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Mainak Mondal of
Class-7e roll no.-35
The Sun
The Sun, a Yellow dwarf, is the
Star at the center of the solar
system. The Earth and other
matter (including other planets,
asteroids, meteoroids, comets,
and dust) orbit the Sun, which by
itself accounts for about 99.8%
of the Solar System's mass. The
mean distance of the Sun from
the Earth is approximately
149,600,000 kilometers, or
92,960,000 miles, and its light
travels this distance in 8.3
minutes. Energy from the Sun, in
the form of sunlight, supports
almost all life on Earth via
photosynthesis, and drives the
Earth's climate and weather.
 The Sun is a yellow main sequence star comprising about 99% of the total
mass of the Solar System. It is a near-perfect sphere, with an oblateness
estimated at about 9 millionths,[34] which means that its polar diameter
differs from its equatorial diameter by only 10 km (6 mi). As the Sun exists
in a plasmatic state and is not solid, it rotates faster at its equator than at
its poles. This behavior is known as differential rotation. The period of this
actual rotation is approximately 25 days at the equator and 35 days at the
poles. However, due to our constantly changing vantage point from the
Earth as it orbits the Sun, the apparent rotation of the star at its equator is
about 28 days. The centrifugal effect of this slow rotation is 18 million times
weaker than the surface gravity at the Sun's equator. The tidal effect of the
planets is even weaker, and does not significantly affect the shape of the
Sun.
 The Sun does not have a definite boundary as rocky planets do, and in its
outer parts the density of its gases drops approximately exponentially with
increasing distance from its center. Nevertheless, it has a well-defined
interior structure, described below. The Sun's radius is measured from its
center to the edge of the photosphere. This is simply the layer above which
the gases are too cool or too thin to radiate a significant amount of light,
and is therefore the surface most readily visible to the naked eye. The solar
core comprises 10 percent of its total volume, but 40 percent of its total
Parts----

An illustration of
the structure of
the Sun:
1. Core
2. Radiative zone
3. Convective
zone
4. Photosphere
5. Chromosphere
6. Corona
7. Sunspot
8. Granules
9. Prominence
 The Sun is composed primarily of the chemical elements hydrogen and helium; they
account for 74.9% and 23.8% of the mass of the Sun in the photosphere, respectively.
[44]
All heavier elements, called metals in astronomy, account for less than 2 percent of
the mass. The most abundant metals are oxygen (roughly 1% of the Sun's mass),
carbon (0.3%), neon (0.2%), and iron (0.2%).[45]
 The Sun inherited its chemical composition from the interstellar medium out of which
it formed: the hydrogen and helium in the Sun were produced by
Big Bang nucleosynthesis. The metals were produced by stellar nucleosynthesis in
generations of stars which completed their stellar evolution and returned their
material to the interstellar medium prior to the formation of the Sun.[46] The chemical
composition of the photosphere is normally considered representative of the
composition of the primordial Solar System.[47] However, since the Sun formed, the
helium and heavy elements have settled out of the photosphere. Therefore, the
photosphere now contains slightly less helium and only 84% of the heavy elements
than the protostellar Sun did; the protostellar Sun was 71.1% hydrogen, 27.4%
helium, and 1.5% metals.[44][48]
 In the inner portions of the Sun, nuclear fusion has modified the composition by
converting hydrogen into helium, so the innermost portion of the Sun is now roughly
60% helium, with the metal abundance unchanged. Because the interior of the Sun is
Radiative, not convective (see Structure above), none of the fusion products from the
core have risen to the photosphere.[49]
 The solar heavy-element abundances described above are typically measured both
using spectroscopy of the Sun's photosphere and by measuring abundances in
 The parts of the Sun above the
photosphere are referred to
collectively as the solar
atmosphere. They can be viewed
with telescopes operating across
the electromagnetic spectrum,
from radio through visible light to
gamma rays, and comprise five
principal zones: the temperature
minimum, the chromosphere, the
transition region, the corona, and
the heliosphere. The heliosphere,
which may be considered the
tenuous outer atmosphere of the
Sun, extends outward past the
orbit of Pluto to the heliopause,
where it forms a sharp shock front
boundary with the
interstellar medium. The
chromosphere, transition region,
and corona are much hotter than
the surface of the Sun. The reason
why has not been conclusively
proven; evidence suggests that
Alfvén waves may have enough
energy to heat the corona
Photosphere
 The visible surface of the Sun, the photosphere, is
the layer below which the Sun becomes opaque
to visible light. Above the photosphere visible
sunlight is free to propagate into space, and its
energy escapes the Sun entirely. The change in
opacity is due to the decreasing amount of H-
ions, which absorb visible light easily. Conversely,
the visible light we see is produced as electrons
react with hydrogen atoms to produce H- ions.[38]
[39]
The photosphere is actually tens to hundreds
of kilometers thick, being slightly less opaque
than air on Earth. Because the upper part of the
photosphere is cooler than the lower part, an
image of the Sun appears brighter in the center
than on the edge or limb of the solar disk, in a
phenomenon known as limb darkening. Sunlight
has approximately a black-body spectrum that
indicates its temperature is about 6,000 K,
interspersed with atomic absorption lines from
the tenuous layers above the photosphere. The
photosphere has a particle density of about
1023 m−3 (this is about 1% of the particle density
of Earth's atmosphere at sea level).
 Radiative zone
 From about 0.2 to about 0.7 solar radii, solar
material is hot and dense enough that
thermal radiation is sufficient to transfer the
intense heat of the core outward. In this
zone there is no thermal convection; while
the material grows cooler as altitude
increases, this temperature gradient is less
than the value of adiabatic lapse rate and
hence cannot drive convection. Heat is
transferred by radiation—ions of hydrogen
and helium emit photons, which travel a
brief distance before being reabsorbed by
other ions. In this way energy makes its way
very slowly (see above) outward.
 Between the radiative zone and the
convection zone is a transition layer called
the tachocline. This is a region where the
sharp regime change between the uniform
rotation of the radiative zone and the
differential rotation of the convection zone
results in a large shear—a condition where
successive vertical layers slide past one
 Convection zone
 In the Sun's outer layer (down to approximately
70% of the solar radius), the solar plasma is not
dense enough or hot enough to transfer the heat
energy of the interior outward via radiation. As a
result, thermal convection occurs as
thermal columns carry hot material to the surface
(photosphere) of the Sun. Once the material cools
off at the surface, it plunges back downward to
the base of the convection zone, to receive more
heat from the top of the radiative zone.
Convective overshoot is thought to occur at the
base of the convection zone, carrying turbulent
downflows into the outer layers of the radiative
zone.
 The thermal columns in the convection zone form
an imprint on the surface of the Sun, in the form
of the solar granulation and supergranulation. The
turbulent convection of this outer part of the solar
interior gives rise to a "small-scale" dynamo that
produces magnetic north and south poles all over
the surface of the Sun.
 The Sun's thermal columns are Bénard cells and
therefore tend to be hexagonal prisms.
 CORE of the
sun
 The core of the Sun is considered to extend
from the center to about 0.2 solar radii. It
has a density of up to 150,000 kg/m³ (150
times the density of water on Earth) and a
temperature of close to 13,600,000 Kelvin
(by contrast, the surface of the Sun is around
5,800 Kelvin). Recent analysis of SOHO
mission data favors a faster rotation rate in
the core than in the rest of the radiative
zone.[36] Through most of the Sun's life,
energy is produced by nuclear fusion
through a series of steps called the
p–p (proton–proton) chain; this process
converts hydrogen into helium. The core is
the only location in the Sun that produces an
appreciable amount of heat via fusion: the
rest of the star is heated by energy that is
transferred outward from the core. All of the
energy produced by fusion in the core must
travel through many successive layers to the
 The Sun lies close to the
inner rim of the
Milky Way Galaxy's
Orion Arm, in the
Local Fluff or the
Gould Belt, at a
hypothesized distance of
7.62±0.32 kpc (24,800
light-years) from the
Galactic Center.[20][21][22][23]
The distance between
the local arm and the
next arm out, the
Perseus Arm, is about
6,500 light-years.[24] The
Sun, and thus the Solar
System, is found in what
scientists call the
galactic habitable zone
 When observing the Sun with
appropriate filtration, the most
immediately visible features are
usually its sunspots, which are
well-defined surface areas that
appear darker than their
surroundings because of lower
temperatures. Sunspots are
regions of intense magnetic
activity where convection is
inhibited by strong magnetic
fields, reducing energy transport
from the hot interior to the
surface. The magnetic field gives
rise to strong heating in the
corona, forming active regions
that are the source of intense
solar flares and
coronal mass ejections. The
largest sunspots can be tens of
thousands of kilometers across
 The number of sunspots visible on
the Sun is not constant, but varies
over an 11-year cycle known as
the solar cycle. At a typical solar
minimum, few sunspots are
visible, and occasionally none at
all can be seen. Those that do
appear are at high solar latitudes.
As the sunspot cycle progresses,
the number of sunspots increases
and they move closer to the
equator of the Sun, a phenomenon
described by Spörer's law.
Sunspots usually exist as pairs
with opposite magnetic polarity.
The magnetic polarity of the
leading sunspot alternates every
solar cycle, so that it will be a
north magnetic pole in one solar
cycle and a south magnetic pole in
the next
 Sunlight is very bright, and looking directly
at the Sun with the naked eye for brief
periods can be painful, but is not
particularly hazardous for normal, non-
dilated eyes.[84][85] Looking directly at the
Sun causes phosphene visual artifacts and
temporary partial blindness. It also delivers
about 4 milliwatts of sunlight to the retina,
slightly heating it and potentially causing
damage in eyes that cannot respond
properly to the brightness.[86][87] UV
exposure gradually yellows the lens of the
eye over a period of years and is thought to
contribute to the formation of cataracts, but
this depends on general exposure to solar
UV, not on whether one looks directly at the
Sun.[88] Long-duration viewing of the direct
Sun with the naked eye can begin to cause
UV-induced, sunburn-like lesions on the
retina after about 100 seconds, particularly
under conditions where the UV light from
the Sun is intense and well focused;[89][90]
conditions are worsened by young eyes or
new lens implants (which admit more UV
 We certainly know that our universe exists, however, this knowledge alone
has not satisfied mankind's quest for further understanding. Our curiosity
has led us to question our place in this universe and furthermore, the place
of the universe itself. Throughout time we have asked ourselves these
questions: How did our universe begin? How old is our universe? How did
matter come to exist? Obviously, these are not simple questions and
throughout our brief history on this planet much time and effort has been
spent looking for some clue. Yet, after all this energy has been expended,
much of what we know is still only speculation. 
 We have, however, come a long way from the mystical beginnings of the
study of cosmology and the origins of the universe. Through the
understandings of modern science we have been able to provide firm
theories for some of the answers we once called hypotheses. True to the
nature of science, a majority of these answers have only led to more
intriguing and complex questions. It seems to be inherent in our search for
knowledge that questions will always continue to exist. 
 Although in this short chapter it will be impossible to tackle all of the
questions concerning the creation of everything we know as reality, an
attempt will be made to address certain fundamental questions of our
being. It will be important to keep in mind that all of this information is
constantly being questioned and reevaluated in order to understand the
universe more clearly. For our purposes, through an examination of what is
known about the Big Bang itself, the age of the universe, and the synthesis
of the first atoms, we believe that we can begin to answer several of these
key questions. 
 About 15 billion years ago a
tremendous explosion started the
expansion of the universe. This
explosion is known as the Big Bang.
At the point of this event all of the
matter and energy of space was
contained at one point. What
exisisted prior to this event is
completely unknown and is a matter
of pure speculation. This occurrence
was not a conventional explosion
but rather an event filling all of
space with all of the particles of the
embryonic universe rushing away
from each other. The Big Bang
actually consisted of an explosion of
space within itself unlike an
explosion of a bomb were fragments
are thrown outward. The galaxies
were not all clumped together, but
rather the Big Bang lay the
 The facts……. hidden somewhere
The story….….. unrevealed
The truth….. not known exactly
The path…. untraced
An attempt to explore the way!!!
An effort to blend biology, chemistry, and physics in the
search to identify and understand the origin of life in the
universe
It’s a “Journey Back In Time”…
ORIGIN OF LIFE
 BIG BANG

Cosmic dust and gases+

H2O

Ocea
ns

Haldane
soup

Reducing atmosphere(gases like

CH4,NH3,N2,CO2,H2O responsible for
abiotic synthesis of organic
compounds)
 Haldane Soup

Simple
Molecules

Complex Molecules (building blocks)

Aggregates (coacervates and Microspher

microspheres) e

Protocells( proprimitive stage before formation

of true cell

Proto cells + nucleic acid = self

replicating system

“CELL”
 “Cell” Energy Yielding
System
• Chlorophyll developmentPhotosynth

esis
O2 evolved

Ozone Formation
(shielding effect)
• Atmosphere changed to oxidizing from reducing.

• Evolutionof photosynthesis which is followed by

respiration.
Organic compounds arrived from outer
space
It states that hydrocarbons and other
organic molecules (molecules that
organisms contain or that might lead to
the genesis of life) have been found in
meteorites –
 It means that at least prebiotic
chemistry that leads to the primordial
soup might be going on there.
In 1969, a meteorite landed in Australia that was 12%
water and contained traces of 92 amino acids.
Inference- It points to not only the presence of
organic compounds in outer space, but also the
capacity of such compounds to reach earth.

Fred Hoyle and Chandra Wickramasinghe have

argued persistently since the 1970s that complex
organic substances, and perhaps even primitive
organisms, might have evolved on the surface of
comic dust grains in space and then been transported
to the Earth's surface by comets and meteorites.
 There is an ongoing debate regarding the most probable site of
life's origins.

 The prevailing paradigm - life began near the ocean's surface,

bathed in sunlight.
Miller and Urey found
 Current Research - life arose near deep hydrothermal vents which
is still under investigation.

"Scientists have long suspected that life on Earth originated in the

ocean and strong evidence now suggests that the earliest life on our
planet occurred in the depths of the ocean in the absence of heat and
light."

-- Pulse of the Planet, American Museum of Natural History

Time since T
Big Bang (K)
< 10-43s Quantum era

~ 10-35s - 10-33s Inflationary epoch

~ 10-6s 1013K Quark --> Hadron transition

Time since T
Big Bang (K)
0.01s 1011K · The Universe expands rapidly,
scale is doubled every 0.02s.
· it cools, T ~ 1/R.

15s 3 x 109K · Temperature is below threshold

for creation of electron/positron
pairs.
· e+/ e- annihilate
· The Universe is "reheated"
about 35% by annihilation.
3 min 109K Era of Nuclear Reactions
· Nuclei begin to hold together
Time since T
Big Bang (K)

3 &1/2 min 108K End of Nuclear Reactions

neutrons have been "used-up"
forming 4He
Universe is now 90% H nuclei( p+)
& 10% He nuclei

106yr 4000K Era of Recombination

nuclei & electrons "recombine to
form atoms

109yr Era of Galaxy Formation

•Galaxies are moving away from us at speeds
proportional to their distance. This is called
"Hubble's Law," named after Edwin Hubble
(1889-1953) who discovered this phenomenon in
1929
•The abundance of the "light elements" Hydrogen
and Helium found in the observable universe are
thought to support the Big Bang model of origins
•Cosmic Background Radiation predicted by
Cosmologist George Gamov in 1948 and discovered
by Arno Penzias & Robert Wilson of Bell Labs in
1965.
 http://scienceweek.com
 www.nationalgeographic.com
 QUR FAVOUTATE NIL SIR ..
 Google.com
 Microsoft
 Encarta
 AND OF’COZ XLRI and MY COMPUTER