Rheology

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1. Introduction
Rheology is the science of flow and deformation of matter and describes the interrelation between force, deformation and time. The term comes from Greek rheos meaning to flow. Rheology is applicable to all materials, from gases to solids.
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 The science of rheology is only about 80 years of age. It was founded by two scientists meeting in the late '20s and finding out having the same need for describing fluid flow properties.
The scientists were Professor Marcus Reiner and Professor Eugene Bingham.

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 The Greek philosopher Heraclitus described rheology as panta rei - everything flows.

Translated into rheological terms by Marcus Reiner this means everything will flow if you just wait long enough.

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 Fluid rheology is used to describe the consistency of different products, normally by the two components viscosity and elasticity. By viscosity is usually meant resistance to flow or thickness and by elasticity usually stickiness or structure.

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2. Classification of materials
Fluids are normally divided into three different groups according to their flow behavior:

2.1 Newtonian fluids

2.2 Non-Newtonian fluids, time independent 2.3 Non-newtonian fluids, time dependent

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2.1 Newtonian fluids

The viscosity of Newtonian fluid is dependent only on temperature but not on shear rate and time.

Examples: water milk sugar solution mineral oil

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2.2 Non-Newtonian fluids, time independent

The viscosity of a Non-Newtonian time independent fluid is dependent not only on temperature but also on shear rate. Depending on how viscosity changes with shear rate the flow behavior is characterized as:

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a) shear thinning - the viscosity decreases with increased shear rate

b) shear thickening - the viscosity increases with increased shear rate

c) plastic - exhibits a so-called yield value, i.e. a certain shear stress must be applied before flow occurs

Shear thinning fluids are also called pseudoplastic and shear thickening fluids are also called dilatant.
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Examples of shear thinning fluids:

paint shampoo slurries fruit juice concentrates ketchup

Examples of shear thickening fluids:

wet sand concentrated starch suspensions

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Examples of plastic fluids:

quark tomato paste tooth paste hand cream some ketchups grease

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2.3 Non-Newtonian fluids, time dependent

The viscosity of the fluid is dependent on temperature, shear rate and time. Depending on how viscosity changes with time the flow behavior is characterized as:

a) thixotropic (time thinning, i.e. viscosity decreases with time) b) rheopectic (time thickening, i.e. viscosity increases with time)

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Thixotropic fluids are quite common in chemical as well as in food industry. Rheopectic fluids are very rare.

Examples: thixotropic: yoghurt, paint rheopectic: gypsum paste

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3. Mechanical Properties
The mechanical properties of a polymer involve its behavior under stress. These properties tell a polymer scientist or engineer many of the things needs to know when considering how a polymer can be used.

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How strong is the polymer? How much can you stretch it before it breaks? How stiff is it? How much does it bend when you push on it?

Is it brittle?
Does it break easily if you hit it hard? Is it hard or soft? Does it hold up well under repeated stress?
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 The mechanical properties of polymers are one of the features that distinguishes them from small molecules.
3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.6 Stress-Strain Curves Tensile Strength % Elongation-to-Break Young's Modulus Toughness Typical Materials

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Stress

The tensile stress on a material is defined as the force per unit area as the material is stretched. The cross-sectional area may change if the material deforms as it is stretched, so the area used in the calculation is the original undeformed cross-sectional area Ao.

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stress:

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 The units of stress are the same as those of pressure. We will use Pascal, Pa, as the units for the stress. In the polymer literature, stress often is expressed in terms of psi (pounds per square inch). 1 MPa = 145 psi

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Strain

The strain is a measure of the change in length of the sample. The strain commonly is expressed in one of two ways.

elongation:

extension ratio:

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3.1 Stress-Strain Curves

A tensile stress-strain curve is a plot of stress on the y-axis vs. strain on the x-axis.

In the plot at the slide 25, strain is expressed as elongation. Stress-strain curves are measured with an instrument designed for tensile testing.

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We see that as the strain (length) of the material increases, a larger amount of stress (force) is required. As the elongation is increased the sample eventually breaks.

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3.2 Tensile Strength

The tensile strength is the stress needed to break a sample. It is expressed in Pascal or psi (pounds per square inch). [1 MPa = 145 psi] The tensile strength is an important property for polymers that are going to be stretched. Fibers, for instance, must have good tensile strength.
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3.3 % Elongation-to-Break

The elongation-to-break is the strain on a sample when it breaks.

This usually is expressed as a percent.

The elongation-to-break sometimes is called the ultimate elongation. Fibers have a low elongation-to-break and plasterers have a high elongation-to-break.
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3.4 Young's Modulus

Young's modulus is the ratio of stress to strain. It also is called the modulus of elasticity or the tensile modulus. Young's modulus is the slope of a stressstrain curve.

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 Stress-strain curves often are not straight-line plots, indicating that the modulus is changing with the amount of strain. In this case the initial slope usually is used as the modulus, as is illustrated in the diagram at the slide 31.

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 Rigid materials, such as metals, have a high Young's modulus. In general, fibers have high Young's modulus values, elastomers have low values, and plastics lie somewhere in between.

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3.5 Toughness
The toughness of a material is the area under a stress-strain curve.

The stress is proportional to the tensile force on the material and the strain is proportional to its length.

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 The area under the curve then is proportional to the integral of the force over the distance the polymer stretches before breaking.

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 This integral is the work (energy) required to break the sample. The toughness is a measure of the energy a sample can absorb before it breaks. There is a difference between toughness and strength, as is illustrated in the three plots at the next slide.

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 A material that is strong but not tough is said to be brittle.

Brittle substances are strong, but cannot deform very much. Polystyrene (PS) is brittle, for example.
High impact polystyrene (HIPS), a blend of polystyrene and polybutadiene (a rubbery polymer above its glass transition temperature) is said to be rubber-toughened.
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3.6 Typical Materials- Mechanical Properties

Material Tensile Strength (MPa) % Elongation-to-Break Young's Modulus (GPa) Stainless Steel Balls 2,000 Very small 200 Cellophane Film 50 - 120 10 - 50 3 Nitrile Rubber Sheet 20 - 30 250 - 500 Very low Fiberglass Yarn 1400 - 2000 3-4 72 Nylon 50 150 2

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Effect of Temperature on Mechanical Properties - Thermoplastics

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Physical States of Thermoplastics

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Creep Behaviour of Polycarbonate

Strain (%)
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Mechanical Behaviour of Elastomers

X-linked elastomer

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Exercises

Q. 1: What is the tensile strength (ST) of a test sample of PMMA 1.25 cm square with a thickness of 0.32 cm, if failure occurs at 282 kg?

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Exercises

Q. 2: What is the compressive strength (CS) of a 10 cm long plastic rod which has a cross section of 1.27 cm which fails under a load of 3500 kg.
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Exercises

Q. 3: If a sample of PP measuring 5 cm elongates to 12 cm, what is the percentage of elongation?

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Exercises

Q. 4: If the tensile strength is 705 kg / cm square and elongation is 0.026 cm, what is the tensile modulus?

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Exercises

Q. 5: A sample (PS) is 20 mm wide and 3 mm thick, with a gauge length of 50 mm. Determine the Youngs modulus for PS sample using the slope value of 3.6 x 106 N m-1.
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Exercises
Q. 6: Tensile strength was carried out on a polymer sample with dimensions of 12.6 mm (width), 3.5 mm (thickness) and 50 mm (gauge length). Determine the Tensile strength and percentage of elongation. The length between the gauge marks on the test sample at break is 97 mm, and maximum force was 1290 N.
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Exercises
Q. 7: A bar of PP is of length 200 mm and has a rectangular cross section of dimensions 25 mm x 3 mm. The sample was subjected to a constant tensile load of 250 N along the length. At a time of 100 s at the load was applied, the length is measured and is found to have increased by 0.5 mm. Determine the 100 s creep compliance.
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