University of Foggia - Faculty of Economics Erasmus Intensive Programme EPROBIO

Prof. Roberto Rana University of Foggia Faculty of Economics

Why to use algae to produce biofuels?

Over this last decades the frequent oil crises and environmental impact of fossil fuels, has dived many industrialized countries to carrying out research to discover an alternative sources of fuels able to ensure a new energy sources supply that reduce emissions of CO2, nitrogen monoxides and sulphur been introduced So, hasinto the atmosphere. biofuels mainly derived from sugar cane, corn, as bioethanol or biodiesel, obtained from rapeseed, soybean, etc. However some researchers believe that bio-energy will not be able to satisfy future world fuels requirements, since intense energy crop

Why to use algae to produce biofuels?

Algae are the fastest growing microorganisms (some unicellular algae double their weight in 12-24 hours, while cells are able to separate in less than 4 hours), Algae are most abundant biomass producers in earths biosphere. Some algae have a high yield (biomass production) (5070 t/hectares per year). Most algae are unicellular and therefore contain a very high amount of starches or lipids (up to 50% dw). Compared to plants, algae require less space to grow, have more tolerant

Worldwide are described 30 000 species of microalgae (< 10% of estimated). The classes (29) are distinguished by the structure of flagellate cells (e.g., scales, angle of flagellar insertion, microtubular roots, and striated roots), the nuclear division process (mitosis), the cytoplasmic division process MACROALGAE (cytokinesis), and the cell covering.

Classification of Algae
PHAEOPHYTA
Fucus spp Laminaria spp Ascophyllum nodosum

RHODOPHYTA
Chondrus crispus Gelidium spp

CLOROPHYTA
Ulva lactuca

MICROALGAE

Cianoficae
Spirulina spp

Dinophyta (dinpflagellates)

Diatomee (Bacillariophyta)
flos-aquae

Neochloris oleoabundans, Scenedesmus dimorphus, Clorophycophyta Botryococcus brunii Green algae

Chrysophycophyta
(golden algae)

Macroalgae or seaweeds
Seaweeds cultivation are old. Seaweed has been part of the Chinese diet for over 2000 years and probably much longer. The macroalgae have a high biomass yield from 730t/hectares. Japan is one
The shallow coral lagoons off the coast of East Africa and Zanzibar are host to multiple seaweed farms. Cultivating seaweed in Portugal, England and Ireland is traditional. People use fertilizer for their seaweed.

of the big producer and consumer of seaweeds in the world.

China is the biggest producer The worlds most and consumer of successful seaweed seaweed
cultivation industries are in Asia. However this continent is real low in technology

Macroalgae growing systems

There are many technologies to cultivate seaweed. For instance traditional seaweed farming uses lines, ropes, nets or rafts, floating suspended in the sea. Young seaweed or part of seaweed are attacked to the substrate and than are left to grow for 6 to 8 weeks, depending on the species and location.

Generally seaweeds species grow very fast and can be cropped within a few months.

A new cultivation systems of seaweed

A concave mirror placed in the sea surface converges the radiation at depths where macroalgae grow

Because most of macro algae live on the sea bed is difficult to cultivate in offshore installations and have high production. These technology, indeed, are subjected to the action of waves and tides. To resolve these problems

Paths of the various energy products from seaweed Syngas is the name given to a
gas mixture that contains varying amounts of carbon monoxide and hydrogen. The gas is obtained by a process that occurs at high temperature and in absence of oxygen

MICROALGAE
The microalgae are unicellular organisms, in general photosynthetic, with a few microns size (<30m). These organisms, unlike most green plants, convert solar energy into carbohydrates or fat through specific metabolic pathways.

Biosynthetic pathways of accumulating solar energy within the cell.

MICROALGAE
Microalgae generally have a protein, carbohydrates and fats content vary widely depending on the species. For instance the average amount of lipid ranges from 140% dry weight. Fats composition and quantity depend on the environmental factors of the algae broth (temperature, salinity, light intensity, etc.). So, when algal cells grow in situations of nutrient deficiency (such as nitrogen, silicon, etc.) or in a broth rich in sodium chloride, can increase fats content more than 70%.

Commercial use of microalgae

Microalg ae
Food suppleme nts Final Chemicals

Biodies el
Bioethanol

Hydroge n

Biogas

Feed industry

Food industry

BIODIESEL FROM MICROALGAE

Land surface occupied by soy production necessary to supply USA diesel Land surface consumption occupied by corn production necessary to supply USA diesel consumption

Microalgae, have the highest biomass production (50-70 t/ha) and oil content (about 20-30 m3/ha) among all plants, significantly higher than those of corn, soybeans, palm oil, etc.. Land surface According to some authors, the annual occupied by algae yields are much higher, up to values schemes necessary to supply 280t/ha. USA ~ 250 billion liters of diesel is the nation presently consumes diesel consumption
Comparison between yield of most common oleaginous crops and microalgae

BIODIESEL FROM MICROALGAE

Although the idea of growing algae to obtain biofuels started to the end of the 1940s, the first applied studies were undertaken only twenty years later, when some American researchers proposed to use these organisms to obtain biogas by fermentation, to be burned in electric power plants.

but this During the first energy crisis (1973) the American Congress programme was set up the NREL (National Renewable Energy Laboratory), linked to the DOE (Department Of Energy). This laboratory carried outstoped call Aquatic Species Program a programme, in 1996 (ASP), to grow unicellular microalgae in a ponds connected to electric power plants. because

BIODIESEL FROM MICROALGAE

Initially DOE researchers was aimed at the possibility to obtain biogas from the fermentation of microalgae and to store CO2. The success of this experiment and the discovery of large quantities of oil contained in microalgae led researchers to use these organisms to produce biodiesel.

1 Open ponds

2 Photobioreactors

Open cultivation systems

A raceway artificial pond used in the cultivation of algae. The pond, with a surface from 100-100010000 m2 and a dept from 15-30 cm, is divided by several baffles forming one channel in the shape of an oval, like an automotive raceway circuit. From above, many ponds look like a maze (labyrinth). Each basin contains a paddlewheel to make the water flow continuously around the circuit and prevents the deposition of microalgae on the bottom of the pond.

Open pond or raceway pond is a shallow pond

Open cultivation systems

Open pond or raceway pond

To cultivate microalgae requires an appropriate culture medium (broth), consisting of an aqueous solution rich in inorganic salts such as sodium chloride, potassium carbonate, calcium chloride, potassium nitrate, calcium phosphate, etc.. and appropriate environmental conditions (light, temperature, concentration of CO2, etc.).

Some installations are made by several ponds where you can use a thermal power plant emissions (CO2, and oxides of nitrogen) and/or sewage(wastewater with high concentration of nitrogen and phosphorus) to feed algae.

Open cultivation systems

To prevent predation by other species, the salt concentration of the broth is keep high

Closed cultivation systems

In order to cultivate microalgae species that prefer lower salt concentrations, achieving a higher cell density and prevent the contamination of culture medium, were tested the photobioreactors. These facilities are closed systems in which the algae are not direct contact with the external environment and receive solar radiation directly through the walls of photobioreactor or from optical fibers or solar collectors (concave mirrors).

Closed cultivation systems

Plants may be placed outdoors or indoors (greenhouses).

Photobioreactors are made in glass, plastic or other materials

Plastic bags (outdoor or indoor)

Closed cultivation systems

How the photobioreactor work:

How tubular photobioreactor work:

How flat panel photobioreactor work:

The flat panel photobioreactors are made in glass or Plexiglas and have rectangular shape, vertically arranged, with a thickness about 1-5 cm. In this vessels microalgae are harvested (recovered) at the top and kept in suspension through an air flow introduced at the bottom generally by a special tube. This system seems to offer high biomass yields, with the increased surface area exposed to solar radiation that can improve the photosynthetic efficiency and to increase biomass production (80g/L vs. 30-50/L).

Open Pond versus Photobioreactor

PARAMETER S Land space fill Water loss CO2 loss CO2 consume Concentration of O2 OPEN POND High Very high High Medium Low NOTE Depends on the depthness of the pond O2 is released freely from the surface of tanks PHOTO BIOREACT OR Low Low Low Medium High NOTE O2 must be removed due to inhibition of photosynt. problems photo-oxidation Often requires a cooling system accessories Its occurs by pumping in gas such as CO2 It is required to clean the walls of photob. because algae growth reduces the incoming solar radiation -

Temperature Very variable Depends on the depth of the ponds Mixing algae Cleaning equipment It is carried out using a paddlewheel Not required Low

High High Required

Contamination Very high

Depends on the chem./phys. charac. of the broth

Very low

Raceway Pond versus Photobioreactor

The comparison between raceway ponds and bioreactors shows that the management of the former is difficult because the operational parameters such as temperature, salinity, dissolved gases, etc., depend on environmental conditions. In addition, productivity may be lower due to the phenomena of contamination of parasites and competition with other aquatic plant species. So, photobioreactors seem to be the most promising technology, although currently the increased cost of production of biomass and the complexity of managing prevent its widespread use.

A new technology process

Currently simple and inexpensive new facilities have been This system combines low cost proposed combining the two technologies allowing both and the high productivity of lower operating costs and increaseponds with the protection algae biomass yields.
of culture-closed photobioreactors; allows HR BioPetroluem proposed a hybrid system that contamination-free monocultures the most provides for the combined use of bothoftechnologies. algae be This new process use only productive photobioreactors toto make a cultivated; minimizes capital pure culture of microorganisms, with high productivity investment as a cost factor.

and rate of nutrient intake. When the algae biomass achieve high concentration than it is inoculated in open ponds. To prevent contamination phenomena, algae biomass are left in the tank for a day allowing sterilization during the follow night. With the development of this hybrid production system, HR BioPetroleum has achieved significant

Oil extraction
Open pond or bioreactors
The water removed, still rich in nutrients, is sent again in the pond or bioreactors.

Water

Decantation Centrifugati / on This phase can occur Filtration Filtration is carried out commonly on used to remove Centrifugation is spontaneously in a tank, but membranes of modified cellulose. water still present in most of the The can be speeded up by advantage of this method as a greatest This is the most raising the value ofconcentrating device algal biomass.to pH, is that it is expensive able stage adding salts, lowering the microalgae or cells of very low because of the collect energy consumption (1000$/t) concentration of certain density. However, concentration by and volumes cost. filtration nutrients or gases or by is limited to small purchaseand adding flocculants.
leads appropriate to the eventual clogging of the filter by the packed cells when vacuum is applied. This technology is used when is not required an excessive removal of water.

Flocculation

Oil extraction
Open pond or bioreactors
The water removed, yet rich in nutrients, is sent in the pond or bioreactors.

Water 1g/L

Flocculation

Oil extraction that may occur by simple cold pressing, with recovery 70-75% of oil, or a suitable solvent (benzene, petroleum ether, cyclohexane, etc.). immiscible in Trans-esterification water, with yields up to BIODIE OIL 100%. SEL

Decantation / Filtration Algae paste

50-100 g/L

Centrifugati on

Extract ion

The cake not treated using cyclohexane, still rich in precious polyunsaturated fat acids -3 and -6 , Animal feed can be utilized as Heat Cake feed because it is rich also Biogas in Final Chemicals carbohydrates and

OIL FROM Though MICROALGAE oil from microalgae may be used as it is in diesel engine, in order to improve its performance, it undergoes a process of trans-esterification having it react with alcohol (methanol).

Biodiesel from microalgae versus biodiesel standard

Biodiesel from microalgae Density(kg /L) Viscosity Biodiesel from soy

Cold filter plugging point (C) Acidity Heating value

In general, biodiesel from microalgae has similar physical-chemical characteristics and, in some cases, better than standard one, for example, a fewer number of a Cold Filter Plugging Point and a higher value of heating value.

Some economics aspects

Unit of measurements
Biomass production Photosynthetic efficiency

Open Pond

Pannell Photobioreactor

Tuborar Photobioreactor

T/y per hectare %

20 1,5

60 5

40 3

Penetration of solar radiation in the system Capital Costs

Energy consumption Production costs of biomass Major cost factor

cm 20 3 3,4 At the present we cost of 1L of the reduce How can biodiesel product 000 > 700 000 /hect. 70 000 > 700 with the price of biodiesel photobioreactor is 5.000-185.000 kWh/ha ~ 1.800 5.000-185.000 < 3$/L(dw)microalgae? /kg 5.70 4.03 4.02 from (palm oil 0,6 $/L) % Movement of paddle (15) Input of air (24) Pumping (46)

The development of commercial-scale biodiesel from microalgae seems not yet economically feasible for both the low biomass production and high cost. As you can see in table, photobioreactors have capital and operating costs much higher than open pond because of more complex technology involved in this technology. However, higher yields in biomass would seem to offer better development prospects to photobioreactors than open ponds.

Some economics aspects to improve algae biomass production

to produce Genetically Modified Microalgae

Because 300 t/ha per year (dw) is considered the production of microalgae biomass which would produce a real economic benefit to the factory owner we are far from producing an economic return in the production of biodiesel from algae

Actual yield in a best plant: 15/m2 per day 50 t/hect. per year (dw) oil ~ 20 t/ per year Best yields a short-run: 30/m2 per day 100 t/hect. per year (dw) oil ~ 40 t/ per year Best yields a long run: 50g/m2 per day 170 t/hect. per year (dw) oil ~ 70 t/ per year

lost 10%

/m2

90% lost
55% 45% 45% 90%
75-78% lost

lost 10% Open pond - algae cultivation

15%

lost

(mt= 1000t)

Some economics aspects (GMO Because of the size of the chlorophyll pigment, 90% of microalgae)
solar radiation absorb by the algal cell is lost as heat
Wild types Mutant types

light radiation is not absorbed and release as heat

Wild types

Mutant types

Researchers now want to transfer this mutant character to other species of microalgae
In nature there is an mutant strainlight saturation effect is This phenomenon known as the of alga (Chlamydomonas reinhardtii) that has a short dimension of photosynthetic particularly unfavorable to microalgae production systems. pigments. This modification the deep growamount because In fact microrganisms live in reduce the slightly of light absorbed sunlight intercepted the radiation get placed deep.the of the by the algae leaving by the algae in the on

Some economics aspects to improve algae biomass production

Because 300 t/ha per year (dw) is considered the production of microalgae biomass which would produce a real economic benefit to the factory owner we are far from producing an economic return in the production of biodiesel from algae

to use by-products How can we reduce the came of biodiesel price from oil from microalgae? production (i.e. astaxantina)

Actual yield in a best plant: 15/m2 per day 50 t/hect. per year (dw) oil ~ 20 t/ per year Best yields a short-run: 30/m2 per day 100 t/hect. per year (dw) oil ~ 40 t/ per year Best yields a long run: 50g/m2 per day 170 t/hect. per year (dw) oil ~ 70 t/ per year

I wonder how photobioreactors ** Includes the energy obtainable from the production of algal biomass can be considered the cheapest It should be noted,they consume simple technology if however, that the 100 comparison between the input and output energy times more energy athan "energy open show that open ponds involve higher Energy is considered ponds?total costs an important cost: it represent return than the photobioreactors. 40% of the

*Include the energy consumption in the plant and the energy consumption to produce the devices.

Future developments
The production of biodiesel from microalgae is a valid alternative to the traditional energy crops, because the use of these microorganisms do not subtracts valuable resources for food.

Future developments
However, the low biomass yields and high production costs prevent a large-scale commercial development. In deed, as we see above, 1 liter of oil from microalgae costs about six times the palm oil.

Future developments
So, some researchers believe that commercial development of biodiesel production from microalgae requires many years before being feasible. They think, in deed, that has not yet shown that intensive algal culture provide more energy than that it consumes.

This figure shows the energy invested over the lifecycle versus the energy in the algae biomass

Future developments
Challenges for the future are: 1) genetic improvement of microalgae species (to create an organism with a higher yield in biomass and oil); 2) to resolve technical issues (fouling, contamination of the broth, control of operating parameters, etc.); 3) economic valorization of by-products (final chemical, biogas, animal feed, etc.)

The achieve of these targets will reduce capital and management costs and will allow the largescale production of biodiesel from