Maths

LAPLACE TRANSFORMS
INTRODUCTION
Laplace transform is an integral transform employed in solving physical problems.
Many physical problems when analysed assumes the form of a differential equation
subjected to a set of initial conditions or boundary conditions.
By initial conditions we mean that the conditions on the dependent variable are
specified at a single value of the independent variable.
If the conditions of the dependent variable are specified at two different values of the
independent variable, the conditions are called boundary conditions.
The problem with initial conditions is referred to as the Initial value problem.
The problem with boundary conditions is referred to as the Boundary value problem.
Example 1 : The problem of solving the equation x y
dx
dy
dx
y d
+ +
2
2
with conditions y(0) =
y
(0) = 1 is an initial value problem
dx
dy
dx
y d
cos 2 3
2
2
+ + with y(1)=1,
y(2)=3 is called Boundary value problem.
Laplace transform is essentially employed to solve initial value problems. This technique is of
great utility in applications dealing with mechanical systems and electric circuits. Besides the
technique may also be employed to find certain integral values also. The transform is named
after the French Mathematician P.S. de Laplace (1749 1827).
The subject is divided into the following sub topics.

LAPLACE TRANSFORMS
Definition and
Properties
Transforms of
some functions
Convolution
theorem
Inverse
transforms
Solution of
differential
equations
Definition :
Let f(t) be a real-valued function defined for all t 0 and s be a parameter, real or complex.
Suppose the integral
0
) ( dt t f e
st
exists (converges). Then this integral is called the Laplace
transform of f(t) and is denoted by Lf(t).
Thus,
Lf(t) =
0
) ( dt t f e
st
(1)
We note that the value of the integral on the right hand side of (1) depends on s. Hence Lf(t) is
a function of s denoted by F(s) or ) (s f .
Thus,
Lf(t) = F(s) (2)
Consider relation (2). Here f(t) is called the Inverse Laplace transform of F(s) and is denoted by
L
-1
[F(s)].
Thus,
L
-1
[F(s)] = f(t) (3)
Suppose f(t) is defined as follows :

f
1
(t), 0 < t < a
f(t) = f
2
(t), a < t < b
f
3
(t), t > b
Note that f(t) is piecewise continuous. The Laplace transform of f(t) is defined as
Lf(t) =
0
) (t f e
st

=

+ +
a b
a b
st st st
dt t f e dt t f e dt t f e
0
3 2 1
) ( ) ( ) (
NOTE : In a practical situation, the variable t represents the time and s represents frequency.
Hence the Laplace transform converts the time domain into the frequency domain.
Basic properties
The following are some basic properties of Laplace transforms :
1. Linearity property : For any two functions f(t) and (t) (whose Laplace transforms exist)
and any two constants a and b, we have
L [a f(t) + b (t)] = a L f(t) + b L (t)
Proof :- By definition, we have
L[af(t)+b (t)] =
[ ]dt t b t af e
st
+
0
) ( ) (
=

+
0 0
) ( ) ( dt t e b dt t f e a
st st
= a L f(t) + b L (t)
This is the desired property.
In particular, for a=b=1, we have
L [ f(t) + (t)] = L f(t) + L (t)
and for a = -b = 1, we have
L [ f(t) - (t)] = L f(t) - L (t)
2. Change of scale property : If L f(t) = F(s), then L[f(at)] =
,
_
a
s
F
a
1
, where a is a positive
constant.
Lf(at) =
0
) ( dt at f e
st
(1)
Let us set at = x. Then expression (1) becomes,
L f(at) =
,
_
0
) (
1
dx x f e
a
x
a
s

,
_
a
s
F
a
1
3. Shifting property :- Let a be any real constant. Then
L [e
at
f(t)] = F(s-a)
L [e
at
f(t)] =
[ ]
0
) ( dt t f e e
at st
=

0
) (
) ( dt t f e
a s
= F(s-a)
This is the desired property. Here we note that the Laplace transform of e
at
f(t) can be
written down directly by changing s to s-a in the Laplace transform of f(t).
TRANSFORMS OF SOME FUNCTIONS
1. Let a be a constant. Then
L(e
at
) =

0 0
) (
dt e dt e e
t a s at st
=
a s a s
e
t a s

1
) (
0
) (
, s > a
Thus,
L(e
at
) =
a s
1
In particular, when a=0, we get
L(1) =
s
1
, s > 0
By inversion formula, we have
at at
e
s
L e
a s
L

1 1
1 1
2. L(cosh at) =
,
_
+

2
at at
e e
L
=
[ ]

+
0
2
1
dt e e e
at at st
=
[ ]
+
+
0
) ( ) (
2
1
dt e e
t a s t a s
Let s > |a| . Then,

+
1
]
1
+
+

0
) ( ) (
) ( ) ( 2
1
) (cosh
a s
e
a s
e
at L
t a s t a s
=
2 2
a s
s
Thus,
L (cosh at) =
2 2
a s
s
, s > |a|
and so
at
a s
s
L cosh
2 2
1
,
_
3. L (sinh at) =
2 2
2 a s
a e e
L
at at
,
_

, s > |a|
Thus,
L (sinh at) =
2 2
a s
a
, s > |a|
and so,
a
at
a s
L
sinh 1
2 2
1
,
_
4. L (sin at) =
0
sin at e
st
dt
Here we suppose that s > 0 and then integrate by using the formula
[ ]

+
bx b bx a
b a
e
bxdx e
ax
ax
cos sin sin
2 2
Thus,
L (sinh at) =
2 2
a s
a
+
, s > 0
and so
a
at
a s
L
sinh 1
2 2
1

,
_
5. L (cos at) =
atdt e
st
cos
0
Here we suppose that s>0 and integrate by using the formula

[ ]
+
+
bx b bx a
b a
e
bxdx e
ax
ax
sin cos cos
2 2
Thus,
L (cos at) =
2 2
a s
s
+
, s > 0
and so
at
a s
s
L cos
2 2
1
6. Let n be a constant, which is a non-negative real number or a negative non-integer. Then

L(t
n
) =
0
dt t e
n st
Let s > 0 and set st = x, then

,
_
0 0
1
1
) ( dx x e
s s
dx
s
x
e t L
n x
n
n
x n
The integral
dx x e
n x
0
is called gamma function of (n+1) denoted by
) 1 ( + n
. Thus

1
) 1 (
) (
+
+
n
n
s
n
t L
In particular, if n is a non-negative integer then
) 1 ( + n
=n!. Hence

1
!
) (
+
n
n
s
n
t L
and so

) 1 (
1
1
1
+
n
t
s
L
n
n
or
! n
t
n
as the case may be
TABLE OF LAPLACE TRANSFORMS
f(t) F(s)
1
s
1
, s > 0
e
at
a s
1
, s > a
coshat
2 2
a s
s
, s > |a|
sinhat
2 2
a s
a
, s > |a|
sinat
2 2
a s
a
+
, s > 0
cosat
2 2
a s
s
+
, s > 0
t
n
, n=0,1,2,..
1
!
+ n
s
n
, s > 0
t
n
, n > -1
1
) 1 (
+
+
n
s
n
, s > 0
Application of shifting property :-
The shifting property is
If L f(t) = F(s), then L [e
at
f(t)] = F(s-a)
Application of this property leads to the following results :
1.
[ ]
a s s
a s s
at
b s
s
bt L bt e L

,
_

2 2
) (cosh ) cosh (
=
2 2
) ( b a s
a s

Thus,
L(e
at
coshbt) =
2 2
) ( b a s
a s

and

bt e
b a s
a s
L
at
cosh
) (
2 2
1
2.
2 2
) (
) sinh (
b a s
a
bt e L
at

and

bt e
b a s
L
at
sinh
) (
1
2 2
1
3.
2 2
) (
) cos (
b a s
a s
bt e L
at
+
and

bt e
b a s
a s
L
at
cos
) (
2 2
1
4.
2 2
) (
) sin (
b a s
b
bt e L
at

and

b
bt e
b a s
L
at
sin
) (
1
2 2
1
5.
1
) (
) 1 (
) (
+
n
n at
a s
n
t e L
or
1
) (
!
+
n
a s
n
as the case may be
Hence

) 1 ( ) (
1
1
1
+
n
t e
a s
L
n at
n
or
1
) (
!
+
n
a s
n
as the case may be
Examples :-
1. Find Lf(t) given f(t) = t, 0 < t < 3
4, t > 3
Here
Lf(t) =

+
0
3
0 3
4 ) ( dt e tdt e dt t f e
st st st
Integrating the terms on the RHS, we get
Lf(t) = ) 1 (
1 1
3
2
3 s s
e
s
e
s

+
This is the desired result.
2. Find Lf(t) given f(t) = sin2t, 0 < t
0, t >
Here
Lf(t) =

dt t f e dt t f e
st st
) ( ) (
0
=
0
2 sin tdt e
st
= { }
0
2
2 cos 2 2 sin
4
1
]
1
t t s
s
e
st
= [ ]
s
e
s

+
1
4
2
2
3. Evaluate : (i) L(sin3t sin4t)
(ii) L(cos
2
4t)
(iii) L(sin
3
2t)
(i) Here
L(sin3t sin4t) = L [ )] 7 cos (cos
2
1
t t
= [ ] ) 7 (cos ) (cos
2
1
t L t L , by using linearity property
=
) 49 )( 1 (
24
49 1 2
1
2 2 2 2
+ +
1
]
1
+ s s
s
s
s
s
s
(ii) Here
L(cos
2
4t) =
1
]
1
+
+
1
]
1
+
64
1
2
1
) 8 cos 1 (
2
1
2
s
s
s
t L
(iii) We have
( ) 3 sin sin 3
4
1
sin
3

For =2t, we get
( ) t t t 6 sin 2 sin 3
4
1
2 sin
3

so that
) 36 )( 4 (
48
36
6
4
6
4
1
) 2 (sin
2 2 2 2
3
+ +
1
]
1
s s s s
t L
4. Find L(cost cos2t cos3t)
Here
cos2t cos3t = ] cos 5 [cos
2
1
t t +
so that
cost cos2t cos3t = ] cos cos 5 [cos
2
1
2
t t t +
= ] 2 cos 1 4 cos 6 [cos
4
1
t t t + + +
Thus
L(cost cos2t cos3t) =
1
]
1
+
+ +
+
+
+ 4
1
16 36 4
1
2 2 2
s
s
s s
s
s
s
5. Find L(cosh
2
2t)
We have
2
2 cosh 1
cosh
2

For = 2t, we get

2
4 cosh 1
2 cosh
2
t
t
+
Thus,
1
]
1
+
16
1
2
1
) 2 (cosh
2
2
s
s
s
t L
-------------------------------------------------------05.04.05-------------------------
6. Evaluate (i) L( t ) (ii)
,
_
t
L
1
(iii) L(t
-3/2
)
We have L(t
n
) =
1
) 1 (
+
+
n
s
n
(i) For n=
2
1
, we get
L(t
1/2
) =
2 / 3
) 1
2
1
(
s
+
Since
) ( ) 1 ( n n n +
, we have
2 2
1
2
1
1
2
1
,
_
,
_
+
Thus,
2
3
2
) (
s
t L

(ii) For n = -
2
1
, we get

s
s
t L

,
_
2
1
2
1
2
1
) (

(iii) For n = -
2
3
, we get

s
s s
t L
2
2 2
1
) (
2
1
2
1
2
3

,
_
7. Evaluate : (i) L(t

2
) (ii) L(t
3
)
We have,
L(t
n
) =
1
!
+ n
s
n
(i) For n = 2, we get
L(t
2
) =
3 3
2 ! 2
s s

(ii) For n=3, we get
L(t
3
) =
4 4
6 ! 3
s s

8. Find L[e
-3t
(2cos5t 3sin5t)]
Given =
2L(e
-3t
cos5t) 3L(e
-3t
sin5t)
=
( )
25 ) 3 (
15
25 ) 3 (
3
2
2 2
+ +
+ +
+
s s
s
, by using shifting property
=
34 6
9 2
2
+ +
s s
s
, on simplification
9. Find L[coshat sinhat]
Here
L[coshat sinat] =
( )
1
]
1
+

at
e e
L
at at
sin
2
=
1
]
1
+ +
+
+
2 2 2 2
) ( ) ( 2
1
a a s
a
a a s
a
, on simplification
10. Find L(cosht sin
3
2t)
Given

1
]
1
,
_
,
_
+

4
6 sin 2 sin 3
2
t t e e
L
t t
= ( ) [ ] ) 6 sin ( ) 2 sin ( 3 ) 6 sin ( 2 sin 3
8
1
t e L t e L t e L t e L
t t t t
+
=
1
]
1
+ +
+ +
+
+
+ 36 ) 1 (
6
4 ) 1 (
6
36 ) 1 (
6
4 ) 1 (
6
8
1
2 2 2 2
s s s s
=
1
]
1
+ +
+ +
+
+
+ 36 ) 1 (
1
24 ) 1 (
1
36 ) 1 (
1
4 ) 1 (
1
4
3
2 2 2 2
s s s s
11. Find
) (
2
5
4

t e L
t
We have
L(t
n
) =
1
) 1 (
+
+
n
s
n
Put n= -5/2. Hence
L(t
-5/2
) =
2 / 3 2 / 3
3
4 ) 2 / 3 (

s s

Change s to s+4.
Therefore,
2 / 3
2 / 5 4
) 4 ( 3
4
) (

+
s
t e L
t

Transform of t
n
f(t)
Here we suppose that n is a positive integer. By definition, we have
F(s) =
0
) ( dt t f e
st
Differentiating n times on both sides w.r.t. s, we get
0
) ( ) ( dt t f e
s
s F
ds
d
st
n
n
n
n
Performing differentiation under the integral sign, we get

0
) ( ) ( ) ( dt t f e t s F
ds
d
st n
n
n
] ) ][( ) [(
) 2 (
2 2 2 2
2 2
a a s a a s
a s a
+ + +
+
Multiplying on both sides by (-1)

n
, we get

0
)] ( [ ) ( ( ) ( ) 1 ( t f t L dt e t f t s F
ds
d
n st n
n
n
n
, by definition
Thus,
L[t
n
f(t)]= ) ( ) 1 ( s F
ds
d
n
n
n
This is the transform of t

n
f(t).
Also,
) ( ) 1 ( ) (
1
t f t s F
ds
d
L
n n
n
n

1
]
1
In particular, we have
L[t f(t)] = ) (s F
ds
d
, for n=1
L[t
2
f(t)]= ) (
2
2
s F
ds
d
, for n=2, etc.
Also,
) ( ) (
1
t tf s F
ds
d
L
1
]
1
and

) ( ) (
2
2
2
1
t f t s F
ds
d
L
1
]
1
Transform of
t
f(t)
We have , F(s) =
0
) ( dt t f e
st
Therefore,
1
]
1
s s
ds dt t f
st
e ds s F
0
) ( ) (
=
dt ds e t f
s
st

1
]
1
0
) (
=
1
]
1
0
) ( dt
t
e
t f
s
st
=
,
_
1
]
1
0
) ( ) (
t
t f
L dt
t
t f
e
st

Thus,
,
_
s
ds s F
t
t f
L ) (
) (
This is the transform of
t
t f ) (
Also,
s
t
t f
ds s F L
) (
) (
1
Examples :
1. Find L[te
-t
sin4t]
We have,
16 ) 1 (
4
] 4 sin [
2
+ +
s
t e L
t
So that,
L[te
-t
sin4t] =
1
]
1
'
+ +
17 2
1
4
2
s s ds
d
=
2 2
) 17 2 (
) 1 ( 8
+ +
+
s s
s
2. Find L(t
2
sin3t)
We have
L(sin3t) =
9
3
2
+ s
So that,
L(t
2
sin3t) =
,
_
+ 9
3
2 2
2
s ds
d
=
2 2
) 9 (
6
+
s
s
ds
d
=
3 2
2
) 9 (
) 3 ( 18
+
s
s
3. Find
,
_

t
t e
L
t
sin
We have
1 ) 1 (
1
) sin (
2
+ +
s
t e L
t
Hence
,
_

t
t e
L
t
sin
=
[ ]
+
+ +
0
1
2
) 1 ( tan
1 ) 1 (
s
s
s
ds
= ) 1 ( tan
2
1
+

s
= cot
1
(s+1)
4. Find
,
_
t
t
L
sin
. Using this, evaluateL
,
_
t
at sin
We have
L(sint) =
1
1
2
+ s
So that
Lf(t) =
,
_
t
t
L
sin
=
[ ]
S
s
s
s
ds
1
2
tan
1
= ) ( cot tan
2
1 1
s F s s

Consider
L
,
_
t
at sin
= a L
) (
sin
at aLf
at
at
,
_
=
1
]
1
,
_
a
s
F
a
a
1
, in view of the change of scale property
=
,
_
a
s
1
cot
5. Find L
1
]
1

t
bt at cos cos
We have
L [cosat cosbt] =
2 2 2 2
b s
s
a s
s
+
+
So that
L
1
]
1

t
bt at cos cos
=
ds
b s
s
a s
s
s
1
]
1
+
2 2 2 2
=
1
]
1
,
_
+
+
s
b s
a s
2 2
2 2
log
2
1

=
1
]
1
,
_
+
+
,
_
+
+

2 2
2 2
2 2
2 2
log log
2
1
b s
a s
b s
a s
Lt
s
=
1
]
1
,
_
+
+
+
2 2
2 2
log 0
2
1
a s
b s
=
,
_
+
+
2 2
2 2
log
2
1
a s
b s
6. Prove that
0
3
50
3
sintdt t e
t
We have
0
) sin ( sin t t L tdt t e
st
= ) (sint L
ds
d
=
1
]
1
1
1
2
s ds
d
=
2 2
) 1 (
2
+ s
s
Putting s = 3 in this result, we get
0
3
50
3
sintdt t e
t
This is the result as required.
ASSIGNMENT
I Find L f(t) in each of the following cases :
1. f(t) = e
t
, 0 < t < 2
0 , t > 2
2. f(t) = 1 , 0 t 3
t , t > 3
3. f(t) =
a
t
, 0 t < a
1 , t a
II. Find the Laplace transforms of the following functions :
4. cos(3t + 4)
5. sin3t sin5t
6. cos4t cos7t
7. sin5t cos2t
8. sint sin2t sin3t
9. sin
2
5t
10. sin
2
(3t+5)
11. cos
3
2t
12. sinh
2
5t
13. t
5/2
14.
3
1
,
_
+
t
t
15. 3
t
16. 5
-t

17. e
-2t
cos
2
2t
18. e
2t
sin3t sin5t
19. e
-t
sin4t + t cos2t
20. t
2
e
-3t
cos2t
21.
t
e
t 2
1

22.
t
e e
bt at
23.
t
t
2
sin
24.
t
t t 5 sin 2 sin 2
III. Evaluate the following integrals using Laplace transforms :
25.
0
2
5 sin tdt te
t
26.
0
3 5
cos tdt t e
t
27.
,
_

0
dt
t
e e
bt at
28.

0
sin
dt
t
t e
t
-------------------------------------------- 28.04.05 --------------------------
Transforms of the derivatives of f(t)
Consider
L
) (t f
=
0
) ( dt t f e
st
=
[ ]

0
0
) ( ) ( ) ( dt t f e s t f e
st st
, by using integration by parts
=
[ ] ) ( ) 0 ( ) ( ( t sLf f t f e Lt
st
t
+

= 0 - f (0) + s Lf(t)
Thus
L
) (t f
= s Lf(t) f(0)
Similarly,
L
) (t f
= s
2
L f(t) s f(0) -
) 0 ( f
In general, we have
) 0 ( ....... ) 0 ( ) 0 ( ) ( ) (
1 2 1

n n n n n
f f s f s t Lf s t Lf
Transform of
t
0
f(t)dt
Let (t) =
t
dt t f
0
) (
. Then (0) = 0 and
(t) = f(t)
Now,
L (t) =
0
) ( dt t e
st

1
]
1
0 0
) ( ) ( dt
s
e
t
s
e
t
st st

=
+
0
) (
1
) 0 0 ( dt e t f
s
st
Thus,

t
t Lf
s
dt t f L
0
) (
1
) (
Also,
1
]
1
t
dt t f t Lf
s
L
0
1
) ( ) (
1
Examples :
1. By using the Laplace transform of sinat, find the Laplace transform of cosat.
Let
f(t) = sin at, then Lf(t) =
2 2
a s
a
+
We note that
at a t f cos ) (
Taking Laplace transforms, we get
) (cos ) cos ( ) ( at aL at a L t f L
or L(cosat) = [ ] ) 0 ( ) (
1
) (
1
f t sLf
a
t f L
a

=
1
]
1
+
0
1
2 2
a s
sa
a
Thus
L(cosat) =
2 2
a s
s
+
2. Given
2 / 3
1
2
s
t
L
1
]
1
, show that
s t
L
1 1
1
]
1
Let f(t) =
t
2 , given L[f(t)] =
2 / 3
1
s
We note that,
t t
t f

1
2
1 2
) (
Taking Laplace transforms, we get

1
]
1

t
L t f L
1
) (
Hence
) 0 ( ) ( ) (
1
f t sLf t f L
t
L
1
]
1
=
0
1
2 / 3

,
_
s
s
Thus
s t
L
1 1
1
]
1

3. Find

,
_

t
dt
t
bt at
L
0
cos cos
Here
Lf(t) =
,
_
+
+
,
_

2 2
2 2
log
2
1 cos cos
a s
b s
t
bt at
L
Using the result
L

t
t Lf
s
dt t f
0
) (
1
) (
We get,

,
_

t
dt
t
bt at
L
0
cos cos
=
,
_
+
+
2 2
2 2
log
2
1
a s
b s
s
4. Find

t
t
tdt te L
0
4 sin
Here
[ ]
2 2
) 17 2 (
) 1 ( 8
4 sin
+ +
+
s s
s
t te L
t
Thus

t
t
tdt te L
0
4 sin
=
2 2
) 17 2 (
) 1 ( 8
+ +
+
s s s
s
Transform of a periodic function
A function f(t) is said to be a periodic function of period T > 0 if f(t) = f(t + nT) where n=1,2,3,
.. The graph of the periodic function repeats itself in equal intervals.
For example, sint, cost are periodic functions of period 2 since sin(t + 2n) = sin t, cos(t
+ 2n) = cos t.
The graph of f(t) = sin t is shown below :
Note that the graph of the function between 0 and 2 is the same as that between 2 and 4 and
so on.
The graph of f(t) = cos t is shown below :
Note that the graph of the function between 0 and 2 is the same as that between 2 and 4 and
so on.
Formula :
Let f(t) be a periodic function of period T. Then
T
st
ST
dt t f e
e
t Lf
0
) (
1
1
) (
Proof :
By definition, we have
L f(t) =

0 0
) ( ) ( du u f e dt t f e
su st
=
+ + + + +

+

.... ) ( ....... ) ( ) (
) 1 ( 2
0
T n
nT
su
T
T
su
T
su
du u f e du u f e du u f e
=
0
) 1 (
) (
n
T n
nT
su
du u f e
Let us set u = t + nT, then
L f(t) =

+
+
0
0
) (
) (
n
T
t
nT t s
dt nT t f e
Here
f(t+nT) = f(t), by periodic property
Hence
T
st
n
n sT
dt t f e e t Lf
0
0
) ( ) ( ) (
=

1
]
1
T
st
ST
dt t f e
e
0
) (
1
1
, identifying the above series as a geometric series.
Thus
L f(t) =

1
]
1
T
st
sT
dt t f e
e
0
) (
1
1
Examples:-
1. For the periodic function f(t) of period 4, defined by f(t) = 3t, 0 < t < 2
6 , 2 < t < 4
find L f(t)
Here, period of f(t) = T = 4
We have,
L f(t) =

1
]
1
T
st
sT
dt t f e
e
0
) (
1
1
=

1
]
1
4
0
4
) (
1
1
dt t f e
e
st
s
=
1
]
1
4
2
2
0
4
6 3
1
1
dt e dt te
e
st st
s
=
1
1
]
1
,
_
'
1
]
1
,
_

4
2
2
0
2
0
4
6 . 1 3
1
1
s
e
dt
s
e
s
e
t
e
st st st
s
=
( )
1
]
1

2
4 2
4
2 1 3
1
1
s
se e
e
s s
s
Thus,
Lf(t) =
) 1 (
) 2 1 ( 3
4 2
4 2
s
s s
e s
se e

2. A periodic function of period
2
is defined by
Esint, 0 t <
f(t) =
0 ,
2
where E and are positive constants. Show that
L f(t) =
) 1 )( (
/ 2 2 w s
e w s
E
+
Here
T =
2
. Therefore
L f(t) =

/ 2
0
) / 2 (
) (
1
1
dt t f e
e
st
s
=

/
0
) / 2 (
sin
1
1
tdt Ee
e
st
s
= { }

/
0
2 2 ) / 2 (
cos sin
1
1
]
1
t t s
s
e
e
E
st
s
=
2 2
/
) / 2 (
) 1 (
1

+
+
s
e
e
E
s
s
=
) )( 1 )( 1 (
) 1 (
2 2 / /
/

+ +
+

s e e
e E
s s
s
=
) )( 1 (
2 2 /

+

s e
E
s
3. A periodic function f(t) of period 2a, a>0 is defined by
E , 0 t a
f(t) =
-E, a < t 2a
show that
L f(t) =
,
_
2
tanh
as
s
E
Here T = 2a. Therefore
L f(t) =
a
st
as
dt t f e
e
2
0
2
) (
1
1
=
1
]
1
a a
a
st st
as
dt Ee dt Ee
e
0
2
2
1
1
=
( ) [ ] ) ( 1
) 1 (
2
2
as as sa
as
e e e
e s
E

=
( ) [ ]
) 1 )( 1 (
) 1 (
1
) 1 (
2
2
2 as as
as
as
as
e e s
e E
e
e s
E

=
,
_
1
]
1
2
tanh
2 / 2 /
2 / 2 /
as
s
E
e e
e e
s
E
as as
as as
This is the result as desired.
----------------------------------------------- 29.04.05 --------------------------------------
Step Function :
In many Engineering applications, we deal with an important discontinuous function H(t-a)
defined as follows :
0, t a
H (t-a) =
1, t > a
where a is a non-negative constant.
This function is known as the unit step function or the Heaviside function. The function is
named after the British electrical engineer Oliver Heaviside. The function is also denoted by
u(t-a). The graph of the function is shown below:
H(t-a)
1
0 a t

Note that the value of the function suddenly jumps from value zero to the value 1 as
a t

from the left and retains the value 1 for all t>a. Hence the function H(t-a) is called the unit step
function.
In particular, when a=0, the function H(t-a) become H(t), where
0 , t 0
H(t) =
1 , t > 0
Transform of step function
By definition, we have
L[H(t-a)] =
0
) ( dt a t H e
st
=

+
a
a
st st
dt e dt e
0
) 1 ( 0
=
s
e
as
In particular, we have L H(t) =
s
1
Also,
) (
1
a t H
s
e
L
as

1
]
1
and
) (
1
1
t H
s
L
,
_
Heaviside shift theorem

Statement :-
L [f(t-a) H(t-a)] = e
-as
Lf(t)
Proof :- We have
L [f(t-a) H(t-a)] =

0
) ( ) ( dt e a t H a t f
st
=
a
st
dt a t f e ) (
Setting t-a = u, we get
L[f(t-a) H(t-a)] =
du u f e
u a s
) (
0
) (
+
= e
-as
L f(t)
This is the desired shift theorem.
Also,
L
-1
[e
-as
L f(t)] = f(t-a) H(t-a)
Examples :
1. Find L[e
t-2
+ sin(t-2)] H(t-2)
Let
f(t-2) = [e
t-2
+ sin(t-2)]
Then
f(t) = [e
t
+ sint]
so that
L f(t) =
1
1
1
1
2
+
+
s s
By Heaviside shift theorem, we have
L[f(t-2) H(t-2)] = e
-2s
Lf(t)
Thus,
1
]
1
+
+
+

1
1
1
1
) 2 ( )] 2 sin( [
2
2 ) 2 (
s s
e t H t e L
s t
2. Find L(3t
2
+2t +3) H(t-1)

Let
f(t-1) = 3t
2
+2t +3
so that
f(t) = 3(t+1)
2
+2(t+1) +3 = 3t
2
+8t +8
Hence
s s s
t Lf
8 8 6
) (
2 3
+ +
Thus
L[3t
2
+2t +3] H(t-1) = L[f(t-1) H(t-1)]
= e
-s
L f(t)
=
1
]
1
+ +
s s s
e
s
8 8 6
2 3
3. Find Le
-t
H(t-2)

Let f(t-2) = e
-t
, so that, f(t) = e
-(t+2)
Thus,
L f(t) =
1
2
+
s
e
By shift theorem, we have
1
) ( )] 2 ( ) 2 ( [
) 1 ( 2
2
+

+
s
e
t Lf e t H t f L
s
s
Thus
[ ]
1
) 2 (
) 1 ( 2
+

+
s
e
t H e L
s
t
4. Let f(t) = f
1
(t) , t a
f
2
(t), t > a
Verify that
f(t) = f
1
(t) + [f
2
(t) f
1
(t)]H(t-a)
Consider
f
1
(t) + [f
2
(t) f
1
(t)]H(t-a) = f
1
(t) + f
2
(t) f
1
(t), t > a
0 , t a
= f
2
(t), t > a
f
1
(t), t a = f(t), given
Thus the required result is verified.
5. Express the following functions in terms of unit step function and hence find their
Laplace transforms.
1. t
2
, 1 < t 2
f(t) =
4t , t > 2
2. cost, 0 < t <
f(t) =
sint, t >
1. Here,
f(t) = t
2
+ (4t-t
2
) H(t-2)
Hence,
L f(t) = ) 2 ( ) 4 (
2
2
3
+ t H t t L
s
(i)
Let
(t-2) = 4t t
2
so that
(t) = 4(t+2) (t+2)
2
= -t
2
+ 4
Now,

s s
t L
4 2
) (
3
+
Expression (i) reads as
L f(t) = [ ] ) 2 ( ) 2 (
2
3
+ t H t L
s

= ) (
2
2
3
t L e
s
s
+
=
,
_
+

3
2
3
2 4 2
s s
e
s
s
2. Here
f(t) = cost + (sint-cost)H(t-)
Hence,
L f(t) = ) ( ) cos (sin
1
2
+
+
t H t t L
s
s
(ii)
Let
(t-) = sint cost
Then
(t) = sin(t + ) cos(t + ) = -sint + cost
so that
L (t) =
1 1
1
2 2
+
+
+
s
s
s
Expression (ii) reads as
L f(t) = [ ] ) ( ) (
1
2
+
+
t H t L
s
s
= ) (
1
2
t L e
s
s
s

+
+
=
1
]
1
+
+
1
1
1
2 2
s
s
e
s
s
s
---------------------------------- 3.05.04 ---------------------------
CONVOLUTION
The convolution of two functions f(t) and g(t) denoted by f(t) g(t) is defined as
f(t) g(t) =

t
du u g u t f
0
) ( ) (
Property : f(t) g(t) = g(t) f(t)
f(t) g(t) =

t
du u g u t f
0
) ( ) (
Setting t-u = x, we get
f(t) g(t) =

0
) )( ( ) (
t
dx x t g x f
=

t
t f t g dx x f x t g
0
) ( ) ( ) ( ) (
This is the desired property. Note that the operation is commutative.
Convolution theorem :-
L[f(t) g(t)] = L f(t) . L g(t)
Proof :- Let us denote
f(t) g(t) = (t) =

t
du u g u t f
0
) ( ) (
Consider

0 0
)] ( ) ( [ )] ( [
t
st
dt u g u t f e t L
=

0 0
) ( ) (
t
st
du u g u t f e
(1)
We note that the region for this double integral is the entire area lying between the lines u =0
and u = t. On changing the order of integration, we find that t varies from u to and u varies
from 0 to .
u
u=t
t=u t =
0 u=0 t
Hence (1) becomes
L[ (t)] =

0
) ( ) (
u u t
st
dtdu u g u t f e
=

'
0
) (
) ( ) ( du dt u t f e u g e
u
u t s su
=

'
0 0
) ( ) ( du dv v f e u g e
sv su
, where v = t-u
=

0 0
) ( ) ( dv v f e du u g e
sv su
= L g(t) . L f(t)
Thus
L f(t) . L g(t) = L[f(t) g(t)]
This is desired property.
Examples :
1. Verify Convolution theorem for the functions f(t) and g(t) in the following cases :
(i) f(t) = t, g(t) = sint (ii) f(t) =t, g(t) = e
t
(i) Here,
f g =

t
du u t g u f
0
) ( ) (
=

t
du u t u
0
) sin(
Employing integration by parts, we get
f g = t sint
so that
L [f g] =
) 1 (
1
1
1 1
2 2 2 2
+
s s s s
(1)
Next consider
L f(t) . L g(t) =
) 1 (
1
1
1 1
2 2 2 2
+
s s s s
(2)
From (1) and (2), we find that
L [f g] = L f(t) . L g(t)
Thus convolution theorem is verified.
(ii) Here
f g =

t
u t
du ue
0
Employing integration by parts, we get
f g = e
t
t 1
so that
L[f g] =
) 1 (
1 1 1
1
1
2 2

s s s s s
(3)
Next
L f(t) . L g(t) =
) 1 (
1
1
1 1
2 2
s s s s
(4)
From (3) and (4) we find that
L[f g] = L f(t) . L g(t)
Thus convolution theorem is verified.
2. By using the Convolution theorem, prove that

t
t Lf
s
dt t f L
0
) (
1
) (
Let us define g(t) = 1, so that g(t-u) = 1
Then

t t
g f L dt u t g t f L dt t f L
0 0
] [ ) ( ) ( ) (
= L f(t) . L g(t) = L f(t) .
s
1
Thus

t
t Lf
s
dt t f L
0
) (
1
) (
3. Using Convolution theorem, prove that
+ +

t
u
s s
du u t e L
0
2
) 1 )( 1 (
1
) sin(
Let us denote, f(t) = e
-t
g(t) = sin t, then

t t
u
du u t g u f L du u t e L
0 0
) ( ) ( ) sin(
= L f(t) . L g(t)
=
) 1 (
1
) 1 (
1
2
+
+ s s
=
) 1 )( 1 (
1
2
+ + s s
ASSIGNMENT
1. By using the Laplace transform of coshat, find the Laplace transform of sinhat.
2. Find (i)
t
dt
t
t
L
0
sin
(ii)

t
t
tdt e L
0
cos
(iii)

t
t
tdt e L
0
cos
(iv)

,
_
t
t
dt e
t
t
L
0
sin
(v)
t
atdt t L
0
2
sin
3. If f(t) = t
2
, 0 < t < 2 and f(t+2) = f(t) for t > 2, find L f(t)
4. Find L f(t) given f(t) = t , 0 t a
f(2a+t) = f(t)
2a t, a < t 2a
5. Find L f(t) given f(t) = 1, 0 < t <
2
a
f(a+t) = f(t)
-1,
2
a
< t < a
6. Find the Laplace transform of the following functions :
(i) e
t-1
H(t-2) (ii) t
2
H(t-2) (iii) (t
2
+ t + 1) H(t +2)
(iv) (e
-t
sint) H(t - )
7. Express the following functions in terms of unit step function and hence find their
Laplace transforms :
(i) 2t, 0 < t (ii) t
2
, 2 < t 3
f(t) = f(t) =
1 , t > 3t , t > 3
(iii) sin2t, 0 < t (iv) sint, 0 < t /2
f(t) = f(t) =
0 , t > cost, t > /2

8. Let f
1
(t) , t a
f(t) = f2 (t) , a<t b
f3 (t) , t > b

Verify that
f(t) = f1(t) + [f2(t) f1(t)]H(t-a) + [f3(t) - f2(t)] H(t-b)
9. Express the following function in terms of unit step
function and hence find its Laplace transform.
Sint, 0 < t
f(t) = Sin2t, < t 2
Sin3t, t > 2
10. Verify convolution theorem for the following pair of functions:
(i) f(t) = cosat, g(t) = cosbt
(ii) f(t) = t, g(t) = t e
-t

(iii) f(t) = e
t
g(t) = sint
11. Using the convolution theorem, prove the following:
(i)
+ +

t
u
s s
s
udu e u t L
0
2 2
1
) 1 ( ) 1 (
cos ) (
(ii)
2 2
0
) (
1
) (
a s s
du ue u t L
t
au
+

INVERSE LAPLACE TRANSFORMS
Let L f(t) = F(s). Then f(t) is defined as the inverse Laplace transform of F(s) and is denoted by
L
-1
F(s). Thus L
-1
F(s) = f(t).
Linearity Property
Let L
-1
F(s) = f(t) and L
-1
G(s) = g(t) and a and b be any two constants. Then
L
-1
[a F(s) + b G(s)] = a L
-1
F(s) + b L
-1
G(s)
Table of Inverse Laplace Transforms
F(s)
) ( ) (
1
s F L t f

0 ,
1
> s
s
1
a s
a s
>
,
1
at
e
0 ,
2 2
>
+
s
a s
s Cos at
0 ,
1
2 2
>
+
s
a s a
at Sin
a s
a s
>
,
1
2 2
a
at h Sin
a s
a s
s
>
,
2 2
at h Cos
0 ,
1
1
>
+
s
s
n
n = 0, 1, 2, 3, . . .
! n
t
n
0 ,
1
1
>
+
s
s
n
n > -1
( ) 1 + n
t
n
Examples
1. Find the inverse Laplace transforms of the following:

2 2
) (
a s
b s
ii
+
+

2 2
9
9 4
25 4
5 2
) (
s
s
s
s
iii
+
+
Here
5 2
1
) (
s
i
2
5
1 1
2
1
2
5
1
2
1
5 2
1
) (
t
e
s
L
s
L i

at
a
b
at
a s
L b
a s
s
L
a s
b s
L ii sin cos
1
) (
2 2
1
2 2
1
2 2
1
+
+
+
+
+
+

9
2
9
4
4
25
2
5
4
2
9
8 4
25 4
5 2
) (
2
1
2
1
2 2
1
1
]
1
+
+

s
s
L
s
s
L
s
s
s
s
L iii

1
]
1

1
]
1
t h t h
t t
3 sin
2
3
3 cos 4
2
5
sin
2
5
cos
2
1
Evaluation of L
-1
F(s a)
We have, if L f(t) = F(s), then L[e
at
f(t)] = F(s a), and so
L
-1
F(s a) = e
at
f(t) = e
at
L
-1
F(s)
Examples
( )
4
1
1
1 3
: Evaluate 1.
+
+
s
s
L
( )
( ) ( ) ( )
4
1
3
1
4
1 -
1
1
2
1
1
3
1
1 1 - 1 s 3
L Given
+
+
+ +

s
L
s
L
s
4
1
3
1
1
2
1
3
s
L e
s
L e
t t

Using the formula
get we and n taking and
n
t
s
L
n
n
, 3 2
!
1
1
1

+

3 2
3
3 2
t e t e
Given
t t

5 2s - s
2 s
L : Evaluate 2.
2
1 -
+
+

( )
( )
( ) ( ) ( ) 4 1
1
3
4 1
1
4 1
3 1
4 1
2
L Given
2
1
2
1
2
1
2
1 -
+
+
+
1
1
]
1
+
+
+
+

s
L
s
s
L
s
s
L
s
s

4
1
3
4
2
1
2
1
+
+
+

s
L e
s
s
L e
t - t

t e t e
t t
2 sin
2
3
2 cos +
1 3
1 2
: Evaluate
2
1
+ +
+
s s
s
L
( )
( )
( )
( ) ( )
1
1
]
1
+
+
+
+

4
5
1
4
5
2
4
5
1
2L Given
2
2
3
1
2
2
3
2
3
1
2
2
3
2
3
1 -
s
L
s
s
L
s
s

1
1
]
1
4
5
1
4
5
2
2
1
2
3
2
1
2
3
s
L e
s
s
L e
t t

1
]
1
t h t h e
t
2
5
sin
5
2
2
5
cos 2
2
3
s s s
s s
2
4 5 2
: Evaluate 4.
2 3
2
+
+

have we

( )
( ) ( ) 1 2 1 2
4 5 2
2
4 5 2
2
4 5 2
2
2
2
2 3
2
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
s
C
s
B
s
A
s s s
s s
s s s
s s
s s s
s s
Then
2s
2
+5s-4 = A(s+2) (s-1) + Bs (s-1) + Cs (s+2)
For s = 0, we get A = 2, for s = 1, we get C = 1 and for s = -2, we get B = -1. Using these
values in (1), we get

1
1
2
1 2
2
4 5 2
2 3
2
+
+

+
+
s s s s s s
s s
Hence

t t
e e
s s
s s
L +
+
+
2
2 2
2
1
2
25
4 5 2
( ) ( ) 2 1
5 4
: Evaluate 5.
2
1
+ + +
+
s s
s
L
Let us take

( ) ( ) ( )
2 1
1 2 1
5 4
2 2
+
+
+
+
+
+ + +
+
s
C
s
B
s
A
s s
s
Then
4s + 5 = A(s + 2) + B(s + 1) (s + 2) + C (s + 1)
2
For s = -1, we get A = 1, for s = -2, we get C = -3
Comparing the coefficients of s
2
, we get B + C = 0, so that B = 3. Using these values in (1), we
get
( ) ( ) ( )
( ) 2
3
1
3
1
1
2 1
5 4
2 2
+
+
+
+
+ + +
+
s s
s s s
s
Hence
( ) ( )
s
L e
s
L e
s
L e
s s
s
L
t t t
1
3
1
3
1
2 1
5 4
1 2 1
2
1
2
1
+
+ + +
+
t t t
e e te
2
3 3

+
4 4
3
1
: Evaluate 5.
a s
s
L

Let
) 1 (
2 2 4 4
3
a s
D Cs
a s
B
a s
A
a s
s
+
+
+
+
+
Hence
s
3
= A(s + a) (s
2
+ a
2
) + B (s-a)(s
2
+a
2
)+(Cs + D) (s
2
a
2
)
For s = a, we get A = ; for s = -a, we get B = ; comparing the constant terms, we get
D = a(A-B) = 0; comparing the coefficients of s
3
, we get
1 = A + B + C and so C = . Using these values in (1), we get
2 2 4 4
3
2
1 1 1
4
1
a s
s
a s a s a s
s
+
+
1
]
1
+
+
Taking inverse transforms, we get

[ ] at e e
a s
s
L
at at
cos
2
1
4
1
4 4
3
1
+ +

[ ] at hat cos cos
2
1
+
1
: Evaluate 6.
2 4
1
+ +
s s
s
L
Consider

( ) ( ) ( )( )
1
]
1
+ + +
+ + + +
+ + 1 1
2
2
1
1 1 1
2 2 2 2 2 4
s s s s
s
s s s s
s
s s
s
( ) ( )
( )( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( )
1
1
1
]
1
+ +
1
1
1
]
1
+ +
1
]
1
+ +
1
]
1
+ + +
+ + +

4
3
1
4
3
1
2
1
1
4
3
1
4
3
1
2
1
1
1
1
1
2
1
1 1
1 1
2
1
2
1
2
1
2
1
2
1
2 4
1
2
2
1
2
2
1
2 2 2 2
2 2
s
L e
s
L e
s s
s
L
Therefore
s s
s s s s s s s s
s s s s
t t
1
1
1
1
]
1

2
3
2
3
sin
2
3
2
3
sin
2
1
2
1
2
1
t
e
t
e
t t

,
_
,
_
2
sin
2
3
sin
3
2 t
h t
Evaluation of L
-1
[e
-as
F(s)]
We have, if Lf(t) = F(s), then L[f(t-a) H(t-a) = e
-as
F(s), and so
L
-1
[e
-as
F(s)] = f(t-a) H(t-a)
Examples
( )
4
1
2
: ) 1 (
s
e
L Evaluate
ss

Here

( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( ) 5
6
5
) ( ) (
2
6
1
2
1
) ( ) (
2
1
) ( , 5
3 5 2
4
5
1
3 2
4
1 2
4
1 1
4

t H
t e
a t H a t f
s
e
L
Thus
t e
s
L e
s
L s F L t f Therefore
s
s F a
t
s
t
t
1
]
1
+
+
+

4 1
: ) 2 (
2
2
2
1
s
se
s
e
L Evaluate
s s

( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( )

2 2 cos cos
2 2 2 cos sin
) 1 (
2 cos
4
) (
sin
1
1
) (
) 1 ( 2 2
2
1
2
2
1
1
2 1
+
+
t H t t H t
t H t t H t Given
as reads relation Now
t
s
s
L t f
t
s
L t f Here
t H t f t H t f Given
Inverse transform of logarithmic and inverse functions
( ) [ ] ( ) . t tf L then F(s), f(t) L if have, We Hence s F
ds
d

( ) ) (
1
t tf s F
ds
d
L
,
_
Examples
,
_
+
+
b s
a s
L Evaluate log : ) 1 (
1

( ) ( )
( )
( ) [ ]
( )
( )
b
e e
t f Thus
e e t f t or
e e s F
ds
d
L that So
b s a s
s F
ds
d
Then
b s a s
b s
a s
s F Let
at bt
at bt
bt at

1
]
1
1
]
1
+

+ +
,
_
+
+
1
1 1
log log log ) (
(2) Evaluate
1
L
,
_
s
a
1
tan
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
1
]
1
1
]
1
1
]
1
1
]
1
,
_
t
t
dt t f
s
s F
L
have we
s
s F
dt t f SinceL
a
at
t f
at t f t or
that so at s F
ds
d
L or
a s
a
s F
ds
d
Then
s
a
s F Let
0
1
0
1
2 2
1
, ,
sin
sin
sin
tan ) (
s
s F
of transform Inverse
Examples
( )
1
]
1
2 2
1
1
: ) 1 (
a s s
L Evaluate
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
2
0
1
2 2
1
1
2 2
cos 1
sin 1
sin
) (
1
a
at
dt
a
at
s
s F
L
a s s
L Then
a
at
s F L t f
that so
a s
s F denote us Let
t
( )
( )
( )
( ) [ ]
( )
( ) [ ]
( ) ( ) [ ]
[ ]
[ ] ( ) ( )

+ +
+
+
+
+
1
]
1
t
at at
t
at -
at
t
at
at
du u g u t f t g t f s G s F L
so and s G s F t Lg t Lf
e e at
a
dt at e
a a s s
L
at e
a
dt t e
a s s
L Hence
t e
a s
L have we
a s s
L Evaluate
0
1
3
0
2 2 2
1
2
0
2
1
2
1
2 2
1
) ( ) ( ) ( ) (
) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( g(t) f(t) L
then G(s), Lg(t) and F(s) L(t) if have, We
1 2 1
1
1 1
1 1
get we this, Using
parts. by n integratio on , 1 1
1
1
1
1
: ) 2 (
theorem n convolutio using by F(s) of transform Inverse
transform Laplace inverse for n theorem convolutio the called is expression This
NEXT CLASS 24.05.05
Examples
Employ convolution theorem to evaluate the following :
( ) ( ) b s a s
L
+ +
1
) 1 (
1

( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( )
b a
e e
b a
e
e
du e e du e e
b s a s
L
e , g(t) e f(t)
b s
s G
a s
at bt t b a
at
t
u b a at
t
bu u t a -
-bt -at
1
]
1

+ +

+

1
1
n theorem, convolutio by Therefore,
get we inverse, the Taking
1
) ( ,
1
F(s) denote us Let
0 0
1
( )
2
2 2
1
) 2 (
a s
s
L
+

( )
( )
( )
( )
a
at t
a
au at
at u
du
au at at
a
du au u t a
a
a s
s
L
at , g(t)
at
f(t)
a s
s
s G
a s
F(s)
t
t
t
-
2
sin
2
2 cos
sin
2a
1
formula angle compound using by ,
2
2 sin sin 1
cos sin
1
n theorem, convolutio by Hence
cos
a
sin
Then ) ( ,
1
denote us Let
0
0
0
2
2 2
1
2 2 2 2
1
]
1

+

+
( ) ( ) 1 1
) 3 (
2
1
+
s s
s
L

Here
1
) ( ,
1
1

2
+
s
s
s G
s
F(s)

Therefore

( ) ( )
( )
( ) ( ) [ ] [ ] t t e t t e
e
u u
e
e du u e
s s
L
t , g(t) e f(t)
t t
t
t
u
t u t -
t
cos sin
2
1
1 cos sin
2
cos sin
2
sin
1 1
1
have we n theorem, convolutio By
sin
0
2
1

1
]
1
Assignment
By employing convolution theorem, evaluate the following :
( ) ( ) ( )( )
( ) ( ) ( )
( )
( ) ( ) 2 1
5 4
) 6 (
1
) 3 (
1
1
) 5 (
1 1
) 2 (
, ) 4 (
1 1
1
) 1 (
2
1
2
2 2
1
2 2
1
2 2
1
2 2 2 2
2
1
2
1
+
+
+
+ + +
+ + + +

s s
s
L
a s
L
s s
L
s s
s
L
b a
b s a s
s
L
s s
L
LAPLACE TRANSFORM METHOD FOR DIFFERENTIAL
EQUATIONS
As noted earlier, Laplace transform technique is employed to solve initial-value problems. The
solution of such a problem is obtained by using the Laplace Transform of the derivatives of
function and then the inverse Laplace Transform.
The following are the expressions for the derivatives derived earlier.

(o) f - (o) f s - f(o) s - f(t) L s (t) f [ L
(o) f - f(o) s - f(t) L s (t) f L[
f(o) - f(t) L s (t)] f L[
2 3
2

Examples
1) Solve by using Laplace transform method
2 y(o) t y y , +
t
e
Taking the Laplace transform of the given equation, we get

( ) ( ) [ ] ( )
( )
( ) ( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( ) ( )
( )
( )
( ) 4
2
1
1
1
1
2
1
3 1 1 4 1 1 2
1
3 4 2
get we , transform Laplace inverse the Taking
1
3 4 2
1
1
2 1 s
becomes this condition, given the Using
1
1
2
3
1
3
2
1
3
2
1
3
2
2
2
+
1
]
1
+
+
+
1
]
1
+
+ + + +
+
+ +
+
+ +
+
+
+
+
t e
s
s
L
s
s s
L
s
s s
L t Y
s
s s
t y L
that so
s
t y L
s
t y L o y t y sL
t
This is the solution of the given equation.
Solve by using Laplace transform method :
0 ) ( ) ( , sin 3 2 ) 2 ( + o y o y t y y y
Taking the Laplace transform of the given equation, we get
[ ] [ ]
1
1
) ( 3 ) ( ) ( 2 ) ( ) ( ) (
2
2
+
+
s
t y L o y t Ly s o y o sy t Ly s
Using the given conditions, we get
[ ]
( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( )
( )
equation. given the of solution required the is This
sin 2 cos
10
1
40
1
8
1
sums, partial of method the using by
1
5
1
10
3
1
40
1
1
1
8
1
1 3 1
1 3 1
1
) (
1 3 1
1
) (
1
1
3 2 ) (
3
2
1
2
1
2
1
2
2
2
t t e e
s
s
s s
L
s
D Cs
s
B
s
A
L
s s s
L t y
or
s s s
t y L
or
s
s s t y L
t t
+
1
1
1
]
1
+

+
+
1
]
1
+
+
+
+
+
1
]
1
+ +
+ +
+
+
equation. integral the solve to method Transform Laplace Employ 3)

( ) ( )
+
t
0
sin l f(t) du u t u f

( ) ( )
equation. integral given the of solution the is This
2
1
1
) (
1
) (
1
) ( 1
sin ) (
1
get we here, n theorem, convolutio using By
sin
1
get we equation, given the of transform Laplace Taking
2
3
2
1
3
2
2
t
0
t
s
s
L t f or
s
s
t f L
Thus
s
t f L
s
t L t Lf
s
L f(t)
du u t u f L
s
L f(t)
+
,
_
+
+ +
+
s. transform Laplace using t any time at particle the of nt displaceme the find 10, is speed initial the and
20 at x is particle the of position initial the If t. at time particle the of nt displaceme the denotes x
where 0 25
dt
dx
6
dt
x d
equation the , satisfying path a along moving is particle A 4) (
2
2
+ + x

get we equation, the of transform Laplace the Taking
10. (o) x' 20, x(o) are conditions initial the Here
0 25x(t) (t) 6x' (t) ' x'
as rewritten be may equation Given

+ +

[ ]
( )
( )
( )
( ) ( )
problem. given the of solution desired the is This
2
4 sin
35 4 cos 20
16 3
1
70
16 3
3
20
16 3
70 3 20
16 3
130 20
x(t)
25 6
130 20
Lx(t)
0 130 20 25 6s s Lx(t)
3
3
2
1
2
1
2
1
2
1
2
2
t e
t e
s
L
s
s
L
s
s
L
s
s
L
that so
s s
s
or s
t
t

+
+ +
+
+ +
+
1
]
1
+ +
+ +
1
]
1
+ +
+
+ +
+
+ +
1
]
1
L
Rt
at
e e
aL - R
E
is t any time at current
that the Show R. resistance and L inductance of circuit a to 0 at t applied is Ee A voltage (5)
-at
The circuit is an LR circuit. The differential equation with respect to the circuit is
) (t E Ri
dt
di
L +
Here L denotes the inductance, i denotes current at any time t and E(t) denotes the E.M.F.
It is given that E(t) = E e
-at
. With this, we have
Thus, we have

at
at
Ee t i R t Li
or Ee Ri
dt
di
L
+
+
) ( ) ( '

[ ] [ ] ( ) or E R
at
+ e L (t) i' L (t) i' L L
T T T
get we sides, both on ) ( transform Laplace Taking
T
L
[ ] [ ]
a s
E t i L R o i t i L s L
T T
+
+
1
) ( ) ( ) (

[ ]
( ) ( )
) )( (
) ( get we , L transform inverse Taking
) (
) ( get we o, i(o) Since
1 1 -
T
R sL a s
E
L t i
R sL a s
E
t i L
or
a s
E
R sL t i L
T
T
T
+ +
+ + +
+
+

desired. as result the is This
) (
1 1
1 1
1
1
]
1
1
]
1

L
Rt
at
T T
e e
aL R
E
t i
Thus
R sL
L L
a s
L
aL R
E
1. y(o) 2, with x(o) 0 9
dt
dy

, 0 4
dt
dx
given t of in terms y and for x equations us simultaneo the Solve ) 6 (

+
x
y
Taking Laplace transforms of the given equations, we get

[ ]
[ ] 0 ) ( ) ( ) ( 9
0 ) ( 4 x(o) - Lx(t) s
+
+
o y t Ly s t x L
t Ly
get we , conditions initial given the Using

1 ) ( 5 ) ( 9
2 ) ( 4 ) (
+
+
t y L t x L
t y L t x L s
get we Ly(t), for equations these Solving

36
18
2
+
+
s
s
L y(t)
that so

t t
s s
s
L y(t)
6 sin 3 6 cos
36
18
36
2 2
1
+
1
]
1
+
+
+

(1)
get we , 0 9
dt
dy
in this Using x

[ ] t t 6 cos 18 6 sin 6
9
1
x(t) +

or

[ ] t t 6 sin 6 cos 3
3
2
x(t)
(2)
(1) and (2) together represents the solution of the given equations.
Assignment
Employ Laplace transform method to solve the following initial value problems
( )
( )
( )
+
+
+
+ +

,
_
+
+ + + +
+ +
+ +
+
t
t
u
t
t
f du u u t f t t f
du e u t f t f
y y t H y y
y y t y y y
y y t y y
y y t t y y y
y y e y y y
y y e y y y
y y y given y y y y
0
0
2
2
2
4 ) 0 ( , cos ) ( ' ) 9
2 1 ) ( ) 8
1 ) 0 ( , 0 ) 0 ( , 1 ) 7
1 ) 1 ( , 3 ) 0 ( , 2 ) 6
1
2
, 1 ) 0 ( , 2 cos 9 ) 5
0 ) 0 ( , 2 ) 0 ( , 2 2 2 2 3 ) 4
) 0 ( 1 ) 0 ( , 3 4 ) 3
1 ) 0 ( , 2 ) 0 ( , 6 5 ) 2
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dy
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dt
dx
) 15
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dt
dy
, 3 2
dt
dx
) 14
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dt
dy
,
dt
dx
) 13
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dt
dy
, sin
dt
dx
12)
:
+ +

+
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y x y x x y
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t of terms in y and x
for equations al differenti us simultaneo following the Solve
LAPLACE TRANSFORMS
INTRODUCTION
Laplace transform is an integral transform employed in solving physical problems.
Many physical problems when analysed assumes the form of a differential equation
subjected to a set of initial conditions or boundary conditions.
By initial conditions we mean that the conditions on the dependent variable are
specified at a single value of the independent variable.
If the conditions of the dependent variable are specified at two different values of the
independent variable, the conditions are called boundary conditions.
The problem with initial conditions is referred to as the Initial value problem.
The problem with boundary conditions is referred to as the Boundary value problem.
dx
dy
dx
y d
+ +
2
2
with conditions y(0) =
y
(0) = 1 is an initial value problem
dx
dy
dx
y d
cos 2 3
2
2
+ + with y(1)=1,
y(2)=3 is called Boundary value problem.
Laplace transform is essentially employed to solve initial value problems. This technique is of
great utility in applications dealing with mechanical systems and electric circuits. Besides the
technique may also be employed to find certain integral values also. The transform is named
after the French Mathematician P.S. de Laplace (1749 1827).
The subject is divided into the following sub topics.

Definition :
Let f(t) be a real-valued function defined for all t 0 and s be a parameter, real or complex.
Suppose the integral
0
) ( dt t f e
st
exists (converges). Then this integral is called the Laplace
transform of f(t) and is denoted by Lf(t).
Thus,
Lf(t) =
0
) ( dt t f e
st
(1)
We note that the value of the integral on the right hand side of (1) depends on s. Hence Lf(t) is
a function of s denoted by F(s) or ) (s f .
Thus,
Lf(t) = F(s) (2)
LAPLACE TRANSFORMS
Definition and
Properties
Transforms of
some functions
Convolution
theorem
Inverse
transforms
Solution of
differential
equations
Consider relation (2). Here f(t) is called the Inverse Laplace transform of F(s) and is denoted by
L
-1
[F(s)].
Thus,
L
-1
[F(s)] = f(t) (3)
Suppose f(t) is defined as follows :

f
1
(t), 0 < t < a
f(t) = f
2
(t), a < t < b
f
3
(t), t > b
Note that f(t) is piecewise continuous. The Laplace transform of f(t) is defined as
Lf(t) =
0
) (t f e
st

=

+ +
a b
a b
st st st
dt t f e dt t f e dt t f e
0
3 2 1
) ( ) ( ) (
NOTE : In a practical situation, the variable t represents the time and s represents frequency.
Hence the Laplace transform converts the time domain into the frequency domain.
Basic properties
The following are some basic properties of Laplace transforms :
1. Linearity property : For any two functions f(t) and (t) (whose Laplace transforms exist)
and any two constants a and b, we have
L [a f(t) + b (t)] = a L f(t) + b L (t)
L[af(t)+b (t)] =
[ ]dt t b t af e
st
+
0
) ( ) (
=

+
0 0
) ( ) ( dt t e b dt t f e a
st st
= a L f(t) + b L (t)
In particular, for a=b=1, we have
L [ f(t) + (t)] = L f(t) + L (t)
and for a = -b = 1, we have
L [ f(t) - (t)] = L f(t) - L (t)
2. Change of scale property : If L f(t) = F(s), then L[f(at)] =
,
_
a
s
F
a
1
, where a is a positive
constant.
Lf(at) =
0
) ( dt at f e
st
(1)
Let us set at = x. Then expression (1) becomes,
L f(at) =
,
_
0
) (
1
dx x f e
a
x
a
s

,
_
a
s
F
a
1
3. Shifting property :- Let a be any real constant. Then
L [e
at
f(t)] = F(s-a)
L [e
at
f(t)] =
[ ]
0
) ( dt t f e e
at st
=

0
) (
) ( dt t f e
a s
= F(s-a)
This is the desired property. Here we note that the Laplace transform of e
at
f(t) can be
written down directly by changing s to s-a in the Laplace transform of f(t).
TRANSFORMS OF SOME FUNCTIONS
3. Let a be a constant. Then
L(e
at
) =

0 0
) (
dt e dt e e
t a s at st
=
a s a s
e
t a s

1
) (
0
) (
, s > a
Thus,
L(e
at
) =
a s
1
In particular, when a=0, we get
L(1) =
s
1
, s > 0
By inversion formula, we have
at at
e
s
L e
a s
L

1 1
1 1
4. L(cosh at) =
,
_
+

2
at at
e e
L
=
[ ]

+
0
2
1
dt e e e
at at st
=
[ ]
+
+
0
) ( ) (
2
1
dt e e
t a s t a s
Let s > |a| . Then,

+
1
]
1
+
+

0
) ( ) (
) ( ) ( 2
1
) (cosh
a s
e
a s
e
at L
t a s t a s
=
2 2
a s
s
Thus,
L (cosh at) =
2 2
a s
s
, s > |a|
and so
at
a s
s
L cosh
2 2
1
,
_
3. L (sinh at) =
2 2
2 a s
a e e
L
at at
,
_

, s > |a|
Thus,
L (sinh at) =
2 2
a s
a
, s > |a|
and so,
a
at
a s
L
sinh 1
2 2
1
,
_
4. L (sin at) =
0
sin at e
st
dt
Here we suppose that s > 0 and then integrate by using the formula
[ ]

+
bx b bx a
b a
e
bxdx e
ax
ax
cos sin sin
2 2
Thus,
L (sinh at) =
2 2
a s
a
+
, s > 0
and so
a
at
a s
L
sinh 1
2 2
1

,
_
5. L (cos at) =
atdt e
st
cos
0
Here we suppose that s>0 and integrate by using the formula

[ ]
+
+
bx b bx a
b a
e
bxdx e
ax
ax
sin cos cos
2 2
Thus,
L (cos at) =
2 2
a s
s
+
, s > 0
and so
at
a s
s
L cos
2 2
1
6. Let n be a constant, which is a non-negative real number or a negative non-integer. Then

L(t
n
) =
0
dt t e
n st
Let s > 0 and set st = x, then

,
_
0 0
1
1
) ( dx x e
s s
dx
s
x
e t L
n x
n
n
x n
The integral
dx x e
n x
0
is called gamma function of (n+1) denoted by
) 1 ( + n
. Thus

1
) 1 (
) (
+
+
n
n
s
n
t L
In particular, if n is a non-negative integer then
) 1 ( + n
=n!. Hence

1
!
) (
+
n
n
s
n
t L
and so

) 1 (
1
1
1
+
n
t
s
L
n
n
or
! n
t
n
as the case may be
TABLE OF LAPLACE TRANSFORMS
f(t) F(s)
1
s
1
, s > 0
e
at
a s
1
, s > a
coshat
2 2
a s
s
, s > |a|
sinhat
2 2
a s
a
, s > |a|
sinat
2 2
a s
a
+
, s > 0
cosat
2 2
a s
s
+
, s > 0
t
n
, n=0,1,2,..
1
!
+ n
s
n
, s > 0
t
n
, n > -1
1
) 1 (
+
+
n
s
n
, s > 0
Application of shifting property :-
The shifting property is
If L f(t) = F(s), then L [e
at
f(t)] = F(s-a)
Application of this property leads to the following results :
1.
[ ]
a s s
a s s
at
b s
s
bt L bt e L

,
_

2 2
) (cosh ) cosh (
=
2 2
) ( b a s
a s

Thus,
L(e
at
coshbt) =
2 2
) ( b a s
a s

and

bt e
b a s
a s
L
at
cosh
) (
2 2
1
2.
2 2
) (
) sinh (
b a s
a
bt e L
at

and

bt e
b a s
L
at
sinh
) (
1
2 2
1
3.
2 2
) (
) cos (
b a s
a s
bt e L
at
+
and

bt e
b a s
a s
L
at
cos
) (
2 2
1
4.
2 2
) (
) sin (
b a s
b
bt e L
at

and

b
bt e
b a s
L
at
sin
) (
1
2 2
1
5.
1
) (
) 1 (
) (
+
n
n at
a s
n
t e L
or
1
) (
!
+
n
a s
n
as the case may be
Hence

) 1 ( ) (
1
1
1
+
n
t e
a s
L
n at
n
or
1
) (
!
+
n
a s
n
as the case may be
Examples :-
1. Find Lf(t) given f(t) = t, 0 < t < 3
4, t > 3
Here
Lf(t) =

+
0
3
0 3
4 ) ( dt e tdt e dt t f e
st st st
Integrating the terms on the RHS, we get
Lf(t) = ) 1 (
1 1
3
2
3 s s
e
s
e
s

+
2. Find Lf(t) given f(t) = sin2t, 0 < t
0, t >
Here
Lf(t) =

dt t f e dt t f e
st st
) ( ) (
0
=
0
2 sin tdt e
st
= { }
0
2
2 cos 2 2 sin
4
1
]
1
t t s
s
e
st
= [ ]
s
e
s

+
1
4
2
2
3. Evaluate : (i) L(sin3t sin4t)
(iv) L(cos
2
4t)
(v) L(sin
3
2t)
(i) Here
L(sin3t sin4t) = L [ )] 7 cos (cos
2
1
t t
= [ ] ) 7 (cos ) (cos
2
1
t L t L , by using linearity property
=
) 49 )( 1 (
24
49 1 2
1
2 2 2 2
+ +
1
]
1
+ s s
s
s
s
s
s
(ii) Here
L(cos
2
4t) =
1
]
1
+
+
1
]
1
+
64
1
2
1
) 8 cos 1 (
2
1
2
s
s
s
t L
(iii) We have
( ) 3 sin sin 3
4
1
sin
3

For =2t, we get
( ) t t t 6 sin 2 sin 3
4
1
2 sin
3

so that
) 36 )( 4 (
48
36
6
4
6
4
1
) 2 (sin
2 2 2 2
3
+ +
1
]
1
s s s s
t L
4. Find L(cost cos2t cos3t)
Here
cos2t cos3t = ] cos 5 [cos
2
1
t t +
so that
cost cos2t cos3t = ] cos cos 5 [cos
2
1
2
t t t +
= ] 2 cos 1 4 cos 6 [cos
4
1
t t t + + +
Thus
L(cost cos2t cos3t) =
1
]
1
+
+ +
+
+
+ 4
1
16 36 4
1
2 2 2
s
s
s s
s
s
s
5. Find L(cosh
2
2t)
We have
2
2 cosh 1
cosh
2

For = 2t, we get

2
4 cosh 1
2 cosh
2
t
t
+
Thus,
1
]
1
+
16
1
2
1
) 2 (cosh
2
2
s
s
s
t L

6. Evaluate (i) L( t ) (ii)
,
_
t
L
1
(iii) L(t
-3/2
)
We have L(t
n
) =
1
) 1 (
+
+
n
s
n
(i) For n=
2
1
, we get
L(t
1/2
) =
2 / 3
) 1
2
1
(
s
+
Since
) ( ) 1 ( n n n +
, we have
2 2
1
2
1
1
2
1
,
_
,
_
+
Thus,
2
3
2
) (
s
t L

(ii) For n = -
2
1
, we get

s
s
t L

,
_
2
1
2
1
2
1
) (

(iii) For n = -
2
3
, we get

s
s s
t L
2
2 2
1
) (
2
1
2
1
2
3

,
_
7. Evaluate : (i) L(t

2
) (ii) L(t
3
)
We have,
L(t
n
) =
1
!
+ n
s
n
(i) For n = 2, we get
L(t
2
) =
3 3
2 ! 2
s s

(ii) For n=3, we get
L(t
3
) =
4 4
6 ! 3
s s

8. Find L[e
-3t
(2cos5t 3sin5t)]
Given =
2L(e
-3t
cos5t) 3L(e
-3t
sin5t)
=
( )
25 ) 3 (
15
25 ) 3 (
3
2
2 2
+ +
+ +
+
s s
s
, by using shifting property
=
34 6
9 2
2
+ +
s s
s
, on simplification
9. Find L[coshat sinhat]
Here
L[coshat sinat] =
( )
1
]
1
+

at
e e
L
at at
sin
2
=
1
]
1
+ +
+
+
2 2 2 2
) ( ) ( 2
1
a a s
a
a a s
a
, on simplification
10. Find L(cosht sin
3
2t)
Given

1
]
1
,
_
,
_
+

4
6 sin 2 sin 3
2
t t e e
L
t t
= ( ) [ ] ) 6 sin ( ) 2 sin ( 3 ) 6 sin ( 2 sin 3
8
1
t e L t e L t e L t e L
t t t t
+
=
1
]
1
+ +
+ +
+
+
+ 36 ) 1 (
6
4 ) 1 (
6
36 ) 1 (
6
4 ) 1 (
6
8
1
2 2 2 2
s s s s
=
1
]
1
+ +
+ +
+
+
+ 36 ) 1 (
1
24 ) 1 (
1
36 ) 1 (
1
4 ) 1 (
1
4
3
2 2 2 2
s s s s
11. Find
) (
2
5
4

t e L
t
We have
L(t
n
) =
1
) 1 (
+
+
n
s
n
Put n= -5/2. Hence
L(t
-5/2
) =
2 / 3 2 / 3
3
4 ) 2 / 3 (

s s

Change s to s+4.
Therefore,
2 / 3
2 / 5 4
) 4 ( 3
4
) (

+
s
t e L
t

Transform of t
n
f(t)
Here we suppose that n is a positive integer. By definition, we have
F(s) =
0
) ( dt t f e
st
Differentiating n times on both sides w.r.t. s, we get
] ) ][( ) [(
) 2 (
2 2 2 2
2 2
a a s a a s
a s a
+ + +
+
0
) ( ) ( dt t f e
s
s F
ds
d
st
n
n
n
n
Performing differentiation under the integral sign, we get

0
) ( ) ( ) ( dt t f e t s F
ds
d
st n
n
n
Multiplying on both sides by (-1)
n
, we get

0
)] ( [ ) ( ( ) ( ) 1 ( t f t L dt e t f t s F
ds
d
n st n
n
n
n
, by definition
Thus,
L[t
n
f(t)]= ) ( ) 1 ( s F
ds
d
n
n
n
This is the transform of t

n
f(t).
Also,
) ( ) 1 ( ) (
1
t f t s F
ds
d
L
n n
n
n

1
]
1
In particular, we have
L[t f(t)] = ) (s F
ds
d
, for n=1
L[t
2
f(t)]= ) (
2
2
s F
ds
d
, for n=2, etc.
Also,
) ( ) (
1
t tf s F
ds
d
L
1
]
1
and

) ( ) (
2
2
2
1
t f t s F
ds
d
L
1
]
1
Transform of
t
f(t)
We have , F(s) =
0
) ( dt t f e
st
Therefore,
1
]
1
s s
ds dt t f
st
e ds s F
0
) ( ) (
=
dt ds e t f
s
st

1
]
1
0
) (
=
1
]
1
0
) ( dt
t
e
t f
s
st
=
,
_
1
]
1
0
) ( ) (
t
t f
L dt
t
t f
e
st

Thus,
,
_
s
ds s F
t
t f
L ) (
) (
This is the transform of
t
t f ) (
Also,
s
t
t f
ds s F L
) (
) (
1
Examples :
1. Find L[te
-t
sin4t]
We have,
16 ) 1 (
4
] 4 sin [
2
+ +
s
t e L
t
So that,
L[te
-t
sin4t] =
1
]
1
'
+ +
17 2
1
4
2
s s ds
d
=
2 2
) 17 2 (
) 1 ( 8
+ +
+
s s
s
2. Find L(t
2
sin3t)
We have
L(sin3t) =
9
3
2
+ s
So that,
L(t
2
sin3t) =
,
_
+ 9
3
2 2
2
s ds
d
=
2 2
) 9 (
6
+
s
s
ds
d
=
3 2
2
) 9 (
) 3 ( 18
+
s
s
3. Find
,
_

t
t e
L
t
sin
We have
1 ) 1 (
1
) sin (
2
+ +
s
t e L
t
Hence
,
_

t
t e
L
t
sin
=
[ ]
+
+ +
0
1
2
) 1 ( tan
1 ) 1 (
s
s
s
ds
= ) 1 ( tan
2
1
+

s
= cot
1
(s+1)
4. Find
,
_
t
t
L
sin
. Using this, evaluateL
,
_
t
at sin
We have
L(sint) =
1
1
2
+ s
So that
Lf(t) =
,
_
t
t
L
sin
=
[ ]
S
s
s
s
ds
1
2
tan
1
= ) ( cot tan
2
1 1
s F s s

Consider
L
,
_
t
at sin
= a L
) (
sin
at aLf
at
at
,
_
=
1
]
1
,
_
a
s
F
a
a
1
, in view of the change of scale property
=
,
_
a
s
1
cot
5. Find L
1
]
1

t
bt at cos cos
We have
L [cosat cosbt] =
2 2 2 2
b s
s
a s
s
+
+
So that
L
1
]
1

t
bt at cos cos
=
ds
b s
s
a s
s
s
1
]
1
+
2 2 2 2
=
1
]
1
,
_
+
+
s
b s
a s
2 2
2 2
log
2
1

=
1
]
1
,
_
+
+
,
_
+
+

2 2
2 2
2 2
2 2
log log
2
1
b s
a s
b s
a s
Lt
s
=
1
]
1
,
_
+
+
+
2 2
2 2
log 0
2
1
a s
b s
=
,
_
+
+
2 2
2 2
log
2
1
a s
b s
6. Prove that
0
3
50
3
sintdt t e
t
We have
0
) sin ( sin t t L tdt t e
st
= ) (sint L
ds
d
=
1
]
1
1
1
2
s ds
d
=
2 2
) 1 (
2
+ s
s
Putting s = 3 in this result, we get
0
3
50
3
sintdt t e
t
ASSIGNMENT
I Find L f(t) in each of the following cases :
1. f(t) = e
t
, 0 < t < 2
0 , t > 2
2. f(t) = 1 , 0 t 3
t , t > 3
3. f(t) =
a
t
, 0 t < a
2 , t a
II. Find the Laplace transforms of the following functions :
4. cos(3t + 4)
5. sin3t sin5t
6. cos4t cos7t
7. sin5t cos2t
8. sint sin2t sin3t
9. sin
2
5t
10. sin
2
(3t+5)
11. cos
3
2t
12. sinh
2
5t
13. t
5/2
14.
3
1
,
_
+
t
t
15. 3
t
16. 5
-t

17. e
-2t
cos
2
2t
18. e
2t
sin3t sin5t
19. e
-t
sin4t + t cos2t
20. t
2
e
-3t
cos2t
21.
t
e
t 2
1

22.
t
e e
bt at
23.
t
t
2
sin
24.
t
t t 5 sin 2 sin 2

Dr.G.N.Shekar
DERIVATIVES OF ARC LENGTH
Consider a curve C in the XY plane. Let A be a fixed point on it. Let P and Q be two
neighboring positions of a variable point on the curve C. If s is the distance of P from A
measured along the curve then s is called the arc length of P. Let the tangent to C at P make
an angle with X-axis. Then (s,) are called the intrinsic co-ordinates of the point P. Let the
arc length AQ be s + s. Then the distance between P and Q measured along the curve C is s.
If the actual distance between P and Q is C. Then s=C in the limit Q P along C.
. . 1
Q P
s
i e Lt
C

0
y
x
P(s, )
Q
A
s
s
Cartesian Form:
Let
( ) y f x
be the Cartesian equation of the curve C and let
( , ) ( , ) P x y and Q x x y y + +
be
any two neighboring points on it as in fig.
Let the arc length
PQ s
and the chord length
PQ C
. Using distance between two points
formula we have
2 2 2 2
PQ = ( C) =( x) +( y)

2 2 2
1 1

,
_
,
_
,
_
x
y
x
C
or
x
y
x
C

2
1
s s C s y
x C x C x

_
+

,
We note that x 0 as Q P along C, also that when
, 1
s
Q P
C

When Q P i.e. when x 0, from (1) we get

2
1 (1)
ds dy
dx dx
_
+

,
Similarly we may also write

2
1

,
_
+
y
x
C
s
y
C
C
s
y
s
and hence when Q P this leads to

2
1 (2)
ds dx
dy dy
_
+

,
Parametric Form: Suppose
( ) ( ) x x t and y y t
is the parametric form of the curve C.
Then from (1)
( , ) Q x x y y + +
C
( , ) P x y
s
dy

2 2
2
1
1

,
_
,
_
,
_
+
dt
dy
dt
dx
dt
dx
dt
dx
dt
dy
dx
ds

2 2
(3)
ds ds dx dx dy
dt dx dt dt dt
_ _
+

, ,
Note: Since is the angle between the tangent at P and the X-axis,
we have tan
dy
dx

( )
2
2
1 1 tan
ds
y Sec
dx
+ +
Similarly

( )
2
2 2
1 1
1 1 1 cot sec
tan
ds
Co
dy
y

+ + +
i.e. Cos
dx dy
and Sin
ds ds

( ) ( ) ( )
2 2
2 2 2
1
dx dy
ds dx dy
ds ds
_ _
+ +

, ,
dy
We can use the following figure to observe the above geometrical connections
among
, , . dx dy ds and
Polar Curves :
Suppose
( ) r f
is the polar equation of the curve C and
( , ) ( , ) P r and Q r r + +
be
two neighboring points on it as in figure:
Consider PN
OQ.
dx
ds
dy
C
N
O

r
P(r,)
s
x
( , ) Q r r + +
In the right-angled triangle OPN, We have
PN PN
Sin PN r Sin r
OP r

since Sin = when . is very small
From the figure we see that, (1)
ON ON
Cos ON r Cos r r
OP r

cos 1 0 when Q

( ) NQ OQ ON r r r r +

2 2 2 2 2 2
, . , ( ) ( ) ( ) From PNQ PQ PN NQ i e C r r + + V
2
2
C r
r

_
+

,

2
2
S S C S r
r
C C

_
+

,
g
We note that , 0 1
S
when Q P along the curve also
C

2
2
, (4)
dS dr
when Q P r
d d
_
+

,
2
2 2 2 2
, ( ) ( ) ( ) 1
C
Similarly C r r r
r r

_
+ +

,
2
2
1
S S C S
and r
r C r C r

_
+

,
g
2
2
, 1 (5)
dS d
when Q P we get r
dr dr
_
+

,
Note:

d
We know that Tan r
dr

2
2 2 2 2 2
1 sec
ds dr
r r r Cot r Cot rCo
d d

_
+ + +

,
Similarly

2
2 2
1 1
ds d
r Tan Sec
dr dr

_
+ +

,

1 dr d
Cos and Sin
ds ds r

The following figure shows the geometrical connections among ds, dr, d and
Thus we have :
2
2 2 2
1 , 1 ,
ds dy ds dx ds dx dy
dx dx dy dy dt dt dt
_
_ _ _
+ + +

, , ,
,
2 2
2 2
1
ds d ds dr
r and r
dr dr d d

_ _
+ +

, ,
Example 1:
2/3 2/3 2/3
ds ds
and for the curve x
dx dy
y a +
dr
ds r d
2/3 2/3 2/3 -1/3 -1/3

2 2
x x ' 0
3 3
y a y y + +
-1
1
3
3
-1
3
x
'
y
y
y
x
_

,

2 1/ 3
2/ 3 2/ 3 2/ 3 2/ 3
2/ 3 2/ 3 2/ 3
ds
Hence 1 1
dx
dy y x y a a
dx x x x x
+
_ _
+ +

, ,
Similarly

2 1/ 3
2/ 3 2/ 3 2/ 3 2/ 3
2/ 3 2/ 3 2/ 3
ds
1 1
dy
dx x x y a a
dy y y y y
_ _ +
+ +

, ,
Example 2:
2
2 2
ds a
for the curve y a log
dx a -x
Find
_

,
( )
2 2 2
2 2 2 2
2 2
log log
dy x ax
y a a a a x a
dx a x a x
_

,

( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
2
2 2 2 2 2 2 2
2 2 2 2
2 2 2 2 2 2
2 2 2 2
4
4
1 1
a x a x a x
ds dy a x a x
dx dx a x a x
a x a x
+ +
+
_
+ +

,

Example 3:
t t
If x ae Sint, y ae Cost, find
ds
dt

t t t
x ae Sint ae Sint ae Cost
dx
dt
+
t t t
y ae Cost ae Cost ae Sint
dy
dt

( ) ( )
2 2
2 2
2 2 2 2 t t
ds dx dy
a e Cos t Sin t a e Cos t Sin t
dt dt dt
_ _
+ + +

, ,

( )
2 2
2 2
t t
ae Cos t Sin t a e + ( ) ( ) ( )
2 2
2 2
2 a b a b a b + + + Q
Example 4:
t
If x a Cos t log Tan , y a Sin t, find
2
ds
dt
1
+
1
]

2
1
2
2
2
2
2 2
t
Sec
dx
a Sin t a Sin t
t t t
dt
Tan
Sin Cos
1
1
1
1
+ +
1
1
1
]
]

( )
2
2
1
1
Sin t
a Cos t
a Sin t a a Cost Cot t
Sin t Sin t Sin t
1
+
1
]

dy
a Cos t
dt

2 2
2 2 2 2 2
ds dx dy
a Cos t Cot t a Cos t
dt dt dt
_ _
+ +

, ,
( )
2 2 2
1 a Cos t Cot t +

2 2 2 2 2
sec a Cos t Co t a Cot t a Cot t
Example 5:
3 3
If x a Cos t, y Sin t, find
ds
dt

2 2
3 , 3
dx dy
a Cos t Sin t a Sin t Cos t
dt dt

2 2
ds dx dy
dt dt dt
_ _
+

, ,
2 4 2 2 4 2
9 9 a Cos t Sin t a Sin t Cos t +

( )
2 2 2 2 2
9 3 a Cos t Sin t Cos t Sin t a Sin t Cos t +
Exercise:
Find
ds
dt
for the following curves:
(i) x=a(t + Sint), y=a(1-Cost)
(ii) x=a(Cost + t Sint), y= aSint
(iii) x= a log(Sect + tant), y= a Sect
Example 6:
2 2
If r a Cos 2 , Show that r is constant
ds
d
2
2 2 2
2 2 2 2 2
dr dr a
r a Cos r a Sin Sin
d d r

2
4
2 2 2 4 4 2
2
1
2 2
ds dr a
r r Sin r a Sin
d d r r

_
+ + +

,
4 4 2 4 2 4 2
2 2 2
ds
r r a Sin a Cos a Sin
d

+ +
2 2 2 2
2 Constant a Cos Sin a +

2 2
r is constant for r a Cos2
ds
d

Example 7:
2 2
-1
r ds
For the curve Cos , Show that r is constant.
k dr
k r
r

_

,

2 2
2 2
2
2
2
2
(1)
1 1
2
1
r
r k r
d
k r
dr k r
r
k

( )
2 2 2
2 2 2 2 2
1
r k r
k r r k r
+
+

2 2 2
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
1 k r k
k r r k r r k r
+
+

2 2
k r
r

( )
2 2
2 2 2
2 2
2
1 2 1
k r
ds d r k r k
r r
dr dr r r r

+
_
+ +

,

ds
Hence r k (constant)
dr

Example 8:
( )
2
2 2
ds ds
For a polar curve r f show that ,
dr d
r r
p
r p
We know that
dr d 1
ds ds r
Cos and Sin

2 2 2
2
2
dr
1 1
ds
r p p
Cos Sin p rSin
r r

Q

2 2
ds
dr
r
r p

2
ds
d
r r r
Also
p
Sin p
r

Exercise:
Find
ds ds
and
dr d
for the following curves:
m
2
(i) r=a(1+ Cos )
(ii) =a Cosm
(iii) aSec ( )
2
m
r
r
Mean Value Theorems

Recapitulation
Closed interval: An interval of the form a x b , that includes every point between a and b
and also the end points, is called a closed interval and is denoted by [ ] b a, .
Open Interval: An interval of the form a x b < < , that includes every point between a and b
but not the end points, is called an open interval and is denoted by ( ) b a,
Continuity: A real valued function
) (x f
is said to be continuous at a point
0
x
if
0
0
lim ( ) ( )
x x
f x f x
The function
) (x f
is said to be continuous in an interval if it is continuous at every point in the
interval.
Roughly speaking, if we can draw a curve without lifting the pen, then it is a continuous curve
otherwise it is discontinuous, having discontinuities at those points at which the curve will have
breaks or jumps.
We note that all elementary functions such as algebraic, exponential, trigonometric,
logarithmic, hyperbolic functions are continuous functions. Also the sum, difference, product
of continuous functions is continuous. The quotient of continuous functions is continuous at all
those points at which the denominator does not become zero.
Differentiability: A real valued function
) (x f
is said to be differentiable at point
0
x
if
0
0
0
( ) ( )
lim
x x
f x f x
x x
exists uniquely and it is denoted by

) ( '
0
x f
.
A real valued function f(x) is said to be differentiable in an interval if it is differentiable at
every in the interval or if
0
( ) ( )
lim
h
f x h f x
h
+
exists uniquely. This is denoted by
) ( ' x f
. We
say that either
) ( ' x f
exists or f(x) is differentiable.
Geometrically, it means that the curve is a smooth curve. In other words a curve is said to be
smooth if there exists a unique tangent to the curve at every point on it. For example a circle is
a smooth curve. Triangle, rectangle, square etc are not smooth, since we can draw more number
of tangents at every corner point.
We note that if a function is differentiable in an interval then it is necessarily continuous in that
interval. The converse of this need not be true. That means a function is continuous need not
imply that it is differentiable.
Rolles Theorem: (French Mathematician Michelle Rolle 1652-1679)
Suppose a function
) (x f
satisfies the following three conditions:
(i)
) (x f
is continuous in a closed interval [ ] b a,
(ii)
) (x f
is differentiable in the open interval ( ) b a,
(iii)
) ( ) ( b f a f
Then there exists at least one point c in the open interval ( ) b a, such that
0 ) ( ' c f
Geometrical Meaning of Rolles Theorem: Consider a curve
) (x f
that satisfies the
conditions of the Rolles Theorem as shown in figure:
As we see the curve
) (x f
is continuous in the closed interval [ ] b a, , the curve is smooth i.e.
there can be a unique tangent to the curve at any point in the open interval ( ) b a, and also
) ( ) ( b f a f
. Hence by Rolles Theorem there exist at least one point c belonging to ( ) b a, such
that
0 ) ( ' c f
. In other words there exists at least one point at which the tangent drawn to the
curve will have its slope zero or lies parallel to x-axis.
Notation:
Often we use the statement: there exists a point c belonging to ( ) b a, such that .
We present the same in mathematical symbols as: c ( ) b a, :
0 ) ( ' c f
[b,f(b)]
[a,f(a)]
x
y
a c b
From now onwards let us start using the symbolic notation.
Example 1: Verify Rolles Theorem for
2
) ( x x f

in [ ] 1 , 1
First we check whether the conditions of Rolles theorem hold good for the given function:
(i)
2
) ( x x f
is an elementary algebraic function, hence it is continuous every
where and so also in[ ] 1 , 1 .
(ii)
x x f 2 ) ( '
exists in the interval (-1, 1) i.e. the function is differentiable in (-1,
1).
(iii) Also we see that
1 ) 1 ( ) 1 (
2
f
and
1 1 ) 1 (
2
f
i.e.,
) 1 ( ) 1 ( f f
Hence the three conditions of the Rolles Theorem hold good.

By Rolles Theorem c ( ) 1 , 1 :
0 ) ( ' c f
that means 2c = 0
c= 0 ( ) 1 , 1
Hence Rolles Theorem is verified.
2 /
) 3 ( ) (
x
e x x x f

+

in [-3, 0]
) (x f
is a product of elementary algebraic and exponential functions which are continuous and
hence it is continuous in
[ 3, 0]
2 / 2 2 /
) 3 (
2
1
) 3 2 ( ) (
x x
e x x e x x f

+ +

2 / 2
)] 3 (
2
1
) 3 2 [(
x
e x x x

+ +

2 / 2 / 2
) 2 )( 3 (
2
1
] 6 [
2
1
x x
e x x e x x

+ exists in (-3, 0)
0 ) 3 ( f
and also
0 ) 0 ( f ) 0 ( ) 3 ( f f
That is, the three conditions of the Rolles Theorem hold good.
c ( ) 0 , 3 : 0 ) ( ' c f
+

, 2 , 3 0 ) 2 )( 3 (
2
1
2 /
c e c c
c
Out of these values of c, since
2 ( 3, 0)
, the Rolles Theorem is verified.
n m
b x a x x f ) ( ) ( ) (

in [a, b] where a <b and a,
b>0.
) (x f
is a product of elementary algebraic functions which are continuous and hence it is
continuous in [a, b]

1 1
) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) (

+
n m n m
b x a x n b x a x m x f

1 1
) ( ) )]( ( ) ( [

+
n m
b x a x a x n b x m

1 1
) ( ) )]( ( ) ( [

+ +
n m
b x a x na mb n m x
exists in ( ) b a,
0 ) ( a f
and also
0 ) ( b f ) ( ) ( b f a f

( ) , c a b
:
0 ) ( ' c f

b a
n m
na mb
c b c a c na mb n m c
n m
, , 0 ) ( ) )]( ( ) ( [
1 1
+
+
+ +

Out of these values of c, since
n m
na mb
c
+
+
) , ( b a
) (
log ) (
2
b a x
ab x
x f
+
+
in [a, b]
) log( log ) log( ) (
2
b a x ab x x f + +
is the sum of elementary logarithmic functions which
are continuous and hence it is continuous in [a, b]

x
ab x
x
x f
1 2
) (
2

+

exists in ( ) b a,
0 1 log log
) (
log ) (
2
2 2

+
+
+
+
ab a
ab a
b a a
ab a
a f

and similarly 0 1 log log
) (
log ) (
2
2 2

+
+
+
+
ab b
ab b
b a b
ab b
b f
c ( ) b a, :
0 ) ( ' c f

ab c ab c
ab c c
ab c c
c
ab c
c
c f
+

+
0 0
) (
2
0
1 2
) (
2
2
2 2
2
Since ab c
) , ( b a
Exercise: Verify Rolles Theorem for
(i)
) cos (sin ) ( x x e x f
x

in
1
]
1
4
5
,
4

,
(ii)
2 /
) 2 ( ) (
x
e x x x f
in [ ] 2 , 0
,
(iii)
2
sin 2
( )
x
x
f x
e
in
1
]
1
4
5
,
4

.
Lagranges Mean Value Theorem (LMVT):
(Also known as the First Mean Value Theorem)
(Italian-French Mathematician J. L. Lagrange 1736-1813)
Suppose a function
) (x f
satisfies the following two conditions:
(i)
) (x f
is continuous in a closed interval [ ] b a,
(ii)
) (x f
a b
a f b f
c f
) ( ) (
) ( '
Proof: Consider the function
) (x
defined by
kx x f x ) ( ) (
where k is a constant to be
found such that
( ) ( ) a b
.
Since
) (x f
is continuous in the closed interval [ ] b a, ,
) (x
which is a sum of continuous
functions is also continuous in the closed interval [ ] b a,
' '
( ) ( ) (1) x f x kx
exists in the interval ( ) b a, as
) (x f
is differentiable in( ) b a, .
We have
( ) ( ) a f a ka
and
( ) ( ) b f b kb
( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) (2)
f b f a
a b f a ka f b kb k
b a

This means that when k is chosen as in (2) we will have

( ) ( ) a b
Hence the conditions of Rolles Theorem hold good for
) (x
in [ ] b a,
By Rolles Theorem c ( ) , a b
:
'( ) 0 c
'
'( ) 0 ( ) 0 ( ) (3) c f c k k f c
From (2) and (3), we infer that c ( ) , a b
:
a b
a f b f
c f
) ( ) (
) ( '
Thus the Lagranges Mean Value Theorem (LMVT) is proved.
Geometrical Meaning of Lagranges Mean Value Theorem: Consider a curve
) (x f
that
satisfies the conditions of the LMVT as shown in figure:
From the figure, we observe that the curve
) (x f
is continuous in the closed interval [ ] b a, ; the
curve is smooth i.e. there can be a unique tangent to the curve at any point in the open interval
( ) b a, . Hence by LMVT there exist at least one point c belonging to ( ) b a, such that
a b
a f b f
c f
) ( ) (
) ( ' . In other words there exists at least one point at which the tangent drawn
to the curve lies parallel to the chord joining the points [ ]
, ( ) a f a
and[ ]
, ( ) b f b
.
Other form of LMVT: The Lagranges Mean Value Theorem can also be stated as follows:
Suppose
) (x f
is continuous in the closed interval [ ]
, a a h +
and is differentiable in the open
interval ( ) , ) a a h +
then
(0,1) : ( ) ( ) ( ) f a h f a hf a h + + +
When
(0,1)
we see that
( , ) a h a a h + +
i.e., here c a h +
Using the earlier form of LMVT we may write that
( ) ( )
( )
( )
f a h f a
f a h
a h a
+
+
+
On simplification this becomes
( ) ( ) ( ) f a h f a hf a h + + +
.
[b,f(b)]
[a,f(a)]
x
y
a c b
Example 5: Verify LMVT for
( ) ( 1)( 2)( 3) f x x x x
in
[0, 4]
3 2
( ) ( 1)( 2)( 3) 6 11 6 f x x x x x x x +
is an algebraic function hence it is continuous
in
[0, 4]
2
( ) 3 12 11 f x x x +
exists in
(0, 4)
i.e.,
( ) f x
is differentiable in
(0, 4)
.
i.e., both the conditions of LMVT hold good for
( ) f x
in
[0, 4]
.
Hence
(4) (0)
(0, 4) : ( )
4 0
f f
c f c

i.e.,
2
(3)(2)(1) ( 1)( 2)( 3)
3 1 11
4 0
c c

+
i.e,
2 2
2
3 12 11 3 3 12 8 0 2 (0, 4)
3
c c c c c + + t
Hence the LMVT is verified.
( ) log
e
f x x
in
[1, ] e
( ) log
e
f x x
is an elementary logarithmic function hence continuous in
[1, ] e
.
1
( ) f x
x
exists in ( ) 1, e
or
( ) f x
is differentiable in( ) 1, e
.
( ) f x
in
[1, ] e
Hence
( ) (1) 1 log log1
(1, ) : ( )
1 1
f e f e
c e f c
e c e

1 1
1 (1, )
1
c e e
c e


1
( ) sin f x x
in
[0,1]
We find
2
1
( )
1
f x
x

exists in ( ) 0,1 ,
and hence
( ) f x
is continuous in
[0,1]
.
( ) f x
in
[0,1]
Hence
1 1
2
(1) (0) 1 sin 1 sin 0
(0,1) : ( )
1 0 1
1
f f
c f c
c

2
2 2
2
2
1 2 4
1
2
1
c c
c

2
4
0.7712 (0,1) c

Example 8: Find of LMVT for
2
( ) f x ax bx c + + or
Verify LMVT by finding for
2
( ) f x ax bx c + +
2
( ) f x ax bx c + +
is an algebraic function hence continuous in
[ , ] a a h +
.
( ) 2 f x ax b +
exists in ( ) , a a h +
( ) f x
in
[ , ] a a h +
Then the second form of LMVT
(0,1) : ( ) ( ) ( ) (1) f a h f a hf a h + + +
Here ;
2 3 2 2
( ) ( ) ( ) 2 (2) f a h a a h b a h c a ah a h ab bh c + + + + + + + + + +
3
( ) (3) f a a ab c + +
;
2
( ) 2 ( ) 2 2 (4) f a h a a h b a a h b + + + + +
Using (2), (3) and (4) in (1) we have:
3 2 2 3 2
1
2 (2 2 ) (0,1)
2
a ah a h ab bh c a ab c h a a h b + + + + + + + + + +
Example 9: Find of LMVT for
( ) log
e
f x x
in
2
, e e
1
]
( ) log
e
f x x
is an elementary logarithmic function hence continuous in
2
, e e
1
]
1
( ) f x
x
exists in
( )
2
, . e e
Hence by the second form of LMVT
( )
[ ] [ ]
( )
2 2 2
2
2
2
0,1 : ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( )
log log
( )
( 1) ( 1)
. ., 2log log 2 1
1 ( 1) 1 ( 1)
2
1 ( 1) 1 0,1
1
e e
f e f e e e f e e e
e e
e e
e e e
e e e
i e e e
e e e
e
e e
e

1
+ +
]
+
+

+
+ +

Example 10: If 0 x > , Apply Mean Value Theorem to show that
( ) log (1 )
1
e
x
i x x
x
< + <
+
and
1 1
0 1
log (1 )
e
x x
< <
+
Consider
( ) log (1 )
e
f x x +
in
[0, ] x
. We see that
( ) f x
is an elementary logarithmic function
hence continuous in
[0, ] x
. Also
1
( )
1
f x
x

+
exists in ( ) 0, . x
by LMVT
(0,1) : ( ) (0) (0 ) f x f xf x + +
. ., log(1 ) log1 log(1 ) (1)
1 1
x x
i e x x
x x
+ + +
+ +
Since 0 x > and 0 1 < < , we have
0 1 1 1 x x x x < < < + < +
1 1 1 1
1 1 (2)
1 1 1 1 1 1
x x
x
x x x x x x
> > < < < <
+ + + + + +
From (1) and (2) we get log (1 )
1
e
x
x x
x
< + <
+
Also from (1) we have,
1 1 1 1
log(1 ) log(1 )
x
x x x x
+

+ +
Since 0 1 < < , we can write
1 1
0 1.
log(1 ) x x
< <
+
Example 11: Apply Mean Value Theorem to show that
1 1
2 2
sin sin , 0
1 1
b a b a
b a where a b
a b

< < < <

Consider
1
( ) sin f x x
in
[ , ] a b
We see that
2
1
( )
1
f x
x

exists in ( ) , a b
Hence
( ) f x
is differentiable in ( ) , a b
and also it is continuous in
[ , ] a b
.
Therefore, by LMVT ( )
1 1
2
( ) ( ) 1 sin sin
( , ) : ( ) 1
1
f b f a b a
c a b f c
b a b a
c

Since
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
1 1 1 a c b a c b a c b a c b < < < < > > > >
( )
2 2 2
2 2 2
1 1 1 1 1 1
2
1 1 1
1 1 1
or
a c b
a c b
< < < <

From (1) and (2), we have
1 1
1 1
2 2 2 2
1 sin sin 1
sin sin
1 1 1 1
b a b a b a
b a
b a
a b a b

< < < <

Exercise: Verify the Lagranges Mean Value Theorem for
(i)
( ) ( 1)( 2) f x x x x
in
1
0,
2
1
1
]
(ii)
1
( ) f x Tan x
in [ ]
0,1
Mean Value Theorems
Cauchys Mean Value Theorem (CMVT):
(French Mathematician A. L. Cauchy 1789-1857)
Suppose two functions
) (x f
and
( ) g x
satisfies the following conditions:
(i)
) (x f
and
( ) g x
are continuous in a closed interval [ ] b a,
(ii)
) (x f
and
( ) g x
are differentiable in the open interval ( ) b a,
(iii)
( ) 0 . [ ] g x for all x for all can be denoted by the symbol
Then there exists at least one point c in the open interval ( ) b a,
such that
'( ) ( ) ( )
'( ) ( ) ( )
f c f b f a
g c g b g a
Proof: Consider the function

) (x
defined by
( ) ( ) ( ) x f x k g x
where k is a constant to
be found such that
( ) ( ) a b
.
Since
) (x f
and
( ) g x
are continuous in the closed interval [ ] b a, ,
) (x
which is a sum of
continuous functions is also continuous in the closed interval [ ] b a,
' '
( ) ( ) ( ) (1) x f x k g x
exists in the interval ( ) b a, as
) (x f
and
( ) g x
are differentiable
in( ) b a, .
We have
( ) ( ) ( ) a f a kg a
and
( ) ( ) ( ) b f b k g b
( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) (2)
( ) ( )
f b f a
a b f a kg a f b k g b k
g b g a

This means that when k is chosen as in (2) we will have

( ) ( ) a b
Hence the conditions of Rolles Theorem hold good for
) (x
in [ ] b a,
By Rolles Theorem c ( ) , a b
:
'( ) 0 c
'
( )
'( ) 0 ( ) ( ) 0 (3)
( )
f c
c f c k g c k
g c
From (2) and (3), we infer that c ( ) , a b

:
'( ) ( ) ( )
'( ) ( ) ( )
f c f b f a
g c g b g a
Thus the Cauchys Mean Value Theorem (CMVT) is proved.

Example 12: Verify the Cauchys MVT for
2
( ) f x x
and
4
( ) g x x
in
[ , ] a b
2
( ) f x x
and
4
( ) g x x
are algebraic polynomials hence continuous in
[ , ] a b
( ) 2 f x x
and
3
( ) 4 g x x
exist in ( ) , a b
also we see that
( ) 0 ( , ) g x for all x a b
since 0 a b < <
i.e., the conditions of CMVT hold good for
( ) f x
and
( ) g x
in
[ , ] a b
.
Hence c ( ) , a b
:
'( ) ( ) ( )
'( ) ( ) ( )
f c f b f a
g c g b g a
i.e.,
2 2 2 2
3 4 4 2 2 2
2 1 1
( , )
2
4 2
c b a b a
c a b
c b a c b a
+

+
Hence the CMVT is verified.
( ) log f x x
and
1
( ) g x
x
in
[1, ] e
( ) log f x x
and
1
( ) g x
x
are elementary logarithmic and rational algebraic functions that are
continuous in
[1, ] e
1
( ) f x
x
and
2
1
( ) g x
x

exist in ( ) 1, e
also we see that
( ) 0 (1, ) g x for all x e

( ) f x
and
( ) g x
in( ) 1, e
.
Hence ( ) 1, c e
:
'( ) ( ) (1)
'( ) ( ) (1)
f c f e f
g c g e g
i.e.,
2
1
log log1 1
(1, )
1 1 1
1
1 1
e e
c
c c e
e
c
e e

( )
x
f x e
and
( )
x
g x e
in
[ , ] a b
( )
x
f x e
and
( )
x
g x e
are elementary exponential functions that are continuous in

[ , ] a b
( )
x
f x e
and
( )
x
g x e

exist in ( ) , a b
also we see that
( ) 0 ( , ) g x for all x a b
, since 0 a b < < .
( ) f x
and
( ) g x
in( ) , a b
.
Hence ( ) , c a b
:
'( ) ( ) ( )
'( ) ( ) ( )
f c f b f a
g c g b g a
i.e.,
2 2
1 1
c b a b a b a
c c
c b a
a b
b a
a b
e e e e e e e
e e
e e e
e e
e e
e

+

1 1

1 1
]
1
]
2
( , )
2
c a b
a b
e e c a b
+
+

( ) f x Sin x
and
( ) g x Cos x
in
0,
2
1
1
]
( ) f x Sin x
and
( ) g x Cos x
are elementary trignometric functions
that are continuous in
0,
2
1
1
]
.
( ) f x Cos x
and
( ) g x Sin x
exist in
0,
2
_

,
also we see that
( ) 0 0,
2
g x for all x
_

,
.
( ) f x
and
( ) g x
in
0,
2
_

,
.
Hence
0,
2
c
_

,
:
( ) (0)
'( )
2
'( )
( ) (0)
2
f f
f c
g c
g g
( ) (0)
2
1 0,
4 2
( ) (0)
2
Sin Sin
Cos c
Cot c c
Sin c
Cos Cos

Exercise: Verify the Cauchys Mean Value Theorem for
(i) ( ) f x x and
1
( ) g x
x
in
1
,1
4
1
1
]
(ii)
2
1
( ) f x
x
and
1
( ) g x
x
in [ ]
, a b
(iii)
( ) f x Sin x
and
( ) g x Cos x
in [ ]
, a b

Taylors Mean Value Theorem:
(Generalised Mean Value Theorem):
(English Mathematician Brook Taylor 1685-1731)
Suppose a function
) (x f
satisfies the following two conditions:
(i)
) (x f
and its first (n-1) derivatives are continuous in a closed interval
[ ] b a,
(ii)
( 1)
( )
n
f x

2 3
( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
2 3
b a b a
f b f a b a f a f a f a

+ + + + ..
1
( 1) ( )
( ) ( )
..... ( ) ( ) (1)
1
n n
n n
b a b a
f a f c
n n

+ +
Takingb a h + and for 0 1 < < , the above expression (1) can be rewritten as
2 3 1
( 1) ( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) .... ( ) ( ) (2)
2 3 1
n n
n n
h h h h
f a h f a hf a f a f a f a f a h
n n

+ + + + + + + +
Taking b=x in (1) we may write

2 3 1
( 1)
( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ... ( ) (3)
2 3 1
n
n
n
x a x a x a
f x f a x a f a f a f a f a R
n

+ + + + + +
( )
( )
( ) Re
n
n
n
x a
Where R f c mainder term after n terms
n

When
, n
we can show that
0
n
R
, thus we can write the Taylors series as
2 1
( 1)
( )
1
( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ... ( ) ....
2 1
( )
( ) ( ) (4)
n
n
n
n
n
x a x a
f x f a x a f a f a f a
n
x a
f a f a
n

+ + + + +
Using (4) we can write a Taylors series expansion for the given function f(x) in powers of (x-
a) or about the point a.
Maclaurins series:
(Scottish Mathematician Colin Maclaurin 1698-1746)
When a=0, expression (4) reduces to a Maclaurins expansion given by
2 1
( 1)
( )
1
( ) (0) (0) (0) ... (0) ....
2 1
(0) (0) (5)
n
n
n
n
n
x x
f x f xf f f
n
x
f f
n
+ + + + +
Example 16: Obtain a Taylors expansion for

( ) f x Sin x
in the ascending powers of
4
x
_

,
up to the fourth degree term.
The Taylors expansion for
) (x f
about
4
is
2 3 4
(4)
( ) ( ) ( )
4 4 4
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) .... (1)
4 4 4 2 4 3 4 4 4
x x x
f x f x f f f f

+ + + +
1
( )
4 4 2
f x Sin x f Sin
_

,
;
1
( )
4 4 2
f x Cos x f Cos
_

,
1
( )
4 4 2
f x Sin x f Sin
_

,
1
( )
4 4 2
f x Cos x f Cos
_

,
(4) (4)
1
( )
4 4 2
f x Sin x f Sin
_

,
Substituting these in (1) we obtain the required Taylors series in the form
2 3 4
( ) ( ) ( )
1 1 1 1 1
4 4 4
( ) ( )( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ....
4 2 3 4 2 2 2 2 2
x x x
f x x

+ + + +
2 3 4
( ) ( ) ( )
1
4 4 4
( ) 1 ( ) ...
4 2 3 4 2
x x x
f x x

1

1
+ + +
1
1
]
Example 17: Obtain a Taylors expansion for
( ) log
e
f x x
up to the term containing
( )
4
1 x
and hence find log
e
(1.1).
The Taylors series for
) (x f
about the point 1 is
2 3 4
(4)
( 1) ( 1) ( 1)
( ) (1) ( 1) (1) (1) (1) (1) .... (1)
2 3 4
x x x
f x f x f f f f

+ + + +
Here
( ) log (1) log1 0
e
f x x f
;
1
( ) (1) 1 f x f
x

2
1
( ) (1) 1 f x f
x

;
3
2
( ) (1) 2 f x f
x

(4) (4)
4
6
( ) (1) 6 f x f
x

etc.,
Using all these values in (1) we get
2 3 4
( 1) ( 1) ( 1)
( ) log 0 ( 1)(1) ( 1) (2) ( 6) ....
2 3 4
e
x x x
f x x x

+ + + +
2 3 4
( 1) ( 1) ( 1)
log ( 1) ....
2 3 4
e
x x x
x x

+
Taking x=1.1 in the above expansion we get
2 3 4
(0.1) (0.1) (0.1)
log (1.1) (0.1) .... 0.0953
2 3 4
e
+
Example 18: Using Taylors theorem Show that

2 3
log (1 ) 0 1, 0
2 3
e
x x
x x for x + < + < < >

Taking n=3 in the statement of Taylors theorem, we can write
2 3
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) (1)
2 3
x x
f a x f a xf a f a f a x + + + + +
Consider
( ) log
e
f x x

2 3
1 1 2
( ) ; ( ) ( ) f x f x and f x
x
x x

Using these in (1), we can write,
2 3
2 3
1 1 2
log( ) log (2)
2 3
( )
x x
a x a x
a
a a x
_
_ _
+ + + +

, + ,
,
For a=1 in (2) we write,
2 3 2 3
3 3
1 1
log(1 ) log1
2 3 2 3
(1 ) (1 )
x x x x
x x x
x x
+ + + +
+ +
Since
3
3
1
0 0, (1 ) 1 1
(1 )
x and x and therefore
x

> > + > <

+
2 3
log(1 )
2 3
x x
x x + < +
Example 19: Obtain a Maclaurins series for
( ) f x Sin x
up to the term containing
5
. x

The Maclaurins series for f(x) is
2 3 4 5
(4) (5)
( ) (0) (0) (0) (0) (0) (0) .... (1)
2 3 4 5
x x x x
f x f x f f f f f + + + + +
Here
( ) (0) 0 0 f x Sin x f Sin

( ) (0) 0 1 f x Cos x f Cos
( ) (0) 0 0 f x Sin x f Sin

( ) (0) 0 1 f x Cos x f Cos
(4) (4)
( ) (0) 0 0 f x Sin x f Sin

(5) (5)
( ) (0) 0 1 f x Cos x f Cos
Substituting these values in (1), we get the Maclaurins series for
( ) f x Sin x
as
2 3 4 5 3 5
( ) 0 (1) (0) ( 1) (0) (1) .... ....
2 3 4 5 3 5
x x x x x x
f x Sin x x Sin x x + + + + + +
Note:
As done in the above example, we can find the Maclaurins series for various
functions, for ex:
2 4 6
( ) 1 ......
2 4 6
x x x
i Cosx +

2 3 4 5 6
( ) 1 ......
2 3 4 5 6
x
x x x x x
ii e x + + + + + +
2 3 4
( 1) ( 1)( 2) ( 1)( 2)( 3)
( ) (1 ) 1 ......
2 3 4
m
m m m m m m m m m
iii x mx x x x

+ + + + +
Taking
1 ( ) m in iii
we can get
1 2 3 4 5 6
(1 ) 1 ...... x x x x x x x
+ + + + + + +

Replacing x by (-x) in this we get
1 2 3 4 5 6
(1 ) 1 ...... x x x x x x x
+ + +
We use these expansions in the study of various topics.
Indeterminate Forms:
While evaluating certain limits, we come across expressions of the form
0 0
0
, , 0 , , 0 , 1
0
and

which do not represent any value. Such expressions are

called Indeterminate Forms.
We can evaluate such limits that lead to indeterminate forms by using LHospitals Rule
(French Mathematician 1661-1704).
LHospitals Rule:
If f(x) and g(x) are two functions such that
(i)
lim ( ) 0 lim ( ) 0
x a
x a
f x and g x

(ii)
( ) ( ) ( ) 0 f x andg x exist and g a

Then
( ) ( )
lim lim
( ) ( )
x a
x a
f x f x
g x g x

The above rule can be extended, i.e, if
( ) ( ) ( )
( ) 0 ( ) 0 lim lim lim .....
( ) ( ) ( )
x a
x a x a
f x f x f x
f a and g a then
g x g x g x

Note:
1. We apply LHospitals Rule only to evaluate the limits that in
0
,
0

forms. Here we
differentiate the numerator and denominator separately to write
( )
( )
f x
g x
and apply the

limit to see whether it is a finite value. If it is still in
0
0
or

form we continue to
differentiate the numerator and denominator and write further
( )
( )
f x
g x
and apply the

limit to see whether it is a finite value. We can continue the above procedure till we get
a definite value of the limit.
2. To evaluate the indeterminate forms of the form
0 , ,
we rewrite the functions
involved or take L.C.M. to arrange the expression in either
0
0
or

and then apply

LHospitals Rule.
3. To evaluate the limits of the form
0 0
0 , 1 and

i.e, where function to the power of
function exists, call such an expression as some constant, then take logarithm on both
sides and rewrite the expressions to get
0
0
or

form and then apply the LHospitals

Rule.
4. We can use the values of the standard limits like

0 0 0 0 0
sin tan
lim 1; lim 1; lim 1; lim 1; limcos 1;
sin tan
x x x x x
x x x x
x etc
x x x x

Evaluate the following limits:
Example 1: Evaluate
3
0
sin
lim
tan
x
x x
x
3 2 2 4 3 2
0 0 0
sin 0 cos 1 0 sin 0
lim lim lim
tan 0 3tan sec 0 6tan sec 6tan sec 0
x x x
x x x x
x x x x x x x

_ _ _

+
, , ,

6 2 4 2 4 4 2
0
cos 1
lim
6sec 24tan sec 18tan sec 12 tan sec 6
x
x
x x x x x x x

+ + +
Method 2:

3
3 3 3
0 0 0 0
sin
sin 0 0 sin 0 tan
lim lim lim lim 1
tan 0 0 0
tan
x x x x
x x
x x x x x
x
x x x
x
x

_ _ _

, , ,
_

,
Q

2
0 0 0
cos 1 0 sin 0 cos 1
lim lim lim
3 0 6 0 6 6
x x x
x x x
x x

_ _

, ,
Example 2: Evaluate
0
lim
x x
x
a b
x
0 0
0 log log
lim lim log log log
0 1
x x x x
x x
a b a a b b a
a b
x b

_

,
Example 3: Evaluate
( )
2
0
sin
lim
1
x x
x x
e

( )
( )
2
0 0 0
sin 0 sin cos 0 cos cos sin 1 1 0 2
lim lim lim 1
0 0 2[1 0] 2 2 . ( 1) 2 1
1
x x x x x x
x x x x
x x x x x x x x x
e e e e e e
e

+ + +
_ _

+ 1 + , ,
]
Example 4: Evaluate
2
0
log(1 )
lim
x
x
x e x
x
+
( )
2
2
0 0 0
1
1
1
log(1 ) 0 0 1 1 0 1 3
1
lim lim lim
0 2 0 2 2 2
x x x
x x
x
x x x
e e x e
e x e
x
x e x
x
x x

+ + +
+
+
+ + + +
_ _
+

, ,
Example 5: Evaluate
0
cosh cos
lim
sin
x
x x
x x
0 0 0
cosh cos 0 sinh sin 0 cosh cos 1 1 2
lim lim lim 1
sin 0 sin cos 0 cos cos sin 1 1 0 2
x x x
x x x x x x
x x x x x x x x x

+ + +
_ _

+ + +
, ,
Example 6: Evaluate
2
0
cos log(1 ) 1
lim
sin
x
x x x
x
+ +
2
2
0 0 0
1
1
cos
sin 1
cos log(1 ) 1 0 0 1 1 (1 )
1
lim lim lim 0
sin 0 sin 2 0 2 cos 2 2
x x x
x
x
x x x x
x
x x x

+
+
+ + + + _ _
+

, ,
Example 7: Evaluate
1
lim
1 log
x
x
x x
x x

2 1
1 1 1
2
0 (1 log ) 1 0 (1 log ) 1 1
lim lim lim 2
1 1
1 log 0 0 1
1
x x x x
x x x
x x x x x x x
x x
x x

+ + + +
_ _

, ,

1
log log 1 log (1 log )
( ) (1 log )
x
x x
Since y x y x x y x y y x
y
d
and then x x x
dx
+ +
+
Example 8: Evaluate
2
4
sec 2tan
lim
1 cos 4 x
x x
x
+
2 2 2 4 2 2 2
4 4 4
sec 2tan 0 2sec tan 2sec 0 2sec 4sec tan 4sec tan
lim lim lim
1 cos 4 0 4 sin 4 0 16 cos 4
x x x
x x x x x x x x x x
x x x

+ _ _

+
, ,

( ) ( ) ( )
4 2 2
2
2 2 4 2 (1) 4 2
8 1
16 16 2
+

Example 9: Evaluate
log(sin . cos )
lim
log(cos .sec )
x a
x ec a
a x

2
cos cos
sin . cos log(sin . cos ) 0 cot
lim lim lim cot
sec tan .cos log(cos .sec ) 0 tan
cos .sec
x a x a x a
x ec a
x ec a x ec a x
a
x x a a x x
a x

1
1
_
]

1
,
1
]
Example 10: Evaluate
0
2cos
lim
sin
x x
x
e e x
x x
+
0 0 0
2cos 0 2sin 0 2cos 1 1 2
lim lim lim 2
sin 0 sin cos 0 cos cos sin 1 1 0
x x x x x x
x x x
e e x e e x e e x
x x x x x x x x x

+ + + + + +
_ _

+ + +
, ,
2
0
cos log(1 )
lim
x
x x x
x
+
2
0 0
1
cos sin
cos log(1 ) 0 0
1
lim lim
0 2 0
x x
x x x
x x x
x
x x

+
_ _
+

, ,
2
0
1
sin sin cos
0 0 0 1 1 (1 )
lim
2 2 2
x
x x x x
x
+
+ +

2
0
log(1 )
lim
logcos
x
x
x
2 2
2 2
0 0 0 0
2
log(1 ) 0 2 cos 0 2 cos 2 sin 2 0 1
lim lim lim lim 2
sin logcos 0 (1 ) sin 0 (1 ) cos 2 sin 1 0
cos
x x x x
x
x x x x x x x
x x x x x x x x
x

1
1
_ _
]

_
, ,

,
3
0
tan sin
lim
sin
x
x x
x
2 2
3 2 2 3
0 0 0
tan sin 0 sec cos 0 2sec tan sin 0
lim lim lim
sin 0 3sin cos 0 6sin cos 3sin 0
x x x
x x x x x x x
x x x x x x

+
_ _ _

, , ,

2 2 4
3 2 2
0
4sec tan 2sec cos 0 2 1 3 1
lim
6cos 12sin cos 9 sin cos 6 0 0 6 2
x
x x x x
x x x x x
+ + + +

Method 2:

3
3 3 3
0 0 0 0
tan sin
tan sin tan sin 0 sin
lim lim lim lim 1
sin 0
sin
x x x x
x x
x x x x x
x
x x x
x
x

_

,
_

,
Q
2 2
2
0 0
sec cos 0 2sec tan sin 0
lim lim
3 0 6 0
x x
x x x x x
x x

+
_ _

, ,
2 2 4
0
4sec tan 2sec cos 0 2 1 3 1
lim
6 6 6 2
x
x x x x
+ + + +

2
0
tan
lim
tan
x
x x
x x
3
2 3
0 0 0 0
tan
tan tan 0 tan
lim lim lim lim 1
tan tan 0
x x x x
x x
x x x x x
x
x x x x x
x

_

_
,

,
Q
2 2 2 2 4
2
0 0 0
sec 1 0 2sec tan 0 4sec tan 2sec 0 2 1
lim lim lim
3 0 6 0 6 6 3
x x x
x x x x x x
x x

+ +
_ _

, ,
0
lim
log(1 )
ax ax
x
e e
bx
+
0 0
0 2
lim lim
log(1 ) 0 /(1 )
ax ax ax ax
x x
e e ae ae a a a
bx b bx b b

+ +
_

+ +
,
2
0
1 log
lim
x
x
a x a
x

2
2
2
0 0 0
1 log 0 log log 0 (log ) 1
lim lim lim (log )
0 2 0 2 2
x x x
x x x
a x a a a a a a
a
x x

_ _

, ,
2
0
log( )
lim
x
x
e e ex
x
+
2 2 2
0 0 0
log( ) log (1 ) log log(1 ) 0
lim lim lim
0
x x x
x x x
e e ex e e x e e x
x x x

+ + +
_

,

2
0 0
1
1
0 1 1 (1 )
1
lim lim 1
2 0 2 2
x
x
x x
e
e
x
x
x

+
+ + _
+

,
Exercise: Evaluate the following limits.
3
3
0 0
2log(1 ) log(1 )
( ) lim ( ) lim
sin sin
x x
x x
e e x x
i ii
x x x

+ +
2
0
2
2
1 sin cos log(1 ) logsin
( ) lim ( ) lim
tan
( )
2
x
x
x x x x
iii iv
x x
x
+ +
1
2 2
0
2
cosh log(1 ) 1 sin sin
( ) lim ( ) lim
x
x
x x x x x
v vi
x x
+ +
2 2
0
(1 )
( ) lim
log(1 )
x
x
e x
vii
x x
+
+
Limits of the form

_

,
:
0
log(sin 2 )
lim
log(sin )
x
x
x
2
2
0 0 0 0 0
log(sin 2 ) (2cos 2 / sin 2 ) 2cot 2 2tan 0 2sec 2
lim lim lim lim lim 1
log(sin ) (cos / sin ) cot tan 2 0 2sec 2 2
x x x x x
x x x x x x
x x x x x x

_ _

, ,
0
log
lim
cos
x
x
ecx
2
0 0 0 0
log 1\ sin 0 2sin 2 0
lim lim lim lim 0
cos cos .cot cos 0 cos sin 1 0
x x x x
x x x x
ecx ec x x x x x x x

_ _

, ,
2
logcos
lim
tan x
x
x
2 2
2 2 2 2
logcos tan tan sin cos 0
lim lim lim lim 0
tan sec sec 1 1 x x x x
x x x x x
x x x

_

,
1
log(1 )
lim
cot
x
x
x

2
2
1 1 1 1
log(1 ) 1/(1 ) sin 0 2 sin cos 0
lim lim lim lim 0
cot cos (1 ) 0
x x x x
x x x x x
x ec x x

_ _

, ,
tan2
0
lim log tan3
x
x
x
tan2
0
0
log log tan3
lim log tan3 lim log
log tan 2 log
e
x b
x
x
e
a x
x a
x b
_
_

,
,
Q

2
2
0 0 0
3sec 3 / tan3 3/ sin3 .cos3 3/ sin3 .cos3
lim lim lim
2sec 2 / tan 2 2/ sin 2 .cos 2 2/ sin 2 .cos 2
x x x
x x x x x x
x x x x x x

_
_ _

, ,
,

0 0 0
6/ sin6 6sin 4 0 24cos 4 24
lim lim lim 1
4/ sin 4 4sin 6 0 24cos 6 24
x x x
x x x
x x x

_ _ _ _

, , , ,
log( )
lim
log( )
x a
x a
x a
e e
log( ) 1/( ) ( ) 0
lim lim lim lim 1
log( ) /( ) ( ) 0 ( )
x a x a
x a x x a x x x a
x a x a x a x a
x a x a e e e e
e e e e e e x a e x a e e

_ _

+
, ,
0 0
log tan logsin
( ) lim ( ) lim
log cot
x x
x x
i ii
x x

sin
0 0
2
cot 2 sec
( ) lim ( ) lim ( ) limlog sin 2
cot 3 tan3
x
x x
x
x x
iii iv v x
x x

Limits of the form

( ) 0
: To evaluate the limits of the form
( ) 0
, we rewrite the
given expression to obtain either
0
0
_

,
or

_

,
form and then apply the LHospitals Rule.
1
lim( 1)
x
x
a x
( )
1
1
1
2
2
1
(log )
( 1) 0
lim( 1) 0 lim lim
1 1 0
x
x
x
x x x
a a
a x
a x form
x x

_
,

_ _
,

, ,

1
0
lim (log ) log log
x
x
a a a a a

2
lim(1 sin ) tan
x
x x

( )
2
2 2 2
(1 sin ) 0 cos 0
lim(1 sin ) tan 0 lim lim 0
cot 0 cos 1 x x x
x x
x x form
x ec x

_

,
1
limsec .log
2
x
x
x

( )
1 1
log 0
limsec .log 0 lim
2 0
cos
2
x x
x
x form
x
x

_

,

1
2
2
1/ 2 2
lim lim
1
sin sin
2 2 2
x
x
x x
x x x
_ _

, ,
0
lim log tan
x
x x
( )
0 0
log tan
lim log tan 0 lim
(1/ )
x x
x
x x form
x

,

2 2
0 0
2
sec / tan
lim lim
1 sin .cos
x x
x x x
x x
x

_

,

2
0 0
2 0 4 0
lim lim 0
sin 2 0 2cos 2 2
x x
x x
x x

_

,
2
1
lim(1 ) tan
2
x
x
x

( )
2
2
1 1 1
2
1 0 2 2 4
lim(1 ) tan 0 lim lim
2 0
cot cos
2 2 2 2
x x x
x x x
x form
x x
ec

_

_
,

,
0
lim tan .log
x
x x
( )
0 0
log
lim tan .log 0 lim
cot
x x
x
x x form
x

,

2
2
0 0 0
1/ sin 0 sin 2 0
lim lim lim 0
cos 0 1 1
x x x
x x x
ec x x

_

,
Limits of the form
( )
: To evaluate the limits of the form
( )
, we take L.C.M.
and rewrite the given expression to obtain either
0
0
_

,
or

_

,
form and then apply the
LHospitals Rule.
0
1
lim cot
x
x
x
1
]
( )
0 0
1 1 cos
lim cot lim
sin
x x
x
x form
x x x

1 1

1 1
] ]

0 0
sin cos 0 cos cos sin
lim lim
sin 0 sin cos
x x
x x x x x x x
x x x x x

1 +
_ 1

1
1
+
, ]
]

0 0
sin 0 sin cos 0 0
lim lim 0
sin cos 0 cos cos sin 1 1 0
x x
x x x x x
x x x x x x x

+ +
1 _ 1

1 1
+ + +
] , ]
[ ]
2
lim sec tan
x
x x
[ ] ( )
2 2
1 sin
lim sec tan lim
cos cos x x
x
x x form
x x

1

1
]

2 2
1 sin 0 cos 0
lim lim 0
cos 0 sin 1 x x
x x
x x

1 _ 1

1 1
] , ]
1
1
lim
log 1
x
x
x x
]
( )
1 1
1 ( 1) log 0
lim lim
log 1 ( 1) log 0
x x
x x x x
form
x x x x

1 1
_

1 1

,
] ]

1 1 1
2
1 1 log log 0 l/ 1 1
lim lim lim
1 1 1 1
0 1 1 2
log 1 log
x x x
x x x
x
x x
x x x x

1 1 1
1 1 1

_

1 1 1
+
,
1 1 1 + + +
] ] ]
0
1 1
lim
1
x
x
x e
]
( )
0 0
1 1 ( 1) 0
lim lim
1 ( 1) 0
x
x x
x x
e x
form
x e x e

1
1 _

1
1

] ,
]

0 0
1 0 1 1
lim lim
( 1) 0 1 1 0 2
x x
x x x x x
x x
e e
e xe e e xe

1 1
_

1 1
+ + + + +
,
] ]
0
1 1
lim
sin
x
x x
1
]
( )
0 0
1 1 sin 0
lim lim
sin sin 0
x x
x x
form
x x x x

1 1 _

1 1
] ] ,

0 0
1 cos 0 sin 0
lim lim 0
sin cos 0 cos cos sin 1 1
x x
x x
x x x x x x x

1 _ 1

1 1
+ + +
] , ]
2
0
1 log(1 )
lim
x
x
x x
+
1
1
]
2
2 2
0 0 0 0
1
1
1
1 log(1 ) log(1 ) 0 0 1 (1 )
1
lim lim lim lim
0 2 0 2 2
x x x x
x x x x
x
x x x x

1
1
1
1
+ + + 1 1 _ _
+
1
1
1 1
] ] , , 1
1
1
]
]
0
lim cot
x
a x
x a
1
]
( )
0 0 0
cos cos
0
lim cot lim lim
0
sin sin
x x x
x x
a x a a
a a
form
x x
x a x x
a a

1 1
1 1
1 _

1 1
1
] ,
1 1
] ]

0 0
1
sin cos . cos cos sin
0
lim lim
0
sin sin cos
x x
x x x x x x
a x a
a a a a a a a
x x x x
x
a a a a

1 1
+
1 1
_

1 1
,
1 1 +
] ]

0 0
2
1 1
sin sin . .cos
0 0 0
lim lim 0
1 1 1 1
0
sin cos cos cos sin 0
x x
x x x x x
a a a a a a a
x x x x x x x
a a a a a a a a a a a

1 1
+
1 1
+
_

1 1
,
1 1 + + +
] ]
( )
0
( ) lim 2 cot( ) ( ) lim cos cot
x a x
x
i x a ii ecx x
a

_

,
2
2
0
2
1
( ) lim tan sec ( ) lim cot
2
x
x
iii x x x iv x
x
1 _

1
] ,
[ ]
2
0
2
1 1
( ) lim ( ) lim 2 tan sec
tan
x
x
v vi x x x
x x x

1

1
]
Example 37: Find the value of a such that
3
0
sin 2 sin
lim
x
x a x
x
+
is finite. Also find the value
of the limit.
Let A=
3 2
0 0
sin 2 sin 0 2cos 2 cos 2
lim lim
0 3 0
x x
x a x x a x a
finite
x x

+ + +
_

,
We can continue to apply the LHospitals Rule,
if 2+a=0 i.e., a= -2
.
2 For a
,
2
0 0
2cos 2 2cos 0 4sin 2 2sin 0
lim lim
3 0 6 0
x x
x x x x
A
x x

+
_ _

, ,

0
8cos 2 2cos 8 2
lim 1
6 6
x
x x
+ +

lim 2 1. The given it will have a finite value when a and it is
Example 38: Find the values of a and b such that
3
0
(1 cos ) sin 1
lim
3
x
x a x b x
x
+
.
3 2
0 0
(1 cos ) sin 0 (1 cos ) sin cos 1
lim lim
0 3 0
x x
x a x b x a x ax x b x a b
Let A finite
x x

+ + + +
_

,
if 1-a+b=0 i.e., a-b = 1
.
1 For a b
,
2
0 0
(1 cos ) sin cos 0 2 sin cos sin 0
lim lim
3 0 6 0
x x
a x ax x b x a x ax x b x
A
x x

+ + +
_ _

, ,

0
3 cos sin cos 3
lim
6 6
x
a x ax x b x a b
finite

1 3 1
. . ., 3 2
3 6 3
a b
This finite value is given as i e a b

1 1
1 3 2 .
2 2
Solving the equations a b and a b we obtain a and b
Example 39: Find the values of a and b such that
2
0
cosh cos
lim 1
x
a x b x
x
.
2
0
cosh cos
lim
0
x
a x b x a b
Let A finite
x

if a-b=0, since the denominator=0
.
0 For a b
,
2
0 0 0
cosh cos 0 sinh sin 0 cosh cos
lim lim lim
0 2 0 2 2
x x x
a x b x a x b x a x b x a b
A
x x

+ + +
_ _

, ,

1. 2 But thisis given as a b +
0 2 1 1. Solving the equations a b and a b we obtain a and b +
Limits of the form
0 0
0 , 1 and

: To evaluate such limits, where function to the power of

function exists, we call such an expression as some constant, then take logarithm on both sides
and rewrite the expressions to get
0
0
or

form and then apply the LHospitals Rule.

0
lim
x
x
x

0
0
lim (0 )
x
x
Let A x form

Take log on both sides to write

0 0 0
log
log limlog lim .log (0 ) lim
1/
x
e
x x x
x
A x x x form
x

,

2
0 0
1/ 0
lim lim 0
( 1/ ) 1 1
x x
x x
x

0
0
log 0 1 lim 1
x
e
x
A A e x

2
1
0
lim(cos )
x
x
x

2
1
0
lim(cos ) (1 )
x
x
Let A x form


2
1
2 2
0 0
0
1 logcos 0
log limlog(cos ) lim logcos ( 0 ) lim
0
x
e
x x
x
x
A x x form
x x

_

,

2
0 0
tan 0 sec 1
lim lim
2 0 2 2
x x
x x
x

_

,

2
1 1
2
0
1 1 1
log lim(cos )
2
x
e
x
A A e x
e e

cos
2
lim(tan )
x
x
x

cos 0
2
lim(tan ) ( )
x
x
Let A x form


cos
2 2
log limlog(tan ) limcos log(tan ) (0 )
x
e
x x
A x x x form

2
2
2 2 2
log tan sec / tan cos 0
lim lim lim 0
sec sec . tan sin 1 x x x
x x x x
x x x x

,

0 cos
2
log 0 1 lim(tan ) 1
x
e
x
A A e x

2
1
0
tan
lim( )
x
x
x
x

2
1
0
tan
lim( ) (1 )
x
x
x
Let A form
x


2
1
2
0 0
tan 1 tan
log limlog( ) lim log( ) ( 0 )
x
e
x x
x x
A form
x x x

2
2
0 0
tan sec 1
log( )
0
tan
lim lim
0 2
x x
x x
x x x
x x

_

,

2
0 0 0
1 1 2 1
2 sin 2 0
sin .cos sin 2
lim lim lim
2 2 2 sin 2 0
x x x
x x
x x x x x
x x x x

_

,

2 2
0 0
2 2cos 2 0 4sin 2 0
lim lim
4 sin 2 4 cos 2 0 4sin 2 16 cos 2 8 sin 2 0
x x
x x
x x x x x x x x x

_ _

+ +
, ,

2
0
8cos 2 8 1
lim
24cos 2 48 sin 2 16 cos 2 24 3
x
x
x x x x x

2
1 1 1
3 3
0
1 tan
log lim( )
3
x
e
x
x
A A e e
x

1
0
lim( )
x
x
x
a x
+

1
0
lim( ) (1 )
x
x
x
Let A a x form
+


1
0 0
1
log limlog( ) lim log( ) ( 0 )
x x
x
e
x x
A a x a x form
x

+ +

0 0
log( ) 0 ( log 1) /( )
lim lim
0 1
x x x
x x
a x a a a x
x

+ + +
_

,

log 1 log log log a a e ae + +

1
0
log log lim( ) .
x
x
e
x
A ea A ea Hence a x ea
+
tan
2
lim(2 )
x
a
x a
x
a

tan
2
lim(2 ) (1 )
x
a
x a
x
Let A form
a


( )
tan
2
log limlog(2 ) lim tan .log(2 ) 0
2
x
a
e
x a x a
x x x
A form
a a a

2
2
( 1/ )
log(2 ) 2 sin
0 2 2
2
lim lim lim .
0
cot cos 2
2 2 2
x a x a x a
a
x x x
a a a
x x x
ec
a a a a

_

_

,

,

2 2
tan
2
2
log lim(2 ) .
x
a
e
x a
x
A A e Hence e
a

2
2
1
0 0
1 cos
( ) lim(cos ) ( ) lim
2
b
x
x
x x
x
i ax ii

_ +

,
2
1
1
2 log(1 )
1 0
sin
( ) lim(1 ) ( ) lim
x
x
x x
x
iii x iv
x

,
( )
cot
tan
0 0
( ) lim(sin ) ( ) lim 1 sin
x
x
x x
v x iv x

+
( )
2
tan2
cos
0
4
( ) lim(cos ) ( ) lim tan
x
ec x
x
x
vii x viii x

1
0
1
( ) lim( ) ( ) lim
1 3
x x x
x
x
x x
ax a b c
ix x
ax

_ + + +

,

CURVATURE
Consider a curve C in XY-plane and let P, Q be any two neighboring points on it. Let arc AP=s
and arc PQ=s. Let the tangents drawn to the curve at P, Q respectively make angles and
+ with X-axis i.e., the angle between the tangents at P and Q is . While moving from P
to Q through a distances, the tangent has turned through the angle . This is called the
bending of the arc PQ. Geometrically, a change in represents the bending of the curve C and
x
y
C
P
+
s
Q

o
the ratio
s
represents the ratio of bending of C between the point P & Q and the arc length
between them.
Rate of bending of Curve at P is

Q P
d
Lt
ds s

This rate of bending is called the curvature of the curve C at the point P and is denoted by
(kappa). Thus
d
ds

We note that the curvature of a straight line is zero since there exist no bending i.e. =0, and
that the curvature of a circle is a constant and it is not equal to zero since a circle bends
uniformly at every point on it.

d
ds 1
letter). Greek - (rho by denoted is and curvature of radius the called is
1
then 0, If

Radius of curvature in Cartesian form :

Suppose y = f(x) is the Cartesian equation of the curve considered in figure.
we have
( )
2
2 2
2
dy d y d d ds
1 y Tan y Sec Tan
dx dx dx ds dx

+

0
y
x
c
2
ds
But we know that 1
dx
dy
dx
_
+

,
3
2 2
2 2
2
2 2
2
1
ds
1 1
d
dy
dx
d y dy d dy
d y dx dx ds dx
dx
1
_
+
1

1
,
1 _ _
]
+ +
1

, ,
1
]

( )
3
2 2
1 y
ds
d y
1
+
]

This is the expression for radius of curvature in Cartesian form.

NOTE: We note that when y=, we find using the formula
3
2 2
2
2
1
dx
dy
d x
dy
1
_
+ 1

, 1
]
_

,
Example 9: Find the radius of curvature of the curve x
3
+y
3
= 2a
3
at the point (a, a).

3 3 3 2 2
2 3 3 0 x y a x y y + + ( )
2
2
, , 1
x
y hence at a a y
y

( ) ( )
( )
2 2
3 3
4 4
2 2
2 2 4
, , ,
y x x y y
a a
y hence at a a y
y a a
1 1 +

1
1
]
]

( ) ( )
3 3
2 2 2 2
1 1 1
. ., 2 2
4
4 2
y
a a
i e
y
a

1 1
+ +
] ]

Example 10: Find the radius of curvature for x y a + at the point where it meets
the line y=x.
On the line y x, x x a . 2 x a
4
a
i e or x +

i.e., We need to find at ,
4 4
a a
_

,
1 1
x y a 0 . , , , 1
4 4 2 x 2 y
y a a
y i e y hence at y
x
_
+ +

,
1 1
2 2
,
x y y
y x
Also y
x
1

1
1
1
1
]
1 1
( 1)
4 4
1 1
2 2
( )
( 1) 4
4 4
2 2
, ,
4 4
4 4 4
a a
a a
a a
at y
a a a
a
1

1
1

1 _

1
,
1
1
1
]
( ) ( )
3 3
2 2 2 2
1 1 1
2 2
4
4 2
y
a a
y
a
1 1
+ +
] ]

Example 11: Show that the radius of curvature for the curve
y 4 Sin x - Sin 2x

5 5
at x is
2 4

y 4 Sin x - Sin 2x 4 2 2 y Cos x Cos x

when x , y 4 2 0 2( 1) 2
2 2
Cos Cos

Also, y -4 Sin x 4 Sin 2x and when x , y -4 Sin 4 Sin 4
2 2

+ +

( )
3
3
2 2
2 2
1 y
1 2
5 5
4 4 y

1
+
1 +
] ]

Example 12:
2 3 3
Find the radius of curvature for xy = a - x at (a, 0).

2 3 3 2 2
2 3 xy a x y xy y x +

2 2
3
( , 0),
2
x y
y and at a y
xy

2 2
dx 2 dx
In such cases we write ( , 0), 0
dy 3 dy
xy
and at a
x y

( )
( )
2 2
2
2 2 2 2
2 2
dx dx
3 2 2 2 6 2
dy dy dx 2 d x
Also
dy 3 dy
3x y
x y y x xy x y
xy
x y
1
_ _
+ + +
1
, ,
1

1 +
+
1
]
( )
( ) ( )
( )
2
2 3
2 2 4
2
3 0 0 2 0
d x 6 2
, 0 ,
dy 9 3
3 0
a a
a
At a
a a
a
1
+ +

1

1
+
]

3
2 2
3
2 2
2
2
1
1
3
2
2
3
dx
dy
o
a
or
d x
a
dy

1
_
+ 1

1 +
, 1
] ]

Exercise:
Find the radius of curvature for the following curves:

3 3
2
2
2 3 3
2 2
2 2
2 3 3
2 2
3 3
(i) x 3 ,
2 2
( )
(ii) ( , 0)
(iii) int
( ) 1 .
( ) int ( , 0).
( ) 2 (3 ) int
a a
y axy at
a a x
y at a
x
a y x a at the po where it crosses x axis
x y
iv at the ends of the major axis
a b
v a y x a at the po a
vi y x x at the po where t
_
+

,

+

2 2 2
2 2
2
3
tan .
( ) ( ) ( 2 , 2 ).
2
( )
he gents are parallel to x axis
vii x y a x y at a a
ax x y
viii For the curve y showthat
a x a y x
+
_
_ _
+

+
, ,
,
M.G.Geetha
INTEGRAL CALCULUS
Gamma and Beta Functions
Definition:
The improper integral
( ) dx x e n
1 n
0
x

is defined as the gamma function.
Here n is a real number called the parameter of the function. (n) exists for all real values of n
except 0, -1, -2., ..the graph of which is shown below :
Recurrence formula

( ) 0 n ,
1
0
>

dx x e n
n x

'
0
x
n
0
x
n
, dx e
n
x
e
n
x
integrating by parts.
Applying the definition of Gamma function and using x as 0
x

n
x
e
( ) ( ) ) 2 .......( .......... 1 n n n or +
-4 -3 -2 -1 0
n
r(n)
( )
( )
) 1 .....( .......... ..........
1
n
n
n
+

Note:
(1) (n) is not convergent when n = 0, -1, -2, .
(2) If (n) is known for 0 < n < 1, then its value for 1 < n < 2 can be found using equation (2).
Also, its values for -1 < n < 0 can be got using equation (1)
(3) If n is a +ve integer, using the recurrence relation and (1) = 1, we get
(n) = (n - 1) (n - 1)
= (n - 1) (n - 2) (n - 2) and so on
= (n - 1) (n - 2) (n - 3) .. 1
= (n - 1) !
Problems:
(1) Prove that

,
_
2
1
By definition,
( )

0
1 n x
dx x e n

t x sin
2 1 2
0
2

g u dt t e
n t

( )

0
1 n 2
2
x
dx x e 2 n

0
1 n 2
2
y
dy y e 2

,
_

0
2
x
dx e
2
1

0
2
y
dy e

,
_
1
]
1
,
_

0 0
2
y
2
x
2
dxdy e 4
2
1
Converting Cartesian (x, y) to polar (r, ) system, we get

1
]
1
,
_
2
0 0
2
) 2 ( 2
2
1 2
r
r
drd r e
[ ]

2
0
r -
0
2 2 2
2re - ,
r r
e dr d e

r as 0 e , d 2
2
r -
2
0

=
Taking square roots on both sides, we get

,
_
2
1
(2) Show that
,
_
4
1
4
1
dx e
0
4
x
dy y
4
1
dx dy dx x 4 y x Let
4
3
3 4

0
4
3
0
4
1 4
dy y e dx e
y x

. definition the using ,
4
1
4
1
,
_

(3) Find
( )
1
0
5
dx x ln x
using ln x = -y, we get x = e
- y
, dx = -e
- y
dy
and y ranges from to 0 when x = 0 to 1

( )

0
y 6 5
0
5
, dy e y dx ln x x
interchanging the lower and the upper limits

,
6
dt t
e
0
6
5
t
choosing 6y = t

( )
6 6
6
! 5
6
6
1

(4) Prove that
a
x
a
dx
a
,
_
0
ln
using
t
e we t
x
a

,
_
x
a
get , ln
dx = -ae
-t
dt and t = to 0 when x = 0 to a

,
_
0
t
2
1
a
0
dt e . a t
x
a
ln
dx

a a
,
_

2
1
(5) Show that
( )
( )
( )
+
+
1
0
1 n
n
n m
1 m
! n 1
dx x log x
.
Hence show that
4
log
1
0

dx
x
x
when 'n' is a positive integer and m > -1.
Let logx = - t dx = -e
-t
dt and t = to 0 when x = 0 to 1.

( ) ( ) ( )
( )

+

1
0 0 0
1
1 x log dt e t dt e t e dx x
t m n n t n mt n m
using
( ) ( ) dx y t m
n
x log x , 1
1
0
m
+

( )
( )
1 - m ,
1 m
dy
e
1 m
y
1
y
0
n
n
n
>
+
+

( )
( )
( )

+
+

0
n y
1 n
n
n
1
0
m
dy y e
1 m
1
dx x log x

( )
( )
( ) ! n 1 n , ! n
1 m
1
1 n
n
+
+
+

choosing get we ,
2
1
m and 1 n the required result.
Beta function
Definition: Beta function, denoted by B(m,n) is defined by

( ) ( ) dx x 1 x n , m B
1 n
1
0
1 m

, where m and n are positive real numbers.

By a property of definite integral,
( ) ( ) dx x x dx x x
n m n m 1
1
0
1 1
1
0
1
1 1

Therefore we have B(m,n) = B(n,m)
Alternate Expressions for B(m,n)

( ) ( )

1
0
1 1
) 1 .......( .......... .......... 1 , dx x x n m B
n m

( )
t 1
t
x - 1 ,
1
1
t 1
1
x Let ) (
2
+
+

+
dt
t
dx i
and t = to 0 when x = 0 to 1.

( )
( )
dt
t
t t
n m
,
_
,
_
,
_
+

0
2
1 1
1
1
1
1
1
1
n) B(m, to reduces 1

( )
( ) ( ) m n B dt
t
t
n m
m
, n m, B using
1
also is n) B(m,
0
1
( ) d dx ii cos sin 2 sin Let x

2
1 to 0 when x
2
to 0 and

2
0
1 m 2 1 - 2n
d cos sin 2 to reduces (1) Then

2
0
1 2 1 - 2m
cos sin 2 n) B(m,
d
n
Relation between Gamma and Beta functions.
Prove that
( )
( ) ( )
( ) n m
n m
n , m B
+

Proof:
We know that
( ) dx x e 2 n
1 n 2
0
2
x

( ) dy x e and
m y 1 2
0
2
2 m

( ) ( )
( )
dxdy y x e n
m n y x 1 2
0
1 2
0
2 2
4 m Then
+

( )

d cos sin dr r e 4
2
0
1 n 2 1 m 2 1 n m 2
0
2
r
in polar coordinates
= (m+n) B(m,n) by definitions.
Note:
1 n 0 ,
n sin
dx
x 1
x
g sin U
0
1 - n
< <
We get (n) (1-n) = (1) B (1-n,n) using the above relation

( ) dx
x 1
x
n n, - 1 B But
0
1 n
using definition of Beta function.

Therefore (n) (1-n) = /sin n, 0 < n < 1
Problems
(1) Show that
,
_
2
1
,
5
2
B dx
x 1
x 5
1
0
5
dt
5
4
t
5
1
dx , t get x we , t x Letting
5
1
5
and t = 0 to 1 when x = 0 to 1
( ) dt t
5
1
t 1 t 5 dx
x 1
x 5
5
4
2
1
1
0
5
1
1
0
5

( ) dt t 1 t 2
1
1
0
5
3

. definition by
2
1
,
5
2
,
_
B
(2) Evaluate
( )
( ) ( )
dx
x 1
x
dx
x 1
x 1 x
0
30
18
0
30
8 10

+
= B (11,19) - B(19,11) = 0, using B(m,n) = B(n,m).

(3) Evaluate

2
0
d tan

2
0
2
1
2
1
2
0
cos sin tan

d d

definition by ,
4
1
,
4
3
2
1
,
_
B
(4) Show that
( ) 1 n 0, t , 1 n , t B n dx x
n
x
1
t 1 t
n
0
n
> > +
,
_
n to 0 when x 1 to 0 y and ndy dx y

n
x
Put
( ) ndy y n y dx x
n
x
t t n t
n
n
1 1
1
0
1
0
1 1

,
_

( ) ( ) . definition by 1 , 1
1
1
0
+

n t B n dy y y n
t t n t
(5) Prove that
( )

,
_
2
1
,
2
1
,
1 2
n n n B
n
B
2
0
1 2 1 - 2n
cos sin 2 n) B(n, that know We

d
n

cos 2sin sin2 , d

2
2 sin
2
2
0
1 n 2
1 n 2

0
1 n 2
1 n 2
2 putting , d
2
sin
( )
sin - sin as ) (0, in even is sin ,

2
sin
2
2
0
1 2
1 2

d
n
n
( )
2
1
,
2
1
n n, B , function Beta of definition the Applying
1 2

,
_
n get we
n
B
(6) Prove the Duplication formula
( ) ( ) n n n
n
2
2 2
1
1 2

,
_
Using the previous result,

,
_
,
_
+ +
2
1
,
2
1
n B
2
1
2
1
n ,
2
1
n B
n 2
(1)

( )
( )
) 2 ..( .......... ..........
2
1
2
1
1 2
1
2
1
2
1
2
1
,
2
1
2
1
,
2
1
Also
,
_
,
_
+ +
+
,
_
,
_
,
_
,
_
+ +
n n
n n n
n B
n n B

( )
( )
n
n n
n n
From
2
2
1
2 2
2
1
n
get we (2) and (1)
,
_

( ) ( ) n n n
n
2
2 2
1
.
1 2

,
_
(7) Prove that

( )
( )
dx
x 1
x x
n , m B
1
0
n m
1 n 1 m
+

+
+
By one of the definitions of Beta function, we have

( )
( )
0
n m
1 n
dx
x 1
x
n , m B

( ) ( )
dx
x 1
x
dx
x 1
x
1
n m
1 n
1
0
n m
1 n

+
+
+
= I
1
+ I
2
(say)
Substituting
get we , I in
y
1
x
2

( ) ( )
dy
y 1
y
dy
y
1
y 1 y
y
I
1
0
n m
1 m
0
1
2 n m 1 n
n m
2

+
+
+
+
,
_

( )
( )
dx
x 1
x x
n m, B Hence
1
0
n m
1 n 1 m
+

+
+
Conclusion: We evaluated double integrals using change of order of integration. We used

change of variables for double and triple integrals to simplify the integrals in certain cases. We
saw how Gamma and Beta functions were useful in evaluating complicated integrals.
Multiple Choice:
1. The value of

1
0
2
1
2
is dydx xy
(a) 1/2
(b) 7/3
(c) 7/6
(d) 7/2
2. The value of

1
0
2
x
x
is dy xdx
(a) -1/12
(b) -1/4
(c) 0
(d) -1/15
x = 0
3. The value of
( )

+ +
1
1
z
0
z x
z x
is dxdydz z y x
(a) 1
(b) 0
(c) 2
(d) 8
4. The value of (-10) is
(a) 10!
(b) 9!
(c) -9!
(d) Not defined
5. The value of (-5/2) is
(a) 2
(b)
3
4
(c)
15
8
(d) Not defined
6.
( )
( )
to simplifies
x 1
dx x 1 x
0
26
8 9
(a) 0
(b)
( )
! 28
18! ! 10
(c)
( )
! 27
17! ! 9
(d)
( )
! 27
17! ! 9 , 2
7.

2
0
to equal is d cot
x = 0
(a)
2
(b) 2
(c)
2

(d) / 2
8. The value of B(1/2, 1/2) is
(a)
(b)
(c) 2
(d) 1
Questions & Answers
(1) Evaluate
( )

+ + +
1
0
x 1
0
y x
0
3
z y x 1
dxdydz
Ans: Let this integral be I, then
( )

,
_
,
_
+ + +
1
0 x
y x 1
0 z
3
x 1
0 y
dx dy
z y x 1
dz
I
( )

1
1
]
1
+ + +
1
0 x
x 1
0 y
y x 1
0 z
3
dydx
z y x 1 2
1
( )

1
1
]
1
+ + +
1
0 x
x 1
0 y
2
dx
z y x 1 2
1
,
_

8
5
2 ln
2
1
(2) Change the order of integration and hence evaluate the integral

1
0
x 2
x
dxdy
y
x
Ans: The region of integration is the shaded portion shown in the figure below
A
X
Y
0
y = x
y = 1
M
(1,1)
x = 0
B
y = 2 - x
To get the limits for x first, we need to divide the shaded area into two parts AMB and AMO
where the x values are 0 to 2-y and 0 to y respectively. The respective y values are 1 to 2 and 0
to 1.
The given integral is now

+
1
0 y
y
0 x
2
1 y
y 2
0 x
dxdy
y
x
dxdy
y
x
dy 2
2
y
y
2
dy
2
y
2
1 y
1
0 y

,
_
+ +
= 2 ln 2 -1.
(3) Change to polar coordinates and hence evaluate

+
a
0
a
y
2 2
dxdy
y x
x
Ans: The region of integration is as shown below
We see that ranges from 0 to /4 in the shaded region. R ranges from 0 to x = a i.e., a sec .
X
Y
0
x = y
x = a
y = a
y = 0
The given integral

sec a 4
0 0
2 2
drd cos r
( ) [ ]
4
0
3 4
0
3
tan sec ln
3
a
d sec
3
a

( ) 1 2 ln
3
a
3
+
(4) Find the area between the parabola y = 4x - x
2
and the line y = x, using double integration.
Ans: The required area is

r
dxdy
( )

3
0 x
2
3
0 x
2
x x 4
x y
dx x x 3 dxdy
2
9
3
x
x
2
3
3
2
3
0

1
1
]
1

Practice Questions
1. Evaluate the following integrals
( ) ( )

+ +
3
0
2
1
dxdy y x 1 x i
( )

2
0
a
0
2
drd sin r ii
( ) ( )

+
1
0
x
x
2 2
dydx y x iii
( )

a
1
b
1
dydx
xy
1
iv
( )

+ +
1
0
1
0
1
0
z y x
dxdydz e v
(2,4) y = x
(3,3)
( )

3
1
1
x
1
xy
0
dx dy dz xyz vi
( )

2a
0
cos
0
2
r
2
a
0
d dr rdz vii
2. Change the order of integration and hence evaluate
( )

1
0
y - 2
y
xydxdy i
( )

4a
0
ax 2
a 4
2
x
dydx ii
( )

a
0
x - 2a
a
2
x
xydydx iii
( )
( ) ( )

a
0
x
0
dydx
y a x a
y cos
iv
3. Change to respective coordinate systems and hence evaluate
( )

+
2
0
2
x - 2x
0
2 2
system polar to dydx
y x
x
i
( )

+
a
0
2
x -
2
a
0
2 2 2
system polar to dydx y x y ii
( )

+
1
0
2
x - 2x
x
2 2
system polar to dydx y x iii
( ) polar spherical to
z y x 1
dzdydx
iv
1
0
2
x - 1
0
2
y
2
x 1
0
2 2 2

( ) polar spherical to
z y x
dzdydx
v
1
0
2
x - 1
0
1
2
y
2
x
2 2 2

+ +
( ) polar l cylindrica to xyzdxdydz vi
1
0 x
1
0 y
2
2
y
2
x z

+
4. Find the area between y = 2 - x and circle x
2
+ y
2
= 4
5. Find the area bounded between the parabola y
2
= 4ax and x
2
= 4ay
6. Show that the area of one loop of the lemniscates r
2
= a
2
cos2 is a
2
/2.
7. Find the area of one petal of the rose r = a sin3.
8. Find the area of the circle r = a sin outside the cardioide r = a (1 - cos)
9. Find the volume of the paraboloid of revolution x
2
+ y
2
= 4z cut off by the plane z =4.
10. Find the volume of the region bounded by the paraboloid az = x
2
+ y
2
and the cylinder x
2
+
y
2
= R
2

11. Find the volume of the portion of the sphere x
2
+ y
2
+ z
2
= a
2
lying inside the cylinder x
2
+ y
2
= ax.
12. Find the volume cut off the sphere x
2
+ y
2
+ z
2
= a
2
by the cone x
2
+ y
2
= z
2

13.
dx e x Evaluate
0
4
x 2
14.
( )
1
0
3
x
1
log Find
dx
15.
( )
3
1
3
2
0
4
x 8
16
3x
Evaluate

dx
16.
< <
2
0
p
1 p 0 , tan
d Find
17.
( ) n dt e t 2a that Show
0
2
at 1 n 2 n

18.
a log 2
1
is 0 a , dx e that Show
0
a log
2
x -

>
19. If m and n are real constants > -1, prove that

( )
( )
1 n
n
1
0
m
1 m
1 n
dx
x
1
log x
+
+
+
'
,
_
20. Show that

( )
2
cos
1
cos
0
1
n
n
a
dx ax x
n
n

Hint: Write cos ax = Real part of e

iax

21. Show that
,
_
2
1
,
n
1
B
n
1
x 1
dx
1
0
n
22. Show that ( ) ( ) ( ) dx x 1 x 1
2
1
n , m B
1 n
1
1
1 m
1 n m

+
+
Hence deduce that

+
1
1
1
1
x
x
dx =
23. Show that
2 16
dx e x dx xe
0
4
x 2
0
8
x

24. Show that

( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) n , m B a b dx x b a x
b
a
1 n m 1 n 1 m

Maths

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LAPLACE TRANSFORMS

Here we suppose that s>0 and integrate by using the formula

6. Let n be a constant, which is a non-negative real number or a negative non-integer. Then

For = 2t, we get

7. Evaluate : (i) L(t

Multiplying on both sides by (-1)

This is the transform of t

This is the result as required.

Heaviside shift theorem

Taking inverse transforms, we get

equation. integral the solve to method Transform Laplace Employ 3)

Here we suppose that s>0 and integrate by using the formula

6. Let n be a constant, which is a non-negative real number or a negative non-integer. Then

For = 2t, we get

7. Evaluate : (i) L(t

This is the transform of t

and hence when Q P this leads to

2/3 2/3 2/3 -1/3 -1/3

Mean Value Theorems

exists uniquely and it is denoted by

This means that when k is chosen as in (2) we will have

Hence the LMVT is verified.

Hence the LMVT is verified.

Proof: Consider the function

This means that when k is chosen as in (2) we will have

From (2) and (3), we infer that c ( ) , a b

Thus the Cauchys Mean Value Theorem (CMVT) is proved.

are elementary exponential functions that are continuous in

Hence the CMVT is verified.

is differentiable in the open interval ( ) b a,

Taking b=x in (1) we may write

Example 16: Obtain a Taylors expansion for

> > + > <

which do not represent any value. Such expressions are

and apply the

and apply the

and then apply

form and then apply the LHospitals

Limits of the form

: To evaluate such limits, where function to the power of

form and then apply the LHospitals Rule.

Radius of curvature in Cartesian form :

This is the expression for radius of curvature in Cartesian form.

, where m and n are positive real numbers.

( ) d dx ii cos sin 2 sin Let x

We get (n) (1-n) = (1) B (1-n,n) using the above relation

using definition of Beta function.

= B (11,19) - B(19,11) = 0, using B(m,n) = B(n,m).

n to 0 when x 1 to 0 y and ndy dx y

cos 2sin sin2 , d

sin - sin as ) (0, in even is sin ,

Using the previous result,

(7) Prove that

By one of the definitions of Beta function, we have

Conclusion: We evaluated double integrals using change of order of integration. We used

19. If m and n are real constants > -1, prove that

20. Show that

Hint: Write cos ax = Real part of e

Hence deduce that

24. Show that

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