Alexandria University Faculty of Engineering Electrical Department

Biomedical Report

Name Ahmed samir Ali mostafa elsayed amin Omar abd el mougib mahmoud Mohamed ahmed mahmoud derbala

section 5 7 7 8

number 23 220 226 270

X-rays
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Introduction
If our eyes could detect super-energetic forms of radiation such as X rays, looking at our friends would be an altogether more surreal experience: we'd be able to see straight through their skin and watch their bones jiggling about underneath! Perhaps it's fortunate that we don't have that kind of abilitybut we can still enjoy the benefits of using X rays all the same: they're hugely important in medicine, scientific research, astronomy, and industry. Let's take a closer look at what X rays are, how they work, and how we make them!

What are X rays?

X-rays are part of the electromagnetic spectrum X-radiation (composed of X-rays) is a form of electromagnetic radiation. X-rays have a wavelength in the range of 0.01 to 10 nanometers, corresponding to frequencies in the range 30 petahertz to 30 exahertz (31016 Hz to 31019 Hz) and energies in the range 100 eV to 100 keV. They are shorter in wavelength than UV rays and longer than gamma rays. In many languages, X-radiation is called Rntgen radiation, after Wilhelm Rntgen,[1] who is usually credited as its discoverer, and who had named it Xradiation to signify an unknown type of radiation.[2] Correct spelling of X-ray(s) in the English language includes the variants x-ray(s) and X ray(s). X-rays up to about 10 keV (10 to 0.10 nm wavelength) are classified as "soft" X-rays, and from about 10 to 120 keV as "hard" X-rays, due to their penetrating abilities

Hard X-rays can penetrate some solids and liquids, and all uncompressed gases, and their most common use is to image of the inside of objects in diagnostic radiography and crystallography. As a result, the term X-ray is metonymically used to refer to a radiographic image produced using this method, in addition to the method itself. By contrast, soft X-rays hardly penetrate matter at all; the attenuation length of 600 eV (~2 nm) X-rays in water is less than 1 micrometer.[5] The distinction between X-rays and gamma rays has changed in recent decades. Originally, the electromagnetic radiation emitted by X-ray tubes had a longer wavelength than the radiation emitted by radioactive nuclei (gamma rays).[6] Older literature distinguished between X- and gamma radiation on the basis of wavelength, with radiation shorter than some arbitrary wavelength, such as 1011 m, defined as gamma rays.[7] However, as shorter wavelength continuous spectrum "X-ray" sources such as linear accelerators and longer wavelength "gamma ray" emitters were discovered, the wavelength bands largely overlapped. The two types of radiation are now usually distinguished by their origin: X-rays are emitted by electrons outside the nucleus, while gamma rays are emitted by the nucleus

Imagine you had the job of redesigning light to make it a bit more powerfulso you could see through bodies, buildings, and anything else you fancied. You might come up with something a bit like X rays. X rays are a kind of super-powerful version of ordinary light: a higherenergy form of electromagnetic radiation that travel at the speed of light in straight lines (just like light waves do). If you could pin X rays down on a piece of paper and measure them, you'd find their wavelength (the distance between one wave crest and the next) was thousands of times shorter than that of ordinary light. That means their frequency (how often they wiggle about) is correspondingly greater. And, because the energy of electromagnetic waves is directly related to their frequency, X rays are much more energetic and penetrating than light waves as well. So here's the most important thing you need to remember: X rays can travel through things that ordinary light waves can't because they're much more energetic. We all know that some materials (such as glass and plastic) let light pass through them very easily while other materials (such as wood and metal) don't. In much the same way, there are materials that allow X rays to pass straight through themand materials that stop X rays dead in their tracks. Why is this? When X rays enter a material, they have to fight their way through a huge scrum of atoms if they're going to emerge from the other side. What really get in their way are the electrons whizzing round those atoms. The more electrons there are the more chance they have of absorbing the X rays and the less likely the X rays are to emerge from the material. X rays will tend to
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pass through materials made from lighter atoms with relatively few electrons (such as skin, built from carbon-based molecules), but they're stopped in their tracks by heavier atoms with lots of electrons. Lead, a heavy metal with 82 electrons spinning round each of its atoms, is particularly good at stopping X rays. (That's why X-ray technicians in hospitals wear lead aprons and stand behind lead screens.) The fact that some materials let X rays travel through them better than others turns out to be very useful indeed.

Difference between visible and x-rays

Both visible and x-rays are both electromagnetic waves. X-rays have much greater energy and a much smaller wave length. x-rays can go through objects such as your skin and show what your bones look like. Since cancers are thicker that other tissues they can also show if your problem is a cancer. The sun puts out most of its electromagnetic waves in the visible spectrum. (It puts out some in other parts in other parts of the spectrum, most of which is blocked by the upper atmosphere except in the polar regions.) Our eyes can see the light reflected from objects illuminated by the sun. No objects reflected x-rays before 1895 and no animal's eyes developed to see them. There is a point when the spectrum gets above the point that people can see. Scientists call that Ultra Violet. That light can not go through your skin. Somewhere between that and the x-ray machine in doctor's offices, Scientists created an arbitrary point establishing soft x-rays. Astronomers use those to see through large dust clouds in various places in and between galaxies.

What is the difference between gamma rays and Xrays

The difference between gamma rays and X-rays is in the frequency of the electromagnetic radiation. Gamma rays and X-rays are both types of electromagnetic radiation, and gamma rays are higher on the frequency spectrum, and have more energy than X-rays. Use the links below for more information. More specific answer: The answer above is true to a rudimentary level. However, if you look at the electromagnetic (EM) spectrum, X-ray and gamma rays overlap over a certain range. At this point, the two rays are identical in terms of EM properties (at any given point on the spectrum, the energy, frequency, and wavelength of the EM wave are directly proportional). For example, a 140 MeV X-ray is identical to a 140 MeV gamma ray. Any 4

wave/photon with the same energy is also going to have the same wavelength and frequency. (Use the equation E=h*c/lambda, where h is Planck's constant, c is the speed of light, and lambda is the wavelength. As a result, the only difference between ALL x-rays and gamma rays are the origin of the ray itself. X-rays originate from the electron shell, gamma rays originate from the nucleus. This is the true definition of what the difference is between X-rays and gamma rays. It is not enough to say that gamma rays are higher up than x-rays on the EM spectrum. ONLY SOME ARE. What happens is that, in the case of gamma rays, the photon results when the nucleus comes down from the excited state that results from some kind of nuclear reaction, such as alpha decay, beta decay, fission, fusion, or some other kind of interaction that does something to excite the nucleus. The resulting energy of that photon is the step-wise change of the nucleus in coming down back to the state it "wants" to have. In the case of x-rays, the electron cloud also has a ground state, where all of the positions in all of the shells are filled, up to the limits of the available electrons. If you add energy to the cloud, electrons move up, and we call that an excited state. It wants to come back down. As each electron comes back down, it emits a photon, again with an energy corresponding to the energy of the transition. If there was only one electron that was excited, then there will only be one photon, but if all of them were excited, then there will be multiple photons as each of them, in order, falls back into their desired positions, much like a string of dominoes. The best example of this is K capture, where an inner (K) shell electron is captured into the nucleus, perhaps to contribute to beta+ decay, followed by a chain of x-ray photons as the electron cloud rushes to a new ground state.

How were X rays discovered?

As with many of mankind's monumental discoveries, X-ray technology was invented completely by accident. In 1895, a German physicist named Wilhelm Roentgen made the discovery while experimenting with electron beams in a gas discharge tube. Roentgen noticed that a fluorescent screen in his lab started to glow when the electron beam was turned on. This response in itself wasn't so surprising -fluorescent material normally glows in reaction to electromagnetic radiation -- but Roentgen's tube was surrounded by heavy black cardboard. Roentgen assumed this would have blocked most of the radiation.

Roentgen placed various objects between the tube and the screen, and the screen still glowed. Finally, he put his hand in front of the tube, and saw the silhouette of his bones projected onto the fluorescent screen. Immediately after discovering X-rays them, he had discovered their most beneficial application. Roentgen's remarkable discovery precipitated one of the most important medical advancements in human history. X-ray technology lets doctors see straight through human tissue to examine broken bones, cavities and swallowed objects with extraordinary ease. Modified X-ray procedures can be used to examine softer tissue, such as the lungs, blood vessels or the intestines.

The X-Ray Machine (The X- ray tube)

The heart of an X-ray machine is an electrode pair -- a cathode and an anode -- that sits inside a glass vacuum tube. The cathode is a heated filament, like you might find in an older fluorescent lamp. The machine passes current through the filament, heating it up. The heat sputters electrons off of the filament surface. The positively-charged anode, a flat disc made of tungsten, draws the electrons across the tube.

X-ray production
X-rays are just like any other kind of electromagnetic radiation. They can be produced in parcels of energy called photons, just like light. There are two different atomic processes that can produce x-ray photons. One is called Bremsstrahlung , which is a fancy German name meaning "braking radiation." The other is called K-shell emission. They can both occur in heavy atoms like tungsten. K-shell emission produces higher-intensity x-rays than Bremsstrahlung, and the x-ray photon comes out at a single wavelength.

WHAT IS BREMSSTRAHLUNG? Free electrons can also generate photons without hitting an atom. An atom's nucleus may attract a speeding electron just enough to alter its course. Like a comet whipping around the sun, the electron slows down and changes direction as it speeds past the atom. This "braking" action causes the electron to emit excess energy in the form of an X-ray photon.

The free electron is attracted to the tungsten atom nucleus. As the electron speeds past, the nucleus alters its course. The electron loses energy, which it releases as an X-ray photon. In another way

The accelerated electrons are suddenly stopped by the target. According to Maxwell's theory, wherever a charged particle is accelerated or decelerated, they emit radiation. This is called Bremsstrahlung or braking radiation. When the whole of the energy of the electron is converted to radiation, one gets the maximum energy or minimum. If V is the potential difference applied, it is converted to the kinetic energy of the electron. If Ve = E = hv, then the wave-length = hc/E. hc = 12400 eV, and if E is given in eV, min = hc/E (eV.A) min. Is directly given in . When the electrons lose their energy by multiple collisions and penetration inside the target, the radiation, produced has less energy The energy that is not converted to radiation only heats up the target. It has to be cooled property to prevent damage to the X-ray tube.

Sources of bremsstrahlung
X-ray tube

Spectrum of the X-rays emitted by an X-ray tube with a rhodium target, operated at 60 kV. The continuous curve is due to bremsstrahlung, and the spikes are characteristic K lines for rhodium. The curve goes to zero at 21 pm in agreement with the DuaneHunt law, as described in the text. Main article: X-ray In an X-ray tube, electrons are accelerated in a vacuum by an electric field and shot into a piece of metal called the "target". X-rays are emitted as the electrons slow down (decelerate) in the metal. The output spectrum consists of a continuous spectrum of Xrays, with additional sharp peaks at certain energies (see graph on right). The continuous spectrum is due to bremsstrahlung, while the sharp peaks are characteristic X-rays associated with the atoms in the target. For this reason, bremsstrahlung in this context is also called continuous X-rays.

The spectrum has a sharp cutoff at low wavelength, which is due to the limited energy of the incoming electrons. For example, if an electron in the tube is accelerated through 60 kV, then it will acquire a kinetic energy of 60 keV, and when it strikes the target it can create X-rays with energy of at most 60 keV, by conservation of energy. (This upper limit corresponds to the electron coming to a stop by emitting just one X-ray photon. Usually the electron emits many photons, and each has an energy less than 60 keV. A photon with energy of at most 60 keV has wavelength of at least 21 pm, so the continuous X-ray spectrum has exactly that cutoff, as seen in the graph. More generally the formula for the low-wavelength cutoff is:[8]

where h is Planck's constant, c is the speed of light, V is the voltage that the electrons are accelerated through, e is the elementary charge, and pm is picometres. This is called the DuaneHunt law.

Beta decay
Main article: Beta decay Beta particle-emitting substances sometimes exhibit a weak radiation with continuous spectrum that is due to bremsstrahlung. In this context, bremsstrahlung is a type of "secondary radiation", in that it is produced as a result of stopping (or slowing) the primary radiation (beta particles). In electron and positron emission the photon's energy comes from the electron/nucleon pair, with the spectrum of the bremsstrahlung decreasing continuously with increasing energy of the beta particle. In electron capture the energy comes at the expense of the neutrino, and the spectrum is greatest at about one third of the normal neutrino energy, reaching zero at zero energy and at normal neutrino energy.

Inner and outer bremsstrahlung

The "inner" bremsstrahlung arises from the creation of the electron and its loss of energy (due to the strong electric field in the region of the nucleus undergoing decay) as it leaves the nucleus. This is to be contrasted with the "outer" bremsstrahlung due to the impingement on the nucleus of electrons coming from the outside

Radiation safety
In some cases, the bremsstrahlung produced by shielding the beta radiation with the normally used dense materials (e.g. lead) is itself dangerous; in such cases, shielding must be accomplished with low density materials, plastic, wood, or water because the rate of deceleration of the electron is slower, the radiation given off has a longer wavelength and is therefore less penetrating

What is K-Shell Emission

Remember that atoms have their electrons arranged in closed "shells" of different energies. The K-shell is the lowest energy state of an atom. An incoming electron can give a K-shell electron enough energy to knock it out of its energy state. About 0.1% of the electrons produce K-shell vacancies; most produce heat. Then, a tungsten electron of higher energy (from an outer shell) can fall into the K-shell. The energy lost by the falling electron shows up in an emitted x-ray photon. Meanwhile, higher energy electrons fall into the vacated energy state in the outer shell, and so on.

Otherwise The voltage difference between the cathode and anode is extremely high, so the electrons fly through the tube with a great deal of force. When a speeding electron collides with a tungsten atom, it knocks loose an electron in one of the atom's lower orbital. An electron in a higher orbital immediately falls to the lower energy level, releasing its extra energy in the form of a photon. It's a big drop, so the photon has a high energy level -- it is an X-ray photon.

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The free electron collides with the tungsten atom, knocking an electron out of a lower orbital. A higher orbital electron fills the empty position, releasing its excess energy as a photon.

Diagnostic radiography
Diagnostic radiography involves the use of both ionizing radiation and nonionizing radiation to create images for medical diagnoses. The predominant test is still the X-ray (the word X-ray is often used for both the test and the actual film or digital image). X-rays are the second most commonly used medical tests, after laboratory tests. This application is known as diagnostic radiography. Since the body is made up of various substances with differing densities, X-rays can be used to reveal the internal structure of the body on film

Since photographic plates are sensitive to X-rays, they provide a means of recording the image, but they also required much X-ray exposure (to the patient), hence intensifying screens were devised. They allow a lower dose to the patient, because the screens take the X-ray information and intensify it so that it can be recorded on film positioned next to the intensifying screen. The part of the patient to be X-rayed is placed between the X-ray source and the image receptor to produce a shadow of the internal structure of that particular part of the body. X-rays are partially blocked ("attenuated") by dense tissues such as bone, and pass more easily through soft tissues. Areas where the X-rays strike darken when developed, causing bones to appear lighter than the surrounding soft tissue.

Contrast compounds containing barium or iodine, which are radiopaque, can be ingested in the gastrointestinal tract (barium) or injected in the artery or veins to highlight these vessels. The contrast compounds have high atomic numbered elements in them that (like bone) essentially block the X-rays and hence the once hollow organ or vessel can be more readily
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seen. In the pursuit of a non-toxic contrast material, many types of high atomic number elements were evaluated.

Advantages of X-Ray
X-rays can be used to produce an image of any body part. It is also available as a portable x-ray unit and can be used in hospital wards, operation theatres and ICU/emergency rooms.

It is less costly when compared to the other imaging modalities like MRI or CT. However, the amount of information obtained is often limited.

Disadvantages of X-Ray
Exposure to ionizing radiation that is harmful to the human body. It is estimated that the additional radiation will increase a person's cumulative risk of getting cancer by age 75 by 0.61.8%.The amount of absorbed radiation depends upon the type of X-ray test and the body part involved. CT and fluoroscopy entail higher doses of radiation than do plain X-rays.
Fathers exposed to diagnostic X-rays are more likely to have infants who contract leukemia, especially if exposure is closer to conception or includes two or more X-rays of the lower gastrointestinal (GI) tract or lower abdomen. The risk of radiation is greater to unborn babies, so in pregnant patients, the benefits of the investigation (X-ray) should be balanced with the potential hazards to the unborn fetus. In the US, there are an estimated 62 million CT scans performed annually, including more than 4 million on children. Avoiding unnecessary X-rays (especially CT scans) will reduce radiation dose and any associated cancer risk.

Relatively low information when compared to other imaging methods.

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Uses of X Rays
In Medicine X rays help dentists detect diseases of the teeth. Doctors use X rays to locate bullets and other foreign objects within the body; to guide them in setting broken bones; and to detect cancer, ulcers, kidney stones, and other abnormalities. Various types of X-ray scanners have been developed that allow highly detailed views of a particular section of the body. One type, known as a CT (computerized tomography) scanner, sends narrow beams of X rays at various angles through a patient's body. The information obtained from the X rays is processed by a computer to produce an image of a cross-section of the body. The image shows much more detail than an ordinary X-ray picture. A section of the body can be studied in three dimensions by producing a series of adjacent cross-sectional images. X rays can halt the growth of cells and even destroy them altogether. They are therefore used to destroy benign and malignant tumors. X rays have also been used in the treatment of leukemia and bursitis. In Industry X rays are used to inspect canned goods and other packaged products. A conveyor carries the goods past a beam of X rays. If a container is improperly filled, or if it contains a foreign substance, the X rays set off an alarm or set into action a device that removes the container from the conveyor. X rays are similarly used to separate beryl from granite and to inspect airplane and automobile parts, rubber goods, plastics, metal castings, and a variety of other products. When used as a target in an X-ray tube, every element gives off X rays of specific wavelengths. These characteristic rays are used to analyze metal alloys, paint pigments, and other substances. In Science Scientists have learned much about the structure of matter by means of X rays. Among other things, they have learned how atoms are arranged in crystals. The average wavelength of X rays is about equal to the distance between the atoms in crystals. Crystals therefore act as diffraction gratings for X rays. That is, they scatter X rays in a pattern that shows the positions of their atoms. When the patterns of specific crystalline substances are known, technicians can use X rays to analyze substances of which they are a
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part. Petroleum products, metal alloys, and other substances are thus analyzed.

Applications:
1. Baggage Scanners WG IS5335 (S) X-Ray Hand Baggage Scanner The WG IS5335S is an advanced X-Ray Hand Baggage Scanner capable of detecting organic and inorganic items such as weapons, explosives using unique 6 color software which significantly enhances the operator's ability to identify suspicious items.

Applications

Airports; Banks; Commercial buildings; Courthouses; Embassies; Government buildings; Military installations; Prisons; Ships; Security checkpoints.

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2. Mobile scanning
WG IS Mobile X-Ray Screening Van
The WG IS Mobile X-Ray Van Screening system is a vehicle with a special version of the WG IS100XD advanced X-Ray Baggage Scanner that is capable of detecting organic and inorganic items such as weapons, explosives and narcotics using unique 6 color software which significantly enhances the operator's ability to identify suspicious items.

Applications

Airports; Government buildings; Military installations; Political events; Prisons; Random check points; Security check points; Sporting events; VIP events

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3. Post room scanning

WGX-25 X-Ray Mail Scanner
The WGX-25 X-Ray Mail Scanner is a slim-line, large capacity, color imaging mail and parcel scanner. Requiring only a simple click of the mouse to recognize everyday items and identify explosive device. The WGX-25 X-Ray Mail Scanner can see inside your mail and provide on the spot confirmation of unusual or unexpected packages.

Key features

Large inspection chamber accepts postal trays, parcels and briefcases; Slim-line Design; Quick and easy to use; A simple mouse control; Latest color technology; Freestanding with front loading door; Optional Image Download via network cable or USB stick.

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