Chapter 13

Gravitation

In this chapter we will explore the following topics: -Newtons law of gravitation that describes the attractive force between two point masses and its application to extended objects -The acceleration of gravity on the surface of the earth, above it, as well as below it. -Gravitational potential energy -Keplers three laws on planetary motion -Satellites (orbits, energy , escape velocity)
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Claudius Ptolomeu

In contrast, planets follow complicated paths in the sky. An example of such motion is given in the figure. Tycho Brahe made very careful measurementsof planetary motions but he died before he had the chance to analyze his data.

This task was carried out by his assistant Johannes Kepler who summarized the results into three empirical laws known by his name. Later, Newton used his second law of motion with his gravitational law and the newly developed methods of calculus and derived Kepler's laws

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Nicolau Coprnico Giordano Bruno Galileu Galilei

Kepler
1 Lei

2 Lei

dA = constant dt

Kepler's Third law The square of the period of any planet is proportional to the cube of the semimajor axis of its orbit. For the sake of simplicity we will consider the circulr orbit shown in the figure. A planet of mass m moves on a circular orbit of radius r around a star of mass M . We apply Newton's second law to the motion: GMm GM Fg = 2 = ma = ( m) ( 2 r ) = m 2 r 3 = 2 (eqs.1) The period T can be expressed r r 2 4 2 2 in terms of the angular speed . T = T = 2 (eqs.2) T 2 4 2 2 If we substitute form eqs.1 into eqs.2 we get: = 3 r MG T2 Note 1: The ratio 3 does not depend on the mass m of the r planet but only on the mass M of the central star. T2 Note 2: For elliptical orbits the ratio 3 remains constant a
T 2 4 2 = 3 r MG

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m2

m1

m1m2 F =G 2 r

m1m2 F =G 2 r
F21 r

m2 m1 F1

F12 m1

m2

m2

m1

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1. A Terra no uniformemente distribuda 2. A Terra no esfrica 3. A Terra est girando

3. Terra est girando

y-axis

m2

m1

m2

r F1

m1

Gravitation inside the earth Newton proved that the net gravitational force on a particle by a shell depends on the postion of the particle with respect to the shell If the particle is inside the shell, the net force is zero m1m2 r2 Consider a mass m inside the earth at a distance r from the center of the earth If the particle is outside the shell the force is given by: F1 = G If we divide the earth in a series of concentric shells, only the shells with radius less than r exert a force on m. The net force on m is: F = Here M ins M ins 4 r 3 4 Gm = Vins = F = r 3 3 GmM ins r2 is the mass of the part of the earth inside a sphere os radius r F is linear with r

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m r

U =

GmM r

Gravitational Potential Energy In chapter 8 we derived the potential energy U of a mass m near the surface of the earth. We will remove this restriction and assume that the mass m can move away from the surface of the earth, at a distance r from the center of the earth as shown in the figure. In this case the gravitational potential energy is: GmM U = The negative sign of U expresses the fact that r the corresponding gravitational force is attractive Note: The gravitational potential energy is not only associated with the mass m but with M as well i.e. with both objects

If we have three masses m1 , m2, and m3 positi oned as shown in the figure the potential energy U due to the gravitational forces among the objects is: Gm1m2 Gm1m3 Gm2m3 U = + + We take into account each pair once r13 r23 r12

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v=0

Escape Speed If a projectile of mass m is fired upward at point A as shown in the figure, the projectile will stop momentarily and return to the earth.

2GM v= R

There is however a minimum initial speed for which the projectile will escape from the gravitational pull of the earth and will stop at infinity (point B in the figure). This minimum speed is known as escape velocity. We can determine the escape velocity using energy conservation between point A and point B. mv 2 GMm EA = K + U = EB = K + U = 0 2 R mv 2 GMm 2GM E A = EB =0v= 2 R R The escape speed form the earth is 11.2 km/s Note: The escape speed does not depend on m

r=

v
A m

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Planets and Satellites: Kepler's Laws Rotation Axis Stars follow regular paths in the evening sky. of the Celestial They rotate once every 24 hours about sphere an axis that passes through the Polaris star polaris. Polaris is the only star that does not move in the sky. The stars have fixed spatial relationships among them. Humans have N Star classified them in groups earth known as "constellations"
S

Celestial sphere

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Satellites: Orbits and Energy Consider a satellite that follows a circular orbit of radius r around a planet of mass M . We apply Newton's second GMm v2 GM law and have: = ma = m v 2 = r2 r r mv 2 GMm The kinetic energy K= = (eqs.1) 2 2r GMm The potential energy U = (eqs.2) r U If we compare eqs.1 with eqs.2 we have: K = (eqs.3) 2 GMm GMm GMm The total energy E = K + U = = = K 2r r 2r The energies E , K , and U are plotted as function of r in the figure to the left. GMm Note: For elliptical orbits E = 2a

E=

GMm 2r

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