the corresponding values of yz] and,
by
348, xccyz.
The following is an illustration of the above theorem It is known, by Geometry, that the area of a triangle varies as the base when the altitude is constant, and as the altitude when the base is constant hence, when both base and altitude vary, the area varies as
:
their product.
357. Problems.
variation into an equation
1.
Problems in variation are readily solved by converting the by aid of 353 or 354.
If
cc
varies inversely as y,
and equals 9 when y
= S,
find
the value of x
If
when y =
y,
lS.
X varies inversely as
x
9
= =8
18,
,
( 354).
Putting X
=9
;
and
?/
= 8,
if
or
m = 72.
Then,
2.
a;
=
y
and,
a;
= = 4.
18
Given that the area of a triangle varies jointly as its base what will be the base of a triangle whose altitude is 12, equivalent to the sum of two triangles whose bases are 10 and 6, and altitudes 3 and 9, respectively ?
and
altitude,
any
Let B, H, and A denote the base, altitude, and area, respectively, of triangle, and B' the base of the required triangle.
Since
A varies jointly m
as
and H,
Therefore, the area of the first triangle area of the second is x 6 x 9, or 54 m.
A = niBH ( 354). is m x 10 x 3, or
is
30 m, and the
Then, the area of the required triangle
30
w+
54 m, or 84 m.
324
ALGEBRA
is
But, the area of the required triangle

Therefore,
12
also
y.
B' x
12.
mB' =
84:m, or B'
=7.
EXERCISE
1. li yccx, and x equals 6 value of y when x equals 8 ?
152
when y
equals 54, what
is
the
2. is
If
X varies inversely as
y,
the value of y
3.
when
ic
=f?
and equals f when y

z
= %, what
If
?/
cc z^,
and equals 40 when
= 10, what is =
the value of
y in terms of
4.
z^ ?
and
2/
= |,
If
If z varies jointly as x and y, and equals -| what is the value of z when a; | and y
a?
when
a;
= ^?
5.
varies directly as y
2;
when y = 27 and z = 32?

6.
= 64, what
a;
and inversely as
is
z,
the value of x
when
and equals -^-^ = 9 and 2/
If
a;
a;'^
X 2/^
and
=4
when
2/
= 4,
what
is
when
7.
the value of y
|-
?
is
If 5
value of X
a; + 8cc6yl, and aj=6 when 2/= 3, what when y = 7?
the
8. The surface of a cube varies as the square of its edge. If the surface of a cube whose edge is -J feet is -^-^- square feet, what will be the edge of a cube whose surface is square feet ?
^^
9.
If 5
men
in 6 days earn
;
$ 57,
how many days
will
it
take
4 men to earn $ 76
being given that the amount earned varies jointly as the number of men, and the number of days
it
durjng which they work.

10. The volume of a sphere varies jointly as its diameter and surface. If the volume of a sphere whose diameter is a, and surface b, is c, what is the diameter of a sphere whose surface is p and volume q ?
11.
The
distance fallen by a body from rest varies as the
square of the time during which it falls. If it falls 579 feet in 6 seconds, how long will it take to fall 402^2 ^^* ^
'
VARIATIOlSr
12.
325
and formed into three If the diameters of two
circular plate of lead, 17 inches in diameter, is melted circular plates of the same thickness.
of the plates are 8
and 9 inches respec-
tively, find the diameter of the other; it being given that the area of a circle varies as the square of its diameter.
If y equals the sum of two numbers which vary directly and inversely as x, respectively, and ?/ equals 53 when X equals 3, and ^-^- when x equals 2, what is the value of y when x equals J ?
13.
as 0?
If X equals the sum of two numbers, one of which varies 45 when directly as y'^ and the other inversely as z^, and a? 2 and 2! and z and a; 40 when y find the value l, y==l 3,
14.
of y
when
a;
= = 37
= and 2 = 1.
15.
is
If y equals the
constant,
tively,
sum of three numbers, the first of which and the second and third vary as x^ and a?, respecand ?/ = 50 when = 2, 30 when x = 2, and 110
when
16.
a;
= 3,
find the expression for y in terms of x.
The volume
of a circular coin varies jointly as its thick-
ness and the square of the radius of its face. Two coins whose thicknesses are 5 and 7 units, and radii of faces 60 and 30
units, respectively, are melted and formed into 100 coins, each 3 units thick. Find the radius of the face of the new coin.
17.
its
The weight
if solid.
of a spherical shell, 2 inches thick, is \^ of
Find its diameter, it being given that the weight volume of a sphere varies as the cube of its diameter.
PROBLEMS IN PHYSICS
1. When the force which stretches a spring, a straight wire, any elastic body is varied, it is found that the displacement produced in the body is always directly proportional to the force which acts upon it; i.e., if d-^ and dg represent any two displacements, and /^ and /g respectively the forces which produce them, then the algebraic statement of the above law is
or
^^k
(1)
326
ALGEBRA
pounds stretches a given wire .01 inch, how 20 pounds stretch the same wîre ?
If a force of 2
much
will a force of
2. If the same force is applied to two wires of the same length and material, but of different diameters, D^ and Dg, then the displacements d^ and d^ are found to be inversely propor-
tional to the squares of the diameters,
i.e.,
If a weight of 100 kilograms stretches a wire
.5
millimeter
in diameter through 1 millimeter, how much elongation will the same weight produce in a wire 1.5 millimeters in diameter ?
3. If the same force is applied to two wires of the same diameter and material, but of different lengths, li and l^, then it is
found that
=
7'-
(3)
Prom (1), (2), and (3) and 356, it follows that diameters, and forces are all different,
when lengths,
^ = = X - X ^^'
^2
(4)
J2
^2
J-^\
If a force of 1
pound
will stretch
.5
is
an iron wire which
is
200 centimeters long and

1 millimeter,
what force
?
millimeter in diameter through required to stretch an iron wire
150 centimeters long and 1.25 millimeters in diameter through

.5
millimeter
4.
When
is
the temperature of a gas
is
constant, its
is
found
to be inversely proportional to the pressure to
volume which
the gas
subjected,
i.e.,
algebraically stated,
Yi = ?^.
At the bottom
(5)
of a lake 30 meters deep, where the pressure 4000 grams per square centimeter, a bubble of air has a volume of 1 cubic centimeter as it escapes from a diver's suit. To what volume will it have expanded when it reaches the surface where the atmospheric pressure is about 1000 grams per square
is
centimeter ?
VARIATION
5.
327
The
electrical resistance of a wire varies directly as its
length and inversely as its area. If a copper wire 1 centimeter in diameter has a resistance of 1 unit per mile, how many units
of resistance will a copper wire have which is and 3 millimeters in diameter?
6.
500 feet long
The
as the square of the distance

is
illumination from a source of light varies inversely from the source. book which
now 10
inches from the source
is
moved 15 inches
farther
away.
7.
How much
The period
will the light received be reduced ?
of vibration of a
pendulum
is
found to vary
directly as the square root of its length. If a pendulum 1 meter long ticks seconds, what will be the period of vibration of a
pendulum 30 centimeters long ?

8.
The
force with
side of its surface is
which the earth pulls on any body outfound to vary inversely as the square of
center.
the distance from
its
If the surface of the earth is
4000 miles from the center, what would a pound weight weigh 15,000 miles from the earth ?
9.
The number
of vibrations
made per second by

is
a guitar
string of given diameter and material

to its length
inversely proportional
and directly proportional to the square root of If a string 3 feet long, the force with which it is stretched.
stretched with a force of 20 pounds, vibrates 400 times per second, find the number of vibrations made by a string 1 foot
long, stretched
by a force
of
40 pounds.
GRAPHS IN PHYSICS
1.
Graphical representation of a direct proportion.

a
When
his
man
The
d
is
running at a constant speed, the distance

algebraic
directly proportional expression of this relation
is
which he travels in a given time

speed.
or
to
is
^ = -S
a^
2
= ms.
(See
353.)
328
ALGEBRA
if
plot successive values of the distance, d, which correspond to various speeds, s, in precisely the same manner in which we plotted successive
Now,
we
values of x and
in 181, we 2/ obtain as the graphical picture of the relation between s and d a
straight line passing through the

origin.
(See Fig.
is
1.)
This
the graj^h
of any direct
Fig.
1.
proportion.
2.
Graphical representation of an inverse proportion.
of gas occupies when the varies has been found to be subjected inversely proportional to the pressure under which the gas stands; we have seen that the algebraic statement of this
The volume which a given body

it is
pressure to which
relation
is
If
we
F2 -^1 successive values of plot
-^
= ~'
Fand
P in the manner indishown

in Fig. 2.
cated in
181,
we obtain a graph
of the form
the graphical representation of any inverse proportion ; the curve

is
This
is
called
3.
an
equilateral hyperbola.
The path traversed by a falling
body projected horizontally.
When a body is thrown horizontally from the top of a tower, if it were not for gravity, it would move on in a
horizontal direction indefinitely, traversing exactly the same distance in
"
each succeeding second. Hence, if represents the velocity
r=i,
of projection, the horizontal distance, H, which it would traverse in any
V=2,
v=F=4,
number
of seconds,
t,
by the equation
H=
would be given
Vt.
VARIATION
329
On account of gravity, however, the body is pulled downward, and traverses in this direction in any number of seconds a distance which is given by the equation S ^gt^. To find the actual path taken by the body, we have only to
and S, in the manner in plot successive values of the successive values of x and y, in 181. plotted
which we
is
Thus, at the end of 1 second the vertical distance Si

given hj Si
S,
= -g xl^ = -g-,
at the
at the
end of 2 seconds we have
= lgx2' = ^g',
2^
2
end of 3 seconds, Ss = -g x3^
'-
g;
at the
end of 4 seconds,
/S^
|?x4^
at
f,
etc.
On
the other hand, at the end
of 1 second
we have Hi=V',
the end of 2 seconds, ITg 2 F; at the end of 3 seconds, ^3 3 F; 4 at the end of 4 seconds, ^4
= = F
If,
values of
now, we plot these successive and S, we obtain the
graph shown
This
is
is
in Fig. 3.
it
the path of the body;

( 314, Ex. 2.)
a parabola.
4.
Graph of
relation between the
Fig.
3.
temperature and pressure existing within an air-tight boiler containing only water and water vapor.
of graphs in physics is to express a relation which found by experiment to exist between two quantities, which cannot be represented by any simple algebraic equation.
is
One use
For example, when the temperature of an which contains only water and water vapor is
sure within the boiler increases also
;
air-tight boiler
raised, the pres-
thus we find by direct
experiment that when the temperature of the boiler is 0 centigrade, the pressure which the vapor exerts will support a
column of mercury
4.6 millimeters high.
330
ALGEBRA
the temperature
9.1
is
When
rises to
millimeters;
etc.
at 30 the
raised to 10, the mercury column column is 31.5 milli-
meters long,
To obtain a simple and compact
picture of the relation
between temperature and pressure, we plot a succession of

temperatures, e.g. 0, 10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60, 70, 80, 90, 100, in the manner in which
we
X in
plotted successive values of 181, and then plot the
corresponding values of pressure obtained by experiment in the manner in which we plotted

the
2/'s
in 181
we
obtain the
graph shown
in Fig. 4.
From
this
graph we can find
at once the pressure which will exist within the boiler at any
temperature.
For example,
tigrade,
if we wish to know the we observe where the vertical
pressure at 75 cen-
through 75
cuts
line which passes the curve and then run a horizontal line
from
This point
this point to the point of intersection with the line OP. is found to be at 288 hence the pressure within
;
the boiler at 75 centigrade
is
288 millimeters.
PROGRESSIONS
331
XXVII.
PROGRESSIONS
ARITHMETIC PROGRESSION
358. An Arithmetic Progression is a series of terms in which each term, after the first, is obtained by adding to the preceding term a constant
number
called the
is
Common
Difference.
Thus,
1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 11,
an arithmetic progression in
2^
which the common difference
is
Again, 12, 9, 6, 3, 0, 3, is an arithmetic progression in which the common difference is 3.
An
Arithmetic Progression
is
also called
an Arithmetic Senes.
359.
Given
member of
the first term, a, the common difference, d, terms, n, to find the last term, I.
is a,
and
the
The progression
a-{-d, a-\-2 d,
a+3
c?,
observe that the coefficient of d in any term than the number of the term.
We
is less
by 1
Then, in the nth term the
coefficient of
d will be n
1.
(I)
That
360.
terms,
is,
= a-\-{n-l)d.
I,
Given
the first term, a, the last tenn,
and
the
number of
7i,
to find the
sum of
the tei-ms, S.
S = a + {a-^d)^{a+2d)-\-'" + il-d)-{-L
Writing the terms in reverse order,
S = l+{l-d) + {l-2d) +
'"
+ {a + d)â.
Adding these equations term by term,
2^=(a + + (a-f-0 + ( + 0+- + ( + + ( + 0Therefore, 2S^n(a + l), and S = '^{a-\-T). (II)

361. Substituting in (II) the value of
,S
I
from
(I),
we have
|[2a
+ (n-l)d].
332
362. Ex.
Ill
ALGEBRA
the progression ^,5, 2, term and the sum.
a
? (^
1, 4,
.,
to
27
terms, find the last

Here,
Substitute in (I),
Substitute in (II),
= 8, = 5 - 8 = - 3, w = 27. = 8 + (27 - 1)(^ 3) = 8 - 78 = ^ = ?Z (8 - 70) = 27 (- 31) = - 837.
70.
The common
from
tlie
difference may be found by subtracting the second, or any term from the next following term.
first
term
EXERCISE
153
In each of the following, find the

1.
last
term and the sum
4, 9, 14,
3.
...
to 14 terms.
2.
...
9, 2,
-5,
...
to 16 terms.
- 51, - 45, - 39,

-|,
to 15 terms.
4.
5. I, i,
--y-,
-3,
...
to 13 terms.
6.
i,
7.
to 18 terms.
|, f|, fj,
to 17 terms.
8-
9.
- -igS - fl, - 1, - A? - i - Mj 3 a + 46, 8a + 26,

^J=^, 3
'
...
to 27 terms.
to 52 terms.
13a, ...to 10 terms.
10.
^-,
6'
' ^^2/,
...to 9 terms.
363. The
term,
first term,
common
difference,
and sum of
the terms,
are
number of terms, last called the elements of the
progression. If any three of the five elements of an arithmetic progression are given, the other two may be found by substituting the
known
values in the fundamental formulae (I) and (II), and solving the resulting equations.
1.
Given a
= |,
n = 20,
/iS
=f
find d
and
I.
Substituting the given values in (II),
^^lof-5+zV or-l::.-^+Z; 3 6 3 3 V y
'
then, '
= ^--l =
3
^-.
PROGRESSIONS
values of a, w, and 3 in (I), 2
333
5 = -+
Substituting
tlie
19d.
Whence,
2.
'
19 d
= - + ^ = ^5^,
2 3
and
c?
=i.
6
Given d = -3,
= -39,
39
/S'
= -264;
- 1)(- 3),
in (II)
,
find a
or a
and
3w
n.
42.
Substituting in (I),
Substituting
tlie
=
I,
a
S,
(w
=
_
(1)
values of
39), or
and a
- 264 =
,,
(3
- 42 n
- 528 = 3 n^ _ 81
704
n, or n^
27 w
176
= 0.
Whence,
'
= 27 \/729
2
=!^ = 27 i 5 = . 16
or 11. or
11.
Substituting in (1), a
=
w
48
16
42 or 33
;
42
9,
=6
w
- 9.
The The
If
solution
is
6,
or,
=
:
significance of the
two answers
is
as follows
3, 0,
=6
=
and n
= 16,
ri
the progression
is 6,
3,
6,
9,
12,
-15, -18, -21, -24, -27, -30, -33, -36, -39.

If
9 and
11, the progression is
-9, -12, -15, -18, -21, -24, -27, -30, -33, -36, -39.
In each of these the sum
3:
is
264.
Given a=^, d
Z
= ^^y ^ = |
= +
I
(71
find
and
n.
1)
(
I
^)
^.
''
(1)
Substituting the values of a, S, and
in (II),
=i(h^)'
Whence,
^
''
-^-9--36=o.
_3^
of terms in a
-'="('-12^)'
^^ 2 2
^ 9 ^ VsTTlii ^ 9^15 ^ ,,
The value w
3 must be rejected, for the
number
progression must be a positive integer.

Substituting
w=12
in (1),
5-12
I
12
12
all
negative or fractional value of n must be rejected, together with other values dependent on it.
334
ALGEBRA
EXERCISE
154
1.
Given d
Given
2. 3. 4. 5.
Given
Given
Given
Given
Given Given Given Given
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
Given
Given
12. 13.
14.
15.
Given
Given Given
= S, = 115, = 15; find a and S. = 14, S = -616; find a and d = ~6, a = - 69, n = 16, = 36 find d and S. = -2500; find d and a =8, m = 25, -y-, /S = 78 find d and = a=f = ^^, n = 13, /S = ^J^; find a and d = ^|^^; find n and a = f, d = y%, a = f, = ^, ^ = f; fi^<i ^ ^.nd = ^, n = 55, = 165; find a and = ^-, n = 24, /S = 241; find a and d. = \^ d = |, /S = -^f^; find a and n. = -^; find d and a = -f, = -fi y> ^ = ^1, = ||- find d and a= = yf, = 3%, = find a and n. and a = --V-> d = l, S = -^-; find
^
71
71
I.
>S'
?.
71.
>S'
Z.
>S.
cZ
>S'
I.
>S'
n.
/S"
?.
c?
/S'
^^^^-;
71
Z.
364.
From
Given
is
(I)
and
(II), general
examples
Ex.
like the
above
may
îS
;
formulce for the solution of be readily derived.
a, d,
and
derive the formula for n.

l)c?],
By
361, 2
S=n[2a + in-
or dn^
(2 a
d)n
2S.
;
a quadratic in n, and may be solved by the method of 288 multiplying by 4 d, and adding (2 a d)^ to both members,
This
4 dH"^
4 d(2 a
d)n
(2 a
dy^
= 8 dS +
(2 a
dy.
2dn + 2a
d= V8 dS +
d)\.
(2 a
d)^.
Whence,
-2a VSdS + {2a ^ ^d

2d
EXERCISE
1.
155
d.
Given
a,
I,
and n
derive the formula for
PROGRESSIONS
2.
3.
335
for
Given
Given
a, n, d, n,
and S; derive the formulae

and
d and
I.
S
I
;
derive the f ormulie for a and
I.
4.
5.
Given Given Given

Given
a, d,
d,
I,
and and and

and and
derive the formulae for n and S. derive the formulae for a and S.
I,
ti
6.
7.
n,
/S ^S
/S'
derive the formulae for a and

;
d.
a, d,
a,
I,
I.
8. 9.
Given
Given
derive the formulae for d and n. derive the formulae for a and n.
d,
I,
and
aS;
365.
Arithmetic Means.
define inserting arithmetic means between two given 2 b, as finding an arithmetic progression of
We
numbers, a and
terms, whose
m+
first
and
last
terms are a and
b.
Ex.
Insert 5 arithmetic
find
;
means between 3 and

7
5.
=
3,
We = 5
substituting
an arithmetic progression of w = 7, a = 3, and ? =
terms, in which a
5 in (I),
and
-6 = S-\-6d,
The progression
is 3,
or d
= -ô
So
|,
^,
-1,
-I
-^, So
-5.
366. Let X denote the arithmetic
mean between a and
b.
Then,
x a = b~x,ov2x = a-\-b.
'
Whence,
That
is,
= ^-^.
2
one-
^ê arithmetic
mean between two numbers equMs

EXERCISE
156
half their sum.
1.
Insert 7 arithmetic Insert 6 arithmetic Insert 9 arithmetic
means between 4 and

means between
10.
2. 3.
means between
f and ^-. J and 6.
336
4.
5. 6.
ALGEBRA
Insert 8 arithmetic
Insert 5 arithmetic
means between
and
-^.
means between f and

and
i. |
find
How many
^^,
arithmetic means are inserted between
and
7.
when
two.
the
sum
of the second
last is
f?
b,
If
first
m arithmetic
means are inserted between a and
the
Find the arithmetic mean between

8.
\^-
and
- i^.
9.
(3
m + nf and
(m - 3 nf.
367. Problems.
1.
The
359,
fifteenth
term
sixth term of an arithmetic progression Find the first term. is -^3^-.

the sixth term
is
is f,
and the
By
(?,
and the
fifteenth
term a
+ Hd.
a+
Then by
the conditions,
]
5. =
|,

2. Find four numbers in arithmetic progression such that the product of the first and fourth shall be 45, and the product of the second and third 77.
Let the numbers be x
3y, x
y,
-\-y,
and x-\-Sy.
PROGRESSIONS
EXERCISE
1.
337
157
is
The
fifth
term of an arithmetic progression

|-.
^, and
the thirteenth term

2.
Find the twenty-second term.

all
Find the sum of

999.
the odd integers, beginning with 1
and ending with

3.
How many positive

What
The
is
integers of three digits are multiples

?
of 7 ?
4.
their
sum
first
sum
of the sixth
term of an arithmetic progression is 1, and the and tenth terms is 37. Find the second and
third terms.
5.
is |,
The first term of an arithmetic progression of 11 terms and the seventh term 3. Find the sum of the terms.
In an arithmetic progression, the sum of the first and Find the is two-ninths the sum of all the terms.
of terms.
6.
last
terms
number
7.
The seventh term of an arithmetic progression is 37, and the sum of the first 17 terms 799. Find the sum of the
first
13 terms.
8.
Find
five
numbers
the
sum
9.
of the
first,
in arithmetic progression such that fourth, and fifth is 14, and the quotient of
the second by the fourth
^.
?
How many
when
their
arithmetic
means
are inserted between
and
I,
sum
is
^-j--
10. If the constant difference of an arithmetic progression equals twice the first term, the quotient of the sum of the terms by the first term equals the square of the number of terms.
11.
is
to the
first
The sum of the first 10 terms of an arithmetic progression sum of the first 5 terms as 13 to 4. Find the ratio of
term to the common difference.
the
Find four numbers in arithmetic progression such that of the first and second shall be 1, and the product of the second and fourth 24.
12.
the
sum
338
13.
is
ALGEBRA
The last terra of an arithmetic progression The sum of the odd-numbered terms
is
of 10 terms
is
29.
to
the
first
sum
of the even-numbered terms as 14
to 17.
Find the
term and the common difference.

14. The sum of five numbers in arithmetic progression and the sum of their squares is 135. Find the numbers. 15.
is 25,
A man travels ^^ miles. He

How many
travels 10 miles the first
day, and increases his speed one-half mile in each succeeding
day.
16.
days does the journey require
of 9 terms, in
17.
Find the sum of the terms of an arithmetic progression which 17 is the middle term.
Find three numbers in arithmetic progression, such that
the square of the first added to the product of the other two gives 16, and the square of the second added to the product of the other two gives 14.
18. If a person saves $ 120 each year, and puts this sum at simple interest at 3|% at the end of each year, to how much will his property amount at the end of 18 years ?
19.
traveller
first
7 miles the
and so on. and travels 16J miles an hour.

first starts
out from a certain place, and goes hour, 7^ the second hour, 8 the third hour, After he has been gone 5 hours, another sets out,
sets
How many
hours after the
are the travellers together ?
A There are 12 equidistant balls in a straight line. starts from a position in line with the balls, and beyond person them, his distance from the first ball being the same as the distance between the balls, and picks them up in succession, He finds that he returning with each to his original position. has walked 780 feet. Find the distance between the balls.
20.
GEOMETRIC PROGRESSION
368. A Geometric Progression is a series of terms in which each term, after the first, is obtained by multiplying the preceding term by a constant number called the Ratio.
PROGRESSIONS
Thus,
the ratio
2, 6, 18, 54,
is 3.
-J-,
339
162,
is
a geometric progression in which
9, 3, 1, 1,
is
a geometric progression in which the ratio
,-^
3, 6,
the ratio
is
12, 24, 48, 2.
is
a geometric progression in which

called a Geometric Series.
Geometric Progression
is also
369. Given the first term, a, the ratio, terms, n, to find the last term, L
r,
and
the
number of
The progression
is a, ar, ar^, ai^, .
observe that the exponent of r in any term than the number of the term.
We
is less
by 1
Then, in the nth term the exponent of r will be n
1.
(I)
That
370.
find the
is,
= a?-"-\
I,
Given
the first term, a, the last term,
and
the ratio,
r, to
sum of the
terms, S.
-\
S = a + ar + ar"^
rS = ar-{-
f-
ar""'^
+ r"-2 + ar^-K + ar'^-^ +

or
ar"".
(1)

ar^
-\-
r,
--
ai^
-\-
-\-
ar""-^
(2)
.
(2),
r8-S = ar^-a,
rlâr\
/S
= ^^J~^
But by
(I),
369,
Therefore,
^ = r?J=i^.
T 1
(II)
The first term, ratio, number of terms, last term, are called the elements of the progression.
371. Examples.
1. In the progression term and the sum.
and sum of the terms,
3, J,
-J,
to 7 terms, find the last
Here, a
^,
= -,
1.
340
ALGEBRA
I
=
^(|)'=|
^J__3
2186
o , ,xTx Substituting in (II),

. .
3 8=
lxi_3 243
^
3~
= 729
729
~3
~3
^=^
1093
may be found by dividing the second term by the any term by the next preceding term.
The
ratio
first,
or
2.
last
In the progression term and the sum.
2,
3,
6,
18,
to 8 terms, find the
Here, a
= 2,
Z
= S;
therefore,
= _ 2(- 3)7 zz - 2 X (- 2187) = 4374. - 3 X 4374 -(-2) - 13122 + 2 000^ = =^2^^^=

,,
-3-1
~~ri
158
EXERCISE
Find the
1. 2.
3.
last
..
term and the sum of the following

to 10 terms.
6.
7. 8.
1,
2,
4,
f, f,
i,
-^,
to 7 terms.
-6,
3,
-9,-225'-, to 7 terms.
75,
-4, -3, -|,

f,
to 5 terms.
15,
to 5 terms.
-VS
...
to 8 terms.
4.
5.
-5, -20, -80, ...to 6 terms. 1 i, 1, ... to 9 terms.
9. 2, |, 2%,
to 6 terms.
to 8 terms.
10. f,
|,
...
372. If any three of the five elements of a geometric progression are given, the other two may be found by substituting the given values in the fundamental formulae (I) and (II), and
solving the resulting equations. But in certain cases the operation involves the solution of an
equation of a degree higher than the second and in others the unknown number appears as an exponent, the solution of which
;
form of equation can usually only be
effected
by the aid
of
logarithms ( 437). In all such cases in the present chapter, the equations be solved by inspection.
may
PROGRESSIONS
1.
341
and S.
Given a
= 2,
32
= 5, = 32^
l
;
find r
Substituting the given values in (I),
we have
2 r*
v^hence, r*
16, or r
2.
Substituting in (II),
If
r=
r
2,
^y
^ ^(
'^^)
-(1
^) ==
64
+ 2=-
62.
If
= -2, ^^ (-2)(-32)-(-2) ^64 + 2^_^3^
-2-1
;
-3
The
solution
is
2,
/S'
=-
62
or, r
= -2, S = -22.
as follows
:
The
If
interpretation of the
2,
two answers
is is
is
r=
the progression the progression
2, 4, 8, 16, 32, whose sum
is is
62. 22.
If
r= 2,
2,
4,
8,
16,
32, whose sum

ti
2.
Given a
= S,
= -^, 8 = ^^^-^-,
find
and
?.
Substituting in (II),
^ _^ ~3~
=
7 ^
-lz-3
=
^.
_6560 "
729
Whence Whence,
9-^560. +^"
729
r,
'
'
__ J_,
729
Substituting the values of a,
and
'
'
in (I) ,
_X = 3f-lV-Sor,
729
V
3/
f-lV-^=-^. 2187 V 3;
for the solution of
Whence, by inspection, w 1 = 7, or n = S. From (I) and (II) general formulae may be derived
cases like the above.
If the given elements are n, I, and S, equations for a and r found, but there are no definite formulce for their values. The same is the case when the given elements are a, w, and S.
may
be
The general formulae

in 437.
for n involve logarithms
these cases are discussed
EXERCISE
1.
159
Given
Given
2.
= 3, = S,l = 2187 find a and S. find a and r = 4, n = 5, S = 410

r
7i
;
I.
342
3.
ALGEBRA
4.
5. 6.
7.
8. 9.
10.
11.
= -f4; find rand Given a = 3, r=^, = y|^ find n and 8. Given r = -2, = 10, iS = -i-y-^; find a and L = 7, = |f find r and S. Given a = f = -i = --2g*^, = -fff; find r and w. Given a Givena = f, r = |, >S = mf; find/andw. = - ^Q^^ find a and Given = - 768, r = 4, Given a = |, = 1458, >^= ^^^ find r and w.
Z
Givena = 6,n = 6,
/S.
71
/i
/S'
>S'
ti.
Given Given
Given
a, r,
a,
r,
I,
and and and and
/S;

derive the formula for derive the formula for
I.
12. 13.
14.
S
/S
r.
I,
a.
Given
r, n,
derive the formulae for a and S.
15.
16.
Given
Given
r,
n,
and
and
>S';
derive the formulae for a and

derive the formulae for r and
I.
a, n,
/iS.
373.
Sum
of a Geometric Progression to Infinity.
The
limit ( 318) to
which the sum of the terms of a
decreas-
ing geometric progression approaches, when the number of terms is indefinitely increased, is called the sum of the series
to infinity.
Formula
(II), 370,
may
^
be written
a rl
1r
It is evident that, by sufficiently continuing a decreasing geometric progression, the absolute value of the last term may be made less than any assigned number, however small. Hence, when the number of terms is indefinitely increased,
I,
and therefore
rl,
0.
Then, the fraction
^~^ 1 r
PROGRESSIONS
Therefore, the
infinity is
343
sum of a decreasing geometric progression to given by the formula

/S
= -^. 1 r
series 4,
(Ill)
Ex.
Find the sum of the
|,
^-^ to infinity.
Here,
4,
3
r
Substituting in (III) ,
S=
-^ = 5
1+1
EXERCISE
Find the sum
1-
160
:
to infinity of the following

5.
6.
6,2,1,....
hU,U,--^,^\,-^^,
2.
12,-3,1,....
'^lll... 4 _25 55 _
374.
7_3_15_
60
...
10
To find
is
the value
of a repeating decimal.
a case of finding the sum of a decreasing geometric series to infinity, and may be solved by formula (III).
This
Ex.
Find the value of .85151

.85151
...
....
We have,
The terms
in
=
r
.8
.051
.00051
....
after the first constitute a decreasing geometric progression,

.051,
which a
and
=
S
.01.
Substituting in (III),
.051
.01
.051
.99
51
17
990
8
17
1
330
,
Then, the value of the given decimal ^
is
or
281
10
330
330
EXERCISE
Find the values
1.
161
of the following
3. 4.
.7272
....
.91777
....
5.
.23135135
.587474
....
2.
.629629
....
.75959
....
6.
344
375. Geometric Means.
ALGEBRA
We
a and whose
define inserting geometric means between two numbers, 2 terms, b, as finding a geometric progression of first and last terms are a and b.
m+
Ex. Insert 5 geometric means between 2 and
^-f f
We find a geometric = 128 substituting n =
progression of 7
7,
2,
and
=
I
terms, in which a 128
= 2,
'
'
and
729
2v
in (I),
l|
Theresultis2,
= 2^;whence^ =
8
9'
^,and.
64
243'
4, '3
16
32
81'
128.
27
729
b.
376. Let X denote the geometric
mean between a and
Then,
= -,
X
or
cc^
= ab.
Whence,
That
is,
x = Va&.
the geometric
mean
between two numbers
is
equal
to
the square root
of their product.
EXERCISE
1.
162
Insert 4 geometric
2. 3. 4.
5.
Insert 5 geometric means between

Insert 4 geometric
means between } and 24. 3 and 2187.
means between -^ and 320. Insert 6 geometric means between f and yê^.
Insert 7 geometric Insert 3 geometric
If
means between
48
and
^^.
b,
6.
7.
are the last
means between X^- and ^-^. geometric means are inserted between a and two means ?
:
what
Find the geometric mean between

8.
-U and
^8
-V-.
9.
l.
^^^ xy-f
and
^^^.
xy
10.
a2-4aH-4 and 4a2 + 4a +
PROGRESSIONS
377. Problem.
345
sum
Find 3 numbers in geometric progression such that their shall be 14, and the sum of their squares 84.
a, ar,
Let the numbers be represented by

f
and
ar^.
14,
a
a2
ar
ar"-
(1)
Then, by the conditions, ^

'
'
<
I
-V2 4-
a-2ri =:
84.
(2) (3)
Divide (2) by (1),

a-ar +
ar^
= 6.
(4)
or
2.
346
7.
ALGEBRA
The sum
is
progression
ratio.
to the
of the first four terms of a decreasing geometric sum to infinity as 16 to 25. Find the
man who saved every year four-thirds as much as in 8. the preceding year, had in four years saved $ 3500. Howmuch did he save the first year ?
9.
The
difference between
two numbers
is 16, 2.
arithmetic
mean exceeds
six
their geometric
mean by
and their Find the
numbers.
10.
Find
sum
11.
of the first
numbers in geometric progression such that the and fourth shall be 9, and of the third and
sixth 36.
digits of a progression, and their
The
number of three figures are in geometric sum is 7. If 297 be added to the numFind the number.
ber, the digits will be reversed.

12.
There are three numbers in geometric progression whose ^. If the first be multiplied by f, the second by |, and the third by ^^, the resulting numbers will be in arithmetic What are the numbers ? progression.
sum
is
HARMONIC PROGRESSION
Harmonic Progression is a series of terms whose form an arithmetic progression. is a harmonic Thus, 1, progression, because the ^, J, i, reciprocals of the terms, 1, 3, 5, 7, 9, , form an arithmetic
378.
reciprocals
"I",
progression.
Harmonic Progression
is
also called a
Harmonic
Series.
379.
tible of solution,
Any problem in harmonic progression, which is suscepmay be solved by taking the reciprocals of the
terms, and applying the formulae of the arithmetic progression. There is, however, no general method for finding the sum of
the terms of
a harmonic
series.
2, |, |,
Ex.
term.
In the progression
to
36 terms, find the
last
PROGRESSIONS
Taking the reciprocals
of the terms,
1
347
the arithmetic progression
we have
"
n
3
2'
5
2'
2'
Here,
= -,
Z
l,
S6.
Substituting in (I), 359,
= 1 + (36 -
1)
Then,
is
the last term of the given harmonic series.
380. Harmonic Means.
We
and
first
b,
define inserting harmonic means between two numbers, a as finding a harmonic progression of 2 terms, whose
m+
and
last
terms are a and
b.
Ex. Insert 5 harmonic means between 2 and
3.
3
We
have to insert 5 arithmetic means between - and

2
Substituting a
= ^, = --,
Z
7i
= 7,
in (I), 359,
-l = l + 6d, -- = 6cZ,
3
'
or
cZ
= -A.
36
Then the arithmetic
series is
-, 2'
36
-,
12
is
-
3
18'
36'
Therefore, the required harmonic series

2, '
^, 13'
?, 2'
12, '
-18,
'
-^, 7'
-3.
381. Let X denote the harmonic mean between a and
b.
Then, X
is
the arithmetic
mean between - and

a
b
'
Then, by
366,
1= X
^
2
^, and 2ab
164
:
a-\-b
^.
EXERCISE
Find the
last
terms of the following

1.
I, -V-, -5
to 19 terms.
348
2.
3-
ALGEBRA
-h -h -A. -to 46 terms. -h -h - 6^ to 33 terms.
45.
rr^^V^TT. tollterms.
f, y8^, I, .--to
28 terms.
6.
7.
Insert 7 harmonic
means between
Insert 8 harmonic
Insert 6 harmonic
means between
means between
:
8.
4 and i|. | and |. i and ^.
Find the harmonic mean between

9.
^ |and-i. ^
10.
^ând^^^'. a-b a' + b'
11.
Find the next to the

b,
last
term of the harmonic progresinserted between a and
sion a,
12.
is
to n terms.
If
m harmonic means are

mean
?
b,
what
the third
13.
The
eleventh term
14.
sixth term of a harmonic progression Find the fourteenth term. f
is J,
and the
harmonic mean ^-.
The geometric mean between two numbers Find the numbers.
is 4,
and the
taken, the first is to the third as the first
382. If any three consecutive terms of a harmonic series be minus the second is to the
second minus the third.
Let the terms be
a, b,
and
c; then, since -, -,
and - are
in
arithmetic progression,
1111 = ---,
b b
or
b-c
be
a-b
ab
-^ Multiplying both members by

b
we have
a_a^
PROGRESSIONS
349
denote the arithmetic, geometric, and 383. Let A, G, and harmonic means, respectively, between a and b. Then, by 366, 376, and 381,
A=
But, '
^,
2
^ = V^, and^=^^
a+d
^X^
AxH=G\
the geometric
is,
a-j-b
= a6=(V^)l
^
Whence,
That
or
G = Âx
H.
is also the
mean between two numbers
geometric
mean
betiveen their arithmetic arid
harmonic means.
350
ALGEBRA
XXVIII.
THE BINOMIAL THEOREM
POSITIVE INTEGRAL EXPONENT

384.
Series is a succession of terms.
Finite Series is one
An Infinite Series is
or cube of
having a limited number of terms. one having an unlimited number of terms.
385. In 97 and 205 we gave rules for finding the square
any binomial.
is

power
of a binomial
a formula by means of which any

series.
may
be expanded into a
386. Proof of the Binomial Theorem for a Positive Integral Exponent.
The following
are obtained by actual multiplication
(a
+ x)3 = a^ (a xy = a^
-j-
-f-
-\- 4:
+ 3 aa^ + a^x + 6 aV + 4 cta^ -f x*

aôj
0^3
.
etc.
In these
1.
results,
we observe
the following laws
The number
of terms is greater
by 1 than the exponent
of the binomial.
2. The exponent of a in the first term is tê same as the exponent of the binomial, and decreases by 1 in each succeed-
ing term.
3.
The exponent
The
of x in the second term
is 1,
and increases
coefficient of
by 1
4.
in each succeeding term.

coefficient of the first
is
term
is 1,
and the
the exponent of the binomial. y 5. If the coefficient of any term be multiplied by the exponent of a in that term, and the result divided by the exponent of X in the term increased by 1, the qdotient will be the
coefficient of the
the second term
next following term.

387. If the laws of
351
386 be assumed to hold for the expann is any positive integer, the exponent 1, in the i^ n, in the second term n term n 2, in the fourth term n S, etc. third The exponent of x in the second term is 1, in the third term 2, in the fourth term 3, etc. The coefficient of the first term is 1 of the second term n.
sion of (a xy, where of a in the first term
1, Multiplying the coefficient of the second term, n, by .n the exponent of a in that term, and dividing the result by
the exponent of x in the term increased by
'^v*'~
)
1, or 2,
we have
1.2
(A
point
as the coefficient
is
of the third term
and so
on.
often used for the sign
thus, 1
2 signifies
1x2.)
Then, (a
+ xf =
a'^
^ aa^^.â? +
^
^^
~^\ a^'^x"
Multiplying both members of (1) by a

(a
+ x,
we have
a.')"+^
1
'^
'
a-x+
7ia"-V+
^(^--') a--2a^+...;
,
Collecting the terms which contain like powers of a and
we
(a
have,
+ a?)"+^ = a"+i + (n + 1) a"a; + r^(^~^)

[n{n-l){n-2) 1-2.3 L
4.
^~|
a"-
V
..^
^ n(n-l) 1.2
~\
= a"+i + (^ 4- 1) oC'x -h n
[
["^^^
-1
+ 1] "~'aj2
^ 1.2 ^(^_l)n^^ 3
352
ALGEBRA
Then, (a
+ xy+^ = a"+i + (n + 1) a'^x + n T^^-tl

J.
= ?+> + ( + !) a-a; + (^ + '^)^ a"-V

_^ (
+ l)n(n-l) ^.,^^,.._
X
(2)
It will be observed that this result is in accordance with
which proves that, if the laws hold for any 386 power oi a-\-x whose exponent is a positive integer, they also hold for a power whose exponent is greater by 1. But the laws have been shown to hold for (a + xY, and hence they also hold for (a + xy and since they hold for (a -h xy, they also hold for (a + xy and so on.
the laws of
;
;
Therefore, the laws hold wfien the exponent

integer, and equation
(1) is
is any positive for every positive integral proved
value of
n.
Equation
[2, [3,
(1) is called the
Binomial Theorem.
etc., it is
In place of the denominators 1-2, 1.2-3,

etc.
usual to write
The symbol [w, read "factorial-n," numbers from 1 to n, inclusive.
signifies the
product of the natural
The method
Induction.
of proof exemplified in 387
is
known
as Mathematical
A more
386 is
complete form of the proof of 387, in which the fifth law of proved for any two consecutive terms, will be found in 447.
388. Putting a
=1
in equation (1), 387,
we have
|_2
[8
it is
389. In expanding expressions by the Binomial Theorem, convenient to obtain the exponents and coefficients of the
386.
terms by aid of the laws of

1.
353
Expand
(a
+ xy.
a in the
first
The exponent
succeeding term.
of
term
is 5,
and decreases by
1 in
each
each
The exponent
succeeding term.
of x in the second
term
is 1,
and increases by
1 in
term is 1 of the second, 5. the coefficient of the second term, by 4, the exponent of a in that term, and dividing the result by the exponent of x increased by and so on. 1, or 2, we have 10 as the coefficient of the third term
5,
;
The
Multiplying
Then,
It will
{a + xY = a^-{-^ a*x +
10
a^-x^
10
a'^x^
+ 5 ax* + x^.
be observed that the coefficients of terms equally distant from the ends of the expansion are equal this law will be proved in 391.
;
Thus the
coefficients of the latter half of

first half.
an expansion may be written
out from the
If the second
term of the binomial
is
negative, it should
be enclosed, negative sign and all, in parentheses before applying the laws in reducing, care must be taken to apply the principles of 96.
;
2.
Expand
(1
- xf.
(_a;)4^,l^.l*. (-x)2
(l-X)6=[l+(-x)P
= 16^6.15.
+ 20
1^
(-x)^
+ 15.12. (-x)4 + 6.1. (-ic)5 + (-x)6 = 1 - 6 x + 15 x2 - 20 ic3 + 15 X* - 6 x5 +

a;6.
If the first
term of the binomial
is
an arithmetical number,
;
it is
con-
venient to write the exponents at first without reduction should afterwards be reduced to its simplest form.
the result
If either
term of the binomial has a
coefficient or
exponent
other than unity, it should be enclosed in parentheses before applying the laws.
3.
Expand (3m^-Vny. - ^ny = [ (3 7n2) + ( _ (3 w2
n^) ]*
(3
= 81
u^) + 6(3 wi2)2(_ n^y + 4(3 m2) ( - n}y + ( - ii^y m8 - 108 mHi^ + 54 m%^ - 12 m^n'-\- nJ.
m^y + 4(3 m2)3(_
354
ALGEBRA
trinomial
if
may
Theorem,
of 204
4.
(a;2
two of
be raised to any power by the Binomial its terms be enclosed in parentheses, and
;
regarded as a single term

is
but for second powers, the method
shorter.
Expand {x^-2x-2y. - 2 X - 2)4 = [(x2 - 2 X ) + ( - 2) ]4 = (a:2 - 2 xY + 4(^2 - 2 xy{-2) + Q{x^ - 2 x)\-2Y + 4(a:2 - 2 x) ( - 2)3 + (- 2)* = x8 - 8 x7 + 24 xs - 32 x5 4- 16 x*
-8(x6-6x5 + 12x*-8x3) + 24(x4 - 4 x3 + 4 x2) - 32(x2 - 2 x) +
16
= x8-8x7+16x6 + 16x5-56x*-32x3 4-64x2 + 64x+16.

EXERCISE
165
Expand
1.
the following
13^
14.
2.
3.
+ xy. (n + iy
{a
(a;t
+ 3)^
21.
{i-^l
^30^^
^
^ (l-x'f.
(1-2//.
_'
15.
4.
(a-xy.
(0^2/ + ^T. (x + 2yy.
(Va
'
^Y.
^22.
^^
24.
^Y
2 a;V
5.
6.
(3a-^
+ Vay^
16-
(-^^
+ 4-"^y.
^^V
fsVa^-^X
[</x-^J. /2m_2 j^Y n 3
wi/
'
8. 9.
(3a^-63y.
(a^^
V
18.
25.
ar^'^)'.
fm-^
^
+ !!-\.
^^
^^
10.
(2a;2-^2/3).
11. 12.
(a
+ ^).
28.
19.
(5a.--^ny.
^^
'
^ /^- _
[
(a-2 4-</^)6.
20.
^V
S-s/bV
'
(2x^-\-y-^y.
29.
(a
(a
-by.
32.
+ 1)1.
(.^^^x-Sy.
30.
31.
(x^
+ x-\-iy.
(a^_3a;-l)^
(3a^2_|_^_2)4^
34 (l-a; + 0^2)1
35,
(2-x-^x'y.
33.
w
THE BINOMIAJ. THEOREM
390.
355
To find
the rth or general
term in the expansion of (a + xy.

in the expansion of
The following laws hold for any term (a+xy, in equation (1), 387
:
1.
The exponent
of x is less
by 1 than the number of the
term,
2.
3.
The exponent of a is n minus the exponent of x. The last factor of the numerator is greater by 1 than the
a.
exponent of
4.
The
last factor of the
denominator
is
the same as the
exponent of a?. Therefore in the rth term, the exponent of x will be r The exponent of a will be n (r 1), or n r -\-l. The last factor of the numerator will be n r -{- 2. The last factor of the denominator will be r 1.
Hence, the rth term
1.
^ n(n - 1)
(71
- 2)
...
(n
- r + 2)
n-r+i^r-i '
1.2.3... (r-1)
/^n ^^
In finding any term of an expansion, it is convenient to obtain the coefficient and exponents of the terms by the above laws.
Ex. Find the 8th term of (3 a^
b-y\ - 6-i)ii = [(3 a^) + (- 6-i)]ii. We have, (3 J In this case, w = 11, r = 8. The exponent of ( b~^) is 8 1, or 7. The exponent of (3 a^) is 11 7, or 4.
The The
first
factor of the numerator
is 11,
is 7.
and the
last factor 4
1,
or
5.
last factor of the
denominator
Then, the 8th term
= 11
10
5
^ ^3
^ ^ î^4^_
1.2.3.4.5.6.7
a2)
(
^.1^7 ^
= 330(81
If the
&-7)
is
=_
26730
it
a^ft-T.
second term of the binomial

all,
negative,
should be enclosed,
sign
and
it
in parentheses before applying the laws.
If either
unity,
term of the binomial has a coefficient or exponent other than should be enclosed in parentheses before applying the laws.
356
ALGEBRA
EXERCISE
166
Find the
1.
4th term of (a
6th term of (n
-f-
xy.
9.
2.
3. 4. 5.
5th term of 7th term of

8th term of
+ 1)". - by. (a - a^. (1
10th term of
-^m^-
10.
6th term of
(x'
- 4 y^)"".
6.
7.
5th term 9th term
+ fYôf (a^ + 2 x~iy of (x^^ - x'^y^

(x'
(
11.
Tthtermof
/'m'^
Y".
12.
4th term of (m-'

9th term of fa'
- 5 mny\
\^^
8.
10th term of
14.
^+ b
13.
4-yW
8th term of
15.
Middle term of
(3a+2
391. Multiplying both terms of the coefficient, in (1), 390, r + 1, by the product of the natural numbers from 1 to n inclusive, the coefficient of the rth term becomes
n(n-l)'-'{n-r-\-2)-(n-r-hl)-"2'l r-1 xl'2..- (n-r + 1)

I
[n
r+1
Since the
number
of terms in the expansion is
term from the end
is
the (n
r-{- 2)th
4-
Then, to find the coefficient put in the above formula n r
n + 1, the rth from the beginning. of the ?*th term from the end, we
2 for
r.
Then, the coefficient of the rth term from the end

'
'
is
yt
I
r+21
\n
(n r-\-2)-\-l
of (a of
'
QJ
n
|
r+1
r
|
Hence, in
the expansion the ends
+ xy,
the coefficients
of terms
equidistant from
the expansion are equal.
UNDETERMINED COEFFICIENTS
367
XXIX. UNDETERMINED COEFFICIENTS

392. Infinite Series
or by Evolution.
(
384)
may
be developed by Division,
Let
it
be required, for example, to divide 1 by 1
a;.
1-x
X x
x^
(1)
Then,
Again,
1-x
= l4- + + a^4----.
ar^
let it
be required to find the square root of 1

1
a;.
a;
^2
8^
+
X
a^
+ .-f
Then,
It
V^^:^ = l +
first
|-| +
series, in (1) and (2), for every value of x \ thus,
so.
y?
(2)
should be observed that the
values of the
large
members
do not give the if x is a very
number, they evidently do not do
EXERCISE
167
:
Expand each
3
of the following to four terms
+ 4a;
l-5ar^
3.
4a;
5.
H-2a;
4
2j^^x-^ 2 + 4a;-5a;^
Vl+6a;.
6.
l_5a;_2a;2
VI
-2a;.
358
7.
8.
ALGEBKA
9.
Vl + a.
Vl - 5 a.
10.
+ + / V9aM^.
Va^
i2/
H12.
Va^^
+ l.
63.
-â-3
CONVERGENCY AND DIVERGENCY OF SERIES

of the first
be Convergent when the sum terms approaches a fixed finite number as a limit n is indefinitely increased. ( 318), when An infinite series is said to be Divergent when the sum of the 393.
intinite series is said to
7i
An
first n terms can be made numerically greater than any assigned number, however great, by taking n sufficiently great.
394. Consider, for example, the infinite series

1
I.
+ + a^-f-a^H
aj
.Suppose
X Xi,
The sum
of the first
where x^ is numerically n terms is now
< 1.
aî
+ ^1^ + - + xr' = V=^ X

Xi
( 103).
If n be indefinitely increased, x^" decreases indefinitely in absolute value, and approaches the limit 0.
Then the
That
is,
fraction
1
x^
number
of the first n terms approaches a fixed finite as a limit, when n is indefinitely increased.
the
sum
Hence, the series
is
convergent
when x
is
numerically
< 1.
II. Suppose a; = 1. In this case, each term of the series is equal to 1, and the sum of the first n terms is equal to n; and this sum can be made to exceed any assigned number, however great, by taking
sufficiently great.
Hence, the
III.
series is dive7'gent
when x = l.
Suppose x = l. In this case, the series takes the form 1 1-f-l l4-.'., and the sum of the first n terms is either 1 or according as n is
odd or even.
Hence, the series
is
359
neither convergent nor divergent

is
when
An
IV.
infinite series
which
neither convergent nor divergent
is called
an
Oscillating Series.
Xi,
Suppose X =
of the
1
The sum
first
where x^ is numerically n terms is now
> 1.
103).
+ ^1 +
aî'
+ - + X,--' = ^1^ ( 1
iCi
By taking n
cally exceed
sufficiently great,
X-^
-L
can be made to numeri-
any assigned number, however great. the series is divergent when x is numerically Hence,
> 1.
395. Consider the infinite series

l-^x-{-x^-\-x^-\
,
developed by the fraction
( 392).
( 394).
-\
,
Let
x= .1,
series
in
The
now
which case the series is convergent takes the form 1 -|- .1 + .01 + .001
is
while
.y
or
In this case, however great the number of terms taken, their sum will never exactly equal ^-. But the sum approaches this value as a limit for the series is a decreasing geometric progression, whose first term is 1, and
;
ratio .1
and, by
373, its
sum
to infinity is
JL
-, or
.J.
Thus, if an infinite series is convergent, the greater the number of terms taken, the more nearly does their sum approach to the value of the expression from which the series was
developed.
let
Again,
x=
10, in
which case the
series is divergent.
The
series
now
takes the form 1

is
while the value of the fraction
1-10
+ 10 + 100 + 1000 + , - or -
,
360
ALGEBRA
more does
In this case the greater the number of terms taken, the their sum diverge from the value ^.
Thus, if an infinite series is divergent, the greater the number of terms taken, the more does their sum diverge from the value of the expression from which the series was developed.
It follows
from the above that an
infinite series
cannot be
used for the purposes of demonstration, if it
is divergent.
THE THEOREM OF UNDETERMINED COEFFICIENTS

396.
series is
An
important method for expanding expressions into based on the following theorem
:
A Bx Cx^ + D^ H If series A' + B'x + C'x^ + D'a? + when

the series
-f-\
is
always equal
to the
makes both
series convergent, the

is,
x has any value which , coefficients of like powers of x in
the series will be equal ; that
A=A',
B = B', CO,
etc.
For the equation
A-^-Bx^-Co? + D:x?+"'=A'-\-B^x+Ox' + Dô?^'"

is satisfied
(1)
when x has any
value which makes both
members
convergent.
But both members are convergent when x = 0;

of all the terms of the infinite series a -h
is
0. equal to a when the equation (1) Then,
a;
Zâ? -f-
for the
sum
ca;^
-f da^ H
= 0. is satisfied when = 0, we have A = A'. Putting Subtracting A from the first member of the equation, and its
a;
equal A' from the second member,
we
obtain
(2)
Bx-j-Cx'-{-Daf-\-'"=B'x-^C'x'-\-D'a^+":
Dividing each term by
x,
B-{-Cx + Dx'+''-=:B'
This equation also
is satisfied
+ C'x-hD'x'+'".
;
(3)
makes both members convergent
B = B'.
when x has any value which and putting a; = 0, we have
361
In like manner, we may prove C= C\ D = D', etc. The proof of 396 is open to objection iu one respect. We know that (2) has the same roots as (1), including the root 0; but when we divide by x, all that we know about the resulting equation is
that
it
Thus,
has the same roots as (2) we do not know that
is
except the root 0. a root of (3) , though
we assume
it
in
proving that
B = B'.
of the
A
will
more rigorous proof

be found in
450.
Theorem
of
Undetermined
Coefficients
397.
The theorem
of
396 holds when either or both of the
given series are
finite.
EXPANSION OF FRACTIONS
398.
1.
Expand
_ 3ip2 _- ^ 2a; + 3ir 1

2
A-\-
in ascending
powers of
x.
Assume
where A,
J5,
Azi3j^.JZ^= 3 x2 1 - 2 X
Bx + Cx^ + Dx^ + Ex^ +

of x.
.-.,
(1)
C,
i),
E,
are
numbers independent
Clearing of fractions, and collecting the terms in the second

involving like powers of x,
member
we have
2-'6x'^-x^
= A+ B\x+
C x2+ D x^+ E
X*
....
-1a\ -2B + SA
is
18
-20
+ 3^
-2D
+ 30
2 A)x.
(2)
A vertical line,
Thus,
called a 6ar,
often used in place of parentheses.
+ B\x -2a\
equivalent to (J5
The second member of (1) must express the value of the fraction for every value of x which makes the series convergent (395); and therefore equation (2) is satisfied when x has any value which makes the
second
equal
member
that
is,
convergent.
Then, by
;
397, the coefficients of like
powers of x in
(2)
must be
A= B-2A=
2.
0;
OT, or, or,

or,
0-25 + 3^ = -3;
2)_20+35=-l; E-2D + SC= 0;
B = 2A =4. 0=2J5-3^-3=-l. D = 2C-SB-1=-15. E = 2D-ZC =-27;
etc.
862
ALGEBRA
we have
-~ x^

2
3a:2
x8
l-2x + 3x2
The
result
+ 4x
Ibx^
-21 X*^
may
be verified by division.
of the fraction only for such values of x
as
The series expresses the value make it convergent ( 395)

.
and denominator contain only even powers the operation may be abridged by assuming a series containing only the even powers of a;. 2 4- 4 a^ - X* we should assume Thus, if the fraction were 1 3 ar -f 5 c'*
If the numerator
X,
of

-}_
it
equal to
^ + BxF + Cx' + Dx^
â^
....
of
In like manner, if the numerator contains only odd powers X, and the denominator only even powers, we should assulne
x.
a series containing only the odd powers of

If every
series
term of the numerator contains
x,
we may assume
commencing with the lowest power
of x in the numerator.
If every term of the denominator contains x, we determine by actual division what power of x will occur in the first term
of the expansion,
commencing with
and then assume the fraction equal to a series this power of x, the exponents of x in the succeeding terms increasing by unity as before.
2.
Expand
1
O
Xi

Xj
'
in ascending
is
powers of
x.
Dividing
by 3 cc^, the quotient
-2
we then assume,
3a;2_a;8
Substituting in (3)
,
363
3x2
;
T
that
"9~
27
81
243
1, is, the coefficient of x^ equals twice the coefficient of the preceding term, minus three times the coefficient of the
In Ex.
E= 2D S C
next but one preceding.

It
is
coefficient of x^ is 2
evident that this law holds for the succeeding terms x (- 27)- 3 x (- 15), or - 9.
thus, the
may be found more

method
required.
of 398
After the law of coefficients has been found in any expansion, the terms and for this reason the easily than by long division
;
is
to
be preferred when a large number of terms

that each coefficient
is
is
The law
for Ex. 2
is
one-third the preceding.
EXERCISE
168
Expand each
powers
3
1.
of the following to five terms in ascending
of x:
+ 2aj
2-x + Sa^
2.
3.
5.
364
Equating
coefficients of like
ALGEBRA
powers of
;
oj,
A'^=
or,
^=
1.
2^5 = B^-\-2AC=
1; or,
^=_J_=_1.
2A
2i
0;
or,
G=-
= A
2
--
8
2AD + 2BC=
C'^-\-2AE-Y2BD=
0:
or,
i)=_:^=-i-. A 16
0:
or,
^ = -.î^^^ = -A.
A
128'
x3
6a:*
etc.
we have
x2
VI - X =
The
result
X
2
16
128
may
be verified by Evolution.
of
The series expresses the value make it convergent.
Vl
a;
only for such values of x as
EXERCISE
169
five
Expand each of the following to powers of x:

1.
terms in ascending
Vl + 2a;.
3.
-^/l-^x + x".
-y/l
5.
^1 + Qx.
-s/l-x-2^,
2.
VI -3a;.
4.
+ x-x".
6.
PARTIAL FRACTIONS
400. If the denominator of a fraction can be resolved into
factors, each of the first degree in x,
and the numerator
is
of a
lower degree than the denominator, the Theorem of Undetermined Coefficients enables us to express the given fraction as
sum of two or more partial fractions^ whose denominators are factors of the given denominator, and whose numerators are independent of x.
the
401. Case
1.
I.
No factors
-^-J^^
of the denominator equal.
Separate ^
(3a;-l)(5a; + 2)
into partial fractions. ^
^^"""^
where
-4
365
^^^
(3x-l)(6x +
2)
=3^3T + 6^Ti'
= ^(5 + 2) + jB(3 x-V). = (5 ^ + 3 ^)a; + 2 ^ - ^.
a;
and
5 are numbers independent of x.

19 x
Or,
+ +
1
1
19
of (1)
a:
(2)
The second member

for every value of x.
must express the value
of the given fraction
Hence, equation (2) is satisfied by every value of x ; and by 397, the coefBcients of like powers of x in the two members are equal.
That
is,
and
Substituting in ^ ^ , (1),
5 = 19, 2A- B = l. we obtain A 2 and B Z.

5 J.
4-
(3x-l)(5x + 2)
verified
^\^,'t
^,
= ^-^ + p-^'
3a;-l
bx-\-2
of the partial
The
result
may be
by finding the sum
fractions.
2.
Separate
factors
2ic
^-iar
a^
into partial fractions.
The
oi2x-x'^-x^
^
are
x,l-x, and
x ( 116).
Assume then
+/ 2a;-x2-x3
we have
=^4.-^- + ^-. \-x 2 + x X
+ 4=^(l-x)(2 + x) + 5x(2 + x)+ OxCl-x).

x, is satisfied
This equation, being satisfied by every value of Putting X = 0, we have 4 = 2^, or J. = 2.

Again, the equation
Putting X
is satisfied
when x = 0.
when x =
or
1.
5 = o The equation is also satisfied when x = 2. - Putting X = 2, we have 2 = 6 C, or O =

=
1,
we have
= 35,
_1
5
1
Then,
2x-x2-x8
_^^ = x^l-x^2^..2^ + _L + + x3(l-x)

?
(2+x)
366
To
ALGEBRA
find the value of A, in Ex. 2,
we
the coefficients of
manner
to
B and C equal to zero ; find the values of B and C.

J.,
give to x such a value as will make and we proceed in a similar
This method of finding in Ex. 1.
B, and
is
usually shorter than that used
EXERCISE
170
:
Separate the following into partial fractions

.
27a;-6
a^-48
a^-16a;
5 ax'^-2
o^
-{-
a^x-^
a^
9a^_4
23a:
6aj2
3 ax"
4.
a'x
6aj-ll + 25 4 6a^ + 13aj + 6 + 5a; 12 + 17a;-2a^ g 6 - 8 a^) (1 + 3 a;).(9

-(a;
10-9a; 5a^-14a; + 8
+ 14a;-2a^
(a^-5 a;)(x2-4)
402. Case
II.
All the factors of the denominator equal.
Let
it
be required to separate
fractions.
\^~ ^
)
into partial
Substituting
y-^3
for x, the fraction
becomes
5
^
(y4-3)^-ll(y + 3)4-26
f
Replacing
?/
^ y^-5y + 2 ^1 f y
2
y^
f'
by
a;
3,
1
the result takes the form
x-Z
ix-3f'^ (x-^Y
This shows that the given fraction can be expressed as the sum of three partial fractions, whose numerators are independent of x, and whose denominators are the powers of a? 3
beginning with the
first
and ending with the
third.
Similar considerations hold with respect to any example under Case II; the number of partial fractions in any case
being the same as the number of equal factors in the denominator of the given fraction.
Ex.
Separate ^
^^
^^,o
(3a;
+ 5)2
into partial fractions. ^
367
In accordance with the above principle, we assume the given fraction equal to the sum of two partial fractions, whose denominators are the powers of 3 x + 5 beginning with the first and ending with the second.
That
Qx +
is,
b
5)'-^
(3 X
a;
(3 x
5)2
6x +
= ^(3x4- 5) + 5. = ZAx + bA^ B.

of x,
Equating
coefficients of like
powers
3^ = 6,
and
5^+^ =
A=2
5
5)2
5.
and
2 3X
B = b.
5 5
(3 X
Whence,
6x +
(3 X
5)2
EXERCISE
171

1
24
a;
+2
'
nx'-^-l
'
^x'-\-12x+^
2
{1
x-1 + ^xf
.
'
16a;^-19
'
{4:x-3f'
'
2a;^-lla;H-3
6x'-\-12x-10
'
a^-2x'-7x
'
(x-4:y
y
(3-\-2xy
'
(x-îy
2a^-13x'-{-24:X-15 (x--2y
'
lS_x5^^27^
(2
the
+ 3 )*
403. Case III.
Some of the factors of

;
denominator equal.
Ex.
Separate
a;2
^^- into partial fractions.
x{x-{-
ly
methods of Cases
I
II
The method in Case we assume,
III is a combination of the
and
a;
4.
_^
X x
B
+
1
x(x
x2
l)2
(x
G + l)2*
-4X+
= A{x + 1)2 -f Bx{x + 1) + Cx = (^ + 5)x2 +(2A + B-\-C)<c +
A.
368
Equating
coeflBcients of like
ALGEBRA
powers of
x,
A+B=h
and
A = S,
^ = 3. B = 2,
2
and
8
(X
C = S.
1)2
:
Whence,
x'^-^x + 3_S X X{X +1)2
X-\-l
The following general
rule for Case III will be found convenient

==
(a:
A fraction of the form

equal to
^
X
-{-
+-^+...+ x + m + x + b
;
+ a) (x + &)..- (x + m)''..
should be assumed
^-^ + + w)2
{x
...+
^
(x
+ my
Single factors like x + a and x + & having single partial fractions corresponding, arranged as in Case I and repeated factors like (x + having r partial fractions corresponding, arranged as in Case II.
my
EXERCISE
172

'
'
x(x-h3y
9
a^(x
+ iy
3a^
7a^
24a;-16
^ ^
a^(aj-4)
3.
-4a^ + 29 a^-36 aj-9 x{x-l)(x-3y

7_13a;_4a;2
(8 r^-2 a?-3)(2x + l)
Ux'-5Sx-4:
(3a;
+ 2)(2a;-3)2
than, that
404. If the degree of the numerator is equal to, or greater of the denominator, the preceding methods are
inapplicable.
In such a case,
until a remainder
we
is
divide the numerator by the denominator
obtained which
is
of a lower degree than
the denominator.
Ex.
Separate
partial fractions.
into an integral expression
and
Dividing x^
369
and the
re-
mainder
3 x^ 1 by x^ x, 2 X 1 we then have
;
the quotient
is
x 2,
X2
We
can nov^ separate

:
X ~
X''^
X''^
~
X
into partial fractions
by the method
of Case I
the result
1
is
f^
=x-
x-1
Another vvây to solve the above example is to combine the methods of 398 and 401, and assume the given fraction equal to
^+
j5
^+ X ^ 1 X
173
EXERCISE
Separate each of the following into an integral expression
and two or more

1.
partial fractions
+ l) 2a^4-14a;' + 3Qa;H-25
(a;-2)(3a;
(x-{-sy
5
a^(x-l)
.
' '
c^-2 x'-5x^-5x-S
x'(x-{-iy
2x^-Sa^-{-2x*-5x^-\-12x'-x-^4:
aj^(c 4)
405. If the denominator of a fraction can be resolved into

factors partly of the first and partly of the second, or all of the second degree, in x, and the nurnerator is of a lower degree
than the denominator, the Theorem of Undetermined Coefficients enables us to express the given fraction as the sum of
two or more
partial fractions, whose denominators are factors of the given denominator, and whose numerators are independent of X in the case of fractions corresponding to factors in the case of of the first degree, and of the form Ax
+B
fractions corresponding to factors of the second degree.
370
ALGEBRA
The only exceptions occur when the factors of the denominator are of the second degree and all equal.
Ex. Separate
The
- into partial fractions.
factors of the denominator are
and
a;^
x+
1.
Assume then
-J^ =
1
^ + _?_CL.
1)
(1)
Or,
= J.(x2 _ ^ +
B)x'^
+ {Bx +
C) (x
1).
i=(Â +
+ {-A +
x,
B-\-C)x-\-A-\-C.
Equating coefficients of like powers of
A + B = 0, -A + B + G = 0,
and
a;3
A-\-C=\.
1 ^ = -, B =
andC'
^
=2
3
1)
^
3(a;
+1
1)
~^ -x+ 3(a;2
174
:
EXERCISE

*
*
x^-l
2
27aj3
a^
+8
10
- 11
a.-^
4a^- 5a;^ + 6a; + 3
a^
*
+ 3a;-5
'
3-8a;-4a^
aj^
(4x + 5)(a;2-3)*
+ Sa^^ + e'
REVERSION OF SERIES
406. To revert a given series y = a-\- bx^ + ca?" + ' is to express a; as a series proceeding in ascending powers of y.
Ex.
Revert the series

x
?/
2a>'
3a;^ + 4aj^ 5a;*-f-'.
Assume
= Ay + By^ + Cy^ + Dy^ +
(1)
Substituting in this the given value of
y,
371
+ 5(4
That
ic2
4-
a;4
12 x3
16
a:*
..
.)
4-C(8x3-36x4+. ..)+Z)(l6a;*+. ..)+

is,
x=2Ax-SA
+ 45
x2+
4^
372
ALGEBKA
XXX. THE BINOMIAL THEOREM

FRACTIONAL AND NEGATIVE EXPONENTS
407. It was proved in
(a
387 that,
if
ti
is
a positive integer,
+ xy = a" + na--'x + ^^!'~^) a"-V 1 Z
n(yi-l)(n-2) ^_3^
1.2-3
If n is a negative integer, or a positive or negative fraction, the series in tlie second member is infinite for no one of the
;
expressions
ti
1,
n 2,
etc.,
-\-
can equal zero
in this case, the
series gives the value of (a
tive
a rigorous proof of the is too difficult for pupils in preparatory schools, the author has thought best to omit it any one desiring a rigorous algebraic proof of
As
xy, provided it is convergent. Binomial Theorem for Fractional and Nega-
Exponents
the theorem, will find
it
in the author's
Advanced Course
in Algebra, 576.
408. Examples.
the exponent
In expanding expressions by the Binomial Theorem when is fractional or negative, the exponents and coefficients of the terms may be found by the laws of 386, which hold for all values of the exponent.
1.
Expand
(a
-f-
xy
to five terms.
first
The exponent
succeeding term.
of a in the
term
2
is -,
and decreases by
1 in
each
The exponent
succeeding term.
of x in the second
term
is 1,
and increases by
1 in
each
The
term
is 1
of the second term,
the exponent Multiplying -, the coefficient of the second term, by o o of a in that term, and dividing the product by the exponent of x increased
i^
;
by
1,
or 2,
we have
(a ^
as the coefficient of the third term
and
so on.
Then,
+ x)^ = J + -a~^x- -a'^x^ + a"^ x* - -^ a~"^ x* 4^

3 9
81
'
243

2.
373
Expand
(1
+ 2 xT^)-^ to five terms.

in parentheses,
Enclosing 2 x~^
we have
(1+2 x~^)-2 = =
[1
1-2
+ (2 x~^)]-2 - 2 1-3 (2 x~^) + 3 1-* (2 x"^)2 - 4 1-6 (2 x'^y + 5 1-6 (2 x'^y

. .
= 1 - 4 a;"^ +
By
make use
3.
12 x-i
32 x~^
80 x-^
....
writing the exponents of 1, in expanding [1 of the fifth law of 386.
(2x~2)]-2^
we can
Expand
</a-^
to four terms.
-3x^
in parentheses,
Enclosing a"!
^
3,
and
3x^
we have
1-^ =[(-!)+(- 3 xbr^

+ |(a-ir^(-3xb2
â-i-3x*
(a-i-3x*)*
(a-^)"*-|(a-T*(-3xb
If
(a-^r^(-
3 a:b^+...
= a^ +
a^x^
+ 2 ah^ + ^ a'^x +
EXERCISE
176
....
Expand each
1.
of the following to five terms
(a-i-xy.
(1
11. -^[(a-2-66^cy].
2.
+ x)-^
rj
VI -X (aU2 6)l
1
^2.
(0.-^-22/^)^
13,
(Ê!
3.
(1
- xf^.
8.
- 4 a^^)-l (a
x-^^3y
+ 1\-^,
4.
V^^:^.
^
14.
(m^-3n-^)-^.
5._J_,. +
(a
a;)^
lO.fm-3
V
+ Vr.
4/
^ 15.(-i=-^P) V5Va*
374
ALGEBRA
409. The formula for the rth term of (a for fractional or negative values of n, since
+ xy
it
390) holds
was derived from
an expansion which holds for
all
values of the exponent.
Ex. Find the 7th term of (a

Enclosing
- 3 x''^)'^.
we
liave
3 x~^ in parentheses,
(a
3 x~^y-^
[a
+ (_
or 19 o
3 x"^) ]~3,
The exponent The exponent The

first
of
(-
3 x ^)
1
is 7
of a is
6,
or
'
is
1,
6.
factor of the numerator
and the
last factor
+
^
1,
or or--.
The
last factor of the
denominator
is 6.
Hence, the 7th term
_ 1 _ _ Z _ 1^ _ 13 _
' .
' . ' . * . '
16
1.2.3.4.5.6
^
-_i_9 (-3^
'
^)'
38
EXERCISE
Find the
1.
:
177
6th term of (a
^
2.
5th term of
+ x)l - o)~^. (a
, 1
^' 6.
7.
^^h term of (a
x)-^
11th term of
V(m + nY/ - 2 b'^)-\
7th term of (a-^
3.
7th term of (1
4.
8th term of
9.
(1
+ x)-l - xy.
8.
8th term of
(a^
+ y-^y
10th term of
6th term of
10.
.
(.t-' + y^yK - 2 b-^K (a^
11.
5th term of (m
9th term of
+ 3 rr^)^.
^
12.

13.
375
llthtermof
"^
fa-v^6^
^ ^
14.
10th term of (x~^

of Roots.
- 4 /)l
410. Extraction
The Binomial Theorem may sometimes be used to find the approximate root of a number which is not a perfect power of
the same degree as the index of the root.
Ex. Find \/25 approximately to

The
nearest perfect cube to 25
is 27.
five places of decimals.
We
have \/25
= v'27^^ =
i
[(S^)
+ (-
2)]^
2)2
= (33)i + (33)-t ( +
- 1 (3^)-t ( 2)
^(3^)"^(-2)-...
4
32
^g
3
2
.
40
35
81
38
fifth
place,
Expressing each fraction approximately to the nearest we have

^/2E
decimal
.07407
.00183
.00008
= 2.92402.
We then have the

the nearest perfect
following rule
Separate the given number into two parts, the first of which is power of the same degree as the required root,
the result
and expand
by the Binomial Theorem.

first is
;
If the ratio of
the second term of the binomial to the
a small
proper fraction, the terms of the expansion diminish rapidly but if this ratio is but little less than 1, it requires a great many terms to insure any
degree of accuracy.
EXERCISE
178
Find the approximate values of the following

of decimals
1.
:
to five places
Vrr.
2.
V51.
3.
-s/m.
4.
^n.
5.
</U.
6.
a/35.
376
ALGEBRA
XXXI. LOGARITHMS
411. The
Common System.
Every positive arithmetical number or approximately, as a power of 10.

Thus, 100
may
be expressed, exactly
= 102
13
= 10i"3 -
etc.
is
When
its
thus expressed, the corresponding exponent Logarithm to the Base 10.

is
called
Thus, 2
which
is the logarithm of 100 to the base 10; a relation written logio 1^^ 2. 2, or simply log 100 Logarithms of numbers to the base 10 are called Common
Logarithms, and, collectively, form the Common System. They are the only ones used for numerical computations.
412. Any positive number, except unity, may be taken as the base of a system of logarithms thus, if a' m, where a are positive numbers, then x m. and log
;
negative
number
is
not considered as having a logarithm.
413.
By 238 and
239,
LOGARITHMS
414. It is evident from a number greater than 1
is
377
413 that the common logarithm of positive, and the logarithm of a
number between
and 1 negative.
415. If a number is not an exact power of 10, its common logarithm can only be expressed approximately the integral part of the logarithm is called the characteristic, and the decimal
;
part the mantissa.
For example,
log 13
= 1.1139.
and the mantissa
.1139.
Here, the characteristic
is 1,
negative logarithm is always expressed with a positive mantissa, which is done by adding and subtracting 10. Thus, the negative logarithm 2.5863 is written 7.4137 10.
In this case, 7 10 is the characteristic. The negative logarithm 7.4137 10 is sometimes

it
written 3.4137
is
the
negative sign over the characteristic showing that
alone
negative, the
mantissa being always positive.
For reasons which will appear, only the mantissa of the is given in a table of logarithms of numbers; the characteristic must be found by aid of the rules of 416 and 417.
logarithm
416. It
is
evident from
413 that the logarithm of a
number between
1
and
10 and
10 100
is
equal to equal to 1 equal to 2
is
is
+ a decimal + a decimal
-f-
100 and 1000
a decimal
etc.
with one place to the
Therefore, the characteristic of the logarithm of a number left of the decimal point is with two
;
places to the left of the decimal point is 1 to the left of the decimal point is 2 etc.
;
with
three places
Hence,
than 1
point.
is
the characteristic
1 less
of the logarithm of a number greater than the number of places to the left of the decimal
For example, the characteristic of log 906328.51
is 5.
378
ALGEBRA
417. In like manner, the loorarithm of a number between

1 and
.1 .1 is
.01
and and
.01 is
.001
is
equal to 9 -f- a decimal equal to 8 -f a decimal a decimal equal to 7
10 10 10
etc.
Therefore, the characteristic of the logarithm of a decimal with no ciphers between its decimal point and first significant 10 after the mantissa of a decimal with figure is 9, with one cipher between its point and first significant figure is 8,
;
with 10 after the mantissa; of a decimal with tv:o ciphers between its point and first significant figure is 7, with 10
after the mantissa
;
etc.
Hence,
less
to
than
1, suhtiâct the
find the characteristic of the logarithm of a number number of ciphers between the decimal
point and first significant figure mantissa.
from
9,
writing
10
after the
For example, the characteristic of log .007023 written after the mantissa.
is 7,
with
10
PROPERTIES OF LOGARITHMS
418. In any system, the logarithm of 1
is 0.
For by
238, a
=1
whence, by
412, log 1
= 0.
419. In any system, the logarithm of the base

For, a^
is 1.
= a',
whence, log^ a =
1.
420. In any system 'vjhose base
is
of
is
cc.
a
greater than 1, the loganthm
For
if
is
greater than
1,
a"* =
<x>.
=1=
a
CO
( 320).
Whence, by 412, No literal meaning can

it
logaO =
:
be attached to such a result as loga
co
must be interpreted
If,
as follows
in
any system whose base

0, its
the limit
value.
logarithm
is
is greater than unity, a number approaches negative, and increases indefinitely in absolute
(Compare
321.)
LOGARITHMS
421. In any system, the logarithm of a product
the
is
379
equal
to
sum of the logarithms of Assume the equations

a'
its
factors.
=m
^"
a^=:n
whence, by
412, [
2/
^'
= J^^ log,n.
Multiplying the assumed equations,

a''
a^
= mn,
or
a''+^
= mn.
Whence,
log^
mn = x-\-y=
log
m + loga n.
be proved for the product

of three or
may
more
factors.
By
aid of
be found
when the logarithms
421, the logarithm of a composite number of its factors are known.
may
Ex. Given log 2

log 72
= .3010,
= log (2 = log2 +
and log 3
= .4771
find log 72.
X 2 X 2 X 3 X 3)
log2
+
X
log2
=3
X Iog2
+ log3 + log3 log3 = .9030 + .9542 =

179
1.8572.
EXERCISE
Given
log 2
1.
= .3010,
log 3
4.
5.
= .4771,
log 5
7.
= .6990,
log 567.
log 1225.
log 1372.
log
7= .8451,
10. 11.
find:
log 15.
log 98.
log 125. log 315.

log 392.
log 1875. log 2646. log 24696.
2. 3.
8.
log 84.
6.
9.
12.
422.
the
I7i
any system,
the
logarithm of denominator.
the logarithm of a fraction is equal to numerator minus the logarithm of the

'
Assume the equations

a*
=m ay = n
1
}
;
(x = logjn,
\
whence,
l2/
= logn.
380
ALGEBRA
Dividing the assumed equations,
=
a^
or
a*^= -
n
Whence,
log z=x
y = log^m logn.
;
Ex. Given log 2

log 5
= .3010
2
find log 5.
= log = log
10
- log 2 = 1 - .3010 = .6990.

180
EXERCISE
Given log 2
1.
= .3010,
4.
5.
log 3
= .4771,
7. 8.
log 7
= .8451,
find
logY-.
log V^.
log 111.
log 245.
log If. log 375.
10.
log
log
-\o^.
2.
.3.
log85f.
log 175.
11.
12.
46f
6.
9.
logff
log 2^^.
is
423. In any system, the logarithm of any power of a number equal to the logarithm of the number multiplied by the exponent
the
of
power.
;
the equation =* = m whence, x = log^ m. Raising both members of the assumed equation to the j9th
Assume
'
a^ == m^
whence, log mP=px=p log m.
is
424. In any system, the logarithm of any root of a number equal to the logarithm of the number divided by the index of
the root.
For, log
Vm = log,(mO = 1 -loga^^
;
423).
425.
1.
Examples.
find log
Given log 2 = .3010

log 2^
2l
=I
X log 2
=3
X .3010
.5017.
To
and. divide the result
multiply a logarithm by a fraction, multiply by the denominator.
first
by the numerator,
LOGARITHMS
2.
381
Given log 3
= .4771
find log ^'3.
log^^log_3^ ,4771 8 8
3.
^.0596.
Given log 2 = .3010, log 3

421, log
= .4771,
- log 3
find log (2^
3^).
By
(2I X 3?)
= log 2^ + log 3^ =log 2
.1003
.5964
.0967.
EXERCISE
Given log 2
181
382
ALGEBRA
aid of this relation,
is
By
if
the logarithm of a number
to
a certain base a
known, its logarithm to any other base b be found by dividing by the logarithm of h to the base a. may
427.
To prove
the relation
logjaxlog6
Putting
= l.
m = a in the
log,
result of 426,
a=
1^ = -^
log, 5
log, 6
(419).
Whence,
log,
log,6
= 1.
of the logarithms of
equal.
428. In the common system,
the mantissce
numbers having
the
same sequence of figures are
Suppose, for example, that log 3.053
= .4847.
-f-
Then, log 305.3
log
= log(100 x 3.053) = log 100 log 3.053 = 2 + .4847 = 2.4847; .03053 = log (.01 X 3.053) = log .01 + log 3.053 = 8 -10 + 4847 = 8.4847- 10; etc.
.
It is evident
from the above
that, if a
number be multiplied
by any integral power of 10, producing another number with the same sequence of figures, the mantissas of
or divided
their logarithms will be equal. For this reason, only mantissse are given, in a table of Common Logarithms for to find the logarithm of any number, we
;
have only to find the mantissa corresponding to its sequence of figures, and then prefix the characteristic in accordance with the rules of 416 and 417. This property of logarithms only holds for the common system, and constitutes its superiority over other systems for
numerical computation.
429. Ex.
Given log 2=.3010, log 3 = .4771

log 432
find log .00432.
We
have
= log
(2*
3^) = 4 log 2 + 3 log 3 = 2.0323.
LOGARITHMS
Then, by
428,
383
is
the mantissa of the result
.6353.
Whence, by
417, log .00432
= 7.6353 - 10.
182
EXERCISE
Given log 2
1.
= .3010,
log 3
6.
7. 8. 9.
= .4771,
log 7
= .8451,
11.
find
log 2.7.
log .00000686.
log 337.5.
2.
3.
log 14.7. log .56. log .0162.
Iog.0bl25.
log 5^70.
log .0000588.
,
12.
13. 14. 15.
log 3.888. log

(4.5).
4.
5.
log -s/SA.
log 22.5.
10.
log .000864.
log (24.3)1
USE OF THE TABLE

430. The table (pages 384 and 385) gives the mantissae of the logarithms of all integers from 100 to 1000, calculated to four places of decimals. 431.
To find
in the
the logarithm
of a number of three figures.
column headed " Ko." for the first two significant figures of the given number. Then the required mantissa will be found in the corresponding horizontal line, in the vertical column headed by the third figure of the number.
Look
Finally, prefix the characteristic rules of 416 and 417.
in accordance with the
For example,
= 2.2253 - 10 log .344 = 9.5366

log 168
;
etc.
For a number consisting of one column headed may be used.

Thus,
or
two
significant figures, the
be required to find log 83 and log 9. By 428, log 83 has the same mantissa as log 830, and log 9 the same mantissa as log 900.
let it
Hence,
log 83
= 1.9191,
and log 9
= 0.9542.
384
ALGEBRA
No.
LOGARITHMS
No.
385
386
ALGEBRA
432. To Jind the logarithm of a number of more than three

figures.
1.
Eequired the logarithm of 327.6.

find
We
from the
table,
log 327
That
is,
log328 an increase of one unit in the number produces an increase of
= 2.5145, = 2.5159.
.0014 in the logarithm. Then an increase of .6 of a unit in the nuHteer will increase the
logarithm by
.6
.0014, or .0008 to the nearesfiourth decimal place.
Whence,
less
log 327.6
= 2.5145 +
.0008
= 2.5153.
In finding the logarithm of a number, the difference between the next and next greater mantissas is called the tabular diff'^Hnce ; thus, in Ex. 1, the tabular difference is .0014.
The subtraction may be performed mentally.

*4
The following
rule
is
derived from the above
Find from the table the mantissa of figures, and the tabular difference.
the first three significant
Midtiply the latter by the remaining figures of a decimal point before them.
the
number, with
Add
the result to the
mantissa of the
first three figures,
and
prefix the
proper
characteristic.
In finding the correction to the nearest units' figure, the decimal portion should be omitted, provided that if it is .5, or greater than .5, the units' figure is increased by 1 ; thus, 13.26 would be taken as 13, 30.5 as
31,
and 22.803
as 23.
2.
Find the logarithm of .021508.
Mantissa 215
.3324
Tab.
diff.
= =
21
.08
2
.3326
Correction
10.
1.68
= 2,
nearly.
The
result
is
8.3326
EXERCISE
183
Find the logarithms of the following:

1.
64.
2.
3.7
3.
982.
4.
.798.
LOGARITHMS
5. 6.
7.
387
13.
14.
1079.
.6757.
9.
.00005023.
.0002625.
31.393.
7.3165.
.019608.
10.
.09496.
4.288.
11.
15.
16.
810.39.
8.
12.
the
48387.
.0025446.
433.
1.
number corresponding to a logarithm. Required the number whose logarithm is 1.6571.

To find
in the table the mantissa 6571.
line, in
Find
first
In the corresponding
two
figures of the required
the column headed " No.," we find 45, the number, and at the head of the column we
there must be two places to the left of the
g^
is
find 4, the third figure. Since the characteristic
is 1,
^
decimal point ( 416). Hence, the number corresponding to 1.6571

2.
45.4.
Required the number who^ k)garithm We find in the table the mantis^ 3927 and 39^5.
is
2.3934.
The numbers corresponding to the logarithms 2.3927 and 2.3945 are 247 and 248, respectively. That is, an increase of .0018 in the mantissa produces an increase of
one unit in the number corresponding. Then, an increase of .0007 in the mantissa will increase the number by
7 of a unit,
or
.4,
18
nearly.
is
Hence, the
number corresponding
rule
is
247
.4,
or 247.4.
The following
Find from
derived from the above
the table the next less mantissa, the three figures
correspondiiig, and the tabular difference. Subtract the next less from the given mantissa,
and divide
the
remainder by
the tabular difference.
Aymex
The
I.
the quotient to the first three figures
of the number, and

and 417
point off the result.

rules for pointing off are the reverse of those of 416
is
:
10 7/"
not written after the mantissa, add

to the left
1 to
the characteristic,
giving the
of the decimal point. II. if 10 is written after the mantissa, subtract the positive part of the characteristic from 9, giving the number of ciphers to he placed between
the decimal point
number of places
and first
significant figure.
388
3.
ALGEBRA
Find the number whose logarithm
Next
less
.
is
8.5265
10.
5265 mant. = 5263 figures corresponding, 336. Tab. diff. 13)2.00(15 = .2, nearly.
;
13
70
By the above rule, there will be one cipher to be placed between the decimal point and first significant figure the result is .03362.
;
The
place
;
correction can usually be depended upon to only one 4ecimal the division should be carried to two places to determine the last
figure accurately.
EXERCISE
Find the numbers corresponding
1.
184
to the following
11.
12.
:
0.8189.
-.6.
7.
8.7954-10.
1.3019.
2.
3. 4. 5.
7.6064-10.
1.8767.
6.5993-10.
4.2527-10.
2.0159.
8.
9.
9.9437-10.
0.7781.
13.
14.
2.6760.
3.7264-10.
4.4929.
3.9826.
10.
5.4571-10.
15.
APPLICATIONS
434. The approximate value of a number in which the operations indicated involve only multiplication, division, involution, or evolution
may be
conveniently found by logarithms.
utility of the process consists in the fact that addition takes the place of multiplication, subtraction of division, multiplication of involution, and division of evolution.
1.
The
Find the value of .0631 x 7.208 X

421,
.51272.
By
log (.0631
x 7.208 x .51272)
=
^
log .0631
log 7.208
+ log .51272.
log
-log
.06.31=
8.8000-10
log .51272=
7.208= 0.8578 9.7099-10
Adding,
log of result
Number corresponding
to 9.3677
= 19.3677 - 20 = 9.3677 - 10 - 10 = .2332.
(See Note
1.)
LOGARITHMS
389
Note 1. If the sum is a negative logarithm, it should be written in such a form that the negative portion of the characteristic may be 10.
Thus, 19.3677
- 20
is
written 9.3677
10.
(In computations with four-place logarithms, the result cannot usually
be depended upon to more tha.n four significant figures.) "

2.
Find the value of
536.8
7984
By .
422,
log
= log 336.8 - log 7984.
log 336.8
log 7984
= 12.5273 -10 = 3.9022

8.6251-10
.04218.
Subtracting,
log of results
(See Note 2.)
Number corresponding =
Note 2. To subtract a greater logarithm from a less, or a negative logarithm from a positive, increase the characteristic of the minuend by 10 after the mantissa to compensate. 10, writing to subtract 3.9022 from 2.5273, write the minuend in the form Thus,
12.5273
3.
10
subtracting 3.9022 from this, the result
is
8.6251
- 10.
Find the value of

423,
(.07396)^.
By
log (.07396)5
= =
log .07396.
log .07396
8.8690
10
44.3450
50
10
=
4.
4.3450
= log .000002213.
Find the value of V.035063.

424,
By
log
v^. 035063
=~
o
log .035063.
log .035063
= 8.5449 -10
(See Note 3.)
log .3274.
3 )28.5449-30
9.5150
-10 =
Note 3. To divide a negative logarithm, write it in such a form that the negative portion of the characteristic may be exactly divisible by the 10 as the quotient. divisor, with
Thus, to divide 8.5449 10 by 3, we write the logarithm in the form 28.5449 - 30 dividing this by 3, the quotient is 9.5150 - 10.
;
390
ALGEBRA
EXERCISE
185
negative number has no common logarithm ( 412); if such numbers occur in computation, they may be treated as if they were positive, and the sign of the result determined irrespective of the logarithmic work.
Thus, in Ex. 3 of the following
set, to find
the value of
we
find the value of 95.86
3.3918,
and put a
(- 95.86) x 3.3918 sign before the result.

:
Find by logarithms the values of the following

1.
4.253x7.104.
6823.2
4.
5. 6.
54.029
x (-
.0081487).
2. 3.
.1634.
.040764
.12896.
(- 95.86) X
5978
9.762'
3.3918.
12.
(-285.46) x (- .00070682).
20. 21.
.000007913
.00082375
7.
(-.000216)^.
V7.
^3.
21.658
8.
13.
(88.08)1
22.
45057*
.06405
9.
14.
15.
(.09437)^
(3.625)^
23.
24.
.002037'
16.
10.
^lo.
v':2005.
-v'ôsse^.
-38.19
*
(-.4623)^
25. 26.
27.
.10792
11.
17.
18.
loot
(.09)1
670.43
-^5382.3*
^.00015027.
19.
(85.7)1
28.
^V- .0040628.
435. Arithmetical Complement.

Arithmetical Complement of the logarithm of a number, or, briefly, the Cologarithm of the number, is the logarithm of the reciprocal of that number.
The
Thus,
colog 409
= log = log 1 - log 409. - 10 (See Ex. 2, log 1 = 10. = 2.6117 log 409
409= 7.3883-10.
^
1
434.)
.-.
colog
Again,
colog .067
= log
.067
log 1
- log .067.
LOGARITHMS
391
. .
= = colog .067
-10 log 1=10. 8.8261-10 .067 log

1.1739.
the cologarithm of a number 10. logarithm from 10
It follows
from the above that

its
may
he
found by subtracting
of the logarithm
The cologarithm may be found by subtracting the last significant figure from 10 and each of the others from 9,-10 being
written after the result in the case of a positive logarithm.
Ex.
Find the value
of
.51384
8.708
.0946
^
log
8.708 X .0946
^1^^
log f 51384 X 8.708 V

.
.0946^
= log .51384 +
=
log .51384 colog 8.708 colog .0946
log .51384
log
-^ +
log
.0946
colog 8.708
colog .0946.
= 9.7109 -10 = 9.0601 -10 = 1.0241

9.7951
10
= log .6239.
It is evident from the above example that, to find the logarithm of a fraction whose terms are the products of factors, we add together the logarithms of the factors of the numerator and
,
the cologarithms
of the factors of the denonfiinator.

above fraction
:
The value
of the
may
be found without using cologa-
rithms, by the following formula

log ^
i^l^^ 8.709 X. 0946
= log .51384 ""
log (8.709 ^^
x .0946) ^
log .0946).
=
The advantage
computation
is
log .51384
- (log 8.709 +
in the use of cologarithms is that the written exhibited in a more compact form.
work
of
MISCELLANEOUS EXAMPLES
436.
1.
Find the value of
?^.
3^
392
ALGEBRA
log
2^5 = ^X^
3^
log 2
log \/5
=:log2
log
+ Mog5 + o
15
+
10
colog 3^
( 435)
^colog3. o
2=
=
.3010 .2330
log
5=
=
.6990;
-^3=
10
;
colog 3
9.5229
x -
9.6024
1364
log 1.369.
2.
Find the value of \7^^^^5^. V 7.962

log
^103296 ^ 7.962
i,g ^
:03296 7.962
^ ^^^^^
10
b ^
log .03290 log 7.962
= 8.5180 = 0.9010
9.2057
)27.6170-30
The
result
is
-10 =
log. 1606.
.1606.
EXERCISE
Find by logarithms the values
J
186
:
of the following
2078.5
X .05834 .3583x346
(-.076917) x 26.3
.5478
x (-3120.7)*
(-6.08) X. 1304
4.046
.
'
.8102
x(- 6.225)
x (17.976)'
.0031095*
(-
.0721)
5.
LOGARITHMS
19.
893
(-
143.59)" x(.00532)^
.
^^
(.0462)^
'
20.
^ 40.954 X. 0002098
1-
758.27
^
x V:2296'
21.
(3075.6)*
OA 24.
^- 7.92 X (.18 07)^ ^.

-^^^^
-27.931
-\/:836
(.016432)^.
22
-^2818 X
^5Ul
</-
25^
'
a/61021
26.
X (.03023)^
-^.00263.
(.7301)^
.067268 x a/-.4175
x
x
2^
.0005616 x
(6.73)^
V42 iS
gg
485.7
x -^1000
(.03194)^
(9.127)
(.7095)^
EXPONENTIAL EQUATIONS
437.
An
Exponential Equation
is
an equation in which the
unknown number occurs as an exponent. To solve an equation of this form, take the logarithms of both members the result will be an equation which can be solved by
;
ordinary algebraic methods.

1.
Given 31^ = 23
find the value of x.

of both
;
Taking the logarithms

log (31^)
members,
a:
= log 23
log 31
or
log 31
log 23 ( 423).
Then,
^Î2g23^ 0617^9,3
1.4914
.2^
2.
Solve the equation
= 3.
.2
Taking the logarithms of both members, x log

Then,
x
log
3.
i^îll^=-^771_^_ -.699 9.3010-10

log. 2
if
equation of the form w" = b may be solved by inspection b can be expressed as an exact power of ^.
An
3.
Solve the equation 16^

inspection, 4 x
= 128.
and
We may
Then, by
write the equation (2*)*
= 2^ or 7 = -
a;
2**
= 2^.
394
were 16* (If the equation
\^
ALGEBRA
= -^, we
128
could write
it
(2*)
= =2-^;
2'
then
4x would
equal
7,
and
-9
187
:
EXERCISE
1.
MISCELLANEOUS TOPICS
395
XXXII.
HIGHEST COMMON FACTOR AND LOWEST COMMON MULTIPLE BY DIVISION

439. We will now show how to find the H. C. F. of two polynomials which cannot be readily factored by inspection.
The
rule in Arithmetic for the
H.
C. F. of
two numbers
is
Divide the greater number by the
less.
a remainder, divide the divisor by tinue thus to make the remainder the divisor, and divisor the dividend, until there is no remainder. The last divisor is the H. C. F. required. If
there be
it;
and
con-
the preceding
Thus,
let it
be required to find the H. C. F. of 169 and 546.
169)546(3 507
39)169(4 156
13)39(3
39
Then, 13
is
the H. C. F. required.
440. AVe will now prove that a rule similar to that of holds for the H. C. F. of two algebraic expressions.
439
Let
A and B be two polynomials,
arranged according to the

first
descending powers of some common letter. Let the exponent of this letter in the
equal
to,
term of
be
or greater than, its exponent in the first term of B. is contained in times, with a remainder Suppose that
Ap
C; that
that
C is
contained in
B q times,
shown
with a remainder
Z);
and
D is contained in C r times, with no remainder. To prove that D is the H. C. F. of A and B.

The
operation of division
is
as follows.
396
ALGEBRA
B)A{p
pB
~~C)B(q
D)C{r
rD
We
will first prove that Z) is a

is
common
factor of
A and
B,
Since the minuend
equal to the
subtrahend plus the

(1) (2)
remainder
( 34),
A=pB + G,
B=qC-hD, C = rl). value of C in (2), we
and
Substituting the
obtain
(3)
B=qrD-\-D = B(qr + 1).

Substituting the values of
B and C in (1), we have A=pD(qr-^l) + rD = D(pqr+p^r).

and
(4), Z> is
(4)
From
(3)
will next prove that a factor of D.
We
common factor of A and B. every common factor of A and
B is
Let
F be
any common factor of
A = mF,
From
A and B and B = nF.

we have
and
let
the operation of division,
C=A-pB, D = B-qC. and Substituting the values of A and B in (7= mF pyiF.

Substituting the values of
(5) (6)
(5),
we have
B and C in (6), we have pnF) = F{n qm jiqu). D = nF q{mF

-{-
Whence, iîs a
factor of
Z>.
397
Then, since every common factor of A and i5 is a factor of />, and since D is itself a common factor of A and B, it follows that D is the highest common factor of A and B.
then have the following rule for the H. C. F. of two polynomials, A and B, arranged according to the descending
We
powers of some common letter, the exponent of that letter in first term of A being equal to, or greater than, its exponent in the first term of B
the
:
by B. If there he a remainder, divide the divisor by it; and continue thus to make the remainder the divisor, and the preceding divisor
Divide
the dividend, until there is
The
It is
last divisor is the
no remainder. H. C. F. required.
some common
important to keep the work throughout in descending powers of letter and each division should be continued until the
;
exponent of this letter in the first term of the remainder exponent in the first term of the divisor.
is less
than
its
Note
which
is
;
1.
If the
not a
for
it
common
terms of one of the expressions have a common factor factor of the terms of the other, it may be re-
moved
In like manner,
can evidently form no part of the highest common factor. we may divide any remainder by a factor which is not
a factor of the preceding divisor,

1.
Find the H.
C. F. of
6ic2-2oa;
6
ic2
+ 14
and 6
o^
7 x^
- 25 + 18.
a;
- 25 X +
14)6 a;3 6 x3
_ 7 x^ - 25 x + 18(x + 3 - 25 x-^ + 14 X 18 x2 - 39 X 18 x2 - 75 X + 42 36 X - 24
divide this remainder
In accordance with Note
1,
we
by
12, giving
*~
'
3x-2)6x2-25x + 14(2x-7
6x2- 4x -21x
- 21 X +
Then,
3 x - 2
is
14
the H. C. F. required.
398 Note
2.
If
ALGEBRA
the
first
term of the dividend, or of any remainder, is not term of the divisor, it may be made so by multiplying the dividend or remainder by any term which is not a factor of the
divisible
by the
first
divisor.
2.
Find the H.
â?
C. F. of
+ o?h-2 ab'
and 4
a^ft
a'b'
- aW +
h\
h
We
the second (Note 1),
remove the factor a from the first expression and the factor and find the H. C. F. of
3 a2
from
a&
_2
&2
and 4
a^,
a^
+2
a^h
ab^
b^
Since 4 a^
3 (Note 2).
is
not divisible by 3
4 a3
we multiply
ab'^
the second expression

b'^
by
+ 2 a% -
Sa^
+ ab-2 62)12
12
d-'
ff3
+ Q d^b - 3 a&2 ^ 3 _ 8 a62 4, 4 d^j)

2 a26
63(4 a
5 ah^
3 63
this
Since 2
a%
is
not divisible by 3
d^^
we multiply
3 63
remainder by
3 (Note 2).
2a26+ 562+
3 a2
+ a6 _ 2 62)6 a25 +
15
;,2
+
+
Qd^b+ 2ab^13 a62
9 63(2 6 4 63 13 63
We
divide this remainder by 13 62 (Note 1), giving a
6.
6)3 ^2 3 a2
a6 - 2 62(3 a - 2 + 3 a6 -2a6 - 2 a6 - 2 62
Then, a
6 is the H. C. F. required.
If the first
Note
Note
3.
term of any remainder
is
negative, the sign of
each term of the remainder

4.
If the
may
be changed.
be seen by inspection, remove

expressions
;
given expressions have a common factor which can it, and find the H. C. F. of the resulting
the result, multiplied by the
common
factor, will be the
H.
C. F. of the given expressions.
3.
399
Find the H.
2x'
C. F. of
+ 3x'-6x'-^2x
2 x3
and
6x^-^6af-2x^-x.
we
find the
Removing the common
factor x (Note 4),

cc
H. C. F. of
3 x2
-6 +2
and 6x^-{- bx^
-2x~l.
2x^
+ Sx^-6x + 2)6x^-\-5x^- 2x-l(3 6 x3 + 9 ic2 - 18 X + 6
- 4 x2 +
The
each of
first
its
16 X
-7
term of this remainder being negative, we change the sign of

3).
terms (Note
2x3+3x24x2
6x+2
2
12
7
-16x + 7)4x3+ 6x24 x3 - 16 x2 +

22x2-
x+
X
4(x
4
2
19
x+
44x2- 38 x+ 8(11 44x2- 176X + 77

69 )138
2x-
1)4x24 x2
2X - 14x - 14x +
X- 69 2x- 1 16 x+ 7(2x-7
7
The
last divisor is 2
is
given expressions (In the above solution,

to
make
its first
22 x2
19 X
we multiply 2 x^ + 3 x2 6 x + 2 by 2 in order term divisible by 4 x2 and we multiply the remainder 4 by 2 to make its first term divisible by 4 x2.)
;
x(2 x
1 multiplying 1).
;
this
by
x,
the H. C. F. of the
EXERCISE
Find the H.
189
:
1.
2a^-{-a-6,
4a2-8a + 3.
2. 3.
9a^-Ux-S. x'-6x-27, a^-2x'-Sx + 21.

6x^-17
x-\-10,
400
4.
5.
ALGEBRA
Qx^-x-2, Sx^-Ux'-x-^-e. 2'ia'-22ab-7b% 32a^-12ah-5b\
6.
7.
+ S x^y -\-13 xy^ -^ 3 f, 24.^-Ux'y-\-13xy''-15 y^ 4a^ + 4a^-3a;, 6x^ -\-lla^- x^-6x.

16
a^
8.
4a;2^-15a:/-f-92/', S x'
6 a^
-IS x'^y
-\-
25 xhf
-12 xf.
9.
10. 11.
12. 13.
+ 5 a^ - 6 a^ - 3 a^ + 2 a2, 9 a^ 4- 18 a^+ 5 a'- 8 a -4. 3 a^ - 13 a'b + 3 a'b'- + 4 a&^ 9 a^b + 12 a^^^ _ g a^^ _ 5 b\
4a^+ 9 -9, 4cc4 + 10r''-7aj2 + 9. 6a^-7a3-5a2 + 5a_3, s a' -6 a^- 5a' -9.
05
14. 15.
- 9 nx' + 2 6 + 23 n^x ^2n'x?-\3nx?^2x\ a3 + 9a2 4_l3a_l5^ ^5 + 9 + 22 a^ + 9 a2-9 a. 27m% m^ + 4 m^ 25 m^ + 12 ml m^

Ti^
4.
nô;
71^
ar"^,
(1^
16.
9a'-h30a'b-21a'b'-\-12ab%
16
a^ft
+ 60
a'b''
17.
4a^-lla;?/-202/2, 2
aj^
- 20 aft^ _ le 54 - 4 ar^ - 17 a.^ +
a:?/^
+ 12
2/'.
18.
19.
4:a'-\-Sa'-15a^-}-2a'-4.a,
4a^-12a3+9a2-3a + 2.
3a^-8a^ + 16a;-8, 3x*-5aj3 + 5a;2-lla; + 6.
20.
21. 22. 23.
+ 3xy% -^ - 2 a?/. + 7 a;y + 5 2a;* + 5a^ + 4a.^ + 7a; + 6, 2 aj^-5 + ll a;2-9aj + 9. 6aj^ + a^ + 3a^-6a;-4, 12 + 8 ar5-3 aj^-lO a;-4. - 5x' + 5a^-\-a^-^7 x-3. 3a^-Sx'-5x + 6, a^
3xPy^-2xy-7oi^y'-{-7xy
3
x^y'
ar^^/'
0^2/"
aj^
a;4
readily factored by inspection,
441. The H. C. F. of three expressions, which cannot be may be found as follows

:
Let A, B, and C be the expressions. Let G be the H. C. F. of A and B then, every common factor of G and C is a common factor of A, B, and C.
;
401
But since every common factor of two expressions exactly divides their H. C. F., every common factor of A, B, and C is also a common factor of G and C.
Whence, the H. C. F. of and C.
and
is
the H. C. F. of A, B,
Hence, to find the H. C.F. of three expressions, find the H. C.F. of two of them, and then of this result and the third expression.
We
proceed in a similar manner to find the H. C. F. of any

of expressions.
number
Ex. Find the H. C. F. of

a;3_7a;
+ 6,
of
x'
a:3
x-2
+ Zx'-lQx-^l^,
and x-5
a;2
+ 7 a;-3.
The H. C. F. The H. C. F.
of
_ 7 X + 6 and ic3 + 3 x2 - 16 X + 12 is x^ - 3 x + 2. - 3 X + 2 and x^ - 5 x'^ + 7 x - 3 is x - 1.

EXERCISE
190
Find the H.
1.
9a;2
62,
6a;2-5a;-25,
+ 27x + 20,
12
a^^
^ 11 - 15.
a;
2. 3.
20a2+23a6-7
28^2-43 a6 + 9
6^ 24
aH 14 a6-5 61
5a^-3Sa~U,
5a-^-13a- + 14a+8,
10
x"
5aM-27a2+20a+4.
4.
Saf-Gxy-SBy^,
-27 xhj -xy' + 15 f,

xy'-
6^-13x'y5.
13
20 y^
x^^4:x'-llx-\-30, x'-{-2x'-5x-6,
x'-x^-ll x-15.
6.
a3-8a2 + 20a-16,
a3
a^'-hS
a^-4.a -12,
_ 6 a2 + 11 a - 6.
6a'^
7.
3a
+ 17a26 + 18a62_85^
+ a^^- 19 aft- + 6 6^
Sa^-\-6a:'b-2Sab--6b^
8.
3a^-ar^-38a;-24, 3
3ar^
a^ + 5 x2_58 ^_ 40^ + 26a;2 + 61a; + 30.
442.
We
will
now show how
to find the
L.C.M. of two
expressions which cannot be readily factored by inspection.
402
Let Let
ALGEBRA
A and B be any two expressions. F be their H. C. F., and M their L. C. M: Suppose that A = aF, and B = bF.
Then,
Since
factors
;
A%B = abF\
F is the
is,
(1)
H. C. F. of A and B, a and whence, the L. C. M. of aF and bF
b
is
have no common
abF.
That
M=abF.
Multiplying each of these equals by F, we have
From
That
(1)
and
(2),
FxM=abF\ AxB = FxM.

is
(2)
(Ax.
equal
to the
4, 9)
is, the
product of two expressions
product
of their H. C. F. and L. C. M. Therefore, to find the L. C. M. of two expressions. Divide their product by their highest common factor ;
Divide one of the expressio7is by their highest
or.
common
factor^
and multiply
the quotient by the other expressio7i.
Ex. Find the L. C. M. of
60^2-17
6a;2_i7x+
a^
+ 12
and 12x2-4a;-21.
a:
a;
12)12 a;2- 4 12 x^ - 84
-21(2
+ 24 - 45 15)30 X
2.
3.
403
6x'~31xy + lSy',
4a;2
9 x' -\-15xy
-Uf.
+ l3a; + 3,
6x-9,
4a^-23a;-6.
6x^ +
4.
5.
6.
7.
Sx' +
7xP-7x-6.
rt^ iiâ?
8. 9.
3 a^ - 8 a'b + 4 ab% a% - 11 a^W -f 22 aft^ - 8 h\ 6 + *i^^ 11 ncc^ 6 a^, 6 5 8 na;^ + 3 - 10 - 8 2ic* + 7ic^ + 7a;2H-2a?, 2 x^ + Qâ^-^-x'-ll x + lO, 3a;^ + 5ar^-5a;2-5a; + 2.
w'^
a:' a;^
a?.
ic^.
4a^2-lla;-3, 8
a;4_^6
a^-
11
a^-23a^-5.
a;^^^ _|_ -(^2
a;?/-''
10.
2x4-arV-4a?y^-3a;2/^
8 a^^ - 10
- 10 ?/^
n^.
11.
6m^ 17 m^?i 7mn^-f 4

2ar'4-5a;4-2ar^
71^,
12m^ IS
mhi-\- 21 myi^ 6
12.
13.
+ 3a^,
a;6
a'-2a^-2a^-{-Ta-6,
from
+ 8a;^- 2a;* + a^- 6a;l d" -4.a^ + 0" + 1 a-2.

two expressions are prime is their L. C. M.
to
It follows
442 that,
if
each other
( 128), their
product
443. The L. C. M. of three expressions

follows
:
may
be found as
Let A, B, and C be the expressions. Let be the L. C. M. of A and B then every common multiple of Jf and (7 is a common multiple of A, B, and G.
But
since every
common
multiple of two expressions
is ex-
actly divisible by their L. G. M., every common multiple of A, is also a common multiple of and C. B, and of A, B, and C. Hence, expressions, find the L. C. M. two of them, and then of this residt and the third expression. of proceed in a similar manner to find the L. C. M. of any
Then, the L. C.
to
M.
of
M and C
is
the L. C.
M.
find the L. C.
M. of three
We
number
of expressions.
EXERCISE
Find the L.
1.
192
:
C.
M.
of the following
3a^-4a;-4, 3x2-7a; + 2,
a^^
_ ^q
a;
-f 8.
404
2.
3.
ALGEBRA
2a'-j-3a'-9a%
4.a' -\-13
cv"
-{-3 a",
Q a^
-\-
13
a'
- 15 a.
3n2-ll?i-4, 4n2-22n + 24, 6n'-\-lln + 3.

4a^ + 4a2-43a + 20, 4.a^-{-20 d' + 13a-12, 4a3 + 12a2-31a-60.
4.
5.
2a^-5x-\-3, 4a^-4
aj2
+ 3aj-9,
4a^-13aj + 6.
444.
We
will
now show how
to reduce a fraction to its low-
est terms,
when
the numerator and denominator cannot be
readily factored by inspection. By 127, the H. C. F. of two expressions is their common factor of highest degree, having the numerical coefficient of
greatest absolute value in its term of highest degree.
We

^ ^ - ^
2
a-2
Divide both numerator arid denominator by

Ex. Reduce
^ + 7 -6 -a-3
their
H.
C. F.
^^ ^^^ ^^^^g^ ^^^^^^^
By
2
a-2
the rule of
-a-3
to be 2 a
Dividing
Dividing
we find the H. C. F. of 6 a^ - 11 a^ + 7 a - 6 and - 3. 6 a^ -11 a"^ + 7 a -Q by 2 a - 3, the quotient is Za^-a +2. 2 a^ a 3 by 2 a 3, the quotient is a + 1.
440,
Then,
6a3-lla2 +
7a_6 2a^-a-3
EXERCISE
Sa^-a + 2 a+ 1
193
Reduce each
1.
of the f ollowins: to its lowest terms
405
PROOF OF
445.
I.
(1), 235,
FOR ALL VALUES OF m AND

-,
qr
Let
m=^
p
and n =
ps
where p,
q, r,
and
are posi-
re integers.
^r
We
have,
a'--
a^
a*
= a'' x a' = Va^* x Vo^'"

(
237)
^
now proved that (1), 235, holds are any positive integers or positive fractions.
II.
= Va^" X We have
Let
is
234)
= Va^^+'''
56)
=a
'"
237)
= a' when m
/i
and n
m be
a positive integer or fraction
where g
a positive integer or fraction less

or 445,
I,
and let than m.

;
= q,
By
^Q>,
a*"-'
a'
= a"'-*+ =
a"*.
Whence,
That
is,
a^-^=
or
=
a'
a"*"*^.
a*"
a"' ( 240).
a~'
and let n = III. Let m be a positive integer or fraction where g is a positive integer or fraction greater than m.
;
q,
By
IV.
240,
a'"
x a-^=
^ = ^
445, II)
= a*""'.
Let
m = p and n = q, where p and g are positive intea"'?
gers or fractions.
Then, a"^ x Then,

a"*
( 56,
or 445, I)
= a"^-'.
a"
fractional, values of
= "*+" for all m and n.
positive or negative, integral or

,
446. We will now show how to reduce a fraction whose denominator is irrational to an equivalent fraction having a rational denominator, when the denominator is the sum of a rational expression and a surd of the nth degree, or of two
surds of the
?ith
degree.
406
Reduce
2
ALGEBRA
-^r
1.
to
+ ^3
2
an equivalent
fraction
,
having ^
We
have,
+ v^
+
b^)
8^
+
+
3^
b^ ( 102).
.
Now,
Then,
will
if
(a
b) (a2
ab
a^
we multiply both terms by 8^

rational
;
8^
3^
3^, the
denominator
become
1
thus,
_
ai
(8^
8^
8^
33
+ 3^
3^)
(8^)2
- 8^
8
33
+ 3^
gi
3^) (8^
-8^. 33 +
11
+3
^ 4-2v/3 + v^9
2.
Reduce
to
an equivalent fraction haviner a
We
have.
Now,
Then,
if
(a
b) (a3
+ a% +
a&2
h^)
= a^-h^
( 103).
we multiply both terms by

7!
7I
5?
4-
7^
;
5I
5I,
the denominator will become rational

1
thus,
4.
.
71
7I
5?
7?
5?
5I
+
.
5I 6^
7i
_ 5^
.
(7^
5
6^) (7^
7^
7^"
+
2
6^)
_ \^ + v^72
7-6
+ VT^ + \/p ^ v^343 + \/245 + \/l75 + Vm> ~
The .method of 446 can be applied to cases where the denominator is in the form Va + V&, or Va ^h.
3.
Reduce
to an
equivalent fraction having a
The
lowest
common
multiple of the indices 3
and 2
is 6.
We have,
Now,
Then,
if
407
= = -z 7* + VB ^22 + ^53 (22)i + (53)i - a*& + a^'^ - a^b^ + a - &&) = a^- b^. (a + 6) (a^
-z
y/2
^
we
multiply both terms by
- (22)f (53)^ + (22)l(53)t - (22)1(53)1 + (22)i(53)t -(53)t, (22)t

the denominator will
1
become
rational
thus,
.
2t
- 2t
5t
- 2t
5t
t
+ 2^-
52
- 5^ - 52
(22)
i +(53)5
(22)1
+ (53)
_2
2t - 2
>
2t
5t
+ 10 - 2^ 5 22 + 53
.
5t
+ 2^
52
5^
_ ~ 2v/22-2\/22T53 + 10-5-^'2^T53 + 25\/2-25\/5

4
125
_ 10 + 2vî-2v^500-5\/2000 + 25v^2-25\/5
129
EXERCISE
194
Eeduce each of the following to an equivalent fraction having a rational denominator

:
^
1.
.
3.
-1-.
m-Ajn
'
5.
iâ-^-i/b
Va-^b
6.
-J.
2-^4
4.
-J^ </'S + </4:
V3W2.
V3 + V2
THE BINOMIAL THEOREM FOR POSITIVE INTEGRAL EXPONENTS

447. In the proof of 387, we only considered the terms of the expansion of (a + xy+^, in equation (2).
first
four
To make the proof complete, we must show that the fifth law of 386 holds for any two consecutive terms, in equation (2).
Let P, Q, and
ing
a'*~'"a;'',
denote the coefficients of the terms involva'*~''~îc'"+\ and a""''~V+^, respectively, in the second
member
of (1), 386.
408
Thus, (a
a*"
ALGEBRA
-\
+ xj' = + na^'-'^x + Par-'xr + Qa'*-'- V+i + i2a"-'-V+2 + Multiplying both members hj a + x, we have = a'^+i + 7ia''x h Qa''-'x'-+'^ + i2a"-'-V+2 + (a + xy^^ h + Qa""*- V+2 + + a''x-\ = a**+i + (^ + !)";+.. + (P+ Q)a"-'-a5'-+^+(Q+i2)a"-'-V+2+
-\
....
(3)
...
Pa''-''a;''+^
. . .
....
(4)
Since the fifth law of

to the second
386
member
r
of (3),
assumed we have
is
to hold
with respect
+1
r4-2
r
+2
^-r r + 2
Therefore,
Q + i?
P+Q
Whence,
But n r
cient
is is
Q(r + 1) nr
QQ/i
+^ + l) nr
nr Q^Ji:=(p^Qyr + 2
the exponent of a in that term of (4) whose coeffiand r 2 is the exponent of x increased by 1.
P+Q,
Therefore, the fifth law holds with respect to any twp consecutive terms in equation (2), 387. /X^
THE THEOREM OF UNDETERMINED COEFFICIENTS

of
448. Before giving the more rigorous proof of the Theorem Undetermined Coefficients, we will prove two theorems in
regard to infinite series. First, if the infinite series
a
is
+ 6ic + c^ + dic^ +
finite
convergent for some
value of
cc,
it infinite
for this value
of X ( 393),
and therefore
finite
when
a;
Hence, the
series is convergent
when
a;
= 0. = 0.
miscp:llaneous topics
449. Second,
if
409
the infinite series
ax
is
-{-
ba^
-\- ca:^ -{-
convergent for some

For, ax
-{- boiy^ -\-
finite

value of
x, it
equals
when
a;
= 0.
and
cx^
-\-
hence a
+ 6a? + ca^ H-\-
this value of x, is finite for this value of x.

is
finite for
Then, a
x(a-{-bx
bx -^
cx"^ -\- --
is finite
-\-
when
a;
and therefore
cx^
),
or
ax
ba^
cx^^'-i-
equals
when
a;=0.
450. Proof
of the
Theorem of Undetermined
Coefficients ( 396).
The equation
A + Bx-\-Cx'-\-Da^-\is satisfied
= A' + B'x +
C'x'
+ D'a^ + .-
(1)
convergent
( 448),
when x has any value which makes both members and since both members are convergent when x = the equation is satisfied when x = 0.
;
Putting
a;
= 0,
we have by
449,
Bx +
Cx"
-{-
Dx^
...
= 0,
and B'x
+ C'a^ + D'x^ +
and
its
...
= 0.
Whence,
A = A'.
(1),
Subtracting A from the first member of from the second member, we have
equal A^
Bx-\-Cx'
+ Dx^+
x,
...
= B'x H- C'x^ + D'x^ + = B'

C'x
....
Dividing each term by
B+
Cx
-\-
Da^
"
-{-
+ D'af +
-.
(2)
The members
of this equation are finite for the
same values
same
of X as the given series ( 449). Then, they are convergent, and therefore equal, for the values of x as the given series.
Then the equation (2) is Putting x = 0, we have
satisfied
when x
= 0.
etc.
B = B'.
may prove C = C,
Proceeding in this way, we
410
ALGEBRA
XXXIII.
THE FUNDAMENTAL LAWS FOR

Law
for Addition.
ADDITION AND MULTIPLICATION

451. The Commutative
If a loses
man
f 2,
gains f 8, then loses $ 3, then gains $ 6, and finally the effect on his property will be the same in what-
ever order the transactions occur.
Then, with the notation of
3, -f
$ 6, and
16,
2, will
the result of adding + $ 8, be the same in whatever order
the transactions occur.
+ 8, 3,
This
is
Then, omitting reference to the unit, the result of adding +6, and 2 will be the same in whatever order the
the Commutative
set
numbers are taken.
Law
for Addition,
which
is
The sum of any

order they
may
of ^lumbers will be the same in whatever be added.
452. The Associative
Law
for Addition.
The result
But
6-f c
of adding 6
+ c to a is expressed a+(b-\- c),

Law for
Addition
which
and
equals (b-\-c)-\-ahy the Commutative

(b-{-c)-\-a equals 6
( 451).
;
+ c + a,
by the
definition of 3
+ a equals
to
a-\-b-\-c,hj the Commutative

.
Law for
Addition.
Whence,
Then,
This
a-{-(b
+ c) =a-\-b-]-c.
set
add
the
sum of a
of numbers, we add the num-
bers separately.
is
the Associative
Law
Law
for Addition.
453. The Commutative

77ie
for Multiplication.
will be the
product of a
set
of numbers
same
in whatever
order they
may
be multiplied.
the sign of the product of any number of terms is indejjendent of their order hence, it is sufficient to prove the commutative law for arithmetical numbers.
By
55,
LAWS FOR ADDITION AND MULTIPLICATION

Let there and h rows.
AVe
be, in the figure,
411
a stars in each row,
may
find the entire
number
of stars
a,
multiplying the number in each row,
by by the
in a row :):*## .. ***=<=

(^
=>^
=*
* *
number
'
'
We
of rows, h. Thus, the entire number of stars is a x 6. may also find the entire number of stars
'
ing the
number
a.
in each vertical column,
h,
by multiplyby the number of
columns,
Thus, the entire

Therefore,
number
a
of stars
is
&
a.
xb = b x
a.
This proves the law for the product of two positive integers.
Again,
let
c,
d, e,
and/
;
be any positive integers.

for,
Then, - x
to
multiply two fractions, we
multiply the numerators together for the numerator of the product, and the denominators together for its denominator.
Then, - x d
'
=
f
S 6 =
since the commutative law for multi-
fxd'
two positive
integers.
plication holds for the product of

C Hence, - x
(i
C -;
which proves the commutative law

fractions.
for the product of
two positive
454. Thes Associative
Law
for Multiplication.
set
To midtiply by the product of a the numbers of the set separately.
of iiumbers, we mxdtiply by
This law was assumed to hold in 56 and 57.
a by be is expressed a x (be), which by the Commutative Law for Multiplication. But by the definition of 5, (be) x a equals bca, which, equals abc by the Commutative Law for Multiplication.
result of multiplying
The
equals (be)
a,
Whence,
(be)
= abc.
This proves the law for the product of three numbers.
412
ALGEBRA
for Multiplication
The Commutative and Associative Laws
may be
proved for the product of any number of arithmetical numbers. (See the author's Advanced Course in Algebra, 18 and 19.)
455. The Distributive
Law
for Multiplication.
The law
is
expressed
We
I.
will
now prove
( 40). this result for all values of a,
(a + b)c = ac-\-bG
b,
and
c.
Let a and b have any values, and
let c
be a positive
integer.
Then, (a
+ &)c = (a + 5) + (a + 6) + = (a + a -f to c terms) + (6

to c terms
6
-f-
to c terms)
(by the Commutative and Associative
Laws
for Addition),
= ac-{- be.
II.
Let a and b have any values, and
let c
=
-^
where
and
are positive integers.
Since the product of the quotient and divisor equals the

dividend,
^
Then,
(a
+ b) x ^x f= (a-^-b)
J
= ae-\-be,
J
by
I.
Whence,
(a
+ b)XjXf=ax-xf-\-bx-xf.
J
8, 9),
Dividing each term by / (Ax.
we have
=
(a-{-b)Xj
Thus, the result
positive fraction.
III.
is
ax^-hbXj'
c is
proved when
a positive integer or a
Let a and
have any values, and
let c
= g, where g is
and
.
a positive integer or fraction.
By
54,
(a
+ b)(-g) = -(a-\- b)g== - (ag + bg), by I = -ag-bg = a{-g)-^b(-g).
II,
tive, integral or fractional,
Thus, the distributive law is proved for all positive or negavalues of a, b, and c.
ADDITIONAL METHODS IN FACTORING
413
XXXIV. ADDITIONAL METHODS IN
FACTORING
456. The Remainder Theorem.
Let
it
be required to divide px^

px^ pm?
-\-
-\-
qx
-\-
hj x
apx
qx-\-r
px
i
{ap
+ q)
(ap H- q)x
(ap
+ q)x pa? qa
pa^
-\-
qa-{-r, Remainder.
We
is
observe that the final remainder,
pa^
-\-
qa-\-
r,
the same as the dividend with a substituted in place of x
this exemplifies the following
law
If any polynomial, involving x, be divided by x remainder of the division equals the result obtained by tuting a for X in the given polynomial.
a,
the
substi-
This
is
called The
Remainder Theorem.
To prove
the theorem, let

px"*
qoif-'^
\-rx-{-s
be any polynomial involving x. Let the division of the polynomial by a; a be carried on until a remainder is obtained which does not contain x.
Let
denote the quotient, and
B the
remainder.
Since the dividend equals the product of the quotient and divisor, plus the remainder, we have
Q(x
a)-\-R = px"" 4- qx'"''^

a,
-\
\-rx
s.
Putting X equal to
in the above equation,

\-ra-\-s.
we
have,
R = pa"* + ga"-^ H
414
ALGEBRA
457. The Factor Theorem.

If any polynomial, involving x, becomes zero when x a as a factor. eqnal to a, the polynomial has x For, by 456, if the polynomial is divided by x
is
put
the
a,
remainder
is zero.
458. Examples.
1.
Find whether
a;
is
a factor oi a^
5 x^
-\-
S.
Substituting 2 for x, the expression x^
or
6x^
-j-
S becomes
23-5.22 +
8,
-4.
by x
Then, by and x
;
456, if x^
5x^
S be divided
2,
the remainder
is
is
not a factor.
2.
Find whether
m
Putting
m + n is a factor of 4 m^n + 2 m^n^ 5 mn^ 2

-f-
li^.
(1)
m=
w, the expression
becomes
w*
+
w
w-^
2 w*
5 n*
2 w*, or
0.
Then, by mainder is
3.
456,
;
if
the expression (1) be divided by

is
-\-
n, the re-
and
m+
a factor.
Prove that a
is
a factor of
(a-\-b-\-c) (ab
Putting a
+ 6c + ca) - (a + 6) (6 + c) (c + a).
+
c)hc
is
0,
the expression becomes

(h
b{b
c)c, or 0.
Then, by
4.
456, a
0, or a,
a factor of the expression.
Factor
positive
a^-3x^-Ux-S.
and negative
integral factors of 8 are 1, 2, 4, 8,
The
1,
2,
4,
and
8.
the numbers in their order of absolute magnitude. X = 1, the expression becomes 13 14 8. If X = 1, the expression becomes 1 3 + 14 8. If X = 2, the expression becomes 8 12 28 8. If X = 2, the expression becomes 8 12 + 28 8, or 0. This shows that x + 2 is a factor. 5 x 4. Dividing the expression by x + 2, the quotient is x^
It is best to try
If
Then,
x^
3 x^
14 x
= (x +
2) (x^
- 5x -
4).

EXERCISE
1.
:
416
195
a^
+ 1.
2.
x'-Sl.
8. 9,
3.
a;-64.
4.
5.
6.
7.
a^-{-4.x'-\-7x-12.
ir-18a5 + 8.
x^
a.-^_a^3^g^2_^14^_pe,
a.'3-a;2_iia;_io.
-Bx^'-Sx + AS.
10.
11.
x" -{-Sx"
ar^
+ 13a^ -13x-4:.
ar^-9a^ + 15a;
+ 9.
+ 6x^-05-30.
Find, without actual division,
12.
Whether
a;
-3
4-
is
a factor of
x'-G x' -{-ISx- 12.
:/>-^
o 13. Whether
14.
a;
is is
a factor of
a factor of
Whether x + 1
x^ + 7 x^ 6. x^ 4:X^-\-2a^ 2x 9.
-zlS.
Whether
a;
is is
a factor of x{y a factor of

?/
+ zf +y(z +
yf +
-\-
a^)'
+ z{x +
2/)'-
16.
17.
Whether a
Whether
ic
a\b-cf+h\c-af+c\a-bf.
18.
Whether
m+
is
a factor of {x
7i
is
a factor of
m{m
zy + (2 aj)^ 2 Tif n(2 m nf.

(2/
-{-
459.
We will
I.
now
give formal proofs of the statements of
104.
Proof of
Then, by
If h be substituted for
457,
a in a" 6" has a 6 a"
?;",
the result
is 6"
6",
or 0.
as a factor.
Proof of
II.
is
for a in a^'b"; the result If h be substituted since 7t is even, b'^b'', or 0. or, 6 as a factor. 6" has a Then, by 457, a"
(6)" 6'*;
Proof of III. If -6 be substituted for a in a''+6^the result &" + 6", or 0. or, since n is odd, a"* + 6" has a + 6 as a factor. Then,
is
(-6)"4-&";
416
Proof of lY.
ALGEBRA
6 or -f be substituted for ( 6)" + 6" or 6" 4- 6", respectively.

If
Z>
a in a"
+ If,
the results are
is even, neither of these is zero. 6 nor a 6 is a factor of a" neither a Then,
Since n
+ 6".
SYMMETRY
460. An expression containing two or more letters is said to be symmetrical with respect to them, when any two of thepi can be interchanged without altering the value of the expression.
+ ca is symmetrical with respect to the letters and c for if a and b be interchanged, the expression bea, 5, comes ba + ac i- cb, which is equal to ab -\-bc-\- ca.
Thus, ah-{-hc
;
And,
in like
manner, the expression

c,
is
not altered in value
if
we
interchange b and
or c
and
a,
461. Cyclo-symmetry.
An expression containing n letters a, b, c, -", m, n, is said to be cyclo-symmetrical with respect to them when, if a be replaced by ^, 6 by c, --, m by n, and n by a, the value of the expression
is
not changed.
is called a cyclical interchange of letters. the expression a^b -\- b^c -f c-a is cyclo-symmetrical with Thus, respect to the letters a, b, and c for if a be replaced by b, b by c, and c by a, the expression becomes b^c + c'â -f a^b, which is equal
;
The above
to a^b
-\-
bh -{- câ.
;
for
is not symmetrical with respect to a, 6, and c a and h be interchanged, the expression becomes b'â + aH -f c^ft, which is not equal to a% + ft'^c + <â.
The above expression

if
462. It follows from 460 and 461 that, if two expressions are symmetrical or cyclo-symmetrical, the results obtained by adding, subtracting, multiplying, or dividing them are, respectively,
symmetrical or cyclo-symmetrical.

463. Applications.
417
The principle of braic operations.

1.
symmetry
is
often useful in abridging alge-
Expand
(a
(a
+ b-^cy.
+ cy =
{a
We have,
c)(a
+ c)(a +
b -^ c).
,
c ( 460) and a, 6, of the third degree. There are three possible types of terms of the third degree in a, &, c ; terms like a^, terms like a%, and terms like abc.
is
This expression
symmetrical with respect to
and
It is evident that a^
c^
has the coefficient
and
so,
by symmetry,
b^
and
have the
coefficient 1.
The
tors
a^b terms
may
be obtained by multiplying the a's in any two fac-
by the
b in the
Then, it is have b'^ttj b^c, c^b, câ, and a-c. Let m denote the coefficient of abc. Then, (a
remaining factor. evident that a'-b has the coefficient 3
and
so,
by symmetry,
+
-{-
6
b^
= a^
of a, 6,
+ c)^ + c^
-{-
To determine m, we
and
c.
S(a-b + b'â + b'^c + c^b + dâ + a'^c) + mabc. observe that the above equation holds for all values
We may therefore let a=b=: c = l. Then, 27 = 3 + 18 + m and m = 6.

;
Whence, (a
=
2.
a^
+ b + c)^ + 63 -f c3 + 3(a25 + 6% +
(x
b^c
c'^b
câ
aH) + 6
abc.
Expand
y zy + (y z xy
is
-\-
(z
x yy.
and
z,
This expression
x, y,
and
of the
second degree.
The
terms
possible types of terms of the second degree in x, y,

cc^,
and z are and

so,
like
and terms
like xy.
It is evident, by the rule of 204, that x^ has the by symmetry, have y"^ and s^. Let m denote the coefficient of xy.
coefficient 3
Then,
(x-
zy^-h (y
= 3(^2
Then, 3
- xy +(z - x - yy + 1/2 + 02) 4. ^(^xy -^yz-{- zx). z
To determine m, put x =
y = z = l. = 9 + 3?ri, or m = -2. _ _ ?/)2 Whence, (x y 5;)2 + (y a;)2 = 3(x^+y^-hz^)-2(xy-hyz + zx).

_[.
(5;
a;
418
3.
ALGEBRA
Expand
(a-\-b-hcy+(a
+ b-cy+(b-^c-ay + {c-\-a- by.

a, &,
The expression
third degree.
is
and
c,
and
of the
The
possible types of terms are terms like a^, terms like a^b,
and terms
like abc.
It is evident, by proceeding as in Ex. 1, that a^ has the coefficient l_j-l_l_l_l, or2; and so, by symmetry, have 6^ and c^. Again, proceeding as in Ex. 1, it is evident that a^b has the coefficient 3
in the first term, 3 in the second, 3 in the third,
and
3 in the fourth.
Then, a^b has the coefficient
3+3 + 3-3,
+ (& + c -
or 6; and so by
symmetry
have bâ, b% c'^b, c'â, and a^c. Let m denote the coefficient of abc.
Then,
+ (c + a - 6)3 = 2(a3 + 63 + c3) + e{a% + 6% + b'^c + c'^b + câ + a^c) + mabc. To determine m, let a = b = c = 1. Then, 27 + 1 + 1 + 1 = 6 + 36 + w, or w = - 12. Then, (a + 6 + c)^ + (a + 6 - c)^ + (6 + c - ay + (c + a - by = 2(a3 + 63 _^ c3) + 6(a^b + bâ + b-^c + c^b + câ + a^c) - 12 a&c.
(a + & + c)3 + (a + &
c)3
a)^
EXERCISE
196
1. In the expansion of an expression which is symmetrical with respect to a, b, and c, what are the possible types of terms of the fourth degree ? of the fifth degree ?
If one term of an expression b respect to a, b, and c is (2 a

2.
which
is
c)(2 b c a),
symmetrical with
what are
the others?
3. Is the expression a(b cy -\-b(c metrical with respect to a, b, and c ? 4. Is the expression metrical with respect to
(ay^
ay -\-c{a by
sym-
y^y + (y^ z^y + (2^ x^^

y,
sym-
x,
and
z ?
Expand
5.
the following
(a
by the symmetrical method

6.
+ b + cy,
(a
+ b + c + ay.

7.
419
8. 9.
10.
+ y-zf+{y^z-xy+{z-{-x- yf. - 3 6 - 4 c)2 + (2 & - 3 c - 4 a)2 + (2 c - 3 a - 4 hf. (2 a - 6 - c)3 + (5 - c - a)3 + (c - a - 6)^. (a H- 6 + c)3 -f (a {a + h-{-c-df-\-{h + c-\-d-ay + {G + d + a-hY c)l -\-{d-[-a-\-h
(x
11.
12.
(aH-6
{x
+ c + d)l
13. 14.
+ y -z){y-^z-x){z + x-y). b). (a + 6 + c)(a + b c)(b -\-g- a)(c -\-a (x' + y^ + z^-{-2xy + 2yz + 2zxy.
of
464. Factoring
Symmetrical Expressions.
is
The method
of 457
advantageous in factoring symmet-
rical expressions ( 460, 461).

1.
Factor
a(b
+ cy + b(c + af + c(a + by - a\b + c) - ^^^ + ) - câ + b).
is symmetrical with respect to a, &, and c. Being of the third degree, the only literal factors which it can have are three of the type a three of the type a+6; ora + & + c, and a factor of the second degree. Putting a = 0j the expression becomes
The expression
6c2
c62
&2c
c26,
or
0.
Then, by
The
tor;
and, by symmetry, b and c are factors. 457, a is a factor expression, being of the third degree, can have no other literal fac;
but it may have a numerical factor. Let the given expression = mahc. To determine m, let a = b = c = l. 4
Then,
+4+
4-2-2-2 = m,
= 6 abc.
or
w = 6.
Whence, the given expression

2.
/
z.
Factor
x^
-{-
y^
-\-
z^
S xyz.
-\-
The expression is symmetrical with respect to x, y, and The only literal factors which it can have are three
three of the type x-{- y\ oi x
y
-^ z,
x and a factor of the second degree.

of the type
420
It is
ALGEBRA
evident that neither x^ y, nor ^ is a factor. y, the expression becomes
Putting X equal to
-y^ +
which
is
y^
z^
+ x%
'S
not
0.
;
Then, x -{- y is not a factor ( 457) and, by symmetry, neither y nor z + X is a factor. y z, the expression becomes Putting X equal to
-\-
(-
- zY + y^ + z^ - 3(- y - z)yz = -y^ - Sy^z-S yz^ - z^ +
y^
-\-
z^
y'^z
yz'^
= 0.
Therefore, x + y + z is a factor. The other factor may be obtained by division, or by the following
process
It is of the
y,
second degree
of the
and
z, it
must be
and as form
;
it is
x,
m(x2
It is evident that
+ + w = 1, as
?/2
^2)
_f.
,^(-^2/
yz-\- zx).
this is the
only value which will give the
terms
aj^,
y^,
and
z^ in the
given expression.
Then,
x3
- 3 xyz={x^y ^ z) [x2 j^ + let x = \, y = \, z = Q. To determine = 2(2 + w), or 1=2 + w, or 2 Then,

+
1/3
^3
y-i
z'^ j^.
n {xy
yz
zx)"].
?i,
=-
1.
Whence,
a;3
y3
^3
rj^y^
(^x
z) (x^
-\. y'^ -\-
z^
xy
yz
zx).
3.
Factor ah{a
is
h)
-\-
he {h
c)
-\-
ca(G
a).
a, 6,
The expression
It is evident that neither a, &,
cyclo-sym metrical ( 461) with respect to nor c is a factor.
and
c.
The expression becomes

Then, a
factors.
when a
;
6 is a factor
is replaced by b. and, by symmetry, b
and
a are
The expression can have no other literal

cal one.
factor, but
may have a numeria).
Let the given expression

let
= m(a =
2, &
h)(b
c)(c
c
= 0. To determine w, a 1, 2 = 2 w, and m = 1. Then, c) (c Then, the given expression = (a b)(b =

and
a).
ADDITIONAL METHODS IN FACTORINa

EXERCISE
:
421
197
2.
(ab-^bc-{-ca)(a-{-b+c)-a\b+c)-b%c-\-a)-c\a-{-b).
x'(y
3
4. 5.
6.
7.
+ z)+y\z + x)-\-z\x-\-y)-\-2xyz. a(b + cy + b(c 4- af + c(a + 6)^-4 abc.

a\b-c)-^b\c-a)-\-c\a-b).
(a;
2/
8. 9.
+ + ^^) -(^ + y)(y + ^){^ + ^)+ + ab{a + 6) + 6c(6 + c) -f ca{c + a) + 2 a6c. (a;-|-2/ + 2)3_a^_2/3_^ {x + y-{-z){xy-\-yz-\-zx)-xyz.
2)(a;2/
2/2=
11.
a\b
- c) + 68(c - a) + c3(a - 6).
422
ALGEBRA
XXXV. MATHEMATICAL INDUCTION

465. In
387 we gave an example of Mathematical Induc-
tion, in proving the Binomial Theorem for a Positive Integral Exponent in the present chapter, we will give other illustra;
tions of the method.
466.
sally.
We
will
now prove
that the laws of
103 hold univer-
We
will first prove,
by Mathematical Induction, that they

is
hold for
a-b
where n
any positive
^
integer.
is
Assu-me the laws to hold for

.
.
^
,
where n
any positive
integer-
Then,
^^-^ = a-i -f a^-'b 4- a'^-'b' +"'-]- b^-\ ab

a
(1)
a b
^ a^(a b) -h b(a'' 6") ab
= a" + 6(a"-i a^'-^b -h a^'-^b^ H = a" a"-^5 -f a^ -2^2 _^ ^_

-!-f...
h 6""^),
by
(1),
_j_
This result
is
in accordance
with the laws of
103.
the laws hold for the quotient of the difference of two like powers of a and b divided hj a b, they also hold for
Hence,
if
the quotient of the difference of the next higher powers of a and b divided hy a b.
^
r,5
But we know that they hold

f-i&
7^5
for
b
for
and therefore thev

7j6
,
7i6
;
hold for
:
a-b'
.
and since they hold ^
,y6
a-b'
they hold for ^
a'-b' and ab
so on.
MATHEMATICAL INDUCTION
Hence, the laws hold for
integer.
423
where n
is
any positive
Putting
for b in (1),
we have
a--(-b)
If
71
is
even,
(-by =
6^ and
(-
6)"-^
= - 6""^
&-\
(2)
^"~^"
Whence,
a-\-b
If n is odd,
= a"~i - a---'6 + a^-^ft^

6% and
{~by = a^-^
(-
&)"-i
= + b^'K + b--\
(3)
Whence, îl+^ =
a-\-b
- a^-'b + a^'-'b'
Equations 103.
467.
(2)
and
(3) are in
accordance with the laws of
We
will
now prove
that the law of
204 holds for the
square of a polynomial of
any number
of terms.
Assume
terms, where
the law to hold for the square of a polynomial of that is, is any positive integer
(a-i-b
+ c-i
\-l-\-my
= a^-^b"-^
Then,
(a
-{-
"-{-m^ + 2a(b
=.=
+ c-]
hm)
(1)
_l_26(c+--+m)
b
-\-
-{-
--
-\-
+ 4-2Zm. m + yif
= (a + 6-hc+-'-+m)2
-{-2(a-\-b-\-c-\
hm> + n2,
+ n^ hm + w)
y^y.
97^
= a^ + b- + c^-\
\-m^
+ 2a(6 + cH
-\-2b(c-\
\-m-{-n)-\
\-2mn, by
(1).
This result
is
in accordance with the
law of
204.
424
Hence,
if
ALGEBRA
the law holds for the square of a polynomial of m it also holds for the
is any positive integer, terms, where 1 terms. square of a polynomial of
m+
But we know that the law holds for the square of a polynomial of three terms, and therefore it holds for the square of a polynomial of four terms and since it holds for the square of
;
a polynomial of four terms, it also holds for the square of a polynomial of five terms and so on.
;
Hence, the law holds for the square of any polynomial.

468.
that the
As another sum of the
illustration of the
first
method, we will prove
n terms
of the arithmetic progression,

2c?,
^
a,
+ d,
a+
is
given by the formula na
+ ^^^^~ ~
'
d.
is
(Compare
361.)
The sum
of the first
two terms
d.
2a-f d, which can be
written in the form
2a +
Assume
terms.
Then, the formula holds for the sum of the first two terms. that the formula holds for the sum of the first ?i
'~
is,
That
the
sum
of the first
n terms =na-\-
'
d.
Now
the {n -f l)th term of the progression is a -h nd. Whence, the sum of the first {n 1) terms equals
yâ
+ ''(''~^) d + a + nc^=(n + l)a + ^(n-l+2)
= (4-l) +
This result
is
^^^<J.
of the first
in accordance with the formula.
Hence,
it
if
the formula holds for the
sum
n terms,
also holds for the
sum
of the first
+1
terms.
But we know that the formula holds for the sum of the first two terms, and hence it holds for the sum of the first three terms; and since it holds for the sum of the first three terms, it also holds for the sum of the first four terms; and so on.
MATHEMATICAL INDUCTION
Hence, the formula holds for the sum of the where n is any positive integer.
first
425
n terms,
EXERCISE
1.
198
Prove that the sum of the

is n^.
first
n terms of the
series 1, 3,
5,
2.
9,
...
first
n terms of the
series 3, 6,
+ ^). is^^^(^
first
Prove that the sum of the n IS n+1 1.2' 2.3' 3-4'

3.
.
111
4.
n terms of the
series
first
Prove, by mathematical induction, that the sum of the n terms of the geometric progression,
a, ar, ar^y
..,
is
given by the formula

5.
~ S = ^^^" ^^ r1
first
.
( 370).

...
n terms
of the series
2^^
42^
6^
6.
is
2<^ + l)(2n + l)
first
n terms of the
series
1^,
426
ALGEBRA
XXXVI. EQUIVALENT EQUATIONS

469. Two equations, each involving one or more unknown numbers, are said to be Equivalent when every solution of the first is a solution of the second, and every solution of the second a solution of the first.
470. To solve an equation involving one unknown number, Xy we transform it into a series of equations, which lead finally to
the value of
x.
assumed, in passing from any equation to any other, in this series, that every solution of the first was a solution of the second, and every solution of the second a solution of the
first;
We have
so that
first to find
it was legitimate to use the second in place of the the value of the unknown number.
That
is,
we have assumed
that the two equations were equiva-
lent ( 469). will now prove
We
some theorems in regard to equivalent
equations.
471. If the same expression he added to both members of equation, the resulting equation will be equivalent to the first.
an
Let
A=B
unknown numbers.
(1)
be an equation involving one or more
To prove the equation

where
A + C=B-^C,
(2)
any expression, equivalent to (1). solution of (1), when substituted for the bers, makes identically equal to ( 79). It then makes -f C identically equal to J5
G is
Any
unknown num(7 (
84, 1).
Then
it is
a solution of
(2).
Again, any solution of
(2),
when
substituted for the
unknown
numbers, makes A-\- C
identically equal to
B+
C.
EQUIVALENT EQUATIONS
It
427
then makes
it is
(1).
( 84, 2).
Then
The
a solution of
Therefore, (1) and (2) are equivalent.

principle of 84,
1, is
a special case of the above.
472. The demonstration of
471 also proves that
If
the
same expression
be subtracted
from
this.
both
members of an
equation, the resulting equation will be equivalent to the first.
The
principle of 84, 2,
is
a special case of
473. If the members of an equation be multiplied by the same

expression, tvhich
is
not zero,
and does not
involve the
unknown
numbers, the
resultirig
equation will be equivalent to the first.
Let
A=B
unknown numbers.
(1)
To prove the equation

where
AxC=BxC,
(2)
is
not zero, and does not involve the
unknown num-
bers, makes A identically equal to B. It then makes ^ X O identically equal
bers, equivalent to (1). Any solution of (1), when substituted for the
unknown num( 84, 3).
to
BxO
Then
it is
a solution of
(2).
Again, any solution of (2), when substituted for the numbers, makes ^4x0 identically equal to By. C. It then makes identically equal to B ( 84, 4).
unknown
Then
it is
a solution of
(1).
The reason why

The
the principle of 84,
the above does not hold for the multiplier zero 4, does not hold when the divisor is zero.
is
is,
that
principle of 84, 3,
474. If the members of an equation be multiplied by an expression which involves the unknown numbers, the resulting equation is, in general, not equivalent to the first.
Consider, for example, the equation
a;
+ 2 = 3 4.
a;
(1)
428
ALGEBRA
equation
Now the
which
a;
(x-\-2)(x-l)
is
= (3x-^)(x-l),
(2)
1, is
satisfied
obtained from (1) by multiplying both members by by the value x = l, which does not satisfy (1).
Then (1) and (2) are not equivalent. Thus it is never allowable to multiply both members of an integral equation by an expression which involves the unknown numbers for in this way additional solutions are introduced.
;
475. If the members of an equation he divided by the same

pression, which is not zero,
ex-
and does not
involve the
unknown
numbers, the resulting equation will be equivalent
to the first.
Let
A=B
unknown numbers.
(1)
To prove
where
the equation
A=B
77
77;
(2)
is
not zero, and does not involve the
unknown num-
bers, equivalent to (1). Any solution of (1), when substituted for the bers,
unknown num-
A identically equal to B. A B It then makes identically equal to

makes
( 84, 4).
Then
it is
a solution of
(2).
Again, any solution of
numbers, makes
It
A
G
(2),
when
substituted for the
unknown
B
G
then makes
it is
A identically equal
(1).
to B.
Then
The
a solution of

principle of 84, 4,
is
476. If the members of an equation be divided by an expression which involves the unknown numbers, the resulting equation is, in general, not equivalent to the first.
Consider, for example, the equation
429
Also the
+ 2)(x-l) = (Sx-4.)(x-l). 2 = 3 4, equation

(x
cc -fa;
(1)
(2)
which
is
Now
Then
equation (1)
(2).
obtained from (1) by dividing both members by is satisfied by the value x l, which does
x 1.
not satisfy
(1)
and (2) are not equivalent. from this that it is never allowable to divide both members of an integral equation by an expression which involves the unknown numbers for in this way solutions are lost.
It follows
;
(Compare
158.)
477. If both members of a fractional equation be multiplied by
L.C.M. of the given denoyninators, the resulting equation in general, equivalent to the first.
the
is,
Let
all
them be added, using
the terms be transposed to the first member, and let for a common denominator the L. C. M.
of the given denominators. The equation will then be in the
form
(1)
1
We
which
will
= 0.
now prove
the equation
^ = 0,
A
mon
(2)
is obtained by multiplying (1) by the L. C. M. of the and B have no comgiven denominators, equivalent to (1), if
factor.
Any
bers,
solution of (1),
when
substituted for the
unknown num-
makes
identically equal to 0.
Then, it must make A identically equal to 0. Then, it is a solution of (2). Again, any solution of (2), when substituted for the unknown numbers, makes A identically equal to 0.
430
Since
ALGEBRA
A and B
is
have no common
factor,
B cannot
be
when
this solution
substituted for the

(2),
unknown numbers.
substituted for the
Then, any solution of

numbers, makes
when
unknown
(1).
identically equal to 0,
and
if
is
a solution of
Therefore, (1) and (2) are equivalent,
and
have no
common
If
factor.
and
have a
common
factor, (1)
and
(2) are not equivalent
consider, for example, the equations
"
^-^^ = x2-l
is
;
0,
and X
0.
equation^ satisfy the first equation
The second
satisfied
by the value x
1,
which does not
then, the equations are not equivalent.
478. A fractional equation may be cleared of fractions by multiplying both members by any common multiple of the denominators; but in this way additional solutions are introduced, and the resulting equation is not equivalent to the Consider, for example, the equation
first.
x^
= 2.
1
If L. C.
If,
we
M.
of
solve by multiplying both members a;2 1 and a; -2. 1, we find x
by af1, the
(ic^
however,
we multiply both members by
l)(x 1),
we have
o^-a^-\-x'-x
The The
= 2x^-2x^-2x + 2,
may
x
be solved as in
-\-
or
x^-{-x-2
= 0.
latter equation
126.
factors oi x"
Solving the equation .t a? Solving the equation .t This gives the additional value x=l', and this does not satisfy the given equation.
2 are x-{-2 and x 1. + 2 = 0, x= 2. 1 = 0, = 1.

it is
evident that
479. If both members of an equatmi be raised
to the
same
positive integral power, the resulting equation ivill have all the solutions of the given equation, and, in general, additional ones.
Consider, for example, the equation x
431
= 3.
Squaring both members, we have

x''
= 9,
or x'--9
= 0,
or (x
+ 3){x-3) = 0.
3,
The
root
3. We will now
Let
latter equation
has the root
and, in addition, the
A=B
we have
(1)
be an equation involving one or more unknown numbers. Raising both members to the nth power, n being a positive
integer,
A^ = B-,
first
or
A--B'' = d.
(2)
Factoring the
number
( 121),
...
(A - J5)(^"-i
+ A^-'B +
Now, equation
(3) is satisfied
when
+ B"^-') = 0. A=B.
(1).
(3)
Whence, equation (2) has all the solutions of But (3) is also satisfied when
so that (2) has also the solutions of this last equation, which,
in general, do not satisfy (1).
EQUIVALENT SYSTEMS OF EQUATIONS

480.
Two
unknown numbers,
systems of equations, involving two or more are said to be equivalent when every solu-
tion of the first system is a solution of the second, and every solution of the second a solution of the first.
^^^
system of equations
lizt
unknown numbers,
the
are equations involving two or more
mA -\-nB = 0,
where
A=0,
to zero,
is
and n are any numbers, and n not equal

to the first system.
equivalent
432
ALGEBRA
the
For any solution of the first system, when substituted for unknown numbers, makes ^ = and B=0. It then makes ^ = and niA + nB = 0.
Then, it is a solution of the second system. Again, any solution of the second system, = and for the unknown numbers, makes
when
substituted
mA + nB = 0.
It therefore
Since
system.
it
makes nB = 0, or JB = 0. makes A = and ^ = 0, it is a
solution of the first
Hence, the systems are equivalent.

Either
A similar result holds for a system w or w may be negative.
of
any number
of equations.
482. If either equation, in a system of two, be solved for one of the unknown numbers, and the value found be substituted for
this
unknown number
in the other equation, the resulting system
will be equivalent to the first.
Let
1^ = ^' I (7 = A
y.
(1)
(2)
be equations involving two unknown numbers, x and Let be the value of x obtained by solving (1).
Let X in (2).
F=0
be the equation obtained by substituting
for
To prove
the system of equations
'x=Ê,
'
(3)
(4)
\f=G,
equivalent to the first system. Any solution of the first system satisfies (3), for (3) is only a form of (1).
Also, the values of x and y which form the solution make x equal and hence satisfy the equation obtained by putfor X in (2). ting
and
E E
Then, any solution of the first system satisfies (4). Again, any solution of the second system satisfies (1) is only a form of (3).
(1), for
433
Also, the values of x and y which form the solution make x and equal and hence satisfy the equation obtained by putin (4). X for ting
Then, any solution of the second system Hence, the systems are equivalent.
satisfies (2).
involving any
similar result holds for a system of any number of unknown numbers.
number
of equations,
483.
to
We will now apply the principles of 481 and 482 show that the solutions of Ex. 1, 168, and the examples of 169 and 170 are equivalent to the given equations.
Ex.
1, 168.
By
and
481, the given system is equivalent to the system (1) (5), or to the system (1) and (6).
and (6) is equivalent to the system equivalent to the system (6) and (8). (7), (6) Then, the given system is equivalent to the system (6) and (8).
By
482, the system (1)
and
which
is
Ex.,
169.
By
and
482, the given system is equivalent to the system (3) (4), or to the system (3) and (5).

By
482, the system (3)
and
(5) is
equivalent to (5) and
(6).
Ex., 170.
The given system
Now
is equivalent to (3) and (4). values of x and y which satisfy (3) and (4) also any
satisfy (3)
and
(5).
Then, the given system

(5), or to (3)
is
equivalent to the system (3) and

(6) is equivalent to (6)
and
(6).
By*
482, the system (3)
and
and
(7).
484. The principles of 471, 472, 473, 475, 477, 479, 480,
and 481 hold for equations of any degree.
434
ALGEBRA
XXXVII. GRAPHICAL REPRESENTATION OF
IMAGINARY NUMBERS
485. Let be any point in the straight line XX'.
suppose any positive real number, -|- a, to be represented by the distance from I \ to ^, a units to the right of ^' ^ ^ "^ A' -a Ofa A ia OX.
We may
^
.
>.
a, may
Then, with the notation of 16, any negative real number, be represented by the distance from to ^', a units
in OX'.
to the left of
the same as (+ a) x ( 1), it follows from 485 that the product of + a by 1 is represented by turning the line OA which represents the number + , through two right angles, in a direction opposite to the motion of the hands
486. Since
a is
of a clock.
Then, in the product of any real number by 1, we may regard 1 as an operator which turns the line which represents the first factor through two right angles, in a direction opposite to the motion of the hands of a clock.
487. Graphical Representation of the Imaginary Unit
i
( 276).
By
the definition of
275,
-1=
l
?',
Then, since one multiplication by followed by another multiplication by
^ âi
\i
i,
turns the line which represents the first factor through two right angles, in a direc-
x-i
"'
hands of a clock, we may regard multiplication by i as turning the line through one right angle, in the same direction.
tion opposite to the
OH-O'
Thus,
let
XX' and FF'
be straight lines intersecting at
right angles at 0.
REPRESENTATION OF IMAGINARY NUMBERS 435

is a a be represented by the line OA, where in OX, + ai may be represented by the right of is a units above, and B' a OB, and ai by OB', where units below, 0, in YY'.
Then,
if
niiits to
i by 0(7', where Also, -f i may be represented by OC, and one unit below, 0, in YY'. is one unit above, and
of
Complex Numbers.
We
will
now show how
to represent the
inter-
complex number
a + bi. Let XX' and YY' be straight lines

secting at right angles at 0.
of 0, if
Let a be represented by OA, to the right a is positive, to the left if a is Let

bi
negative.
be represented by OB, above

line
if 6 is positive,
below
if b is
negative.
Draw
AC equal
line
XX'
as
OB, and
and parallel to OB, on the same side of OC.
Then, OC is considered as representing the result of adding bito a; that is, OC represents the complex number a + bi.
The
figure represents the case in
which both a and

will
b are positive.
As another
Lay
off
illustration,
we
show how
in
complex number
OX', and
54i
left of
to represent the
YY', Draw line AC below XX', equal and parallel to OB, and line OC.
in
OA 5 units to the OB 4 units below
-5
Then, OC represents 5 4i. The complex number a + bi, if a is
positive
;
and Y' represented by a line between and OX'. positive, by a line between
OX
and b negative, will be and if a is negative and b
EXERCISE
199
:
Represent the following graphically

1.
3i.
2.
-6i.
3.
1.
4.
-l + 2i.
436
5.
ALGEBRA
2-5i.
6.
-5-3i.
of Addition.
7.
-7 + 4i.
a,
now show how to represent the result of adding b to where a and b are any two real, pure imaginary, or complex numbers.
Let the line a be represented by OA, and
We will
the line b by OB. Draw the line
AC
OB, on the same side of line 00.
equal and parallel to OA as OB, and the
Then, 00 is considered as representing the result of adding b to a; that is, 00 represents a-\-b. The method of 488 is a special case of the above. If a and b are both real, B will fall in OA, or in AO produced
through 0.
will be true if a and 6 are both pure imaginary. one of the numbers, a and 6, is real, and the other pure imaginary, the lines OA and OB will be perpendicular.
If
The same
As another
illustration,
we
graphically the
sum
of
the
show how to represent complex numbers 2 5 i and

will
is
The complex number 2 5i sented by the line OA, between

OY'.
-4 + 3i.
repre-
OX
is
and
The complex number

OX'.
-}-
if
repre-
sented by the line OB, between
OY
and
Draw
the line
BO
00
OA, on the same

Then, the line
side of
equal and parallel to OB as OA, and the line OC.
represents the result of adding
-j-
to2-5i.
of Subtraction.
Let a and b be any two
real,
pure imaginary, or complex
numbers.
REPRESENTATION OF IMAGINARY NUMBERS

Let a be represented by OA, and h by OB] and complete the parallelogram
represents the result of the number represented by OB to adding the number represented by OC.
437
OBAC, By 489, OA
That
a;
is,
if h
be added to the number

is
represented by 0(7, the

hence, a
equal to represented by the line OC.

is
sum
EXERCISE 200
Represent the following graphically
1.
:
The sum
of
2.
3.
The sum The sum

The sum
of of
of
4.
5.
4 and 3 5 bi and 1 + 6 2 + 4 and 5 - 3 -6 + 2i and -4-7i

i
i.
i.
i
i.
ond expression from the
Represent graphically the result of subtracting the secfirst, in each of the above examples.
438
ALGEBRA
XXXVIII. INDETERMINATE
491. In
FORMS
not
322,
we found
that the form - indicated an exis
pression which could have any value whatever ; but this always the case.
^
.
Consider, for example, the fraction

If x
X
or
ax
= a,
the fraction takes the form -.
jSTow
x^-a' ^ (x-\-a)(x-a) x^ ax x(x a)

a.
^ x-â
cc
'
which
last expression is equal to the given fraction,
provided
x does not equal
The
fraction ^__^ approaches the limit ^L+_^
or 2,
when
x approaches the limit a. This limit we call the value of the given fraction ivhen x = a. Then, the value of the given fraction when a; = a is 2. for the given In any similar case, we cancel the factor which equals value of X, and find the limit approached by the result when x approaches
the given value as a limit.
EXERCISE
Find the values
1.
201
:
of the following
3.
^^^^^^whenx==2a.
2a^-5ar^
~
/'
4.
yi
^\
when
.
o^
= - 4.
.
'
J^TS^
when . = a 0.
i,
4:X^-4:X-S
g^,_^,^^,, x^-8 x' + 16

6.
when x = f.
^!:rMl^whenx = 2.
x'-Tx + e
INDETERMINATE FORMS
492. Other Indeterminate Forms.
439
Expressions taking the forms ^,
oo,
or oo
co, for
certain
values of the letters involved, are also indeterminate.

1.
Find the value of
(a^-\-8)(l
+ -^\
x^
when x = -2.
2 ( 319).
This expression takes the form
oo,
when x =
Now,
(a;3
8) (l
+ -^] = x^-h8 +
+ +2
= x^-i-S-{-x^ -2x + 4 = x^ + x^-2x+l2.

The latter expression approaches the Hmit 8 + 4 + 4 + 12, or when X approaches the limit 2. This limit we call the value of the expression when x = 2 then, value of the expression when x = 2, is 12. In any similar case, we simplify as much as possible before finding
;
12,
the
the
limit.
2.
Find the value of
-^
1
X
oo
?^
OCT
when x
= l.
319).
1
The expression takes

Now,
the form
oo,
when x
1
=
x
1 (
2x
1-x
1-^2
+ x-2a: l-x2
l-a:2
+x
the
The
limit
1.
latter expression
approaches the limit ^
when x approaches
Then, the value of the expression when x
1, is
is
493. Another example in which the result the following

:
is
indeterminate
Ex. Find the limit approached by the fraction X

is indefinitely
"^
^ when
^
increased.
Both numerator and denominator increase
indefinitely in absolute value
when X
is
indefinitely increased.
1
Dividing each term of the fraction by x
4--^ 2 T -
-5x
X
2
^
440
The
X
is
ALGEBRA
latter expression
2 2 - ( 320), or -,
-f-
~"
when
indefinitely increased.
'^
fraction
In any similar case, we divide both numerator and denominator of the by the highest power of x.
EXERCISE 202
Find the limits approached by the following when x
definitely increased:
J
is in-
4:-^5x-Sx^
7-x-\-4:X^'
2a;
'
3 2
+l - 2*
:
a^-2a;-4
*
a,-2
+5
a;
-h 3*

1
4.
12
r x-2 af-S
when x
= 2.
whena;
5.
(2a^-5a;-3)/'2-f-^')
= 3.
HORNER'S SYNTHETIC DIVISION
441
XXXIX. HORNER'S SYNTHETIC DIVISION

494. Division by Detached
Coefficients.
In finding the quotient of two expressions which are arranged according to the same order of powers of some common letter, the operation may be abridged by writing only the numerical coefficients of the terms.
If the term involving
any power
is
wanting,
it
may be
sup-
plied with the
coefficient 0.
aj^-f5 a^
Ex. Divide 6 x^+2 a^-9

6
+ 18 x-^0
by ô^^x'-Q,.
+ 2-9+ + 5 + 18-30 34-l_t_0-6 + 2 + 0-12 2+0-3+5 -9 + 12 _9- 3 + + 18 15 + 5 15 + 5+ 30 Then the quotient is 2 o^ 3 + 5.

6
ic
495. Horner's Synthetic Division.
Let it be required to divide 6 2a^ + a;-3.

6ic^_
x^
ic^
3 a^ + 10 12
.a?
by
a^-3a^ +
6a;2
10a;-12|
2a^ + a;-3
-4ar^ +
-4a^-2a^+ Qx
8a;2+
Ax
The dividend equals (2x^ + x'6) times the quotient. Then, we can find the quotient by subtracting from the dividend + x times the quotient, and 3 times the quotient, and dividing the result by 2 x^.
442
Or,
ALGEBRA
we can
find
it
quotient, and by2a^.
+3
by adding to the dividend x times the times the quotient, and dividing the result
:
We may
arrange the work as follows
2a^
HORNER'S SYNTHETIC DIVISION

496.
443
We
:
will
now
give some additional examples of the
method
1.
Divide
12
ar^
-11 x2 4-20 a;- 9 by

12
a:3
3 x2-2a;-f-4.
3x-2
+ 2;c -4
4X
- 11 x2 + 20 X + 8x2-- 2 X -16x + 1, quo. 2 X
9 4
5,
Rem.
We
write the divisor in the left-hand column, with the sign of each
term after the
first changed. Dividing 12 x^ by 3 x^ gives 4 x for the first term of the quotient. We multiply + 2 x by 4 x and put the product, 8 x^, in the second
;
column
and multiply
4 by 4 x, and put the product,
16 x, in the
third column.
We
result
add the terms by 3 x^, giving

multiply
;
in the second column, giving 3 x^, and divide the 1 as the second term of the quotient.
We
column
+2x
by
and multiply
1 and put the product, 2 x, in the third 4 by 1, and put the product, + 4, in the
fourth column.
in the third and fourth columns, the sum is 2 x 5. Then, the quotient is 4 x 1, and the remainder 2 x 5. It is advantageous to use detached coefficients ( 494) in the synthetic method the work of Ex. 1 would then stand as follows
Adding the terms
12
+2
-4
4-1,
2.
+2-5
Divide
a+2a^&-14a362_|_i5^^4_555 ^^ a''-âh-\-h\
444
The work
ALGEBRA
of Ex. 2 will appear as follows with detached coefficients
1
+3 -1
14-2-14 + + 15 _15 + 3 + 15
1
- 1-5 + 5+0-5,
+5
EXERCISE 203
Divide the following by synthetic division
1.
:
2. 3.
12a^-7(x^-23x-S hj 4.x'-5x-3, 4.a'-9a'-{-30a-25 hj 2a' + 3a-5.

2a'-a^b-\-Sab^-5b^ by 2a^-3ab + 5bK
4 m^n*
+ n^ +-
4.
5. 6.
16 m^ by 2 mn^
+-
4 m^ + 7i*.
6a^-13x'-20x'-\-55a^-Ux-19 by 2a^-7a; + 6.
Sx^-4:x'y-Sxy-lSxy^-\-21y'
by
4:a:^
2x^y-{-6xy^ 7y^.
by
7.
8.
37a'-\-50
+ a'-70ahj
2a' + 5-\-a^-6a.
2w'-ab-2ac-eb'+llbc-4.c'
2a + 36-4c.
PERMUTATIONS
ANJD
COMBINATIONS
445
XL.
PERMUTATIONS AND COMBINATIONS
497. The different orders in which things can be arranged

are called their Permutations.
Thus, the permutations of the letters
time, are aby ac, ba, be, ca, cb; three at a time, are abc, acb, bac, bca, cab, cba.
a, b, c, taken two at a and their permutations, taken
which can be formed from them without regard in which they are placed.
time, are ap,
498. The Combinations of things are the different collections to the order
Thus, the combinations of the letters a, b, c, taken two at a be, ca; for though ab and ba are different permu-
tations, they
form the same combination.
499. To find the number of permutations of n different things taken two at a time.
Consider the n letters a, b, c, . In making any particular permutation of two letters, the first letter may be any one of the n; that is, the first place can be filled in n different ways. After the first place has been filled, the second place can be filled with any one of the remaining n 1 letters.
Then, the whole number of permutations of the two at a time is n(n 1).
letters
taken
We
will
now

different things
500.
takeri r at
To find the number of permutations of n a time.
Consider the n letters a, b, c, . In making any particular permutation of r letters, the first letter may be any one of the n. After the first place has been filled, the second place can be filled with any one of the remaining n 1 letters.
446
ALGEBRA
filled,
filled in
After the second place has been n 2 different ways.
the third place can be
Continuing in this way, the
?*th
place can be filled in

different ways.
letters
n (r l),
r
or
n r-\-l
Sit
Then, the whole, number of permutations of the a time is given by the formula
P,
taken
= n(7i - l)(n - 2)
...
(n
- r + 1).
(1)
is
The number
of permutations of
n different things taken r at a time
usually denoted by the symbol nPr-
501.
.If all
the letters are taken, r .P.
= n,
and
(1)
becomes
(2)
= n(n-l)(n-2)...3.2.1=:[n.
Hence, the number of permutations of n different things taken n at a time equals the product of the natural numbers from 1 to n
inclusive.
(See note, page 352.)
502. To find the taken r at a time.
number of combinations of n
different things
The number
a time
is
of permutations of
n different things taken
r at
^ ^^^
_ i) (^ _ 2)
...
(^
_ r -f 1)
( 500).
But, by
501, each combination of r different things
may
permutations. Hence, the number of combinations of n different things taken r at a time equals the number of permutations divided by [r.
\r
have
That
is,
â,^
n(n~l){n-2)...{n-r + \)
\r
^g^
The number
of combinations of
different things taken r at a time is
usually denoted by the symbol nCr-
503. Multiplying both terms of the fraction (3) by the product of the natural numbers from
Iton r
inclusive,
we have
Ijj:
.
n ^ n{n-l)'" (n - r + 1) "
'
- r) {n
...
^
\r
[rxl.2...(n-r)
which
is
\n-r
another form of the result.
PERxMUTATIONS AND COMBINATIONS

504.
at
447
The number of combinations of n different things taken r a time equals the number of combinations taken n r at a time.
For, for every selection of r things out of n, r things. tion oin
we
leave a selec-
The theorem may

result of 503.
also
be proved by substituting n
r for
r,
in the
505. Examples.
1.
How many
=
changes can be rung vîth 10
bells,
taking 7 at
a time ?
Putting w
10, r
= 7, in (1), 500, 10P7 = 10. 9. 8. 7. 6.
5. 4
604800.
2.
How many
different combinations can be
formed with 16
letters,
taking 12 at a time ?
By 504, the number of combinations of 16 different things, taken 12 at a time, equals the number of combinations of 16 different things, taken 4 at a time.
Putting w
16, r
= 4,
in (3), 502,
r _ 16-15.14.13 -'^'^"^*- 1.2.3.4 _.,Qo^

3. How many different words, each consisting of 4 consonants and 2 vowels, can be formed from 8 consonants and 4 vowels ?
The number
of combinations of the 8 consonants,
taken 4 at a time,
is
^llli^,or70. 1.2.3.4
The number
of combinations of the 4 vowels, taken 2 at a time,
is
^,or6. 1.2'
Any
one of the 70 sets of consonants
;
may
be associated with any one
of the 6 sets of vowels
hence, there are in all 70 x 6, or 420 sets, each containing 4 consonants and 2 vowels. But each set of 6 letters may have [6, or 720 different permutations
( 501).
Therefore, the whole
number
of different
words
is
420 X 720, or 302400.
448
ALGEBRA
EXERCISE 204
1.
How many
different permutations can be

?
formed
with.
14
letters,
2.
taken 6 at a time
In how many different orders can the triangle be written, taken all together ?
3.
letters in the
word
How many
combinations can be formed with 15 things,

?
taken 5 at a time
4.
12 persons.
5.
certain play has 5 parts, to be taken by a company of In how many different ways can they be assigned ?
How many
combinations can be formed with 17 things,

?
taken 11 at a time
6. How many different numbers, of 6 different figures each, can be formed from the digits 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, if each number begins with 1, and ends with 9 ?
7. How many even numbers, of 5 different figures each, can be formed from the digits 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 ? 8. How many different words, of 8 different letters each, can be formed from the letters in the word ploughed, if the third letter is o, the fourth u, and the seventh e ?
9. How many different committees, of 8 persons each, can be formed from a corporation of 14 persons ? In how many will any particular individual be found ?
10.
line.
How many different quadrilaterals can

?
There are 11 points in a plane, no 3 in the same straight be formed, having
4 of the points for vertices

11.
a pack of 52 cards, 6 cards each can be dealt ?

12.
is
From
how many
of 48 men.
in
different
hands of
and
are in a
company
6,
If the of
divided into equal squads of and B be in the same squad ?

13.
how many
company them will A
How many
different words, each
and
1 vowel, can be
having 5 consonants formed from 13 consonants and 4 vowels ?
PERMUTATIONS AND COMBINATIONS

14.
449
of 10 soldiers and 15 sailors, how many different can be formed, each consisting of 3 soldiers and 3 parties
Out
sailors ?
In how 15. A man has 22 friends, of whom 14 are males. many ways can he invite 16 guests from them, so that 10 may
be males ?
16. From 3 sergeants, 8 corporals, and 16 privates, how many different parties can be formed, each consisting of 1 sergeant,
2 corporals, and 5 privates

17.
Out of 3 capitals, 6 consonants, and 4 vowels, how many words of 6 letters each can be formed, each beginning with a capital, and having 3 consonants and 2 vowels ?
different
18.
How many
formed from 8
How many if 19. How many
words of 8 letters each can be 4 of the letters cannot be separated ? these 4 can only be in one order ?
different
letters, if
different numbers, of 7 figures each, can be

7, 8, 9, if
formed from the digits 1, 2,"~^ 4, 5, 6, fourth, and last digits are odd numbers ?
the
first,
506. To find the number of permutations of n things which are not all different, taken all together.
Let there be n
c's,
letters, of which p are a's, q are 6's, and r are the rest being all different. Let denote the number of permutations of these letters
taken
all
together.
Suppose that, in any particular permutation of the 7i letters, the p a's were replaced by p new letters, differing from each other and also from the remaining letters.
Then, by simply altering the order of these
letters
among
themselves, without changing the positions of any of the other letters, we could from the original permutation form [p different permutations ( 501). If this were done in the case of each of the
N original
per[p.
mutations, the whole
number
of permutations
would be A^x
450
Again,
q
if
ALGEBRA
in
new
letters,
any one of the latter the q 6's were replaced by differing from each other and from the remain-
ing letters, then by altering the order of these q letters among themselves, we could from the original permutation form [g and if this were done in the case of different permutations
;
each of the
tations
Nx[p_
permutations, the whole number of permu-
would be Nx\jp_X\qIn like manner, if in each of the latter the r c's were replaced by r new letters, differing from each other and from the remaining letters, and these r letters were permuted among themselves, the whole number of permutations would be
-ZVx[p x[g x[r.
We now
letters.
have the original n
letters replaced
by n
different
But the number of permutations

n
Sit
St,
of
n different things taken
time
is
[n ( 501).
Therefore,
^xlp x Ig
x|r
= |n;
or,
N=
\n
,
\-^
[p\g\r
Any
Ex.
other case can be treated in a similar manner.
How many
e's,
permutations can be formed from the

all
1
t.
let-
ters in the
word Tennessee, taken

2 w's, 2
s's,
together ?
Here there are 4
and
9,
Putting in the above formula w

[9
= 4,
= 2,
= 2, we
have
5.6.7.8.9 =
2-2
3780.
[4[2[2
EXERCISE 205
1.
In
how many
different orders can the letters of the

?
word
denomination be written
2.
also alike; in
3.
There are 4 white billiard balls exactly alike, and 3 red balls, how many different orders can they be arranged?
letters of the
In how many different orders can the independence be written ?
word
PEKMUTATIONS AND COMBINATIONS

4.
451
7 flags, of
How many
different signals can be
made with
which 2 are blue, 3 red, and 2 white,

signal ?
5.
if all
are hoisted for each
How many
In
different
numbers of 8
digits can be
formed
from the
6.
digits 4, 4, 3, 3, 3, 2, 2, 1 ?
how many
and
different
ways can 2 dimes, 3
4 halves, that each
5 dollars be distributed
among 14
quarters, persons, so
may
receive a coin?
To find for what value of r the number of combinations ofn different things taken r at a time is greatest. By 502, the number of combinations of n different things^
507.
taken r at a time,
is
^_
n{n
l)
1
'"
(yi
2 -3
r + 2)(7i r + 1) l)r {r
/-in
Also, the number of combinations of n different things, taken at a time, is
,(,,_!) n\ÎO -L;
KI -L) ...[^_(^-l) \_I0 1.2.3... (r-1)
-u
X -r l]
I
'
J^; -- yv, T ^/ n(n-l)...(n-r + 2) 1.2.3... (r-1)

ivyîv
/2') ^^
The expression
sion (2)
/o\
n-\-l ^ 1. r The latter expression decreases as r increases. If, then, we find the values of (1) corresponding to the val-
by
r-\-l
r
r,
(1) is
,
obtained by multiplying the expres-
or
ues
1, 2,
3, ..,
of
the results will continually increase so
long as
I.
IS
> 1.
;
Suppose n even
and
let
= 2 m,
r
where
is
a positive
integer.
Then,
If r If r
!^=I+1
r r
becomes
lUL^l+l.
= m,
^~^"^
becomes
^
m
,
and
is
>1.
is
= m + 1,
^t_
r
becomes
m+1
and
< 1.
452
Then, ^Cr will have
II.
ALGEBRA
its
greatest value
let
when
r=m -'
m
is
Suppose n odd
and
= 2 m 4- 1,
r
where
a posi-
tive integer.
Then, ^!^^11 becomes

T
2^r2.
^
m
,
If r
= m, = m + 1, = m + 2,
(7^
~
r
"*"
becomes
^
and
is
>1.
1.
If r
^^
~
r
"'"'''
becomes
^ "^
m-fl
,
and equals
is
If r
^"^-^^'^^ becomes -^?-, and

r
m+2
< 1.
r equals
Then,
or
will
is,
have
its
greatest value
when
m+1
Then,
that
^^-=^ or
^^^ + 1.
greatest value
(7,.
will
have
its
when
r equals
~1
^
or
n4-l
T^
;
the results being the same in these two cases.
EXPONENTIAL AND LOGARITHMIC SERIES
453
XLI.
EXPONENTIAL AND LOGARITHMIC

SERIES
508. The Theorem of Limits.
If two expressions, containing the same variable ( 317), are equal for every value of the variable, and each approaches a limit ( 318), the limits are equal.
Let Let
A and B be two expressions containing the same variable. A and B be equal for every value of the variable, and
A'=B\
approach the limits A' and B\ respectively.
To prove
Let
Then,
AÂ = m,2iX\diB'B = n.
and n are variables which can be made less than any assigned fixed number, however small ( 318). Then, either m n is a variable which can be made less than any assigned fixed number, however small, or else m n = 0.
But
m - n = A'- A - (B'- B)
==A'-A-B'-^B=:A'-B'',
for,
by hypothesis,
is
and
are equal for every value of the
variable.
But A' B'

variable.
not a variable
and hence
its
mn
A'B',
is
not a
or
Then,
mn
is
0;
and hence
equal,
is
0,
A'=B'.
THE EXPONENTIAL SERIES

509.
We have
for all values of
n and
x,
-n.i)-
454
ALGEBRA
Expanding both members by the Binomial Theorem,

n
-,
,
\_
\2
rv^
[3
n^
nxCnx
[2
1)
1
n"
n
I
nx(nx
l)(nx 2) ^
.^.
We may
write equation (1) in the form
which holds however great n may be. Now let n be indefinitely increased.
Then, the limit of each of the terms
Hence, the limiting value of the
first
2
( 320).
n n
-, -, etc., is
member
of (2) is
['+'+tt-}
and the limiting value of the second member
is
By
that
the
Theorem
of Limits ( 508), these limits are equal
is.
Denoting the
series in brackets
by
e,
we
obtain

510.
455
Putting
mx
for x, in (3), 509,
we have
(4)
e'
= l + mx +
e"
Let
m = logg a.
^
e"*="
^+....
Then, by 412,
= a,
we
and
= a*.

a^
obtain
.
= 1 + (log, a)x + (log, ay^-h (log. af^ +

is
(5)
This result
called the Exponential Series.
is
511. The system of logarithms which has e for its base called the Napierian System, from Napier, the inventor of
logarithms.
Napierian logarithms are also called Natural Logarithms. The approximate value of e may be readily calculated from
the series of
509.
and
will be
found to equal 2.7182818
....
THE LOGARITHMIC SERIES

512.
To expand
log, (1
+ x)
in asceyiding
Substituting in
(1
(5),
510, l-\-x for a,

?/
powers of and y for x,

in
x.
a^)^
= 1 + [log, (1 + a;)] + terms

first
y^, y^, etc.
Expandiiig the
member by the Binomial Theorem,
= 1 4- [log, (1 + a;)] + terms

2/
in
y^,
f,
etc.
(6)
This equation holds for every value of y which makes both members convergent; and, by the Theorem of Undetermined'
Coefficients ( 396), the coefficients of y in the
two
series are
equal.
456
ALGEBRA
is,
That
x-^x^ + ^â^-^lx'-\-... = \og,(l^x),

[Z [^
[4
Or,
log,(l
is
a.)
a;-|
+ |-J +
|-....
(7)
This result
called the Logarithmic Series,
CALCULATION OF LOGARITHMS
513. The equation Napierian Logarithms,
ber
(7),
if
is
512, can be used to calculate so taken that the second mem-
is convergent; but unless x is small, it requires the sum of a great many terms to insure any degree of accuracy. will now derive a more convenient series for the calcula-
We
tion of Napierian Logarithms.
514. Putting
for x, in (7), 512,
we have
.
logJl-x) 6eK J
= -x----~-^-x----2
3
(8) ^^
(7),
we
obtain
logXl
+ a.)-log.(l-x) = 2x + ?|! + ?|!+....

log.l|
Or (422),
=
^
2(x
Let
a:
=m n m + -;
ri
then ~ = x
l-\-x 1
+J+J+ ...). mn m-\-n 2m m = 2n = m n -^ n m+n

!
(9)
Substituting these values in

1
(9),
we
obtain
1
log,n
m=2 m o
422,
Hl
1
I
M nV
1 /
m nY
m-\- n
7)Z
S\m-\-nJ
5\m-^nJ
;
But by
log, = log, m log, n
whence,
1
,
logem = log,n
mn +2 m n +
'
m nV
f'm
n\^
^\m-\-n)
5\m-\-nJ

required, for example, to calculate Napierian logarithm of 2 to six places of decimals.
it
457
the
515. Let
be
Putting
m=2
log.2
and n
=l
in the result of 514, 1

.
we have
= log,l + 2
=
my
S+3 3;+5
1/1 3'
+
}
Or
since log,l
log,
(418),
= 2(.3333333 + .0123457 + .0008230 + .0000653 + .0000056 + .0000005 + = 2 X .3465734 = .6931468 = .693147,

correct to six places of decimals. Having found log, 2, we may calculate loge3 and n 2 in the result of 514.
by putting
m=3
.
Proceeding in this way, we shall find log, 10

516.
given
its
= 2.302585
To
calculate the
common
e in
logarithm of a number, having
Napieriayi logarithm.
Putting 6
'^"^
= 10
and a =
the result of
^"^-"^
426,
5^ = 2 X
logio
= ''^^^^^ ^ >^''"= .301030.

of
Thus,
= .4342945
.693147
The multiplier by .which logarithms

derived
any system are
from Napierian logarithms

is
is
called the modulus of
that system. Thus, .4342945
the modulus of the
common
system.
Conversely, to find the Napierian logarithm of a number when its common logarithm is given, we may either divide the
common
logarithm by the modulus .4342945, or multiply 2.302585, the reciprocal of .4342945.
it
by
EXERCISE 206
find the Napierian logarithm of each of the following to four significant figures
:
Using the table of common logarithms,

1.
10000.
2.
.001.
3.
9.93.
'
458
4.
7.
ALGEBRA
5.
243.6.
.04568.
6.
.56734.
What
What
is is
the characteristic of logs ~58 ?
8. 9.
the characteristic of log7 500?
If log 3
10.
If
= .4771, log8 = .9031,
how many
digits are there in
3^''
how many
digits are there in 8^^?
INDEX
Addition, of fractions, 109.
of imaginary numbers, 243. of monomials, 18.
of polynomials, 21. of positive and negative
Definitions
Continued
Factor, 74.
Coefficient, 17.
Combinations, 445.
num-
bers, 12. of similar terms, 19.
Common Common Common
Logarithm, 376.
Multiple, 100.
of surds, 226.
Complex Fraction, 121. Complex Number, 242.

Convergent Series, 358. Cyclo-symmetric Expreaeion, 416. Degree of Equation, 52. Degree of Expression, 41. Divergent Series, 358.
Division, 42.
Affected quadratic equations, 250. Any power, of a monomial, 63. of a fraction, 186. Any root, of a fraction, 192. of a monomial, 190. Approximate square root of an
arithmetical number, 201. Associative Law, for addition, 410.
for multiplication, 411.
Equation,
2.
Calculation of Logarithms, 456.
Clearing of fractions, 53.
Equation in Quadratic Form, 268. """^ Equation of Condition, 51. Equivalent Equations, 146. Equivalent Systems of Equations,
431.
Commutative Law,
for addition, 410. for multiplication, 410. Completing square, first method, 250.
second method, 253. Cube, of -a binomial, 188.
Exponent, 7. Exponential Equation, 393. Exponential Series, 455.

Factor, 17.
Fraction, 103. Fractional Exponent, 213.
Cube
root, of ber, 206.
an arithmetical num-
of a polynomial, 202.
Definitions:
Geometric Means, 344. Geometric Progression, 338.

Graph, 175. Harmonic Means, 347.
-
Abscissa, 173.
Absolute Value, 12. Affected Quadratic Equation, 248. Algebraic Expression, 9. Arithmetic Means, 335. Arithmetic Progression, 331. Arithmetical Complement, 390.
Harmonic Progression, 346. Homogeneous Terms, 41.

Identical Equation, 51. Imaginary Number, 242.
Inconsistent Equations, 147.
Axiom,
2.
Independent Equations,
146.
Binomial, 21.
Characteristic, 377.
Indeterminate Equations, 146. Index of Root, 190.
459
460
Definitions
INDEX
Continued
Inequality, 180.
Infinite series, 350. Infinity, 305.
Division, 441.
by detached
coefficients,
of fractions, 118. of imaginary numbers, 246. of
Integral Equation, 51. Irrational Number, 222.
monomials,
43.
Limit, 304.
of polynomials by monomials, 45. of polynomials by polynomials, 46.
Linear Equation, 52. Literal Equation, 132.

Mantissa, 377.
of surds, 230.
Elimination, by addition or subtraction, 147.
Monomial,
17.
Napierian Logarithm, 455. Negative Exponent, 214. Negative Number, 12. Negative Term, 17. Numerical Equation, 51.
Ordinate, 173. Perfect Cube, 88. Perfect Square, 76.
by comparison, by substitution,
150.
149.
Evolution of surds, 233. Expansion, of fractions into

361.
series,
of surds into series, 363.
Permutations, 445. Polynomial, 21,

Positive
Exponential equations, 393. Extraction of roots by the Binomial Theorem, 375. Factor Theorem, 414.
Factoring,
75, 76.
of
expressions
whose
factor,
Number, 12. Positive Term, 17.

Proportion, 312.
terms have a
common
Pure Quadratic Equation,

Quadratic Equation, 248. Quadratic Expression, 276. Quadratic Surd, 222. Rational and Integral, 40. Rational Number, 222.
248.
of quadratic expressions, 276. of symmetrical expressions, 419. of the difference of
two perfect
squares, 79. of the difference of
any two equal
odd powers,
of the
89.
sum
or difference of two
Rectangular Co-ordinates, 173. Root of Equation, 52.

Series, 350.
perfect cubes, 88. of the type x* + ax'^y'^

of the type of the type
x'^
ax
Similar Surds, 226. Similar Terms, 18.
ax"^
-\-
+ y^, 81, 279. + 6, 82, 276. hx + c, 85, 276.
Simultaneous Equations, 147.' Subtraction, 18. Surd, 222.
of trinomial perfect squares, 77. Formation of quadratic equations, 275.
General term of
sion, 355.
binomial expan-
Symmetrical Expression, 416.

Trinomial, 21. Variable, 304.
Graphical representation, of addition of
Zero Exponent, 213.

Discussion of general quadratic equation, 281.
of
complex numbers, 436. complex numbers, 435.
of imaginary unit, 434. of roots of equations, 179, 284. of solutions of simultaneous linear
Distributive
tion, 412.
Law, for
multiplica-
equations, 176.
INDEX
of solutions of simultaneous quadratic equations, 301. of monomials, 33. of
461
polynomials
34.
by
monomials,
Graph, of
first
member
of a quad-
ratic equation having equal or imaginary roots, 284.
of polynomials of positive
14.
by polynomials, 35. and negative numbers,
of
inconsistent linear
equations
with two
177.
unknown numbers,
of surds, 228. Parentheses, insertion of, 30.
of indeterminate linear equations
removal
of, 28.
with
178.
two unknown numbers, two un-
of a linear equation with known numbers, 174.
Partial fractions, 364. Permutations of things not all different taken all together, 449.
Physical Problems, 141, 260, 266,

297, 325. of the Couriers, 306. Product, of the sum and difference
of a linear expression involving one unknown number, 178.
Problem
of
of a quadratic equation involving two unknown numbers, 300. of a quadratic expression involving one unknown number, 283.
of
two numbers, 66. two binomials having same

for
first
Graphs in Physics,
Highest
327.
Common
Factor, of expres-
term, 67. Proof, of a"* X a" = "+", values of and w, 405.
all
sions which can be readily fac-
tored by inspection, 98. by long division, 395.
Theorem, for a positive integral exponent, 350. Quadratic surds, 237.

of Binomial
Indeterminate form-, 438.
Indeterminate
CO
- 00
forms,
co
Reduction, of fractions to integral or mixed expressions, 106. of fractions to their lowest com-
439.
mon
when
denominator, 107.
Interpretation, of solutions, 171.

of the of the
of fractions to their lowest terms
form
^,
304.
305.
the numerator and denominator can be readily fac-
form-, CO
'
Introduction of the coefficient of a surd under the radical sign, 225.

Involution of surds, 231. Logarithm of a number to any base,
394.
tored by inspection, 104. of fractions to their lowest terms when the numerator and de-
be readily factored by inspection, 404. of fractions with irrational de-
nominator cannot
Lowest
Common
Multiple,
of
exof
nominators to equivalent fractions with rational denominators, 233.
pressions which can be readily factored by inspection, 100.
by long division, 401. Meaning of a pure imaginary number, 243. Multiplication, of fractions, 115. of imaginary numbers, 244.
fractions with irrational denominators to equivalent fractions with rational denominators, when the denominators
are
in
the
forms
or
Vft,
V~a
Vh,
7a
Vfe, 405.
462
INDEX
of literal linear equations, 132. of quadratic equations by formula, 255.
Reduction, of mixed expressions to

degrees to equivalent surds of the same degree, 227. of surds to their simplest forms,
222.
fractions, 114. of surds of different
Square, of a binomial, 64. of a polynomial, 186. Square root, of an arithmetical
number,
413.
197.
Remainder Theorem,
Repeating decimals, 343. Reversion of series, 370.

Solution, of equations 94, 280.
of a binomial surd, 238. of a polynomial, 193. factoring,
by
Subtraction, of fractions, 109. of imaginary numbers, 243.

of monomials, 24. of polynomials, 26.
of equations having the unknow^n numbers under radical signs,
239.
of equations involving 134. of
Sum
decimals,
of surds, 226. of a geometric progression to infinity, 342.
Sum and
equations,
equations,
product of roots of quad-
fractional
127.
linear linear
ratic equations, 273. Theorem of Limits, 453.
of
54.
integral
Theorem
of
Undetermined
Coeffi-
cients (Rigorous), 409.
of literal affected quadratic equations, 258.
Transposing terms, 53. Use of Table of Logarithms, 383.
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'ALGEBRA

PROFESSOR OF MATHEMATICS IN THE MASSACHUSETTS INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

intended to meet the needs of High

Schools and Academies of the highest grade.

to the author's " Essentials of Algebraj"

have been introduced, and improvements

the factors do not involve surds ( 115, 117).

These forms are considered

298 and 300.

107 will be found

176 will be found a set of problems in which the

solutions are negative, fractional, or zero.

In the chapter on Evolution will be found the square

+ 2ab + 2ac + 26c,

and the cube root by inspection of polynomials of the form

of the rules for the square

and cube root

and arithmetical numbers leaves nothing

217, 224, 225, 228.)

the theoretical work in Chapter

In 386 and 387 will be found the same proof of the

Binomial Theorem for Positive Integral Exponents as

those wishing a more comcoefficients is

which the general law of

any two consecutive terms,

the same as that given in the " Essentials of

a more rigorous proof

beyond the capacity of pupils

Factor and Lowest

the reduction of a fraction to

numerator and denominator cannot be readily factored by

who so desires IX and X.

can take this work in connection

also contains the proof of (1), 235, for

445); and the reduction of a fracirrational to an equivalent fraction

and a surd of the

two surds of the nth degree

important feature of the

the prominence given

Chapter XIII will be found the

graph and also of

a linear equation with two a linear

unknown numbers, involving one unknown

including inconsistent and indeterminate equations.

taken up for quadratic equations in 303 to

To meet the demands

of the chapter on Variation will be found a set

which the principles

and also several

illustrations of the application

All the above work in physics has been

prepared by Professor Kobert A. Milliken, of the University

The examples and problems

used to represent unknown numbers. are about 4000 in number;

which contains references

operations and important

the wants of the most advanced schools, the author

has introduced nine additional chapters, which will cover the

These additional chapters are:

The Fundamental Laws

Additional Methods in Factoring.

Horner's Synthetic Division.

Permutations and Combinations.