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Geography Notes

EU policies + development
Core-periphery Model: Core: - Major centres of growth - Broad range of attractions for large-scale development - Centrally located, prosperous urban-industrial economy - Excellent range of services + jobs - Centres of decision making Periphery: - Limited growth - Not attractive for modern developments - Marginal location, poor access to prosperous markets - Limited jobs + low standards of living - Few urban centres, inadequate services - Overdependence on primary sector

Decisions, services, manufactured goods Capital and other government incentives market To promote development Workers, raw materials, farm products, capital Regional development free

Government intervention: subsidies, attract industry to periphery, funds National Core: centre of development within a country, not always the political capital e.g. Milan International Core: core stretched across different countries, joined through urban sprawl e.g. Manchester Milan axis, Rhine-Ruhr Upward Transition regions: located close to the core. - Good transport links - Good place for companies to locate o Less congestion o More space o Good transport links Decentralisation: businesses moving out of the cities too much congestion, no space to expand

Gov. tries to spread industry + services out across EU, incentives used e.g. tax relief, subsidies

Heavy ind. : tied to location, low value per weight Light ind. : not tied (footloose) High value per weight mechanised Change of International Core: 1. Industrial Triangle of North-West Europe - 19th century based on major coalfields in N-W Europe - Area specialised in Heavy industries large-scale, urban-industrial developments e.g. Sambre-Meuse Valley, Nord-Pas-de-Calais, Ruhr - Dominant growth region until 1950s 2. Manchester-Milan axis - 1960s role of coal + heavy industries declined - Consumer-orientated industries more significant, attracted to: o Urban areas growing rapidly in pop. o Areas with good transport infrastructures o Good international linkages o Enlarged international market created under Treaty of Rome Axis of rapid development o From Manchester to Milan o Linked by highly developed transport system o Include major national economic cores e.g. London, Randstad, Rhine-Ruhr 3. European dogleg - 1980s evolution of core continued o EU enlargement into Mediterranean region o Signing of SEA (Single European Act) 1986 - four motors of development o Baden Wurttemberg o Lombardy o Rhone Alps o Catalonia - European sunbelt emerging from 3 of these: from North-West Italy through Southern France to Catalonia o Environmental attractions o Footloose modern industries - Northern extremity declining o Decline of textiles and engineering industries Problems in the Core: Congestion Pollution Inner city decline e.g. London Docklands modernization needed Closure of mines cause long term unemployment High land values

Problems in the Periphery:

Under-development High % of workers in farming (extensive low output) No companies locate there

Regional Policy

Aims: 1. 2. 3. 4. Funds: Help those lagging behind in dev. Help those with declining industry modern businesses Help those with declining agriculture Help regeneration of run-down urban areas ERDF: promotes economic + social cohesion, investment leading to new jobs + infrastructural improvements ESF: employment policy, aims to prevent unemployment, promote integration of the labour market EAGGF: rural development, improvement of the agricultural structures, finance the CAP and EAFRD EFF: reform of the fisheries industry

Convergence region: a) 10 countries with lowest GDP, 42% of EU average: 10 of last 12, not Cyprus + Slovenia b) 5 countries: Spain, Portugal, Greece, Slovenia: 71% of EU average GDP Competitiveness and Employment region: - 12 states not covered by convergence, with 115% of EU GDP e.g. Ireland o Phasing-out Leaving convergence as more developed e.g. BMW region o Phasing-in Regions that are not convergence + are developed enough to be in C+E region e.g. South + East Ireland Cohesion Fund objectives: 1. Convergence: help less developed areas to catch up 2. Regional Competitiveness and Employment: regions not covered by convergence 3. European territorial co-operation objective: improve inter-regional co-operation Challenges for Cohesion Fund: - Difference in development is greater - Focus of cohesion policy move towards Eastern Europe - Inequalities in old 15 states still exist Example of Peripheral region: The Mezzogiorno: (see mind-map) Turkey

For: Geographical location forms bridge between Europe and Asia Connection between Christian Europe Islamic world High fertility rate (2.2 ) over the replacement rate Help ageing pop. problem Growth rates e.g. income per capita doubled since 2003 23% employed in industry

Against: - Low GDP per capita (29% of EU average) have to be provided with supporting funds - Geographically not European - Borders with Iraq, Iran, Syria could cause problems - Largely Muslim state very different culture + way of thinking - Many Turks migrate to Western Europe - 34% in agriculture lot of money needed from CAP - Political issue in Cyprus crucial, EU wont grant membership unless resolved

Industrial decline
Case Study: The Sambre-Meuse Coalfields Stretch 150 km from the French border to Liege along the Sambre-Meuse Valley in Belgium One of the first regions to experience large-scale industrialisation (19th century) Development depended on reserves of coal, location central to major urban-industrial markets, well-developed infrastructure (canal + rail) Located in Wallonia Migrants attracted from Flanders through jobs in coal mining + heavy industries Wallonia dominant cultural + economic region in Belgium

1950s, economy declines due to a number of factors: 1. Alternative sources of energy to coal 2. High costs of production, less competitive industries in world trade 3. Cheaper imports especially from less developed economies 4. Alternative products available, e.g. plastics 5. New technologies reduced number of jobs 6. New plants built often in different locations, e.g. steelworks on the coast at Zelzate

Deindustrialisation (large scale decline in the industrial base): - Huge job losses - High levels of unemployment - Out-migration - Economic depression 1984 last colliery closes

Mining communities left with high unemployment and scarred landscape Unattractive for industry

Designated as Objective 2 Region in the EU, large amount of investment from the Belgian government as well as EU - Investment in transport infrastructure New industrial estates - Upgrading of airport - Cleaning up derelict landscape Positive results new industries have been attracted to the region, region stays problematic though. Case Study: The Ruhrgebiet In North Rhine Westphalia, polycentric conurbation often called the workshop of Western Europe including Duisburg, Essen, Bochum, Dortmund. 1870-71: Fettkohle discovered as useful for iron furnaces Unification of Germany Improvement of infrastructure

World War II: Great damage: 60% loss of housing stock in Dortmund and Essen Marshall Plan + ECSC help reconstruction 1956 post-war peak reached Decline of Coal: Most accessible coal already mined price goes up Imports of cheap oil in 60s 70s Diversification of energy sources Environmental concerns Response Rationalisation: Amalgamation: 1969 Ruhrkohle AG Unemployment levels sink Mines become more productive Unproductive mines closed Productive mines with reserves received investment

Population
Population Distribution Influencing factors: Factor 1. Environment Core - Very suitable for settlement - Low-lying - Moderate climates e.g. South-East England Periphery - Difficult environment - Rugged landscape - More extreme climate

2. Natural Resources

- Well-developed - Fertile soils - Rich coal deposits (Ruhr) - Well-developed trade links - Modern transport forms - Port development (North Sea coastline + Mediterranean) - Alpine passes - Experienced Industrial Revolution + large-scale urban development - Large trading cities located here (Frankfurt, Milan)

3. Transport linkages

e.g. Scandinavia - Limited resource base - Poor soil fertility - Few mineral resources (Ireland) - Weakly developed - Expensive to develop

4. Urban-industrial development

5. Cultural factors

- Low B.R materialism, acceptance of birth control - Slow growth rate, large-scale inmigration (Germany, Netherlands)

- Bypassed by Industrial Revolution - Relatively small urban centres - Only recent industrial development - Dominant role of capital cities (Dublin, Lisbon) - Higher B.R greater role of family and Catholic Church oppose contraceptives - Out-migration

Population Change: 1960 73 Recovered quickly after WWII 285 million by 1960 High growth rate + 12% by 1973 Core area grew faster than periphery Early signs of economic difficulty in industrialised countries e.g. Britain + Belgium

1973 89 Decline in rate of growth + 4.8% Lower growth rates in core Stronger growth rates in periphery

1989 95

Large increase due to unification of Germany (without only + 2.4%) Slow growth rates in core + periphery

Causes of Population Change: Natural change (difference between B.R and D.R): 1. High stationary phase (before Industrial Revolution) High B + D.R Low natural increase Small pop. Totals

2. Early expanding phase (after Industrial Revolution) High B.R lower D.R (medical improvements) Rapid pop. Increase

3. Late expanding phase (1960 73) Low D.R B.R start to decline Emancipation of women

4. Low stationary phase (1973 89) Low B + D.R Limited natural increase

5. Senile phase (1989 95) B.R fall below D.R No natural increase/replacing

Reasons for decline in Birth Rate: 1. Attitudes to family size Large families no longer considered essential e.g. for labour Mechanised farming reduced demands Expensive to rear many in urban areas More in core than periphery

2. Birth control More acceptable + available

3. Role of the Church

Opposition/influence by Catholic Church declined by 1990s

4. Changing role of women in society Emancipation of women more pursuing employment + professional careers marriage delayed restrict family size (could interfere with careers/social life) 5. Age structure Ageing population Fewer young people lower B.R

Population pyramids

Ageing Population Problems: Emancipation of women o o o Traditional way of living changing More active outside the home University + professional careers

Marriage postponed less or no children (children may interfere with career/social life) e.g. average age of marriage 1960: 25.4 1995: 27.5, total fertility rate 1960: 2.59 1995: 1.42 Birth rate decreases Role of catholic church less important use of contraceptives more accepted + available

Large families no longer necessary in modern society o Increase in mechanised farming

Results: -

Expensive to rear children in urban areas small families

Increasingly difficult to support growing ageing population B.R falls, active population smaller fewer people to support larger elderly pop. Dependency rate rises

Health services under pressure (growing need for health care facilities) More investment in pensions/social welfare More conservative attitude Economy depressed (pop. Spends less money on consumer goods, less likely to invest in innovations)

Solutions: Pro-natal policies France o Encouraging women to have 3 or more children major issue in France is decline of large families Policy includes tax reductions, subsidies e.g. carte famille nombreuse (benefits for public transport) Child benefit levels doubled in 2005

Appears to be working, families more likely to have 3rd child in France than UK Germany o Paternity leave, requirement for men, 2 months of work to look after child receive state-funded welfare support o New maternity/paternity payments 2007 Immigration Compensations Offset childcare costs against tax (up to 3000 euro)

o o o

Boost birth rates, increase active pop. (short term) Long term: fertility rates decline to that of host pop. Huge numbers would have to be accepted to keep dependency levels constant To great to absorb politically + socially

Raise of retirement age o Work longer support elderly for longer need less support later

Increase in participation rates o o E.g. long-term unemployed encouraged to look for work Number of jobs have to increase otherwise labour surplus

Money spent on retirement could be used for mid-life training raise the working standards of active pop.

Migration
International migration Until WWII Europe source of migrants for America (60 million leave Europe for North America) During WWII: political refugees from Eastern to Western Europe West Germany gained many refugees (aided the economic recovery, brought skills + capital) After WWII: massive labour migration from poorer Southern Europe to richer North

1960 73 7 million migrant workers in North-West Europe Major hosts: West Germany, France, Britain Sources: o o 1/4 from Italy + Ireland 3/4 from outside EU, majority from Mediterranean Basin North Africa, Turkey, Spain, Yugoslavia, Portugal, Greece

Underdeveloped economies of these countries + high natural increase rates Labour surplus attractive for North-West Europe with labour shortage

Major south north flow of labour o o Satisfied demand for labour Added to total pop. pop. Growth, even though B.R and natural increase are low Safety valve for source, removing surplus labour

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Germany: 70% from Turkey, Yugoslavia, Italy, Greece France: 66% from Portugal, Algeria, Morocco, Spain

Buffer Theory: Countries experiencing labour shortage import workers temporarily If economy decline workers could be sent home, protecting host pop. From rise in unemployment gastarbeiter migration only to be viewed temporarily

3-D jobs Migrants asset for economic development within core countries Source countries also happy o Removed surplus labour o Migrants send money home (remittances)

Profile of Immigrant Worker: Young, Male, unskilled, worked in unattractive sectors of economy, easily exploited

1973 89 Energy crisis 73 + economic recession Decline in demand for labour, increase in unemployment Buffer Theory should work, introduction of new policies: o o o General ban on recruitment Stricter controls to limit illegal immigration Governments offered incentives to encourage migrants to leave

Some success, but many still stayed in host countries

Reasons for Buffer Theory failure:

1. Migrant workers important for running of socio-economic systems (doing the 3D jobs) 2. Forceful repatriation (sent home) seen as socially/morally wrong 3. Theory assumed no family migration Family reunification

Problems for host governments: 1. Younger than host higher B.R numbers will increase 2. Social + economic difficulties: pressure on school, lack of skills make difficult to employ, high social welfare costs 3. Concentrate into certain cities/regions: ghetto communities formed, bad living conditions, generate poor image of foreign pop. Hostility from host 4. they are taking our jobs 5. Increase in racial tension

Since 1989 More asylum seekers and political refugees o Reasons: 1. Collapse of communism 2. Political strife + ethnic tensions: civil war in Yugoslavia, similar push factors occurred in Albania, Bulgaria, former republics of USSR 3. Reunification of Germany Humanitarian/political reasons to gain entry

Advantages 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Disadvantages Donor country (e.g. Turkey) Safety valve removing surplus 1. Brain drain labour 2. Fewer opportunities to migrate + Helped check pop. Growth in repatriation above-average pop. 1960s (Portugal) Growth (Portugal) Remittances important source of 3. Savings often not invested in capital for development industry but small businesses Skills learned abroad aid 4. 3D jobs few skills acquired industrial dev. 5. Difficulty settling back into Modernisation experience of new

1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

cultures, pop. More receptive to traditions, social tension change Receiving country (e.g. Germany) Overcomes labour shortage 1. Pressure on jobs Prepared to do 3D jobs 2. Inner city slums (Bidonvilles, Long hours low salary France) Cultural advantages + links 3. Ethnic groups tend not to integrate Some highly skilled migrants (e.g. 4. Racial tension Pakistani doctors) 5. Limited skilled/educated group 6. Lack of opportunities for own religion/culture 7. Language difficulties 8. Often less healthy

Case Studies: Poles into Britain, Turks into Germany Internal migration Movement within individual countries Often movement from rural to urban areas Push factors: improvements in agriculture. High natural rate of increase, decline in employment prospects

3 types of region: 1. Traditional industrial centres within economic core e.g. Randstad, Rhine-Ruhr

2. Newly industrialising regions e.g. Central Switzerland, Southern Germany, Barcelona, Milan

3. Retirement areas + attractive areas for tourism Loss of population in remote rural areas, (rural depopulation in e.g. Southern Italy, Massif Central) and after WWII in declining industrial and mining areas (SambreMeuse Valley).

Counter urbanisation: Movement from larger urban centres to rural areas 1970s Reversal of pattern Decline of industry, congestion, pollution, high living costs Movement out of cities

Modern industry more footloose, locates in rural environments lower costs

Benefiting rural areas: Have good transport links to major centres Attractive environments

Case Study: The Randstad One of the most urbanised regions of Western Europe Large scale development took place especially in 1950s o Need to reconstruct national economy after WWII

Polycentric city region: no city dominates the region, major urban functions dispersed o o o o Amsterdam: capital + main centre of commerce and finance The Hague: seat of government Utrecht: main transportation centre Rotterdam: port + heavy industry

Problems: 1) Pressure on region to provide land for housing Rapid increase in urban pop. (1960s) Large scale suburbanisation contributes (preference for rural single-family homes) Counter-urbanisation 1970s decline of population in Amsterdam, The Hague + Rotterdam Social polarisation, wealthier, middle class in suburbs in modern housing; low income, elderly, ethnic minorities in the inner city in worsening housing conditions Major social + political issue 2) Recreational land becoming scarce Urban development 12 % decline in agricultural land in Greenheart o Less space for parks + woodlands

1990s, population density reached national average in the Greenheart

3) Coastal strip under pressure

Through industrial + housing development

4) Land use under further pressure Expansion of industry o Especially around deep-water ports (Rotterdam)

5) Urban sprawl emphasised Decentralisation of light industry to small towns around cities

6) Counter-urbanisation Increase in daily commuting Demand for more extensive transport systems Expensive Requires space from limited land resources 7) Uncontrolled urban growth Decrease in quality of air, water, soil Possible loss of Greenheart

8) Possible West European megalopolis Solutions: By 1960s, apparent that Randstad was too successful, two objectives: 1. Bring excessive growth under control and attend to problem of congestion Fusion between Randstad, Rhine-Ruhr, Brussels-Antwerp-Ghent regions Environmental disaster

2. Create more even distribution of pop. + development

1. 1960s, buffer zones (green belts) prevent cities merging o Prevention of urban sprawl in Greenheart

Overspill zones created on outskirts o o Deal with growing need for housing Alkmaar, Lelystad, Almere, east of Utrecht hills, Apeldoorn Arnhem, south of Rotterdam

o -

Well developed infrastructure excellent transport links for commuters

Growth centres created in peripheral regions e.g., Groningen-Delfzijl + Breda-Eindhoven area o Greater dispersal of industry + pop.

Discouragement of development in 60s was successful: Pop. Declined by 15% in four largest cities Continuation of plan may weaken economic base of Randstad

New plan in 1973: Permitted growth within Randstad Overspill controlled through buffer zones Development focused on specific growth centres e.g. Zoetermeer

1988, two main objectives: 1. Pop. Growth directed to more peripheral regions Growth within Randstad not promoted threatens the Greenheart Buffer zones remain important

2. Central Netherlands Urban Ring introduced Extending Randstad easterly + southerly Join with Apeldoorn-Arnhem overspill zone and the Breda-Tilburg-Eindhoven growth zone Encloses Greenheart, strict planning needed to preserve it

Effectiveness: 1950s: plans considerably effective in promoting area By 1960s too effective, Randstad too successful Solutions in 60s dealt with the problem

70s original plan could be abandoned

Plans were very effective, still are: Randstad remains core region for Netherlands + Western Europe

Case Study Urban Redevelopment: London Docklands Former industry o o o o Busiest port in the world Import/export Good market, warehousing Centrally located, on the Thames

Reasons for decline o o Improvements in technology (containerisation) Building of deep-water port in Tilbury purpose built for container ships

Symptoms of decline o o o o o o o o o o o o Abandoned docks, derelict buildings No ships few jobs High unemployment Poor quality housing Poor access to rest of London Few shopping facilities 95% of housing rented Little outdoor space Few recreational areas Lack of basic services + leisure facilities Poor health care Lots of vacant space

Redevelopment o Destroy what is there rebuild

Regeneration o Improve buildings + services that are already there

Physical + environmental regeneration o o o o 700ha of land reclaimed (derelict) 200 000 trees planted 150ha open space created 17 conservation areas set up not allowed to build on

Economic regeneration o Improved transport links o o o Docklands Light Railway City Airport 135km new roads

Employment + number of businesses doubled High tech jobs created e.g. film studio, stock exchange Enterprise zone created attract more industry (incentives tax, financial aid etc.) More office space Canary Wharf

o o -

Social regeneration o o o o o o 22 000 new homes, increase number of owner-occupied homes 10 000 local authority homes refurbished Increase in population New shopping centres + college +campus Marina, parks etc. 100 million pounds spent of health care, education, job training

Advantages o o o More jobs Better environment Better transport links

o -

Etc.

Disadvantages o o o o o Locals cant afford expensive flats Shortage of low-cost housing Jobs demand skills former Dockers dont have Broken up community Not enough services

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