An Evaluation of the Job Stress Questionnaire with a Sample of Entrepreneurs Author(s): Julie Aitken Harris, Robert Saltstone, Maryann

Fraboni Source: Journal of Business and Psychology, Vol. 13, No. 3 (Sep., 1999), pp. 447-455 Published by: Springer Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/25092650 Accessed: 09/03/2010 01:42
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JOURNAL OF BUSINESS AND PSYCHOLOGY

Volume 13, No. 3, Spring 1999

AN EVALUATION THE JOB STRESS OF QUESTIONNAIREWITH A SAMPLE OF ENTREPRENEURS

Julie Aitken
The University of Western

Harris
Ontario

Robert
Nipissing

Saltstone
University

Maryann
The University

Fraboni
Ontario

of Western

ABSTRACT: A modified version of Capian's Job Stress Questionnaire (JSQ) was were to 169 male and 56 female entrepreneurs. administered Entrepreneurs than with role found to have higher levels of stress associated with workload of skills. Compared to scores reported previously ambiguity and underutilization for various occupational categories, the entrepreneurs scored significantly higher than did white collar, blue collar, and professional groups on the workload scale lower on scales measuring role ambiguity and under-utiiization and significantly of skills. These results may be due to the nature of entrepreneurial activity, which is often characterized by heavy workloads, long hours, and a self-estab lished role in the organization. Additionally, the factorial composition of the JSQ and its internal consistency were examined. Evidence of convergent and discrim inant validity at the item and subscale level confirmed the a priori dimensions of the JSQ, although the internal consistency of the scales were low to moderate. in the measurement of occupational stress is The need for various improvements discussed. briefly

INTRODUCTION
as the are typically viewed Entrepreneurs on by heavy workloads, brought by the assumption
was This research supported Centre of Entrepreneurship, North

subjects of risk

of job stress in their busi

Bay and Uni

the North author from to the second by a grant A joint project of Canadore College Bay, Ontario: Aitken Ontario, Harris, Canada Department N6A 5C2. ? of Psychology, The

Nipissing University.
versity Address correspondence of Western Ontario, to Julie London,

447

1999 Human Sciences Press, Inc.

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JOURNAL OF BUSINESS AND PSYCHOLOGY

to be excessive activities do not appear (although entrepreneurs risk-takers and by higher than average need for achieve (Palmer, 1971)), ment & Roth, 1995). Some researchers 1982; Langan-Fox (Brockhaus, are flexible, with have found that entrepreneurs individuals persistent to standard levels of frustration and a strong resistance tolerance high as representing a lack of which might be viewed procedures, operating role ambiguity 1980). (Hull, Bosley, & Udell, and Boyd (1986) has shown that business foun Research by Begley of need for achievement, ders have high scores on measures risk-taking of role ambiguity. and Boyd, however, and tolerance Begley propensity, on a between founders and non-founders business found no differences Buttner in differences of Type A behavior. (1992) investigated in entrepreneurs and health of stress, job satisfaction, problems of that study suggest that entrepre to managers. The results compared neurs have levels of stress due to role ambiguity, higher experience are less able to relieve work-related more health and tension, problems, were their work in general than were managers. In less satisfied with were found to report less stress from role con addition, entrepreneurs that stress may be man These flict than did managers. findings suggest sources for entrepreneurs, the need for further ifested in unique ways requiring measures of work stress with en to be conducted with research specific
trepreneurs.

ness

measure

of occupational of concepts stress and models has The diversity or statistically results to summarize research made it difficult aggregate and to draw on a cumulative theory in order to set body of substantiated new directions in stress research Theoretical for investigation. diversity of a number of incongruous the development has also fostered research measures differ according to inventories. Available scales and stress to various their theoretical and their applicability basis, occupations, the domain of environmental Stressors. in representing their completeness of environmental Stressors the domain has, itself, been Clarifying an ongoing in the research Multi literature. and fragmented process of stress have been hypothesized models dimensional Cobb, (Caplan, & Pinneau, & Spo Van Harrison, 1974; Osipow 1975; Kahn, French, of the pro & Lirtzman, 1970). However, many kane, 1984; Rizzo, House, are intercorrelated, the construct thus reducing sub-constructs posed such as scale redundancy, Structural of instruments. problems, validity coefficients. obtained also attenuates validity Conversely, predictive some authors that are only concerned instruments have constructed em and later, these scales have been incorrectly with specific Stressors, of job stress. This underrepresentation of the ployed as global indicators of variance stress will likewise affect the amount domain of occupational variable. that can be explained by stress in a dependent of occupational in the measurement for confusion Another basis of stress with moderator of sources stress has been the confounding

J. A. HARRIS, R. SALTSTONE, AND M. FRABONI

449

variables such as individual, and organizational variants, occupational, of stress, such as and the confounding of sources of stress with outcomes and psychological and job dissatisfaction. French, physical symptoms a model and Van Harrison of occupational have proposed (1982) Caplan, at stress named the "Person-Environment (P-E) Fit" theory which to clarify the interplay environmental variables and between tempts of the person which stress and strain in the occu determine properties a decade of work which evolved pational setting. This model throughout to quantify stress in a multidimensional frame attempted occupational work. French that stress and strain are the re and colleagues suggest sult of a poor fit between of the person and related the characteristics of the job. characteristics The Job Stress Questionnaire et al., 1975) was devel (JSQ; Caplan for the use in the ongoing of the P-E Fit theory and a research oped version of it was used modified in the current study of entrepreneurs. The JSQ is a 13-item questionnaire to reflect a four dimensio designed Fit" model of job stress. Each of the dimen in interaction of the job environment which, a particular as being stress producing. with is hypothesized individual, are: (a) Workload, four dimensions These (c) Role Am (b) Role Conflict, and which four common of Skills, (d) Utilization biguity, represent sources of stress and do not represent all types of stress. The Workload items measure the quantitative aspect of work-over as having load resulting is defined from time pressures. Role Conflict demands made the individual upon incompatible logically by two or more the indi with persons whose jobs are functionally interdependent a person as a state in which was considered vidual's job. Role Ambiguity sions "Person-Environment an aspect reflects has inadequate to perform information their role in an organization, and a stress factor related of Skills considers Utilization to under-utilization on the job. of previously skills in carrying out tasks required acquired A factor analysis of the JSQ (Hamel & Bracken, three 1986), using diverse the four-factor of job model groups, occupational supported in the total sample. However, stress (blue collar work only one sample to analysis, ers), of the three individual occupational subjected samples a four-factor of the JSQ was adequately solution. The structure yielded described of professionals by three factors in samples (university faculty work and engineers) and white collar workers (clerical and secretarial these three factors were items in of different ers), although comprised each sample. nal

Purpose is to be of value in research (particularly of the scale structure and other the stability comparisons), ties need further evaluation. The present study reports If the JSQ occupational scale proper on the scale

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structure the JSQ

internal consistency (reliability) a sample of entrepreneurs. utilizing

and

of a modified

version

of

METHOD
Subjects = owners from 12 Ontario business cities 225) were (N tested as part of another less than 300,000), (see Fra study (populations of this study, an entrepre boni and Saltstone, 1990). For the purposes a service, neur was defined as one who both owns and operates retail, or manufacturing of personal services business. wholesale, Operators to be inves and franchise (many of whom would be considered operators were excluded. tors rather than innovators) Subjects

Procedure of the use of Chamber identified Potential subjects were through to par to obtain their consent and were contacted Commerce directories 15 demographic in a Subjects were asked to answer questions ticipate. a questionnaire. interview and then were mailed telephone Fifty-two to participate returned their completed of those who agreed percent in self-addressed envelopes by the re questionnaires stamped provided
searchers.

Instrumentation The research Job Stress ality, work values, (1975) questionnaire Questionnaire and questions included a modified of Caplan's version of person (JSQ), as well as measures and de business description regarding

mographics. to modify the JSQ to be used with this sample. It was necessary or supervision from someone in Three items (related to taking direction a higher were deemed not to apply to entrepreneurs and were position) items were the original removed from the 13-item scale. These deleted and item scale Items 6 and 7, which the Role Conflict subscale, comprise in a 10-item This resulted scale 8 from the Role Ambiguity subscale. to three a priori defined subscales: (a) Workload, (b) Role Am composed

biguity, and (c)Utilization

Data Analysis

of Skills.

by adding JSQ scale scores were determined of items in the scale. Scores ing by the number

item scores and divid on the JSQ scales for

J. A. HARRIS, R. SALTSTONE, AND M. FRABONI

451

were compared for the occupational to those obtained cat entrepreneurs and Braken ?-tests. This com (1986) using by Hamel egories reported was undertaken to differentiate the JSQ's to explore parison capacity stress levels in divergent these compari groups. However, occupational sons are post hoc and should be interpreted with some caution. the descriptive of Following comparison, psychometric properties were calculated to the JSQ were examined. Cronbach alpha coefficients internal The determine of scales matrix intercorrelation consistency. and discriminant evi and items was for convergent validity inspected rota of the items with varimax dence. Finally, axis factoring principal to further explore scale structure. tion was employed

RESULTS
1 reports the JSQ scale means, Table standard and al deviations, for the entrepreneur coefficients with scale JSQ sample along pha means and standard Hamel deviations and Braken (1986) by provided to for three occupational groups which were used in ?-test computations with the entrepreneur Scores descriptive provide comparisons sample. = = for males 169) and females 56) did not differ significantly. (N (N on Workload than on the Role Ambi The entrepreneurs scored higher and Utilization of Skills scales. The alpha coefficient for Workload guity was the alphas for Role Ambiguity however and Utilization of (.59) .81, Skills low to moderate internal (.63) suggest consistency. were All scale score differences (Table 1). statistically significant The than white scored significantly collar, blue entrepreneurs higher collar, and professional scale, but significantly groups on the Workload on the Role Ambiguity lower than the three groups and Utilization of was scales. The Skills found between largest difference entrepreneurs for Utilization and professionals with of Skills, professionals scoring than the entrepreneurs. higher Pearson between the items and their correlations product-moment provisional

scales and the other JSQ scales the (see Table 2) revealed and discriminant the scales. among convergent expected relationships All items yielded correlations from .63 to .87 with their provisio ranging nal scales. Items were not even moderately correlated with their irrele vant scales. As well, of total scale scores suggested intercorrelations the was A small scales were positive roughly relationship independent. the Utilization scale and the Role Ambiguity found between of Skills
scale.

of a factor analysis Results substantiated (see Table 3) further three a priori defined of the JSQ. The intercorrelation dimensions trix of the 10 items was to a principal axis factoring subjected

the ma using

Table 1
Means (M), SD, and Values of t for Comparisons Between Stress Workload N M SD M Entrepreneurs Questionnaire Ambiguity SD and Three

Occupa

Sample

Entrepreneur White Collar Entrepreneur Blue Collar Entrepreneur Professional

HDccupational .05 *p < < .001 **p

225 268 225 178 225 157

group means,

4.94 4.63 4.94 4.22 4.94 4.70

SD, and N

1.07 1.16 1.07 1.01 1.07 1.12

obtained from

3.10* 7.20* 2.18*

2.66 2.66 2.66

1.29 .90 4.08 1.29 .97 3.90 1.29 .81 4.04

(1986).

14.2

10.3

12.5

Hamel

and Bracken

J. A. HARRIS, R. SALTSTONE, AND M. FRABONI

453

Table 2
Correlation of Job Stress Questionnaire Items and Scales

Workload Variable
WL1

Role Ambiguity (RA) (WL)

.77* -.03 -.09

Utilization of Skills (US)

WL2 WL3 WL4 WL5 RA? RA2 US1 US2 US3

Ambiguity of Skills Utilization *p < .001 Role -

.79*

-.02 .01 .73* .05 .09 .76* -.04 .03 .72* -.06 -.10 -.12 .82* .15 .06 .87* .17 .01 .18 .81* -.02 .20 .63* -.02 .06 .82*
.19

.02 .01

of the communalities An eigenvalue of 1.0 in the diagonal. estimates was specified as the minimum and three fac value for factor retention, tors were to varimax criterion extracted. The factors were and rotated the factor matrix was examined. A value of .30 was adopted as the mini mum to be considered for a factor loading.

All items belonging together in a scale loaded highly (median value

of the loadings across factors factors. The values .62) on their respective was consistent for simple and within factors with Thurstone's criteria structure for a (Thurstone, 1947, p. 335). The three factors accounted

TableS
Factor Loadings for the Job Stress Questionnaire I Factor Items After Varimax Rotation

Item1 Factor .71 WL1 .75 WL2 .60 WL3 .70 WL4 .64 WL5 -.12 RA? .08 RA2 .02 US1 US2 -.02 -.02 US3

Factor III II

-.10 .00 .00 -.01 .08 .09 .05 -.05 -.09 -.07 .72 .08 .58 .12 .13 .59 .22 .41 -.06 .85

*WL= Workload, RA = Role Ambiguity, US = Utilization

of Skills.

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total of 45.5% of the variance. I (Workload), II (Utilization Factor Factor of Skills), and Factor III (Role Ambiguity) for 23.5, 14.1, and accounted 8% of the variance, respectively.

DISCUSSION
scores on of entrepreneurs used in this study obtained sample scales which to be a their workload found JSQ suggested they source of on-the-job stress than problems associated with under greater utilization of their skills or with ambiguity about their role in the busi ness. These of 56.74 indicated that they spent an average entrepreneurs on their business, a greater hours (SD = 12.66) directly of time amount activities of em than may be found in samples spent on work-related is structured whose workload ployees by clock-punching. The large differences and the white between collar, entrepreneurs blue collar, and professional of Skills can be partly groups for Utilization some limita to choose (within explained by the entrepreneurs* ability their skills tions) their activities. Thus, the extent to which they exercise is self-determined. pro Also, the other occupational groups, particularly The the and education may have a greater fessionals, degree of specific training more and consequently is not to skills to potentially under-utilize. This or skilled. were that the entrepreneurs In the pre less educated suggest a high school di sent study, only 15% of the sample had not obtained to com ploma, and 40% who had completed high school had continued education plete a post-secondary program. Although only 18% of the business subjects had attended school, 73% indicated they had acquired to their business skills relevant from prior employment. it is Therefore, more of specific skills may vary more and number likely that education within the entrepreneur less emo may have group and entrepreneurs tional in their education investment and skills than groups of individ or trained for particular uals who have studied trades and occupations. lack of role ambiguity for the entrepreneur comparative sample in the entrepreneur's be inherent the orga may simply position within nizational of the subjects considered them percent hierarchy. Seventy to be the primary selves in the business. decision-maker This, along with having initiated the business would that the themselves, suggest role within is largely self-established and the business entrepreneur's this might lead to less ambiguity. The modified of the JSQ used version in this study was found to have a high degree of convergent and discriminant at evidence validity the item level, and scales demonstrated al independence, appropriate the scales had low to moderate values. The internal though consistency three a priori determined of job stress were in the dimensions evident A

J. A. HARRIS, R. SALTSTONE, AND M. FRABONI

455

of the full JSQ (including the Role Conflict Factor analyses. analysis a sample drawn from a population to which all items would scale), using not produce and Role such concise structure. Role Ambiguity apply, may seem conceptually for these items designated Conflict and the related, factors. scales may not produce distinct for the JSQ is relatively low but not unex Internal consistency It is unlikely of items per scale. that the pected given the small number are adequately content domains in for these sub-constructs represented in the Role Ambiguity of Skills and Utilization the items, especially if the degree of of job stress would be improved scales. Future measures like the JSQ, could be ac in measures, structural fidelity exemplified as scales of orthogonal Stressors representation companied by a greater and through sampling of the content domain.

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