1D Conduction with no generation

The heat diffusion equation, as derived, is given by equation 1.




∂ ∂T ∂ ∂T ∂ ∂T ∂T
k + k + k + q̇ = ρcp (1)
∂x ∂x ∂y ∂y ∂z ∂z ∂t
If we assume steady 1-D conduction, with no generation, equation 1 reduces
to


d dT
k =0 (2)
dx dx
The only way that equation 2 can be satisfied if either k = 0, or of dT /dx = 0.
A conductivity of zero would imply an ideal thermal insulator, and would of
course result in a zero heat flux. This is clearly not of interest. We are therefor
interested in the second condition which means that kdT /dx = C, or
dT
= c1 (3)
dx
and, recalling Fourier’s law, that the heat flux is a constant with x.
We can easily integrate equation 3, to obtain,

T (x) = c1 x + c2 (4)
Now, we impose the desired boundary conditions, the most simple of which is
a Dirichlet condition, or constant T; T (0) = Ts,1 and T (L) = Ts,2 . Substituting
into equation 4 gives
x
T (x) = (Ts,2 − Ts,1 )+ Ts,1 (5)
L
Next, we can easily determine the heat flux using Fourier’s law.


dT Ts,1 − Ts,2
qx = −kA = kA (6)
dX L
Now, let’s condsider our plane wall with convection occuring at each of the
surfaces – a much more realistic boundary condition. Later we will see how to
determine convection coefficients, but for now we will simply assume that we
know the value. [Adjust Figure]
Recall the thermal resistances that we defined earlier. We defined a conduc-
tion resistance as
L
RT,cond = (7)
kA
and a convection resistance as
1
RR,conv = (8)
hA
Let us imagine now that our wall is replaced a thermal resistance, given by
equation 7, and that the two convection boundary conditions are replaced by

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two more thermal resistanceces, each given by equation 8. We are making a
direct analagy here to an electric circuit made up of three resistors in serial.
The heat rate through the system is analogous to the current in the electric
circuit, and the temperature drop is analogous to the voltage drop. Since all
the resistors are in series, the current which passes through the circuit passes
through each and every resistor. In the real system, the heat energy must pass
from inside the room, through the boundary layer, then through the wall itself
and then through the boundary layer outside. The thermal boundary layer
inside the room bridges the room at T∞,1 and the inside wall temperature Ts,1 .
T∞,1 − Ts,1
qx = (9)
1/h1 A
Where h1 is the convection coefficient representing the convection process
adjacent to the inside wall surface.
The wall conducts heat from the inner surface at Ts,1 to the outer surface
at Ts,2 .
Ts,1 − Ts,2
qx = (10)
L/kA
and finally, the convection process on the outer wall surface convects the
heat energy from the outside wall surface temperature, Ts,1 to the outside air
temperature, T∞,2 .
Ts,2 − T∞,2
qx = (11)
1/h2 A
Since qx is constant through each process, we can combine the above equa-
tions in order to arrive at an expression containing only temperatures that we
know. In this case it is reasonable to assume that we would know the inside air
T, T∞,1 , and the outside air T, T∞,2 .
T∞,1 − T∞,2
qx = (12)
Rtot
where Rtot is simply the sum of the series resistances.
1 L 1
Rtot = + + (13)
h1 A kA h2 A
We will now use these concepts to explore heat transfer through various
fenestration systems.

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A Single Pane of Glass
Consider first a window composed of a single pane of glass, as shown in figure
1. The window is 0.8 m high, 1.5 m wide and 8 mm thick and is made of glass
with a thermal conductivity k = 0.78W/mK. The inside temperature is held
at T∞,1 = 20o C, while the outside temperature is T∞,2 = −10oC. Assuming
h1 = 10W/m2 K and h2 = 40W/m2 K let’s calculate the heat loss through the
window, and the inner glass surface temperature.

T1,¥
Ts,1

Ts,2

kglass T2,¥

Rconv,1 Rglass Rconv,2

T1,¥ T2,¥
Ts,1 Ts,2
Figure 1: Schematic of a single pane window, with thermal resistance netwoek
shown.

Assumptions
• Steady state heat transfer
• 1D heat transfer
• No internal generation
• constant termal conductivity
• Negligibe radiation heat transfer

Owing to the above assumptions, we can employ a thermal resistance net-

work to solve the problem. The window can be replaced by the circuit shown in
figure 1, made up of a convection resistance at the inner surface, a conduction
resistance through the glass, and a convection resistance at the outer surface.

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 1 1
Rconv,1 = =   = 0.0833[K/W ] (14)
h1 A 10 mW
2K 0.8[m]1.5[m]
L 0.8 × 10−3 [m]
Rglass = = W  = 0.00855[K/W ] (15)
kglass A 0.78 mK 0.8[m]1.5[m]
1 1
Rconv,2 = =  W  = 0.0208[K/W ] (16)
h2 A 40 m2 K 0.8[m]1.5[m]
Since the resistances are all in series, the total resistance is simply given as
the sum of the individual resistances.

Rtot = Rconv,1 + Rglass + Rconv,2 (17)

= 0.0833 + 0.00855 + 0.0208 (18)
= 0.113[K/W ] (19)

The total heat rate through the window is then given by

T∞,1 − T∞,2 20[o C] − (−10)[o C]

q= = = 266W (20)
Rtot 0.113[K/W ]

Note that the units in equation 42 look very odd in that we have [o C] in
the numerator, and [K/W ] in the denominator. This is perhaps a little sloppy,
but remember that a temperature change of 1 K is identical to a temperature
change of 1 o C. As long as we are considering only temperature differences, we
can use either units.
Now that we know the heat rate passing through our circuit, we can de-
termine the temperature at any point in the curcuit using equations 9, 10 and
11. Here we are interested in the inner surface temperature, Ts,1 and therefore
equation 9 will suffice.
T∞,1 − Ts,1
q= (21)
1/h1 A

1
Ts,1 = T∞,1 − q = 20[o C] − 266[W ]0.0833[K/W ] = −2.2[o C] (22)
h1 A
We see that even though the room is well above freezing, the glass surface
temperature is below freezing, and you can expect to see frost forming on this
window.

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Double Pane Window
Let’s now split this pane of glass into to 4 mm thick panes, and separate them
by a 10 mm air gap (kair = 0.026W/mK), as shown in figure 2. Assuming the
same conditions as above, we will determine the heat rate through this window,
and the inner surface temparature. The same assumptions are necessary here in
order to replace the window system with the thermal resistance network shown
in the figure. We will additionally assume that the air in the enclosure is per-
fectly stationary, such that heat transfer through the air layer is by conduction
only.

T1,¥
kglass
Ts,1
Ts,2
Ts,3
Ts,4

T2,¥
kglass

Rconv,1 Rglass,1 Rair Rglass,2 Rconv,2

T1,¥ T2,¥
Ts,1 Ts,2 Ts,3 Ts,4
Figure 2: Schematic of a double pane window, with thermal resistance network
shown.

There are now five resistances to define. The first is the convection resistance
at the inner surface,
1 1
Rconv,1 = =  W  = 0.0833[K/W ] (23)
h1 A 10 m2 K 0.8[m]1.5[m]

which is exactly as above. Next is a 4 mm section of glass

L 0.4 × 10−3 [m]

Rglass,1 = = W  = 0.00427[K/W ] (24)
kglass A 0.78 mK 0.8[m]1.5[m]

followed by a conduction resistance through the air layer.

L 10 × 10−3 [m]
Rair = =  W  = 0.321[K/W ] (25)
kairs A 0.026 m2 K 0.8[m]1.5[m]

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 The second pane of glass has a resistance identical to the first,

Rglass,2 = Rglass,1 = 0.00427[K/W ] (26)

which means that the total resistance of the two panes of glass will the same
as the 8 mm single pane above. Finally, there is a convective resistance at the
exteriour surface of the window, which is the same as in the single pane example.
1 1
Rconv,2 = =  W  = 0.0208[K/W ] (27)
h2 A 40 m2 K 0.8[m]1.5[m]
The total thermal resistance is

Rtot = Rconv,1 + Rglass,1 + Rair + Rglass,2 + Rconv,2 (28)

= 0.0833 + 0.00427 + 0.321 + 0.00427 + 0.0208 (29)
= 0.434[K/W ] (30)

Notice that the conduction resistance in the static air layer is by far the largest
resistance.
The heat rate through the window is then
T∞,1 − T∞,2 20[o C] − (−10)[o C]
q= = = 69.2W (31)
Rtot 0.433[K/W ]
Finally, the temperature at the inside surface, Ts,1 can be calculated considering
the convection resistance between the room and the window, as above.
1
Ts,1 = T∞,1 − q = 20[o C] − 69.2[W ]0.0833[K/W ] = 14.2[o C] (32)
h1 A
The inner surface is considerably warmer, even though all we have added is a
layer of air. It much less likely in this case that frost will form on the window.
Notice that the conductivity of air is an order of magnitude lower that of the
glass, and it is therefore not at all surprising that the heat transfer has decreased
significantly. This helps to explain how thermal insulation works. The idea
behind many insulations is to trap a significant quantity of air indside a porous
structure of relatively low conductivity. As long as the air is held stationary, so
that convection does not occur, then the major resistance to heat transfer will
be that of the air, and the material will be a good insulator.
What is the limit to how low heat rate through the window can be for our
window which now occupies 18 mm. Imagine that the window is made up purely
of an 18 mm air gap, Perhaps held in place with a thin film of plastic wrap at
each end. If this is the case, then we can imagine that the convection resistances
will be the same as in the above two calculations, and we can easily add the
conduction resistance due to our 18 mm air gap to find the total resistance,

Rtot = Rconv,1 + Rair,18mm + Rconv,2 (33)

= 0.0833 + 0.577 + 0.0208 (34)
= 0.681[K/W ] (35)

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resulting in a heat rate through the window of 44.1 W and a corresponding
inside surface temperature of 16.3 o C. Clearly the double pane window is a
good solution.
Imagine now a house that has a single pane window, and is experiencing
serious condensation and frost. The owner has not taken a heat transfer course
and decides that the windows must be too thin. They see the double pane
windows and figure that they can do much better by filling the whole space
with glass – they are not cheap you see and figure glass should be better than
air. So, they replace the 8 mm glass windows with 18 mm glass windows at
considerable expense. The new thermal resisitance will be

Rtot = Rconv,1 + Rglass,18mm + Rconv,2 (36)

= 0.0833 + 0.0192 + 0.0208 (37)
= 0.123[K/W ] (38)

for a heat rate of 244 W and an inside surface temperature of -0.3 o C. They
will have spent a lot of money for absolutely nothing! They see their neighbor’s
double pane windows without frost, and decide that they are going to outdo
them by replacing the windows again, this time using triple pane windows. If
double pane windows are better than single pane windows, then clearly triple
pane windows must be even better, right?

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Triple pane window
We want the window to fit in the same package, of 18 mm width, and the glass
is already pretty thin at 4 mm per pane. This means the triple pane window
system will be as shown in figure 3, with two air gaps of 3 mm each.

T1,¥
kglass kglass
Ts,1

T2,¥
kglass

Rconv,1 Rglass,2 Rair Rglass,2 Rair Rglass,2 Rconv,2

T1,¥ T2,¥
Figure 3: Schematic of a triple pane window, with thermal resistance network
shown.

The convection resistances will be the same as in the previous cases; Rconv,1 =
0.0833[K/W ] and Rconv,2 = 0.0208[K/W ]. Each pane of glass will also be the
same as in the case of the double pane window, Rglass = 0.00427[K/W ] and
the air layers will have resistances of Rair = 3 × 10−3 /(0.026 · 1.5 · 0.8) =
0.0962[K/W ]. The total resistance is then
Rtot = Rconv,1 + Rglass,1 Rair,1 + Rglass,2 + Rair,2 + Rglass,3 Rconv,2 (39)
= 0.0833 + 3(0.00427) + 2(0.0962) + 0.0208 (40)
= 0.309[K/W ] (41)
The heat rate through the window is then
T∞,1 − T∞,2 20[o C] − (−10)[o C]
q= = = 97.0W (42)
Rtot 0.309[K/W ]
Finally, the temperature at the inside surface, Ts,1 is .
1
Ts,1 = T∞,1 − q = 20[o C] − 97[W ]0.0833[K/W ] = 11.9[oC] (43)
h1 A
The frost problem will probably be alleviated, but there are noticeably
greater heat losses through this triple pane window. When we consider nat-
ural convection in enclosures, we may revisit this problem, and calculate what

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the heat transfer rate through the window is when considering natural con-
vection. The cases here are limiting cases where the heat transfer occurs by
conduction only throught the window system. Natural covection will result in
the movement of air in the gap, and hence increased heat transfer (or a decreased
resistance). It may actually make sense to have a triple pane window when we
consider these effects. As the thickness of the air gap decreases, viscous effects
become increasingly important, and can supress the onset of natural convection.

Summary of Window Calculations

CASE q [W ] Ts,1 [o C] % change

8 mm Glass 266 -2.2 -
18 mm Glass 244 -0.2 -8.3
Double Pane 69.3 14.2 -74
Triple Pane 97.0 11.9 -63.5
18 mm Air Gap 44.0 16.3 -83.5

Table 1: Summary of window calculations. Percent change is the change in heat

rate referenced to the 8 mm single pane window.

A double pane window is clearly the best choice of what we have looked
at so far. It reduces the heat rate compared to the single pane window by 74
%. What does this mean for energ costs? There is a saving of 196.7 W in
steady operation with a 30o C temperature difference accross the window. For
each such day, this corresponds to 196.7 W * 24 h = 4.73 kWh. If this heat
energy is generated using resistance heaters, and electricity costs $0.10 / kWh
then $0.47 a day are saved. If there are only 100 such days in a year, then this
corresponds to $47.00 /year in savings. In addition, the window will save energ
in the summer, when you are cooling the house and the temperature gradient
is reversed. The payback time for replacing the window is then at least several
years, but the window will last 20-100+ years. It is clearly beneficial both in
the sort term, and in the long term to replace the windows.
When you are ready to do this though it will be important to consider also
the effect of coatings on the windows which relate to radiation heat transfer
through the system. We will consider this towards the end of the course.

Parallel Resistances
What if we need to consider the heat transfer through the frame of the window
as well. A schematic of such a case is shown in figre4. In this case there are two
parallel paths that heat energy can take to escape through the window.
We can extend our analysis to these more complicated analyses once we
recall how to combine parallel resistances. Using the total resistance of the three

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 T1,¥
kglass kglass
Ts,1

T2,¥
kglass

Rframe

Rconv,1 Rglass,2 Rair Rglass,2 Rair Rglass,2 Rconv,2

T1,¥ T2,¥

Rframe

Figure 4: Schematic of a triple pane window with a frame. A thermal resistance

network is also shown.

pane window, determined above, Rtot,3pane we can represent the new resistance
network as three resistances in parallel, as shown in figure 5.
These can now easily be combined into a total resistance,
1 1 1 1
= + + (44)
Rtot Rf rame Rtot,3pane Rf rame
taking into account the cross sectional area of each section. Note that the
above shown network is not unique, because we are now pushing our assump-
tions. The network of figure 5 assumes that the frame and the window section
share the same temperatures at their respective faces – an isothermal assump-
tion. Another possibility is to assume that surfaces parallel to the x axis are
adiabatic, and this will result in a different resistance network. The idea is that
the actual heat transfer through the system will be bracketed by these two ap-
proximations. Why do we have this ambiguity? In actuality, the heat transfer
is now two dimensional – the temperature gradient throught the frame will be
different thatn that through the window system, and therefor there must be
some heat transfer between the frame and the window. This is heat transfer in

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 Rframe

T1,¥ Rtot,3 pane

T2,¥

Rframe

Figure 5: A parallel thermal resistance network representing the above window.

a direction normal to our axis, and means that the actual problem is in reality
two dimensional, and not one dimensional as we have assumed in this entire
derivation. This may be ok, or is at least a useful approximation when the
parallel resistances are not too dissimilar, but as the difference between them
increases, the approximation will be worse and worse. We will explore this in
the next tutorial.

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