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Ch.

3 Wireless Radio Technology

Note

Much of the information in this module has been presented previously in the chapter 2 PowerPoints and will not be included in this presentation. Some of this information should be a review from CCNA 1: Sine waves, modulation, etc. Please review your CCNA materials if needed. This module contains several mathematical formulas. Examples will be included, but we will not discuss them in any detail, nor will you be responsible for them on any exam.
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Rick Graziani graziani@cabrillo.edu

Acknowledgements
Thanks Jack Unger and his
book Deploying License-Free Wireless Wide-Area Networks Published by Cisco Press ISBN: 1587050692 Published: Feb 26, 2003

Rick Graziani graziani@cabrillo.edu

Wireless Propagation
Wireless propagation is the
total of everything that happens to a wireless signal as the signal travels from Point A to Point B. The study of how EM waves travel and interact with matter can become extremely complex.

There are several important simplifications which can be made. In a vacuum, 2.4 GHz microwaves travel at the speed of light. Once started, these microwaves will continue in the direction they were emitted forever, unless they interact with some form of matter. In the atmosphere, the microwaves are traveling in air, not in a vacuum. This does not significantly change their speed. Similar to light, when RF travels through transparent matter, some of the waves are altered. 2.4 & 5 GHz microwaves also change, as they travel through matter. Amount of alteration depends heavily on the frequency of the waves and the Rick Graziani graziani@cabrillo.edu 4 matter.

Wireless Propagation

Mental picture Wave is not a spot or a line, but a moving wave. Like dropping a rock into a pond. Wireless waves spread out from the antenna. Wireless waves pass through air, space, people, objects,

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Attenuation
Same wavelength (frequency), less amplitude.

Attenuation is the loss in amplitude that occurs whenever a signal


travels through wire, free space, or an obstruction. At times, after colliding with an object the signal strength remaining is too small to make a reliable wireless link.

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Attenuation and Obstructions


Shorter the wavelength (higher frequency) of the wireless signal, the
more the signal it is attenuated.

Same wavelength (frequency), less amplitude.

Longer the wavelength (lower frequency) of the wireless signal, the


less the signal is attenuated.
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Attenuation and Obstructions

The wavelength for the AM (810 kHz) channel is 1,214 feet The larger the wavelength of the signal relative to the size of the obstruction, the less the signal is attenuated. The shorter the wavelength of the signal relative to the size of the obstruction, the more the signal is attenuated.
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Free-Space Waves

Free-space wave is a signal that propagates from Point A to Point B without encountering or coming near an obstruction. The only amplitude reduction is due to free space loss (coming). This is the ideal wireless scenario.
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Reflected Waves
1. 2.
When a wireless signal encounters an obstruction, normally two things happen: Attenuation The shorter the wavelength of the signal relative to the size of the obstruction, the more the signal is attenuated. Reflection The shorter the wavelength of the signal relative to the size of the obstruction, the more likely it is that some of the signal will be reflected off the obstruction.

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Microwave Reflections

Microwave signals:
Frequencies between 1 GHz 30 GHz (this can vary among experts). Wavelength between 12 inches down to less than 1 inch. Microwave signals reflect off objects that are larger than their wavelength, such as buildings, cars, flat stretches of ground, and bodes of water. Each time the signal is reflected, the amplitude is reduced.
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Reflection

Reflection is the light bouncing back in the general direction from which
it came. Consider a smooth metallic surface as an interface. As waves hit this surface, much of their energy will be bounced or reflected. Think of common experiences, such as looking at a mirror or watching sunlight reflect off a metallic surface or water. When waves travel from one medium to another, a certain percentage of the light is reflected. This is called a Fresnel reflection (Fresnel coming later).
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Reflection

Radio waves can bounce off of different layers of the atmosphere. The reflecting properties of the area where the WLAN is to be installed
are extremely important and can determine whether a WLAN works or fails. Furthermore, the connectors at both ends of the transmission line going to the antenna should be properly designed and installed, so that no reflection of radio waves takes place.
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Reflections

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Microwave Reflections
Multipath Reflection

Advantage: Can use reflection to go around obstruction. Disadvantage: Multipath reflection occurs when reflections cause
more than one copy of the same transmission to arrive at the receiver at slightly different times.

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Multipath Reflection

Reflected signals 1 and 2 take slightly longer paths than direct signal,
arriving slightly later. These reflected signals sometimes cause problems at the receiver by partially canceling the direct signal, effectively reducing the amplitude. The link throughput slows down because the receiver needs more time to either separate the real signal from the reflected echoes or to wait for missed frames to be retransmitted. Solution discussed later.
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Diffraction

Diffracted Signal

Diffraction of a wireless signal occurs when the signal is partially


blocked or obstructed by a large object in the signals path. A diffracted signal is usually attenuated so much it is too weak to provide a reliable microwave connection. Do not plan to use a diffracted signal, and always try to obtain an unobstructed path between microwave antennas.
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Weather - Precipitation

Precipitation: Rain, snow, hail, fog, and sleet. Rain, Snow and Hail Wavelength of 2.4 GHz 802.11b/g signal is 4.8 inches Wavelength of 5.7 GHz 802.11a signal is 2 inches Much larger than rain drops and snow, thus do not significantly attenuate these signals. At frequencies 10 GHz and above, partially melted snow and hail do start to cause significant attenuation.
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Weather - Precipitation

Rain can have other effects:


Get inside tiny holes in antenna systems, degrading the performance. Cause surfaces (roads, buildings, leaves) to become more reflective, increasing multipath fading. Tip: Use unobstructed paths between antennas, and do not try to blast through trees, or will have problems.
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Weather - Ice

Collapsed tower

Ice buildup on antenna systems can: Reduce system performance Physically damage the antenna system
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Weather - Wind

The affect of wind:


Antenna on the the mast or tower can turn, decreasing the aim of the antenna. The mast or tower can sway or twist, changing the aim. The antenna, mast or tower could fall potentially injuring someone or something.
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Refraction
Sub-Refraction Refraction (straight line) Normal Refraction Earth

Refraction (or bending) of signals is due to temperature, pressure, and


water vapor content in the atmosphere. Amount of refractivity depends on the height above ground. Refractivity is usually largest at low elevations. The refractivity gradient (k-factor) usually causes microwave signals to curve slightly downward toward the earth, making the radio horizon father away than the visual horizon. This can increase the microwave path by about 15%,
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Refraction

Radio waves also bend when entering different materials. This can be very important when analyzing propagation in the

atmosphere. It is not very significant in WLANs, but it is included here, as part of a general background for the behavior of electromagnetic waves.
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Working with Wireless Power

Working with Wireless Power


More on all these in a moment Power can be: Increased (gain) Decreased (loss) Power can be: Relative (ex: twice as much power or as much power) Absolute (ex: 1 watt or 4 watts) Both relative and absolute power are always referenced to initial power level: Relative power level Absolute power level Wireless power levels become very small, very quickly after leaving the transmitting antenna. Wireless power levels are done in dB. Wireless power levels do not decrease linearly with distance, but Rick decrease inversely as the square of the distance increases Graziani graziani@cabrillo.edu 25

Inverse square law


Signal strength does not fade in a linear manner, but inversely as the
square of the distance. This means that if you are a particular distance from an access point and you move measure the signal level, and then move twice a far away, the signal level will decrease by a factor of four.

Twice the distance

Point A

Point B the power of Point A

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Inverse square law


10 20 30 40 50 100

Point A

3 times the distance 1/9 the power of Point A

10 times the distance 1/100 the power of A 5 times the distance 1/25 the power of Point A

2 times the distance the power of Point A

Double the distance of the wireless link, we receive only of the


original power. Triple the distance of the wireless link, we receive only 1/9 the original power. Move 5 times the distance, signal decreases by 1/25.

Rick Graziani graziani@cabrillo.edu

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Watts

One definition of energy is the ability to do work. There are many forms of energy, including:
electrical energy chemical energy thermal energy gravitational potential energy The metric unit for measuring energy is the Joule. Energy can be thought of as an amount. 1 Watt = I Joule of energy / one second If one Joule of energy is transferred in one second, this is one watt (W) of power.
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Watts

The U.S. Federal Communications Commission allows a maximum

of 4 watts of power to be emitted in point-to-multipoint WLAN transmissions in the unlicensed 2.4-GHz band. In WLANs, power levels as low as one milliwatt (mW), or one onethousandth (1/1000th) of a watt, can be used for a small area. Typical WLAN NICS transmit at 100 mW. Typical Access Points can transmit between 30 to 100 mW (plus the gain from the Antenna).
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The Friss Equation

The Friis Transmission Equation is used to calculate the power received from one antenna (with gain G1), when transmitted from another antenna (with gain G2), separated by a distance R, and operating at frequency f or wavelength lambda.

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Assume that Watts of total power are delivered to the transmit antenna. For the moment, assume that the transmit antenna is omnidirectional, lossless, and that the receive antenna is in the far field of the transmit antenna. Then the power density p (in Watts per square meter) of the plane wave incident on the receive antenna a distance R from the transmit antenna is given by:

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If the transmit antenna has an antenna gain in the direction of the receive antenna given by , then the power density equation above becomes:

The gain term factors in the directionality and losses of a real antenna. Assume now that the receive antenna has an effective aperture given by A,er . Then the power received by this antenna () is given by:

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Since the effective aperture for any antenna can also be expressed as:

The resulting received power can be written as:

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This is known as the Friis Transmission Formula. It relates the free space path loss, antenna gains and wavelength to the received and transmit powers.

The equation shows that more power is lost at higher frequencies. This

is a fundamental result of the Friis Transmission Equation. This means that for antennas with specified gains, the energy transfer will be highest at lower frequencies. The difference between the power received and the power transmitted is known as path loss. Said in a different way, Friis Transmission Equation says that the path loss is higher for higher frequencies.
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Problem 1: Suppose we have an antenna transmitting 50 W of power, with a Gain of 2 in the direction of a receive antenna with a gain of 2. The antennas are separated by 20,000 Km, and the system operates at a frequency of 1.575 Ghz. How much power is received?

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Using the Friis Transmission Equation and the fact that wavelength equals c/f :

we can calculate the received power to be:

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Which is the percentage of disipatted power?

Pd=2.3*10^-16 Watts.

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Problem 2: Suppose we have an antenna transmitting 250 mwatts of power, with a gain of 3 in the direction of a receive antenna with a gain of 2 . Suppose the antennas are separated by 1 kilometer. The System operates at a frequency of 2.4 GHz. How much power is received? Which is the percentage of disipatted power?

Rick Graziani graziani@cabrillo.edu

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Antenna engineers (all engineers actually) don't like to use linear units when the quantities can vary by such large amounts. Its real tough to picture in your head the difference between 1e17 and 1e18. To work around this, we use the decibel system. Its a simple logarithmic transformation - units in linear are easily converted via:

Hence, the above quoted value of 1.149e-16 Watts is equal to -159.4 decibels, written -159.4 dB.

Rick Graziani graziani@cabrillo.edu

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Decibel Math

The decibel system (and the properties of logarithms) makes the mathematics involved in some equations much simpler. For instance, recall the Friis Transmission Formula.

To convert this equation from linear units in Watts to decibels, we take the logarithm of both sides and multiply by 10:

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A nice property of logarithms is that for two numbers A and B (both positive), the following result is always true:

So the above equation becomes:

Using the definition of decibels, the above equation becomes a simple addition equation in dB:

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Milliwatt:

WLANs do not need a tremendous amount of power to transmit a signal over an acceptable distance. This is why many WLAN devices use a measurement of power that is 1/1000 of a watt. Enterprise-class devices will often have output power levels of 1100 mW. SOHO wireless devices may only offer up to 30 mW of output power. The FCC limits the total output power from the antenna to 4 W for point-to-multipoint applications in the 2.4 GHz ISM band.

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Free Space Path Loss

Free space path loss, sometimes called free space loss (FSL) or just path loss, is a weakening of the RF signal due to a broadening of the wave front.

The following formulas are used to calculate free space path loss in dB:

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Where LP is the free space path loss, F is the frequency in MHz, and D is the path length in miles. To get the results based on a distance measurement in kilometers (for example, D is the path length in kilometers)

For example, assuming you are using the 2.4 GHz ISM spectrum (well say 2450 MHz), and the distance you want to evaluate is 2.5 miles, the following equation will result in the free space path loss: LP=36.6 + (20 log10(2450)) + (20 log10(2.5)) or LP=36.6 + 67.78 + 8 = 112.38
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Decibel (dB), cont.



The decibel is a comparative measurement value. In other words, it is a measurement of the difference between two power levels. Because a wireless receiver can detect and process very weak signals, it is easier to refer to the received signal strength in dBm rather than in mW. For example, a signal that is transmitted at 4 W of output power (4000 mW or 36 dBm) and experiences 63 dB of loss has a signal strength of 0.002 mW (27 dBm). Rather than saying that the signal strength is 0.002 mW, we say that the signal strength is 27 dBm. The decibel is relative where the milliwatt is absolute.

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Using the rules of 10s and 3s

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Therefore, 100 mW of power plus 6 dB of gain equals 400 mW of power. 40 mW + 3 dB + 3 dB + 3 dB = 320 mW 40 mW 2 2 2 = 320 mW Now consider the impact of 3 dB of loss. Look at the impact on the following formula: 40 mW + 3 dB + 3 dB 3 dB = 80 mW 40 mW 2 2/2 = 80 mW

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Now, rules 3 and 4 say that a gain or loss of 10 results in a gain of 10 times or a loss of 10 times. Consider the following example, which illustrates rules 3, 4, and 5: 40 mW + 10 dB + 10 dB = 4000 mW 40 mW 10 10 = 4000 mW Losses would be subtracted in the same way as the 3 dB losses were; instead of dividing by 2 we would now divide by 10 such as in the following example: 40 mW 10 dB = 4 mW 40 mW/10 = 4 mW

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But how did I calculate this? The answer is very simple: I added

However, it is also important to know that the 10s and 3s can be used together to calculate the power levels after any integer gain or loss of dB. This is done with creative combinations of 10s and 3s. For example, imagine you want to know what the power level of a 12 mW signal with 16 dB of gain would be. Here is the math: 12 mW + 16 dB = 480 mW

10 dB and then I added 3 dB twice. Here it is in longhand: 12 mW + 10 dB + 3 dB + 3 dB = 480 mW 12 mW 10 2 2 = 480 mW

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Sometimes you are dealing with both gains and losses of unusual amounts. 30 mW + 7 dB 5 dB + 12 dB 6 dB = power level 30 mW + 8 dB = power level We have to find a combination of positive and negative 10s and 3s that add up to 8 dB. Heres a possibility: +10 + 10 3 3 3 3 = 8
If we use these numbers to perform RF dB-based math, we come up with the following formula: 30 mW + 10 dB + 10 dB 3 dB 3 dB 3 dB 3 dB = 187.5 mW 30 mW 10 10 / 2 / 2 / 2 / 2 = 187.5 mW

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Calcular:

a. 30mW + 5dB b. 25mW + 7dB C. 66mW+9dB d. 88mW+6dB e. 134mW+8dB

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dBm:

The abbreviation dBm represents an absolute measurement of power where the m stands for milliwatts. Effectively, dBm references decibels relative to 1 milliwatt such that 0 dBm equals 1 milliwatt.

For example, if the known milliwatt power is 30 mW, the


following formula would be accurate: 10 log10(30) = 14.77 dBm

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dBi

It is a comparison of the gain of the antenna and the output of a theoretical isotropic radiator. An isotropic radiator is an ideal antenna that we cannot create with any known technology. This is an antenna that radiates power equally in all directions. In order to do this, the power source would have to be at the center of the radiating element and be infinitesimally small.

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dBd

Antenna manufacturers use both dBi, mentioned previously, and dBd to calculate the directional gain of antennas. Where dBi is a calculation of directional gain compared to an isotropic radiator, dBd is a calculation of directional gain compared to a dipole antenna. A dBd value is compared with a dipole antenna, which itself has a gain of 2.14 over an isotropic radiator. Therefore, an antenna with a gain of 7 dBd has a gain of 9.14 dBi. In other words, to convert from dBd to dBi, just add 2.14. To convert from dBi to dBd, just subtract 2.14. To remember this, just remember the formula 0 dBd = 2.14 dBi
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RSSI:Received Signal Strength Indicator

It is an arbitrary measurement of received signal strength defined in the IEEE 802.11 standards. There is no absolute rule as to how this signal strength rating must be implemented in order to comply with the IEEE standard. For example: Cisco uses a range of 0100 (101 total values) in their devices. Most Atheros-based chipsets use a range of 060 (61 total values).

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For example, if an Atheros-based client card reported an RSSI of 47, the software application could process the following formula to determine the signal strength in percentage: RSSI = 47/60 100 = 78.3% signal strength

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A simple decibel conversion


If a signal experiences a gain of 4,000 (gets 4,000 times bigger), what
is the gain in dB? 4,000 = 10 x 10 x 10 x 2 x 2 Now replace the multiplication-of factors by the addition-of factors of dB: 4,000 = 10 dB + 10 dB + 10 dB + 3 dB + 3 dB = 36 dB

If a signal experiences a gain of 4,000 (gets 4,000 times bigger), what


is the gain in dB? (Be creative!) 5,000 = 10 x 10 x 10 x 10 / 2 Now replace the multiplication-of factors by the addition-of factors of dB and division by subtraction: 5,000 = 10 dB + 10 dB + 10 dB + 10 dB - 3 dB = 37 dB

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ACU Status

Current Signal Strength The Received Signal Strength Indicator (RSSI) for received packets. The range is 0% to 100%. Current Signal Quality The quality of the received signal for all received packets. The range is from 0% to 100%.
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Signal

Signal Strength The signal strength for all received packets. The higher the value and the more green the bar graph is, the stronger the signal. Differences in signal strength are indicated by the following colors: green (strongest), yellow (middle of the range), and red (weakest). Range: 0 to 100% or -95 to -45 dBm Signal Quality The signal quality for all received packets. The higher the value and the more green the bar graph is, the clearer the signal. Differences in signal quality are indicated by the following colors: green (highest quality), yellow (average), and red (lowest quality). Range: 0 to 100% Overall Link Quality Overall link quality depends on the Current Signal Strength and Current Signal Quality values. Excellent: Both values greater than 75% Good: Both values greater than 40% but one (or both) less than 75% Fair: Both values greater than 20% but one (or both) less than 40% Poor: One or both values less than 20% Rick Graziani graziani@cabrillo.edu 63

Signal

Signal Strength can also be seen in dBm Noise Level The level of background radio frequency energy in the 2.4-GHz band. The lower the value and the more green the bar graph is, the less background noise present. Range: -100 to -45 dBm Note This setting appears only if you selected signal strength to be displayed in dBm. Signal to Noise Ratio The difference between the signal strength and the current noise level. The higher the value, the better the client adapter's ability to communicate with the access point. Range: 0 to 90 dB Note This setting appears only if you selected signal strength to be displayed in dBm. Rick Graziani graziani@cabrillo.edu

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Signal

You will notice that the maximum Signal Strength is 45 dBm and
lowest Noise Level is 105 dBm. Why these values? This is beyond the scope of this curriculum but has to do with how Radio Performance is measured. The Cisco Press book, 802.11 Wireless LAN Fundamentals is a good start for more information, but you will still need to do more research to fully understand this. See the white paper from WildPackets: Converting Signal Strength Percentage to dBm Values.
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Real World Measurements


Measurements from an antenna transmitting 100mW at 1 inch Remember a milliwatt is 1/1,000th of a Watt Experiment only, actual measure power would include antenna
loss/gain, and certain environmental factors.

1 2 4 8 16 32 64 128 256

100 mW 25 mW 6.25 mW 1.56 mW 0.39 mW .097 mW .024 mW .006 mW .0015 mW

20 dBm 13.9 dBm 7.9 dBm 1.9 dBm -4.08 dBm -10.1 dBm -16.1 dBm (5.3 ft) -22.2 dBm (10.6 ft) -28.2 dBm (21.3 ft)
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Last note

As signal strength decreases, so will the transmission rate. An 802.11b clients speed may drop from 11 Mbps to 5.5 Mbps, to 2 Mbps, or even 1 Mbps. This can all be associated with a combination of factors including: Distance Line of Sight Obstructions Reflection Multpath Reflection Refraction (partially blocked by obstruction) Diffraction (bending of signal) Noise and Interference Rick Graziani graziani@cabrillo.edu 67

TechTarget.com

We have an office in a commercial building that is 35004000 sq. ft. in one floor, with permanent walls separating each office. Is a single access point for an 802.11a implementation enough to cover this area? Is there a formula for determining the bandwidth attenuation through walls? To design coverage for your office, nothing really substitutes for a thorough site survey. However, here are some estimates on RF signal loss due to obstructions, courtesy of the Planet3 Wireless CWNA Study Guide: dry wall = 5-8 dB six inch thick solid-core wall = 15-20 dB. http://expertanswercenter.techtarget.com/eac/knowledgeba seAnswer/0,295199,sid63_gci976082,00.html
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Ch. 3 Wireless Radio Technology


Cisco Fundamentals of Wireless LANs version 1.1 Rick Graziani Cabrillo College Spring 2005

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